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The Diaspora of Cypriot Antiquities and The The Diaspora of Cypriot Antiquities and the British Museum (1860-1900) Submitted by Polina Nikolaou to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography in December 2013 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. 2 Abstract This thesis examines the invention of Cyprus’ ancient history through the diaspora of Cypriot antiquities in the latter half of nineteenth century and the role of the modern museum in it (1860-1900). It maps the movement of the objects from their excavation sites, to their circulation in metropolitan museums and, finally to their display in museum galleries. In doing so this thesis explores the emergence of archaeology as a field-based discipline in the broader colonial, imperial and geopolitical context. The research of this project was conducted mainly at the Cyprus State Archives, the Greek and Roman Departmental Archives (British Museum), Dartmouth College Archives (NH). The first part of the thesis provides the theoretical framework in which this research is situated. Chapter 1 introduces the project, its research questions, its research questions and outcomes. Chapter 2 discusses the literature providing the main concepts that formed the arguments of this thesis. Chapter 3 contextualizes the diaspora of Cypriot antiquities within the broader history of archaeology and Chapter 4 overviews the methodology followed and the archival sources that were used for this project. The second part consists of my empirical work and maps the diaspora of the antiquities. It is thematically divided in three chapters. Chapter 5, Law, looks at the colonial and legal context of the excavation and exportation of the objects. Chapter 6, Excavation, discusses the every-day conduct of Cypriot archaeology in the field. Chapter 7, Circulation, examines the practices of collecting Cypriot antiquities, their exportation and circulation in metropolitan museums, and their display in museums (particularly in the British Museum). Chapter 8 brings the thesis into a conclusion and highlights the main findings and arguments of this project. The thesis explores the production, circulation and display of scientific knowledge regarding the ancient past of Cyprus by following the antiquities in their various forms (texts, impressions, photographs, objects). By following the objects’ social lives it addresses the issues of the circulation of scientific knowledge, of the criteria for asserting its authenticity and credibility and of the local/global nature of 3 archaeological science. It will demonstrate that the methodological tenor of writing the objects’ biographies links the different scales of science’s making and illuminates its hidden stories, such as the practicalities of collecting in the field. 4 Acknowledgements I am sincerelly thankful to my supervisors Dr. David C. Harvey and Dr. Simon K. Naylor. They have generously offered me their enthusiasm, time, motivation and guidance since the beginning of this project and made this thesis possible. I wish to acknowledge the help provided to me during my research. Foremost, I am indebted to Dr. Thomas Kiely, curator in the Greek and Roman Department of the British Museum. His invaluable guidance in the exploration of the history of Cypriot archaeology and his time-consuming assistance during and after my research in the Department’s archives, are greatly appreciated. I would like to express my graditude to Dr. Rita Severis for going through her archives with me, for giving me valuable information and giving me permission to publish the photographs from the Rita and Costas Severis Foundation and to Dr. Demetrios Michaelides for giving me access to his private collection of documents regarding the history of Cypriot archaeology and for giving me valuable information. I wish to thank Dr Stuart Swiny for guiding me in my early research to the US and introducing me to the Cesnola Collection housed in the Semitic Museum (Cambridge, MA). I want to acknowledge the help of the archivists and librarians and specifically I want to thank the managing archivist at the Metropolitan Museum of New York archives and the archivists at the Rauner Special Collections Library (Dartmouth College). Particularly, I want to thank the senior archivists at the Cyprus State Archives whose assistance was instrumental in getting the research done in the time frame I had. I want to express my gratidute to the Department of Geography at the University of Exeter for providing funds for this project and the A.G. Leventis Foundation for offering me grants to pursue my research in the various archives. I am grateful to my parents, Maria and Nicos, for the endless encouragement, tolerance and support they have given me in all my pursuits and, foremost, in this project. To my sister Christiana I am thankful for the infinite motivation and encouragement she has offered me in all my studies and research. And to Giorgos 5 I am thankful for his understanding and patience throughout this project, particularly in the final stages of this thesis. Thank you. 6 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................... 3 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. 5 Contents .................................................................................................................. 7 List of Figures ........................................................................................................ 11 Part I Concepts, Contexts and Methods ...................................................................... 13 Chapter 1 The diaspora of Cypriot antiquities, 1860-1900: histories, theories, research questions and outcomes .................................................................... 15 1.1 Introducing the diaspora of Cypriot antiquities ............................................... 18 1.2 Research questions ....................................................................................... 21 1.3 Thesis Structure, main arguments and contributions .................................... 24 Chapter 2 Conceptualizing science, field, museum and empire ..................... 27 2.1 Histories, sociologies and geographies of science ........................................ 27 2.1.1 Geography and the local/global nature of science ........................................ 30 2.1.2 “Being in the field”........................................................................................ 35 2.2 “Diasporic” objects and nineteenth-century colonial collecting ...................... 40 2.2.1 “Object diaspora”, “object biography” and “collections biography” in the examination of Cypriot antiquities ......................................................................... 45 2.3 Empire, networks and science ....................................................................... 50 Chapter 3 Histories of science and archaeology .............................................. 55 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 55 7 3.2 From antiquarianism to archaeology: conceptualizing the emergence of a scientific discipline ……………………………………………………………………... 56 3.3 Evolutionary archaeology: 1850-1870 ........................................................... 65 3.4 The dawn of a new era, 1870-1890: cultural-historical archaeology .............. 70 3.5 The “age of the Mycenean Question” ............................................................. 74 3.6 Archaeological Narratives and Cyprus ........................................................... 79 Chapter 4 Methodology: archival encounters ................................................... 87 4.1 The nature of the archive ................................................................................ 87 4.2 Being in the archive ....................................................................................... 90 4.3 Reflecting on my archival encounters .............................................................. 93 Part II Mapping object diasporas ................................................................................ 103 Chapter 5 Law .................................................................................................... 105 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 105 5.2 Mediterranean politics and Cyprus ................................................................ 106 5.3 Law and archaeology .................................................................................... 114 5.3.1 British administration of the island .............................................................. 121 5.3.1.1 Regulating Cypriot antiquities .................................................................. 126 5.3.1.2 The establishment of the Cyprus Museum .............................................. 133 5.3.2 The Royal Berlin Museum and British colonial politics ............................... 136 5.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................
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