I. JAPANESE HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND ECONOMIC INFORMATION

A. Geographic Location

Japan (Nihon, Nippon) is an East Asian island country located off the coast of China, the

Korean peninsula, and Russia. The Japanese mainland is composed of four main islands. The largest central island is Honshū which is where major metropolitan areas such as Tōkyō, Kyōto and Ōsaka, are located. The three other main islands which border Honshū are the northern island Hokkaidō, the south-central island Shikoku, and the southwestern island Kyūshū.

B. Japanese History

1. Early Japan

Based on current archeological evidence, the Japanese main islands have been inhabited since approximately 35,000 B.C.E. Around 14,000 B.C.E., a rudimentary culture known as the

Jōmon established a basic agrarian society. However, societal development on the Japanese islands moved at an extremely slow pace. The first time frame that historians can definitively link to the establishment of a Japanese civilization is the establishment of the Yamato court from approximately 250-710 C.E. During their reign, the Yamato established a sphere of influence which encompassed western Honshū and north Kyūshū.

It was also during the Yamato period that continental Asian culture began to seriously impact Japanese society. After establishing formal relations with China, Japanese envoys returned with knowledge of the wealth of Chinese culture. This knowledge heavily influenced

Yamato court life. Following the adoption of Chinese as the official court language, Chinese merged with the native Japanese tongue to create a hybrid language. Additionally, the Chinese character writing method, known in Japan as kanji, became the official written language for

1 Japan. The Yamato era also witnessed the introduction of Buddhism, through Korea, into

Japanese society.

During this early period, the Japanese court did not have a fixed imperial city in which it resided. While the imperial court remained in the Nara region of central Honshū, it was not uncommon for a new Emperor (Tennō) to establish a new imperial city upon assuming power.

However, in 794 C.E., the Emperor Kanmu (Kanmu-tennō) founded Heian-kyō, modern day

Kyōto, as the Japanese capital. This city remained the capital city until its relocation to Edo, modern day Tōkyō, in the seventeenth century.

The Heian Era also witnessed the military class’ rise in influence. As the Japanese court sought to expand its borders through military action, it began to conscript increasingly large number of soldiers. The increased size of the Japanese army began to provide military officers with considerable influence in court life. Over the centuries, imperial influence had gradually deteriorated. Incidents such as the Hōgen Rebellion (Hōgen no ran) in 1156 C.E., where two emperors laid claim to the Japanese throne, weakened imperial power while simultaneously increasing the wealth and prominence of the military class. The final blow for the Heian Era and imperial rule was the Genpei War (Genpei kassen), a blood feud for control of the imperial court between the Minamoto and Taira clans. The Minamoto, led by Minamoto no Yoritomo, ultimately defeated the Taira and had the Emperor appoint him sei-i taishogun (shogun).

Minamoto assumed control of the Japanese government and established the Kamakura shogunate

(bakufu).

The Kamakura period is perhaps most famous for the Mongol Invasions (Genkō) which occurred during this era. While the invading Mongolian, Chinese, and Korean forces were ultimately destroyed by the kamikaze (divine wind), these conflicts placed a significant drain on

2 Japanese resources. As a result, relations between Japan and continental Asia became increasingly cool.

2. Civil War, Reunification, Peace, and Isolation

Cracks in Japanese national unity began to appear during the early fourteenth century as political intrigue created two warring courts vying for supremacy over Japan. This civil war lasted for fifty years, severely damaged the Japanese infrastructure, and destabilized the central government. The final blow to Japanese unity occurred with the onset of the Ōnin War (Ōnin no ran) in 1467 C.E. The weakened Ashikaga bakufu saw two apparent successors claim leadership over Japan. The regional lords (daimyo) became divided over which successor to support and this led to a decade long conflict. As the war reached its conclusion, the destabilized Japanese government collapsed and the country plunged into the century long civil war known as

Sengoku.

With no effective central authority, each daimyo ruled with absolute authority over his territory and frequently battled the neighboring daimyo over land and other resources. Constant warfare, famine, and disease ravaged the population and significantly weakened what remained of the Japanese state. It was not until the sixteenth century that strong unifying figures emerged to reestablish order.

The first Japanese figure who began the campaign for unification was Oda Nobunaga. A militarily ambitious and innovative man, Oda planned to conquer the other feuding daimyo using advanced European munitions and tactics. Oda had acquired Portuguese guns and been instructed in the finer point of European military tactics. The other daimyo, who still fought using swords and bows were outmatched by Oda’s superior forces. During his military

3 campaign, Oda conquered many remaining daimyo and nearly achieved the goal of a unified

Japanese state. However, Oda died before he could finish subduing the other daimyo.

Afterwards, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a close ally of Oda, rallied Oda’s army and proceeded to finish the process of reunifying Japan.

With Toyotomi’s ascent to power, he instituted many reforms to ensure that the local daimyo would no longer be able to divide the country through conflict. He reorganized the old

Japanese provinces into the han system whereby loyal daimyo were allotted fiefs of land. The peasants who worked the farms were bound in service to the daimyo. Toyotomi placed a strict emphasis on caste structure with the samurai on top, followed by the farmers, and finally the merchants. The Japanese were strictly bound to the caste to which they belonged and, regardless of wealth, could not change their social status.

Following Toyotomi’s death in 1599, one of his chief allies, Tokugawa Ieyasu, exploited the fact that Toyotomi’s successor was a child to seize power. Several years of war followed between those who remained loyal to the Toyotomi clan and supporters of Tokugawa. This conflict culminated in the Battle of Sekigahara (Sekigahara no Tatakai) which established

Tokugawa Ieyasu as the ruler of Japan. Subsequently, the emperor declared Tokugawa shogun and the Japanese capital moved east to Edo (modern day Tōkyō). From the seat of power,

Tokugawa established a bakufu which ruled over Japan for an unprecedented two and a half centuries of relative peace.

Like Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Tokugawa Ieyasu consolidated his power base by instituting further changes to Japanese society. In 1615, Tokugawa Ieyasu enacted the law for military houses (buke sho hatto). These new rules placed considerable restrictions on the daimyo and limited movement between han. Additionally, the daimyo were required to frequently alternate

4 their residence between the han and Edo. As a result, the daimyo incurred numerous costs which depleted their monetary reserves. One major side effect of this policy was the population expansion in Edo fueled by the vast number of escorts and retainers the daimyo needed in order to journey to the capital.

Additionally, Tokugawa further lessened the risk of his family being overthrown when he demilitarized the samurai class. Firearms were outlawed and most remaining guns were collected and destroyed. As the Japanese government became increasingly bureaucratized, the samurai were tapped to fill these newly created positions. Samurai culture transitioned from one primarily focused on the study and practice of military arts, to one where formal education became extremely valuable. One result of the samurai’s bureaucratization was that the formalization and romanticizing of the famous Japanese warrior concept, bushidō.

Perhaps the most famous policy implemented by the Tokugawa is Sakoku, the near complete isolation of Japan from foreign contact. While the Japanese had maintained relations with the Portuguese for some time, the seventeenth century witnessed the European colonial wars reach Japan. Early into the Tokugawa reign, the English and Dutch established relations with the Japanese government. However, these European entanglements threatened to destabilize Japan. After several relatively minor incidents had strained Japanese and European relations, the European forces governments supported a Christian Japanese uprising in Japan’s west known as the Shimabara Rebellion (Shimabara no ran).

The Portuguese had maintained a trading presence near the port city of Nagasaki. During that time they had actively worked to convert many Japanese to Christianity. In the past, this activity had been largely tolerated by the Japanese. However, during the Tokugawa’s ascent to power, many western Christian samurai supported the shogun’s enemies. As a result, the

5 Tokugawa instituted a formal program of Christian persecution. While many Japanese chose to renounce the Christian faith rather than face torture and execution, a significant number remained loyal to the foreign religion.

In 1637, 30,000 Christians, armed with munitions supplied by the Europeans, rebelled against Tokugawa rule. While the rebellion enjoyed some initial success, the Tokugawa forces proved overwhelming and, as a result, 37,000 Christians and suspected sympathizers were executed. This incident finally convinced the Tokugawa that the Europeans were attempting to destabilize the Japanese government and that, in order to maintain an independent Japan, it would be necessary to sever nearly all foreign relations. The only exception was that the Dutch were allowed to continue trading in Japan. However, the Dutch presence was restricted to

Dejima, a small island located in Nagasaki Bay. Any foreigners who attempted to enter Japan or leave Dejima without permission, risked execution.

Japan remained a closed nation until the mid-eighteenth century, when the Americans forced Japan to open its borders. In 1853, Commodore Perry arrived in Edo Bay with a squadron of American warships, infamously known to the Japanese as the black fleet (kurobune), for their black color and coal furnace smoke. Relying on the considerable military superiority of his fleet,

Perry threatened to occupy Edo unless the Japanese accepted a highly unfavorable trade agreement with America. The reigning Tokugawa shogun, faced with this overwhelming military presence, signed the Convention of Kanagawa (Nichibei Washin Jouyaku). As a result,

Japan’s long period of foreign isolation forcibly ended.

This burdensome treaty proved to be a source of national embarrassment and created the perception that the Tokugawa bakufu had grown weak. The American treaty ultimately served as the catalyst for a period of political unrest and intrigue, known as the bakumatsu, which

6 brought Tokugawa rule to an end and saw the “restoration” of the Japanese emperor to power.

While the “restoration” of Emperor Meiji (Meiji-tennō) initially proved to be relatively bloodless, tensions between imperial and shogunate forces eventually resulted in the Boshin War

(Boshin Sensou). Ultimately, the shogun’s allies were defeated and many who were not killed in battle were purged.

3. Modern Era

While the Boshin War had supposedly been fought in order to “restore” the emperor to his position as the active head-of-state, many governmental functions were controlled by the rebel forces who had overthrown the shogun. This new government implemented numerous policies designed to rapidly modernize Japan’s archaic infrastructure so that it could compete globally with the technologically advanced Europeans.

One of the Meiji government’s first acts was the abolition of Japan’s old political and social structures. The daimyo and samurai were stripped of their titles and privileges.

Additionally, the rigid Japanese caste structure was abolished. The han system was eliminated and reorganized into the modern prefectural (todōfuken) municipal system. The Japanese drafted and enacted their first constitution where the Emperor served as the official head of state with power shared by the legislative diet (kokkai). Finally, to signal the beginning of a new era, the capital Edo was rechristened Tōkyō (eastern capital).

As the Meiji government consolidated its power, it began to institute numerous reforms designed to modernize Japan’s infrastructure. The government funded initiatives to improve farming practices, build industrial complexes, and construct national railroads. Considerable effort and resources were expended in upgrading the Japanese military. A mandatory

7 conscription program was implemented where soldiers were trained in European style tactics with newly acquired European arms. Additionally, the Japanese acquired several Western naval vessels and began construction of their own fleet. All of theses military improvements were made in so that Japan could compete against the Western governments in future conflicts.

During this period, the Japanese government reached the conclusion that, in order to fund

Japan’s modernization and ensure Japanese independence from European rule, it would need to expand its extraterritorial holdings. In 1894, the Japanese launched an invasion of Chinese- occupied Korea. The First Sino-Japanese War (Nisshin Sensō) lasted only one year and resulted in China’s total defeat at the hands of the modernized Japanese military. In the Treaty of

Shimonoseki (Shimonoseki Jōyaku), the Japanese acquired Korea, the Liaodong peninsula,

Taiwan, and the Pescadores Islands from China. In 1904, the Japanese and Russians entered into armed conflict over their continental Asian holdings. The Russo-Japanese War (Nichi-ro Sensō) witnessed the first defeat of a European power by an Asian country. The Japanese destroyed two of Russia’s three naval fleets, resulted in Russia’s withdrawal from Manchuria, and effectively eliminated the country’s influence in East Asia.

Subsequent decades saw the Japanese economy become increasingly robust. However, like many nations, Japan was unable to escape the impact of the Great Depression. In order to solve its financial problems, the increasingly militaristic government decided to pursue the natural resources available in continental Asia. In 1937, the Japanese launched the Second Sino-

Japanese War (Nicchū Sensō). Initially this conflict focused on the conquest of China and the

European colonies in Asia. However, Japanese concern that the United States would interfere with the supply of raw materials resulted in the bombing of Pearl Harbor and Japan’s subsequent defeat by the United States.

8 With the Japan’s economy in ruins, its infrastructure near totally destroyed, and its territory occupied by American forces, the country and its people underwent a radical transformation. A new, more democratic constitution was implemented and resources were devoted to rebuilding Japan’s infrastructure and economy. In the decades following World War

II, Japan has become a major economic and political force, not only in Asia, but throughout the world.

C. Population

Currently, there are approximately 127.7 million inhabitants of Japan. Ethnically, Japan is a very homogenous society. Only 1.22 percent of the population is composed of foreigners permanently residing in Japan.

A significant majority of the Japanese population live in the country’s large urban centers. The population of the Greater Tōkyō area alone exceeds 35,000,000 people. The

Kansai region, which includes Kyōto and Ōsaka, has a population of over 18,000,000 people.

At 81.25 years, Japan has one of the highest life expectancies in the world. However,

Japan also faces an ever decreasing birthrate. The interaction between the increased life expectancy and the decreased birthrate has created an aging population in Japan. Currently, approximately 21 percent of Japan’s population is over the age of 64. However, only 13.8% percent is below the age of 14.

9 D. Ethnic Makeup

Since many outsiders view Japan as a relatively homogenous society, there is a tendency to view the native population as being solely “Japanese.” However, there are several distinct ethnic groups which constitute the Japanese people.

The Yamato represent the largest single ethnic group in Japan. They represent most of the main island’s population and are the group most typically associated with being Japanese.

The Ainu derive from the same Jōmon stock as the Yamato. The Ainu were the original inhabitants of the northen half of the Japanese main islands. However, Yamato expansion into

Ainu territories led to genocide or assimilation. As a result, there are only 150,000 Ainu left worldwide. Those Ainu who still live in Japan reside in Hokkaidō.

Another important ethnic Japanese group is the Ryūkyū. This ethnic group primarily resides in the Ryūkyū island chain, which includes Okinawa. While the Ryūkyū share many cultural similarities to the mainland Japanese, they are typically considered to be a culturally distinct group.

Finally, Japanese social mores over the centuries led to the creation of another “ethnic” group in Japan known as the Burakumin. This group is comprised of ethnic Yamato whose ancestors worked in professions associated with death or uncleanliness. As a result, these people were socially ostracized from the rest of the Japanese population and developed into a distinct ethnic group.

10 E. Japanese Language (nihongo)

The primary language spoken in Japan is Japanese. Modern Japanese has evolved from interaction of several languages. Most of modern Japanese reflects a synthesis of the original

Japanese language and Chinese. Written Japanese is based on the Chinese style of writing. The characters directly adopted from Chinese are called kanji.

However, the Japanese also possess two simplified syllabic alphabets (kana) which were derived from the original Chinese characters. The first, hiragana is primarily used for sentence particles and words where the kanji is not known to the reader or where the word is not written with kanji. Children initially learn to write Japanese using hiragana and, as they become more sophisticated, gradually substitute kanji into their writing. The second kana is known as katakana and it is used primarily for foreign loan-words, such as English, that do not have a Chinese origin.

F. Greeting Rituals

Perhaps the most famous Japanese greeting ritual is the bow. Roughly equivalent to the handshake in American society, it indicates a degree of formality or respect towards the other person. Not only does bowing serve as a social formality to politely acknowledge the other person, it also indicates one’s social rank in relation to another. Individuals of equal social rank would bow to the same degree in order to indicate their social equality. However, when individuals of differing social ranks greet each other, the person of inferior rank will have a deeper, more pronounced bow based on the difference in degree of social rank. Conversely, the person of higher social rank’s bow is less pronounced based on the disparity of social rank.

11 Finally, the Japanese bow more deeply when bidding someone goodbye than when greeting the person.

G. Currency

The official Japanese currency is known as the yen (en). Two symbols can be used to indicate that a given figure is denominated in yen. In most countries outside Japan, ¥ will be the primary symbol to indicate that the currency is yen. In Japan, either ¥ or 円, the kanji for yen, can be used as currency indicators. While lesser values are available, the primary base unit for the Japanese currency is ¥100, which is roughly equivalent to one US dollar.

H. Economic Status

Japan is considered by many people to be one of the top global economic powerhouses.

In terms of nominal GDP, US$4.5 trillion, Japan ranks second in the world behind the United

States. Its currency is third most heavily exchanged, behind the US dollar and the euro. The

Japanese economy is strong across numerous sectors including banking, real estate, automotive manufacturing, electronics, and telecommunications.

I. Major Products and Services

As one of the world’s dominant economic forces, Japan’s product and service industries are diverse and robust. In particular, four major economic sectors demonstrate Japan’s preeminence in the global economy. The Japanese automotive, personal electronics, pharmaceutical, and food supply industries represent a significant portion of Japan’s economic impact.

12 The automotive industry is a massive supplier of motor vehicles in Japan and other countries. Over the past several decades, Japanese automobiles have earned a reputation for reliability and fuel efficiency which has increased these vehicles’ popularity throughout the world. As a result, many automotive firms have successfully expanded the market for their products throughout the world. Major global suppliers of Japanese automobiles include such giants as Toyota, Honda, Nissan, Mazda, and Suzuki. Toyota’s global popularity has reached such heights that it has recently supplanted Detroit’s “Big Three” automakers as the highest selling vehicle manufacturer in the United States.

Japan is also seen as a world leader in the manufacture and sale personal electronics. For many years, the Japanese personal electronics sector has experienced significant market growth and dominated the industry because of the cutting edge technology and perceived high level of quality and durability of these goods. For these reasons, Japan is the major supplier of electronic goods such as personal computers, televisions, video game console systems, digital cameras, and cellular phones. Enter any store in the United States that sells electronic goods and many of the products for sale will be made by Japanese firms such as Sony, Nintendo, Toshiba, Canon,

Yamaha, Hitachi, and Seiko.

A significant portion of the Japanese economy, Japan is a major consumer of pharmaceuticals. Accounting for 11 percent of global sales with a financial cost of approximately $60 billion, Japan is the second largest individual pharmaceutical market in the world. Japan also ranks as the second largest market for pharmaceuticals. One of the major contributors to this demand is that Japan is experiencing the effects of an aging population.

Currently, over 21 percent of Japanese is 65 or older and it is anticipated that these figures will

13 continue to increase. As a result, it can be expected that Japanese demand for pharmaceuticals will only increase in future years.

The food industry, economically comparable to the United States and European Union, is a major force in the Japanese market. As of 2004, food consumption was valued at approximately $600 billion while its food processing sector was worth about $209 billion. In addition to domestically consumed foods, the Japanese are a major exporter of rice, soy products, green tea, sake, and beer.

J. Japanese Imports and Exports

Throughout the course of its international dealings, Japan has gained a reputation for its protectionist policies when it comes to foreign trade. As a result, Japan invariably exports more goods than it imports. This positive balance of trade has proven beneficial to the economic health of the Japanese economy.

In 2007, the Japanese exported an estimated $665 billion in products. Several major

Japanese exports have included motor vehicles, semiconductors, transportation equipment, machinery, and industrial grade chemicals. The United States, at 22.8 percent, is by far the largest importer of Japanese goods. The United States is the only Western nation which ranks among the top recipients of Japanese exports. The other major importers of Japanese goods are all located in the Asian Pacific region. Of these, China imports approximately 14.3 percent, followed by South Korea (14.3 percent), Taiwan (7.8 percent), and Hong Kong (5.6 percent).

In 2007 Japan imported roughly $571 billion in goods. Major Japanese imports included fuel, industrial machinery, food, textiles and other raw materials. Japan is a resource-poor nation, which necessitates its importing many of the raw materials it needs in order to

14 manufacture its goods. The countries from which Japan imports are more globally diverse than the top recipients of its exports. Japan’s main importing partners include China (20.5 percent),

United States (12 percent), Saudi Arabia (6.4 percent), United Arab Emirates (5.5 percent),

Australia (4.8 percent), South Korea (4.7 percent), and Indonesia (4.2 percent).

K. Technology

Japan has garnered a well-earned reputation for being at the forefront of technological innovation. Some the innovations that have shaped and will continue to impact Japanese society include hybrid vehicles, zero-emission plants, robotics, and the scientific city.

As fuel efficiency and environmental concerns have increasingly impacted the global population, Japanese automakers have been among the main developers of the gasoline-electric hybrid vehicle. In 1997, Toyota recognized that with decreasing oil supplies and increasing concerns about the effects of greenhouse gases on global warming, there would be a demand for fuel-efficient, environmentally-responsible vehicles. Toyota developed a hybrid vehicle which combined a higher-efficiency gasoline engine and an electric motor. This new hybrid vehicle possessed almost twice the fuel efficiency of contemporary gasoline vehicles and also reduced emissions by nearly tenfold. Today, hybrid vehicles represent the fasted-growing sector of the automotive industry.

Partially in response to the environmental destruction Japan faced during its period of rapid economic development, Japanese firms have moved towards environmentally responsible production methods such as the zero-emission industrial facility. Advancements in recycling and emissions-reduction technology have resulted in a firm’s ability to completely eliminate any source emissions as a result of its industrial activity. One of the earliest businesses to utilize this

15 technology was Asahi Breweries. In 1998, Asahi successfully attained its zero-emissions goal, primarily through achieving an astonishing rate of 98.5 percent waste recycling.

One area of technological development which has thrust Japan into the global spotlight is its development of newer, more efficient robotics technology. While many of these improvements can be directly applied to industrial manufacturing environment, the Japanese have sought to improve its citizens’ quality of life by developing humanoid robots. These robots are being designed in order to perform tasks which could be considered too mundane or difficult of the average person to perform. One example of human-type robot is Honda’s Robot P2.

Developed in 1996, this six foot, 500 pound robot can walk upright and perform simple human- like tasks. Today, many Japanese firms continue to research and develop new technology in order to perfect the mechanics and processing ability of the human-type robot.

Japan has also been at the forefront of scientific-oriented urban planning. The Keihanna

Science City (Keihanna Gakken-toshi) is a 154-sq. km (59.5-sq. mi) site located in the Kansai region. Keihanna is divided into twelve research districts interconnected through advanced networking technology. The city’s purpose is to provide facilities for advanced academic research, information centers, international exchange, and development of cutting-edge technology. Keihanna enjoys considerable private support and it is believed that the research conducted in this city will expand the understanding of numerous fields including the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities.

16 L. Average Yearly Income

As a result of Japan possessing the third largest global economy, behind the United States and China, the Japanese enjoy a relatively strong average yearly income. In 2007, it was estimated the average annual income for a Japanese worker was approximately US$33,800.

M. Political System

Following the Allied victory over Japan in World War II, significant steps were taken to overhaul the nation’s constitution in order to promote more democratic and less militaristic values. The result of the American-Japanese collaboration is the current Japanese constitution

(Nihon-koku kenpō). Enacted in 1947, the constitution stripped the Emperor of any official and power and made him the titular head of state. Additionally, it explicitly renounced Japan’s right to declare war. The Japanese constitution has remained a static document with no amendments made to it since its enactment.

A parliamentary system was established at the national level with a bicameral legislative body known as the Diet (Kokkai). The Diet appoints a Prime Minister (Naikaku sōri daijin) to oversee national affairs and conduct foreign relations. The Prime Minister must enjoy the Diet’s confidence; otherwise they have the right to remove him from office.

As is the case with most countries, Japan is subdivided into smaller municipalities designed to address the concerns of regional populations. This system of local government is known as the prefectural system. Japan is divided into forty-seven prefectures (todōfuken).

However, as a result of the size of its population, the Tōkyō prefecture (Tōkyō-to) is subdivided into additional local units. The core of the Tōkyō metropolitan area, where population density is

17 greatest, is subdivided into twenty-three smaller municipal units that are called special wards

(tokubetsu-ku). More famous examples of these special wards include Shibuya and Shinjuku.

N. Religions

The two dominant religions practiced in Japan are Shintō and Buddhism. One important distinction for the Japanese as opposed to many other societies is that religious exclusivity is not required and many Japanese are adherents to both faiths.

Shintō is the native religion of the Japanese people and its existence dates back to before the founding of the Japanese nation. Shintō originated from the beliefs and superstitions that shaped many early civilizations. With the introduction of Buddhism into Japan, Shintō adopted many of the formalistic styles present in other religions. Modern Shintō is best described as an animistic religion where people, animals, plants, and objects possess spirit or soul. These spiritual beings can take many different forms. The most revered by the Japanese people are the kami. Kami are believed to be present in numerous forms including trees, rocks, wolves

(ōkami), and even modern appliances. Japanese mythology also includes many frightening, demonic creatures such as the oni.

In order to gain favor with the kami or ward off evil sprirts, the Japanese have built numerous shrines and temples throughout the country. The Japanese typically visit these shrines during local festivals or national holidays such as New Years Day.

Buddhism, the other dominant Japanese religion was introduced in 552 C.E. when

Korean monks visited the imperial court in Nara. Since its introduction, many different branches of Japanese Buddhism have evolved. The most prevalent form of Buddhism in Japan is the

18 Mahayana school which includes Pure Land (Jōdokyō), Zen, Shingon, and Tendai.

Approximately 91 million Japanese claim to adherents to one of these Buddhist schools.

O. Infrastructure

1. Transportation

The primary means of conveyance in Japan is its mass transportation systems. The limited availability of space and the Japanese emphasis on community rather than personal needs has limited the development of the personal automobile market and led to perhaps the most developed public transportation systems in the world. For their daily commutes, most Japanese rely upon their city’s subway system (chikatetsu). In order to meet the needs of intercity commuters and people who live in less developed areas, the Japanese have constructed a massive railway system (tetsudō). Perhaps the most famous example of Japan’s advanced railway system is the bullet train. The bullet train allows passengers to travel at speeds otherwise unachievable on a conventionally railway system. Currently, Japan’s 500 Series are the fastest bullet trains worldwide. These bullet trains recently broke the speed record held by France’s TGV when it reached a top speed of 300 kph.

2. Educational System

Superficially, the Japanese educational system shares many resemblances to the

American system. The compulsory component of the Japanese educational system appears virtually identical to the American system: preschool (yochien), elementary school (shōgakkō), middle school (chūgakkō), and high school (kōtōgakkō or kōkō)). After the completion of compulsory education, a Japanese student (gakusei) may elect to attend a university (daigaku).

19 However, there are several ways in which the Japanese system is dissimilar from the American educational system. In order to attain admission into a Japanese school, a student (gakusei, seito) must sit for an entrance exam specific to the school that the student seeks to attend. Each school attracts students who perform to a specified academic caliber and students are not limited by geographic area. This creates a competitive atmosphere where many Japanese students attempt to get into the best school possible. As a result of this competition, many students attend supplemental classes at so-called cram schools (juku) in order to prepare them for a school’s entrance exams. This competition occurs throughout all levels of the Japanese educational system.

3. The Arts

The Japanese people have developed a long and proud tradition of promoting the arts.

This cultural appreciation is readily apparent in its contributions to poetry, literature, music, theater, and the visual arts.

Japan is well-renowned for its contributions to the fields of poetry and literature. Perhaps the most famous example of Japanese poetry is the haiku. Structurally, the haiku is structured into three distinct phrases of five, seven, and five syllables (on). The metered sound is different from the English variation because the Japanese count each kana in the word even if its does not produce a distinct, independent sound.

The Japanese also hold the distinction of creating, what is considered by many scholars to be, the world’s first novel. Written in the early eleventh century C.E by the court lady Murasaki

Shikibu, the Tale of Genji (Genji Monogatari) is a multigenerational epic which follows the fortunes of one Japanese family through the pleasures and tribulations of Heian era court life.

20 Japan’s musical past and present has also created an indelible mark on its people.

Traditional Japanese music is woven throughout the tapestry of the culture including religious ceremonies, festivals, theatrical performances, comedy, and private entertainment. The traditional Japanese musical styling reflects the interaction between the major classes of instruments used: plucked-string, wind, and percussion. While many different types of these instruments exist, several of them are heavily favored when producing traditional Japanese music. Popular and influential plucked-string instruments include the shamisen, biwa, and koto.

The wind instrument hichiriki is considered sacred to the Japanese people and its haunting melody can typically be heard at Shintō weddings. Finally, the taiko drum is an essential part of any Japanese festival.

Today, many Japanese have embraced Western music. This has created considerable demand for artists in genres such as pop (J-Pop), rock, and hip-hop. The Japanese have also developed a considerable appreciation for European classical music and American Jazz.

Another integral expression of Japanese culture and values is the theater. Over the centuries, three major branches of theatrical performance have developed. Nō is a form of musical drama where masked performers where the character’s fates are interwoven with the world of spirits and demons. Kabuki performances are known for their highly stylized musical productions where actors where elaborate costumes with their white-painted faces. Bunraku is a popular form of theater where the actors tell their story through the use of puppetry.

Whether it is calligraphy (shodō) or beautifully rendered paintings (kaiga), the Japanese have always possessed a strong interest in the visual arts. Shortly after kanji was first introduced to the Japanese people, they began to experiment with stylizing the intricate characters.

Calligraphy continues to enjoy considerable popularity and is considered part of any well-

21 rounded education. Refined throughout the centuries, painting is one of the oldest art forms the

Japanese developed. These images typically depict nature scenes, people, historical events, or supernatural beings. Unlike European artwork, the Japanese painted in only two dimensions.

4. Healthcare

Japan has adopted a system of universal health coverage for its citizens. The Japanese government has structured the system into two categories of compulsory health insurance. One either receives health benefits from the Employees’ Health Insurance program in which Japanese employers participate or through the government supplied National Health Insurance program.

The Employee Health Insurance program covers people who work for medium to large companies, governmental organizations, or private schools. Premiums are based on an individual’s salary with half paid by the employer and the other half by the employee. Typically, premium payments consist of roughly 4 percent of the employee’s salary. Patients are personally responsibly for costs incurred until specified maximum figure. After this amount is exceeded, the insurance plan provides full coverage of any additional medical expenses. In cases of prolonged illness, the patient or spouse may receive a living allowance which is calculated based on the employee’s salary. This program also provides a death benefit which is used towards the payment of funeral expenses.

The National Health Insurance covers those employed in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing industries, the self-employed, and the unemployed. Those who are considered unemployed for purposes of insurance coverage include expectant mothers, students, retirees, and others similarly situated. The types of medical expenses covered by this program include costs incurred from sickness, injury, dental procedures, childbirth, and death.

22 Since the Japanese participate in either one of these two governmental-sponsored insurance programs, almost no one possesses private health insurance. As a result of these strong governmental controls on the health insurance industry, medical service fees and prescription drug costs are tightly regulated.

However, there have been increasing concerns about the sustainability of the current universal healthcare system. The Japanese economy has begun to experience the effects of an increasingly elderly population. As more Japanese citizens retire and experience the negative effects of aging, the Japanese health care system is faced with the struggle of providing expensive healthcare services to an ever increasing segment of the population. Combined with the decreased number of work-aged Japanese resulting from declining birthrates, the current healthcare system is in danger of becoming economically unfeasible. The Japanese Health minister has stated that, “it is urgent to implement a radical reform of the medical care insurance system to minimize the growth of inflating medical expenditure, while allowing all people to receive quality medical care.” If the Japanese government fails to address these looming problems, it risks a possible economic and healthcare catastrophe.

P. Architecture

Japanese architecture as it exists today represents a mixture of traditional-style and modern Western-style buildings. While many of the old, traditional-style Japanese buildings were destroyed during bombing raids in World War II, some structures survived and many others were rebuilt. However, population, economic, and engineering demands have caused the

Japanese to embrace modern architectural designs.

23 The traditional design reflected a fusion of Japanese architecture with Chinese influence.

An important aspect of the traditional Japanese design is the tendency to view the inside and outside environments as an extension of each and not as two separate entities. Following this philosophy, many Japanese structures were designed so that the rooms could be readily opened to allow fresh air and sunlight to permeate the building. One of the primary methods for achieving this result was the inclusion of thin rice papered screens and walls throughout the building.

Many aspects of traditional Japanese architecture also functionally reflect the local climate. The thin walls, paper screens, and timber used are all designed to combat the oppressive summer heat and humidity the country experiences. Additionally, the overlapping, slanted, tiled roof helps to protect the building and channel away water during the rainy season. However, one significant drawback to this architectural style is that it is extremely susceptible to fire and earthquakes.

Following World War II, Japanese architectural design increasingly reflected modern,

Western sensibilities. As the population increased and the economy began to blossom, the

Japanese became increasingly reliant on conventional high-rise buildings. However, considerable thought was needed to engineer these buildings so that they would not collapse in one of the frequently occurring earthquakes. In response to this problem, Japan’s earthquake resistant engineering is considered to be some of the most advanced in the world.

Q. Weather

The Japanese main islands enjoy four distinct, generally temperate, seasons. However, temperatures are typically cooler in the northern regions like Hokkaidō and warmer in the

24 southern regions such as Kyūshū. In the spring, temperatures are typically fairly mild with minimal amounts of precipitation. However, Japanese summers are notoriously hot and humid with a pronounced rainy season during June and July. During the summer months and into early autumn, it is not uncommon for the Japanese main islands to experience several typhoons (taifū).

After the end of typhoon season, autumn temperatures begin to gradually cool until winter.

Depending on an individual’s location during winter, one might experience bitter cold with blizzards, cold air with some snow, or relatively moderate temperatures.

R. Primary Leisure Activities

In 2005, Central Research Surveys conducted a study which asked Japanese people, ages

15 and over, what were their favorite leisure activities. Respondents indicated that their top five leisure activities were: eating out (57 percent); vacationing with Japan (47.8 percent); driving (43 percent); karaoke (38.7 percent); and watching videos (38.3 percent).

A similar poll conducted by Japan’s Cabinet Office provides additional information concerning Japanese attitudes towards their leisure activities. Respondents were asked to rate their level of satisfaction with their current leisure activities. The results indicated that 56 percent of Japanese were satisfied or reasonably satisfied with their current leisure activities while only 11 percent expressed dissatisfaction. Furthermore, respondents stated that they felt most fulfilled by taking a leisurely break (42 percent) or chatting with friends and acquaintances

(39.3 percent). When asked to prioritize their daily leisure activities, the most popular responses were: watch television or listen to the radio (55 percent); engage in a hobby (40 percent); leisurely rest (37 percent); read newspapers or magazines (34 percent); spend time with friends

(30 percent); engage in family activities (29 percent); and shop (26 percent). Finally, the survey

25 asked to prioritize whether these persons would prefer a salary increase or additional leisure time. Respondents indicated that more would prefer a salary increase (43.9 percent) than additional leisure time (31.2 percent).

S. Food Preferences

The Japanese palate has been shaped by the types of crops available and the reality that it is an island nation. By far, the chief staple of the Japanese diet is rice (gohan, meishi), which is typically consumed during every meal. Another important staple of daily Japanese life is green tea (o-cha). There exist many types and grades of green tea available, but the type usually consumed on a daily basis is sencha. Another famous type of Japanese green tea is matcha. This high-quality powdered tea is the one used for the Japanese Tea Ceremony (chanoyu).

The Japanese tastes for high protein sources have also been influenced by the realities of the country. As an island nation, the Japanese diet contains many types of seafood. By far the most popular is fish (sakana), but they also consume shrimp (ebi), crab (kani), and octopus

(tako), to name a few. As a result of the limited land space available for grazing livestock, meat is considered a luxury item and eaten with less frequently than in the United States. However, the introduction of affordable “American style” fast food has led to an increase in meat consumption. Another source of protein in the Japanese is soy. As a result of the inexpensive price of soy-based products, this foodstuff has been an essential part of the Japanese diet throughout history. Soy is consumed in many forms in Japan including tofu, soy sauce (shō-yu), nattō (fermented soy beans), and edamame (raw).

26 Finally, noodles are also a popular dish in Japanese society. These noodles are typically consumed as part of a stock based soup or are dipped in soy sauce. The main types of noodles consumed are ramen, somen, soba, shirataki, and udon.

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