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Histories of Cyprus Histories of Cyprus The Disputed Years of Ottoman Rule, 1571–1878 Jan-Erik Smilden Master thesis in history Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History UNIVERSITETET I OSLO Autumn, 2007 II III Contents Acknowledgements........................................................................................................ V Introduction ......................................................................1 Research questions.......................................................................................................... 3 Methodological approach and problems......................................................................... 4 Primary sources............................................................................................................... 7 Previous research ............................................................................................................ 8 Clarification of concepts................................................................................................. 9 1 A Captive of Geography, a Captive of History..........11 The Greek Cypriots....................................................................................................... 11 The Turkish Cypriots .................................................................................................... 15 Summary....................................................................................................................... 17 2 The “Turks” are coming .............................................18 Cyprus under the Venetians.......................................................................................... 18 Prelude to invasion........................................................................................................ 19 The conquest begins...................................................................................................... 22 The battle of Nicosia..................................................................................................... 24 The battle of Famagusta................................................................................................ 24 Summary....................................................................................................................... 29 3 The Settlers are coming...............................................30 Orders from Istanbul..................................................................................................... 30 Muslim and Christian immigrants ................................................................................ 34 Return of refugees......................................................................................................... 35 Summary....................................................................................................................... 35 4 The Ottomans and the Orthodox Church..................37 The ruling system.......................................................................................................... 37 The background of the Orthodox Church ..................................................................... 38 The Orthodox Church reinstated................................................................................... 39 A powerful institution................................................................................................... 40 An important ally.......................................................................................................... 41 The taxmen.................................................................................................................... 42 A privileged position..................................................................................................... 43 Summary....................................................................................................................... 44 5 Impacts of the Greek Uprising ...................................46 A Greek Cypriot trauma................................................................................................ 46 The executions .............................................................................................................. 51 The aftermath................................................................................................................ 52 The Orthodox Church restored ..................................................................................... 55 Summary....................................................................................................................... 56 IV 6 Ethnic and Religious Conflict or Class Struggle? .....57 Common destiny, common life..................................................................................... 57 Protector or extortionist?............................................................................................... 59 Class distinctions .......................................................................................................... 61 Riots and rebellions....................................................................................................... 62 Summary....................................................................................................................... 65 7 In the Shadow of the Greeks.......................................67 Ottoman reforms ........................................................................................................... 68 Education ...................................................................................................................... 70 Summary....................................................................................................................... 72 8 Mother Nature or “the Terrible Turk”?....................73 Plagues .......................................................................................................................... 74 Locusts .......................................................................................................................... 74 Famine, earthquakes and diseases................................................................................. 75 All were victims............................................................................................................ 75 Battle against locusts..................................................................................................... 76 Summary....................................................................................................................... 77 Conclusion.......................................................................79 Bibliography....................................................................85 Primary sources............................................................................................................. 85 Secondary sources......................................................................................................... 85 V Acknowledgements Living in Cyprus from 1992 to 1994, I was continuously reminded that the Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots on the divided island each had a very special relationship to their respective “Motherlands”, Greece and Turkey. On the Greek Independence Day, 25 March, the Greek Cypriots celebrated by hoisting the Greek flag, parading in the streets. Even on the Cypriot Independence Day, 1 October, there were more Greek flags than Cypriot. Cyprus seemed in many ways to be a part of Greece. Some of the same tendencies were revealed in the Turkish occupied breakaway state of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Turkish and Turkish Cypriot flags were flying side by side. This was Cyprus, but it resembled Turkey. These conspicuous contrasts triggered my interest for the history of Cyprus. By reading history books from the Greek Cypriot as well as the Turkish Cypriot side, I discovered the differences in presentation, interpretation and perception. From a vague idea, my first readings developed into this thesis. First of all, I am grateful to my supervisors, Professor Hilde Henriksen Waage and Associate Professor Bjørn Olav Utvik at the University of Oslo. Their enthusiasm, relevant guidance and necessary corrections put me on a steady course. I also wish to express my thanks to Professor Bernt Brendemoen and Professor Jan Eivind Myhre at UiO, and to many others at the academic and administrative staff of the Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History, including research assistant Marte H. Carlsen. Special thanks to Jan Asmussen, Assistant Professor at the Eastern Mediterranean University in Famagusta; Yiannis Papadakis, Assistant Professor at the University of Cyprus in Nicosia; Jouni Suistola, Vice President at the Near East University in Nicosia; Altay Nevzat, researcher at the Eastern Mediterranean University in Famagusta; and Marios Hadjianastasis at the University of Birmingham. They have all contributed to a wider understanding of the complexity of the Cypriot history. Finally, I am grateful to the staff at the Cyprus office of the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo. Oslo, November 2007 VI This map appeared in 1571, when Famagusta was under siege by the Ottomans. Drawing by Balthasar Ienichen Introduction One hundred and eighty kilometres of barbed wire, barricades, walls and no-man’s-land separate the internationally recognised Republic of Cyprus in the south and the breakaway state of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC).1 Since the Turkish invasion in 1974, Turkish soldiers have
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