Army Service Forces Manual M 35

ARMY SERVICE FORCES MANUAL M 35

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK JAPAN SECTION 11: TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

erson nownl to be in the o ntained in restricted documents and o undoubted loyalty and of restricted mUnite States and to persons work, butrized milnot arye discretion who are cooperating in Government dcommunicated to the public or to the press except by authorized military uic ation aen (ee also par. 23b, R 380-5, ar1944

agencies. public relations

HEADQUARTERS, ARMY SERVICE FORCES 2 2 AUGUST 1944C ARMY SERVICE F RCESM NU A L M 354-11 Civil Affairs

CIVIL AFFAIRS HANDBOOK JAPAN SECTION 11: TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS

Headquarters, Army Service Forces, 22 August 1944 Headquarters, Army Service Forces, 22 August 1944

- DISSEMINATION OF RESTRICTED MATTER.-The Infor- mation contained in restricted documents and the essential characteristics of restricted material may be given to any person known to be in the service of the United States and to persons of undoubted loyalty and discretion who are cooperating in Government work, but will not be communicated to the public or to the press except by authorized military public relations agencies. (See also par. 23b, AR 380-5,15 Mar 1944.)

United States Government Printing Office, Washington : 1944 - ii

)MBRING SYSTEM 037 ARMY SERVICE TORCES MANUALS'

The. main eubject matter of each Army Service Forces Manual is indi- cated by consecutive numbering within the following categories:

Ml 199 Basic and Advanced Training M100 = 1199 Army Specialised Training Program and Pre- Induction Training M200 M299 Personnel and Morale M300 1399 Civil Affairs M400 M499 Supply and Transportation M500. 1599 Pi scal 1600 1699 Procurement and Production M700 1799 Administration .1800 M899 Miscellaneous 1900 up Equipment., Materiel, Housing and Construction

a * * a

UEADQ,UARTRS, ARMY SERYICI 7ORCES Washington, D. C.

Army Service lorces Manual 1 354 - 11, Civil Affairs Handbook, Transportation in Japan, has' been prepared under the supervision of the Provost Marshal General, and is published for tie info - guidance of all concerned.

EspX 461 (21 Sep 43)1 By command of Lieutenant General :SOKRVILL:

W. D. STTRR, Major General, General Staff Corps, Chief of Staff.

0771 CIAL1 J. A. ULIO, Major General, Adjutant General. - iii -

This study on Transportation Systems in Japan was prepared for the

MITI TARY GOV-'rNMENT DIVISION, OFFICE OF TH PROVOST MARSHAL GENERAL

OFFI CERS T'TSllG THIS MATFP1AL ARE R(ZJTSTED TO MAE SUGGESTI ONS ANTD

CRITICISM4S IFTICATIIG m'E~ REVISIONS OR ADDITIONS W~HICH W~OULD MA THIS

MATYFRIAL: "FOR, UTSTFFL FOR "FEIR PURPOSES. TH'_SE CFIT'I CI SM1S SHOULD BE

SEITT TO TE, CHIEF OF T " IAI SON AND S1T DIFS, ?RAYTCH,. MILITARY GOV7,PN'M7NT

DIVISION, PMMGO, 2807 MU1NITIONS BTTILDI TG, WASHING'ON 25, D). C. - iv -

INTRODUCTION

Pnrooses of the Civil Affairs Handbook

The basic objectives of civil affairs officers are (i) to assist the Commanding General by quickly establishing those orderly conditions which will contribute most effectively to the conduct of military operations,

(2) to reduce to a minimum the human suffering and the material damage resulting from disorder, and (3) to create the conditions which will make it possible for civilian agencies to function effectively.

The preparation of Civil Affairs Handbooks is a part of the effort to carry out these responsibilities as efficiently and humanely as possible.

!he Handbooks do not deal with plans or policies (which will depend upon changing and unpredictable developments). It should be clearly understood that they 4g o iR lY ~ official programof action. They are rather ready reference source books containing the basic factual information needed for planning and policy making. C IV IL A F FAI RS H A ND B OOK S

O PI C AL O U TL INI

1. Geographical. and Social Background

2. Government and Administration

3. Legal Affairs

4. Government Finance

5. Money and Banking

6. Natural Resources

7. Agriculture

8. Industry and Commerce

9. Labor

10. Public Works and tGtilities

11.- Transportation Systems

12. Communications

13. Public.Health and Sanitation

14. Public Safety

15. Education

16. Public Welfare

1?. Cultural Institutions

This study on Transportation Systems in' Japan was -prepared for the MILITARY GOVERN~MENT DIVISION ,OFFI CE OF TEF PROVOST MARSHAL GGEBAL TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. HIGHWAYS 1

A. Roads 1 1. General Description of Roads 1 2. Classification of Roads 2 3. Length of Roads 2 4. Maintenance of Roads 3 5. Methods of Construction 3 6. Surfacing 5 7. Road Building Machinery 7 8. Express Highways 7 9, The Tokyo..Kyoto Highway 9 10. The Tokyo--Yokohama Highway 9 11. The Osaka.Kobe Highway 9 12. The Osaka..Nagoya Highway 10 13. Road Budgets 10

B. Bridge. 11 1. General 11 2, Specifications 12 3. Method of Construction 13 4. Detailed Description of Bridges 13

C. Motor Truck Transport 15

I. RAI IIODS 17

A. Extent of Railroad Development 1?

B, Administration 22 1. Organization and Personnel 22 2. Railroad operation 27 3. Railroad Finance 34

C. Railway Lines and Equipment 35 1. Rolling Stock and Workshops 35 2. Tokaido Sanyo Lines 36 3, The Jo-etsu Line 38 4. Electrification 39 5. Local Railways 41

D, Traffic and Freight 44

III. GE1RAL DESCRIPTION OWATERWAY 49

IV. COMMRCIAL AVIATION 53 vii

V. TABLS 1. Road Budgets for the National Government 10 2. Local Budget for Roads and Streets 11 3. Railroad Mileage 19 4. Receipts and Expenditure 34 5. Railway Equipment 36 6. 3lectrified Sections of the State Railroads 41 7. Tramway Mileage According to Motive Power, 1938 43 8. Tramway Mileage According to Motive Power, 193? 43 9. Tramway Mileage in Cities 44 10. Traffic Carried, 1936-3? 46 11. Important Goods Hauled 48 12. Representative Express Train Service 48

VI. ILLUSTBATI ONS 1, Motor Road leading South from Odawara on Sagami Bay 4 2. Juelokutoge Driveway, Mt. Hakone 6 3. Motor Road in Mt. Aso National Park on the Island 8 of Kyushu 4. The Osaka Station 16 5. The Central Railway Station, Tokyo 18 6. Japanese Government Railways Workshops, Kokura 20 7. Osaka Railroad Yards 23 8. Wakamatsu Railroad Yards and Harbor 26 9. Substation for Tokaido Railroad 30 10. Railroad between Kyoto and Osaka 33 11. Railroad Station and Regional Office, Nagoya 3? 12. Sannomiya Station, Kobe 40 13. Elevated Railroad, Kobe 42 14. Osaka Railroad Station Platform 45 15. Osaka Subway Station 47 16. Yodo River Transportation 50

VII. MAPS 1. Motor Road Network ix 2. Railroad Network xi ix 140°

JAPAN

MOTOR ROAD NETWORK

MAIN CONNECTING

MOTOR ROADS

25 0 50 0IE10

MILES

rATEYAMA

KUSHIMO"

32" 136"

COMPILED AND DRAWN IN THE GEOGRAPHIC DIVISION , C.O.I. MAP NO. 357 MARCH 6, 1942 xi

JAPAN RAILROAD NETWORK

DOUBLE TRACK

SINGLE TRACK

... CAR FERRY

25 0 50 100 MILES

TO HUSAN, KOREA

A C

.COMPILED AND DRAWN IN THE GEOGRAPHIC DIVISION,C.O.I. MAP NO 338 FEB 28,1942 I. HIGHWAYS

A. ROADS

1. Gmnal. f eerition g Cl A

Though in the last two decades road construction on a com- paratively large scale has been undertaken, much of it for strategic purposes, Japan lags far behind other important nations in the development of a good road system.

The development of roads in Japan is hampered by the mountainous nature of its interior, while the densely populated seacoast, abounding in good harbors, facilitates coastal shipping and invites its use for passenger and freight transportation. It is, therefore, only natural that prior to the introduction of the motor car in Japan, the few existing roads were used only for the transportation of freight by ox-carts, and by horsemen and pedestrians. The construction of railroads, the first of which was opened to traffic in 1872, absorbed public attention to an extent which resulted in the complete neglect even of existing roads.

The demands of motor traffic at last compelled the government to take action. In 1919 a road law was passed for the regulation and control of roads and road traffic. Simultaneously a program of road improvement and construction was worked out. Nevertheless, action was seriously delayed, owing to the influence of the State Railroad Administration and private railroad interests which began to feel the competition of the motorbus and truck, especially in local and suburban areas.

Progress was made after the great earthquake of 1923, which required among many other reconstruction activities the rebuilding of highways, destroyed during the disaster, and the building of additional roads to accomodate the rapidly growing highway traffic. It might, however, be mentioned that as recently as 1934 only one person in 720 owned a motorcar.

The occupation of,Manchuria by the Japanese demonstrated con- vincingly the importance of motorized military units. As a result military authorities demanded a comprehensive program of promotion of motor vehicle transportation and of road building, both in Manchuria and in Japan Proper.

In additon to the antagonistic attitude of the railroads, the physical obstacles to road building in the hilly and densely populated main islands had to be overcome. -2-

In general the roads in Japan follow the course of rivers, or run along the coast. Some important roads, however, cross the country in various directions despite the difficulties offered by the mountainous terrain. In 1939, 114 road tunnels were reported to be in use or under construction.

The varying climatic conditions in different parts of the country also presented difficulties. The roads in the north, with its cold winters and heavy snowfall and very hot suemmers, must be constructed differently than those in the south, with its steaidy, damp heat.

2. Classification g kaca Under the law of 1919 all roads were to be divided into four classes: Koku-do or national roads

Fuken-do or prefectural roads

Shi-do or municipal roads

Choson-do or town and village roads

The national roads are supervised by the Highways Section of the Civil Engineering Bureau of the Ministry of Home Affairs. The other roads are supervised by the local authorities concerned. Approval of the Central Government, however, is usually sought before projects are undertaken.

The first-clas or national roads comprise roads from Tokyo to the Great Shrine of Ise, and to headquarters of arty divisions, naval stations and prefectural capitals.

The prefectural roads are those connecting the prefectural capitals andother important points within a prefecture.

3. L of __thod

The military authorities no longer permit publication of data on road construction, but it is known that the appropriations in the budget for this purpose were rather modest.

At the end of March 1939 the total length of roads in Japan was given as follows:

- lioti onal roads : ~ ,35/7.3 -iles ((3, 61,2 i)

Pre fcturalc7ZL4 roads,: 7" , 2l bmls (11,4;. iz

hmuniC pal roads: 35,1-33..1 riles (..6, 2h17 2)

ToG;vn or Y ilage roaw.zs: °6,37.l 14ls (73 212 )

Total: 56 , 70.i mriles (915o142 da)

4.Maintenarice :oo

sa national policy,, the full cost of constrzc ti on an d ma in- tenanc e of ~nilitarv n.t .onal roads is defrayed by the national1 treasury, which assumes als~o one-half of the cost of national and one-third the cost of prefecturLal roads. On the other hand, in 1.919, an act regard- ing the Law of T'o n Planning was issued, giving encon~irap4ement and support in thle execution and maintenance of road work in cities and their vi'cinity. The ow~ner of' land along a road was obliged to contribute to the cost of road building and its ;',aitensnce. The work was done b - 1 com~ipul 3? y ila or anid a. iiirnIm n numer o worki.ng hours J r day was set up in order not to cause serious disrupotion of domestic economy4. 50 Methd of Construction Road construction and improvemetnts, whick had. been hel! up for years, received a novr impetus _rom the introduction of motor vehicles. The automobile has since come into co mon use throughout the country. i-otor trucks were also preferred to railway transportation of goods "; ithin . dist;ance of 50 to 60 :asamnd motorbus lines enjoyed great popularity Ln the construction of new roads, the 1ollo-wing rogalatuions a, plming to both highways and streets, had to be observed:

Ordinance Relati n to TMighway Construction:

Available Yilth

Ni~a ;tial. and prefectu2ral roads i:-iu si b-7e -,ore thun 2h ft and 18 ft wide, r s t ct vely. Imapo :tant mtnicipal roads must be more than 18 :ft wi e,

~ an vipage roads must, be 12 t wide. g ,r~b a.

Motor Road Leading South from Odawara on Sagamni Bay -5-

Gradient

National roads 2 in 30 (3.3 percent) Prefectural roads 1 in 25 (4 percent) In case of necessity in special places up to 1 in 15 (6.6 percent) In mountanious districts up to I in 10 (10 percent) for a distance not longer than 240 ft

Radius of Curves

For national and prefectural roads of 180 ft and up, a radius as short as 36 ft is permitted in special cases.

i2idth of City Streets

Avenues, 244 ft and up First class main street 72 ft and up Second class main street 36 ft and up First class side street 24. ft and up Second class side street 9 ft and up

6. Surfacing

The growth of motor transportation also brought about a change in the construction of roads. The old roads were generally narrow and winding. They had to be widened and their bad alignment corrected in order to make motor traffic safe.

In the building of new motor roads efforts were made to conserve trees and the scenery in general. Warning signs and signals indicating curves were posted on some roads or railroad crossings. :here the traffic was busiest, watchmen were stationed day and night and crossing gates were provided.

In 1938, of the 5,355 miles of national highways in Japan, only about 2$ percent, and of the prefectural roads only about 2 per cent were paved.

There is no lack of road-building mate. i1ls, as good natural stones and cement of domestic manufacture are plentiful. But bitumen and tar necessary for the making of durable. road surfacing were available only in limited quantities. The bitumen distilled from the oil shale of Manchuria, and the road tar provided by the coal industry of Japan, Manchuria, and, recently North Chiina, did not adequiately meet the requirements. Therefore concrete was widely used for construction of n r roawA\. y, FTC-

Juekokutoge Driveway, Idt. Hakone -7-

A high percentage of animal-drawn vehicles have steel tires, which have destructive effect upon road surfaces. In order to overcome this difficulty a special consideration was given to the concrete used for pavements. At first a mixture of concrete without sand, known as "Koseki" , was generally used for pavements arid with good results. Up to 1929 "Koseki" constituted about 78 percent of 8,608,000 sq. ft. in area of surfacing requiring cement. Later, however, Koseki was abandoned and the construction of concrete paved roads has rapidly increased.

About 90 percent of the concrete roads had a 2-course pavement, which was preferred to a single course pavement. The total thickness of the concrete slab varied from 5to 8 inches in accordance with the nature of the roadbed and the volume of traffic. For heavy traffic it was 7 to 8 inches, and for medium traffic 6 to 7 inches. In case of rigid subgrade the thickness was somewhat reduced. The thickness of the top course was 1 5/8 to 2 inches irrespective of the slab thickness.

In general, for the 2-course pavement the concrete mixture of, the lower course was 1:3:6, and that of the top course was 1:lj:3. The Koseki mixture was 1:2, and that of the single course pavements 1:2:4. The standard interval for' transverse joints was 32.8 ft, but in many cases intervals of 29.5 to 39.4 ft are used. The width of the joint was 3/8 inch per 32.8 ft.

7. Road Building Machinery

In the construction of the above mentioned new roads every available type of modern equipment, either of foreign or domestic manufacture, was used: steam and gasoline rollers with a speed of 5 to 10 miles per hour; steam road rollers weighing up to 12 tons and having a speed of 3 miles per hour; tandem' type rollers weighing up to 8 tons with a speed of 3 miles per hour, tractors, American made stone crushers, conveyors, cement mixers of various types and sizes, centrifugal pumps, earth and gravel transport cars.

8. Epress Hi In the years preceding 1939 a number of so-called express highways were built. They were well graded and drained, and had a width of not less than 39.4 ft.

From Togo, the capital, five roads radiating in various directions were considered the best in Japan. They are:

Tokaido, "The Eastern Seaway" along the eastern seacoast to Kyoto

Nakasendo, "The Central Mountain Road" across the Kito range to Kyoto 78e.", e! mN6 ywr n O'h .as, .6,'

MotoRoad. in Mt. As Naioa Par on' th IsadofKu -9-

Oshukaido, the northeast road to Aomori The Mito road to Sendai The Kishu road leading in a westerly direction to Kofu

Some sections of these roads with especially heavy traffic, as those between Tokyo and Kyoto, Tokyo-Yokohama and Osaka-Kobe, have been given particular attention and have been built as wide avenues.

This highway, about 523.1 miles in length, is a part of the Tokaido, and is considered as a military national road. It follows in most of its course the southeastern seacoast and touches such important centers as Yokohama, Odowara, Shizuoka, Bamamatsu, Toyohashi, Nagoya, Dirwana, Yokkaichi and Otsu.

10., -x o h Auhm OEi~~L( fin~IS~~UL pa oval. -R ) .~

This highway, also a section of the Tokaido road, leads from Tokyo to Yokohama a distance of 10.8 miles between city limits. The reconstruction of this road was first begun in 1921, proceeded rather slowly, and the earthquake of September, 1923, retarded further progress of the work. The length of the road was 10.8 miles, and its total width varied from 60 to 90 ft. On each side of the road a sidewalk was provided, approximately 12 to 15 ft. wide. Beyond each, walk was a l1 ft covered drainage ditch connected at intervals of 40 ft with the main gutter by drainage pipes passing under the sidewalk. The grades were very slight, about 1 in 200. Grades steeper than 1 in 100 were found only in a few places and for distances of a few hundred feet. There were no sharp curves between the city limits of Yokohama and Tokyo. The road in general was built with a crown of 1 in 50. Its paving consisted of a '6 in. thick cement concrete base and a 2j in. wearing surface of bituminous concrete.* Seven bridges were listed between city limits.

11. the O~skag1 be 3NI3se (Ejin~ ona ) .Rod)

The construction of this highway, connecting the two most important harbors of Japan, was completed in 1927. Its length was about 16.7 miles and the total width of the road varied from 75 to 90 ft. The surface was divided into five parts; the center, 18 ft wide, was taken up by a tramway. On both sides of the tramway ran the driveways, which were bordered by sidewalks. On each side of the sidewalk was a 1* x 2* ft drainage ditch, The smallest radius of all curves on the road was 600 ft, and the shortest safety-sight was' about 350 ft.

The gradient varied from 1:30 to 1:400; the grade of the transverse section was.: 1:40 on the driveway and 1:80 on the sidewalk in the - 10 -

city sections; 1:40 on the driveway and 1:25 on the sidewalk in the suburban sections.

The paving consisted of a 6 in. thick cement concrete base and a 2 in. thick wearng surface of bituminous concrete. At Amagasaki the highway crossed over the Fukuchijama Railroad and shortly before Kobe, at Nishinada, the Hanshin Electric Railroad Line. The highway led over numerous rivers by means of newly constructed bridges.

12. Tie 0 a.kaa-Nagaya Hihrar

In 1941 the Japanese government authorized the construction of a 140-mile motor road between Osaka and Nagoya. No information on the progress of the project is at hand.

15. Road Budaets

The highway budget for the National Government for the fiscal year 1959-40 ending March 51, 1940 amounted to 11,414,000 yen. This repre- sented an advance of 981,000 yen over the general budget for the preceding year. Aliowances for road improvements and subsidies for prefectural govern- ments totaled 5,995,000, or an increase of 17.1 percent over the previous fiscal year. Other items included improvements for national highways, which aggregated 5,084,000 yen, and appropriations for the continuation of the ten year construction program which amounted to 4,337,000 yen, an increase of 10 percent. The ten year program provides for-expenditures totalling 57,689,000 yen for the construction of new highways from 1934 to 1944. There was also an item of 10,157,000 yen apjpearing in the special budget which was expended during the summer of 1958 for the repair to road damage done during the floods.

The following table shows the total budget general and special of the national government for highways during the five-year period by fiscal years, from 1955-56 to 1939-40:

Table No. 1. ROAD BUDGEJTS FOR THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

Repairj of Year GeS~ne al _ Spcial3 Flood Rtamar Tota (yen) -(yen)~~- -- (yen) (--yen)

1935-36 6,519,000 - 6,519,000 1956-57 12,025,000 5,922,000 -- 15,947,000 1957-58 15,924,000 4,825,000 - 18,747,000 1958-59 10,433,000 5,960,000 14,395,000 1959-40 11,414,000 5,604,000 *10,157,000 25,155,000 Note: *Actually expended during the summer of 1958 but appearing in the 1939-4Q budget. (The yen in 1959 averaged $0.2596; in 1940 $0.2544 and on March 8, 1941 the exchange rate was $0.2544 U.S.) - 11 -

Prefectural, municipal and other local budgets for highway construction and maintenance for the 1958-59 fiscal year amounted to 245,109,000 yen, an increase of 15,054,000 yen over the preceding fiscal year according to the 1959 issue of "Cabinet Statistics".

Below are the local budgets for roads and bridges for the three fiscal years 1956-57 to 1938-49:

Table No. 2. LOCAL BUDGETS FOR ROADS AND STREETS

(In Yen) 1964 57937-3 1988-39 Prefectures. 186,158,000 123,414,000 124,097,000 Municipalities 55,304,000 74,218,000 81,862,000 Towns and Villages 66,035,000 32,445,000 57,150,000 305,495,000 250,075,000 243,109,000

The data covering the budget figures for the 1959-40 year have not as yet been available.

B. BRIDGES

Japanese bridges are more or less fai iuul copies of American and European originals. ben early in the centrzW the need arose for the construction of highway bridges, Japanese engineers were sent abroad to study the engineering and economic problems of bridge building and the methods of construction of various types of bridges.

The experience thus gathered became extremely useful when, after the great earthquake of 1925, Tokyo had to be rebuilt.

The city, which is intersected by 70 rivers and canals, had at the end of March, 1957, not less than 5,193 bridges with a total length of 249 miles. Of this total were:

1,990 of timber 1,126 of stone 1,081 of reinforced concrete 557 of steel 469 of concrete 5 of steel and wood

Osaka is another city which abounds in bridges. In 1929 there were: - 12 -

Timber 522 Stone 572 Steel 328 Reinforced concrete bridges 161 Others 115 1,498

The statistics of highway bridges show that in 1959, there were 8,500 bridges on national roads open to traffic or under construction, and 95,575 bridges on prefectural roads; the total, including local, municipal and village bridges, reached over 400,000.

2. Sneoifications

Bridges on national roads had to be constructed so as to permit the passage of an 8 ton automobile or a 12 ton. road roller.

Bridges on prefectural roads had to be constructed to carry a 6 ton automobile.

For first class highway and city bridges the following live loads were specified:

Uniform human loads - For roadway 122.9 per sq. ft. For foot paths 102.4 per sq. ft.

For construction of bridges in citios, these regulations have been made more strict. Since 1939 they have had to be designed for 12 ton automobiles, or 15 ton road rollers, and a uniform load of 120 per sq. ft.

City bridges have had to be designed also for the use of electric street cars. Bridges in Tokyo, for instance, had to carry 30-ton electric cars.

The properties of the principal materials for bridges were specified by the Japanese Engineering Standards. The allowable stresses for structural steel were: 17,040 psi (1200 kg psem) for the primary stress in tension, 14,220 to 15,645 psi (1000 to 1100 kg pscm) as maximum for compressive stresses, to be reduced according to the slenderness ratio of compression members, 12,800 psi (900 kg pscm) for shearing stressev. For concrete in superstructures the allowable stresses were usually specified as 612 to 754 psi (45 to 55 kg pscm) for compression.

The largest steel shapes rolled in Japan up to 1950 were .8 in. angles, 15 in. channels and 24 in. I-beams. Steel castings weighing up to 15 tons were also furnished by the Japanese industry'.

r' 13

from results of inspection of numerous bridges destroyed by the earthquake in 1923, the following conclusions were drawn:

Serious damage to bridges with steel superstructures was due to failures of the substructure or bridge bearings.

Steel superstructures for short and moderate spans were generally strong enough to withstand the inertia forces due to ordinary violent earthquakes, if they were designed to resist the special lateral wind pressures and the lateral forces due to live loads.

For reinforced concrete bridges, by reason of the greater relative weight and defects of the concrete used, the effects of earthquakes are generally more serious than for steel girders.

Since the earthquake (1925) the design strength of bridges has been usually checked under assumption of the provable maximum seismic accelerations of the respective localities.

For steel highway and city bridges of moderate span, tied arches and two-hinged arches have been widely used. For spans up to 52.8 ft (10 m) long, slabs or beams, predominate, while for greater spans bridges of the rigid frame type and arches were frequent.

Piers and abutments were usually of concrete or reinforced concrete upon pile foundations. For deep foundations reinforced concrete caissons wore the prevailing practice. Steel sheet piling has lately been extensively applied.

iapan had a number of well equipped bridge building plants with a total annual capacity of 140,000 tons.

4® le ~ onon k~4~

pt J~ig~ Norhen bunhu-

This bridge, completed in 1930, spanned a 900 ft wide chaannel. It consisted of six spans of hinge-less arches, two each of 154 ft, 151 ft and 142 ft. In addition there were two 48 ft long two-hinged approach spans. A headroom of 18.5 ft at low water had been found sufficient for river craft. Granite facing had been used to cover the concrete and the parapets were of east iron lattice work in granite frames Hinged panels of the parapet for discharging snow from the bridge were Drovided on each span. - 14 -

The total width was 72 ft, including a central lane, 18 ft wide, for an electric railway, two roadways, 15 ft wide, paved with asphalt blocks and two sidewalks, 12 ft wide, paved with concrete blocks.

The approaches were 90 ft wide, with 15 ft sidewalks, 18 ft railroad right-of-way and 42 ft roadway, all paved as on the bridge. Water and gas mains and electric conduits were placed uinder sidewalks on the bridge and under the roadway in the streets.

Pneumatic caissons were used for abutments and piers of the main bridge, and pile foundations for those of the two approach spans.

b. 2k Mseau Reinforced Concrete Girder ver- Qdd_O the ,,ikug Riverl Kiuhu ~tl-s

At its completion in 1952, this was the longest reinforced concrete road bridge in Japan. The bridge had 15 spans, of which the five central ones were each 98.4 ft (50 m) long. The total length of the bridge was 1,148.3 ft (550 in). The design was based on the following loads: a 8 ton truck, 50 percent of which was iinpact, an 8 ton steam roller and a live load of 102.4 paf (500 kg psom). The bridge consisted of two main Gerber type girders and slab. The total width of the bridge was 21.7 ft (6.6 m) and 19.6 ft (68 ) between curbs.

The reinforced concrete piers were founded on caissons. The roadway consisted of a 2 in. thick concrete layer resting on the deck slab. The handrails were of reinforced concrete.

c. _ Kachidoki ascule Bridge gvye ; Suinida Rer, To 0

This bridge in Toro Harbor was 833.5 ft (254 m) long and had an 82 ft (25 i) overall width designed to accommodate four lanes of vehicular traffic. It was completed in 1939., It consisted of two fixed spans an! a central drawbridge section. The latter had two 121.4 (57 a) long leaves which could be raised to 700 to permit the passage of sea- going.vessels of up to 3,000 tons. When the plans for dredging the ship channel are carried out, the bridge will permit the passage of 10,000 ton vessels.

The central span had a clear width of 144.4 ft (44 m) and was connected with both banks of the Sumida River by tied arch steel spans, each 282.2 ft. (86 m) long and weighing about 1,800 tons. The weight of each bascule, including counterweight, was 2,000 tons. The leaves are of the fixed axis cantilever type and consist of two rectangular steel girder beams, 84.7 ft (25.8 a) long from axis to the cantilever ends.

I- - 15 -

C. MOTOR TRUCK TRANSPORT

Serious attention has been given to the development of motor transport in order to supplement railway freight movements. New roads have been built, old ones improved, and freight truck services organized for large volume transport. It has been reported that trucks are sent in convoys by a dispatch system similar to railway practice, and that the plan is to relieve the railways of short hauls in this manner. It is also part of the greater land transportation plan to use trucks to service new industrial centers where railways have not been laid.

The limiting factors in motor truck transport are the number of trucks that can be made available, the supply of motor fuel, and the road network. The number of trucks available for the movement of industrial goods is estimated for 1943 at over 80,000. This number represents an increase of 80 percent over 1939 when all non-essential trucks were removed from service. Recent intelligence indicates that trucks for unorganized civilian uses have disappeared from traffic and have been replaced by the once familiar man-drawn carts. The trucks registered now, therefore, probably represent almost exculsively organized motor freight transport. Most'of the 80,000 trucks are 1*, 2 and 3 ton vehicles; a few are 5 ton trucks.

A large number of vehicles were seized in the occupied terri- tories and some of these were shipped to Japan; in addition new production is available each year in increasing numbers, part of which can be allocated to industrial use. There has been undoubtedly a relatively large increase in the volume of truck transport, but the comparison is with a very small pre-war service, and the absolute volume is still small. Great Britain, with less area, has (1941) almost six times as many trucks in service as Japan.

In spite of a petroleum production that is estimated to be adequate for Japan's gasoline needs, motor fuel is a seriously limiting factor. Production in the South Pacific has encountered the shipping shortage, and gasoline is extremely short in Japan. City traffic has been swept from the streets, cars are gathering dust in storage, and many trucks are operating on charcoal.

It appears that truck freight movements cannot be increased in a relatively short period to a magnitude that can make any significant difference in the Japanese economic potential. H

The Osaka Station - 17 -

II. RAILROADS

A. EXTENT OF RAILROAD DEVELOPIMET

Land transportation in Japan Proper is dominated by the extremely mountainous character of the islands, which limits the railways generally to the level land along the coast. The mountainous core in the center of the islands has 250 peaks that rise more than 6,500 feet above sea-level. Through this kind of country railway development is difficult, tunnels are frequent and there is little opportunity for expansion except at great cost of time and engineering.

The first railway in Japan was opened to traffic in 1872 and extended between Tokyo and Yokohama on the 5 ft 6 in. gage which is now standard for Japan. English capital financed its construction and since that time English influence had been noticeable in railway construction and operation. Railway development subsequently proceeded rapidly, but on the whole has not kept pace with industrial ard commercial growth. In the last 10 years of great industrial expansion, total mileage has increased only 25 percent, and more than 85 percent of railway is still single track. The total length of railway is probably less than 17,000 miles, which, in relation to the area served, is half the size of the railway system in Great Britain.

The problem for the Japanese has been to make the most of the existing system, with the least possible new construction. The new mileage that has been built has been in the nature of improvements, rather than new trunk lines. It has been in short cuts and alternate routes to ease congestion, and in spurs to mining and industrial centers.

The most notable new construction recently completed is a short line from Otsu to Tauruga which links the Osaka industrial area to the west coast by a more direct route than the old line which passed through MAaibara. Formerly two streams of traffic met at Maibara - one from Osaka and the other from the Tokyo industrial area - and resulted in severe congestion. The new line traverses a mountainous area through which it was necessary to build two tunnels and the construction has taken four years to complete. Extenaion of the new line from Otsu to Kyoto will require the construction of two additional tunnels. This work has not been completed.

Another notewort bit of new construction is the Kwammon tube between Shimonoseki and Moji which has reduced the time required for the movement of goods from Kyushu to Honshu, but which after all is a small link in the whole system. New lines have also been reported in Hokkaido and Karafuto for the purpose of bringing qtl coal. 44 -B

TIlE; CENTRAL RAILWAY STATION DOMINATES THE MARUNOLCIJI DISTRICT The Far East's largest depot is also the "nerve center" of the Jalpanese Lminpirc' railwxay a 1ministration. Native workmen constructed it so solidly that it escaped damage from the great earthquake ,of 1923. In the foreground is the esplanade around which centeredl one of the largest o f the reconstruction projects. At the lower right is the Marunouchi Building. 19 -

Although the new construaction is small, it has been at strategic points and has resulted in a greater volume of transportation. In the past 10 years the volume of goods moved on the railwrs has increased by more than 80 .percent. This increase is due not'.alone to new construction but to more efficient use of existing track and rolling stock, to substantial increases in the number of locomotives, freight cars and passenger cars, to some increase in speed, to a shift in emphasis from passenger to freight traffic, and to adjustments 'in routing schedules, lengths of haul and other organisational changes. This increase has been achieved by great effort. Some further improvement may be possible, but within a very short time, Japan must inevitably reach a limit beyond which there con be no expansion of the volume of railway transportation without further very drastic new construction.

The railroads of 'Japan can be divided into four main groups:

Goverament owned State Railroads (steam and electric)

Privately owned and operated Local Railroads (steam and electric)

Urban Railroads (Tramw' s ana _i ubways)

Special Railroads (Funicular and Industrial)

Table No. 3. RAILROAD MILEAGE

_ __ _~

!2total'Rataes IstaRrlca Electr Portionsj miles miles = - -=

State Raiods 1958 132740. State Railroads 1957 10,825.8 457.0 Local Railroads 1957 4,5361.5 2,458.1 Tranways 1957 1, 566.5 1, 287.3 Subways 1959 9.7 9.7 Funicular R. R. 1935 16.8 18.6 Industrial. R. R 1957 244.0 _ rJ 7F t1t 0

Japanese Government Railways Workshops, Kokulra - 21 -

Railway networks cover the four main islands of Japan and Karafuto.

The most important lines are on the main island of Honshu, in which all the largest towns, the main industrial centres and the principal ports are to be found. Second in importance is the south- western island of Kyushu, which has two important ports, Nagasaki and Moji. Of lesser traffic importance are the north-western island of Hokkaido and the island of Shikoku, the latter separated from the main island by the Inland Sea. Karafuto has a small network of lines serving a small population. This network is operated by the local government department of transport. This system may be considered to be practically complete; extension projects are still being surveyed and carried out at the rate of from 150 to 500 miles each year, to close the gaps between isolated sections, of which very few remain at present, and to provide cross country connections between the coastal lines. New secondary lines continue to be built in remote districts.

The railways in the various islands are inter-connected by steamship and ferry services, operated by the Government railways.

The main line railway system is built to the 5'6" gauge; most private railways are laid to the same gauge, though a considerable number are of the 4'8z" gauge and some of the 2'6". Many of the private railways are electrified, most carry passengers, a few freight only and some, passenger and freight.

The Government railways are mostly single track. The Tokaido line, the most important trunk line is double track, and short multiple track sections exist in industrial areas. The main line is the Tokyo- Shimonoseki line (1,097 km. or 686 miles) serving the six principal centres, each with a population of one million or more, namely Tokyo (6.8 million), Yokohama (1 million), Nagoya (1l million), Kyoto (1 million), Osaka (5 million) and Kobe (1 Million) - next in the list come towns of 400,000 inhabitants or less. At the Shimonoseki terminus the trunk line connects with the steamship service operated by the Government railways to Fusan in Chosen and with the Kwammon tunnel thus permitting thru rail connection with the island of Kyushu.

The Honshu island trunk line is double track throughout; it has four tracks between Tokyo and Yokohama (18 miles) and between Osaka and Kobe (20 miles). It is electrified from Tokyo to Numazu (80 miles) and between Kyoto and Akashi (60 miles).

The Kwammon double-track railway tunnel under the straits of Shimo- noseki construction of which was begun early in 1941 is now functioning, thus making possible uninterrupted through traffic from Nagasaki to all the large Pacific sea ports of Japan, Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, Kobe, Moji- Shimonoseki and Nagasaki will be on one main line.

Outside this main trunk line, there are only a few sections of main line running out of Tokyo, and a few short sections in the Osaka district, -I I ~MBC~LIB~

wnich have double track- all other lines are single track. Main lines, however, have crossing stations at short intervals. The complete railway system will have coastal main lines round all islands, in the main island this ring is complete. The main island being long and narrow, many connections across the central high regions are in existence and others are being built or planned; several of these are to be electrified,

The coastal lines have many parallel alternative routes which increase the capacity of the railway transport system appreciably, and, furthermore, serve a good purpose in providing alternative routes in emer- gencies, when main lines are interrupted, which happens frequently through earthquakes, floods, landslides, etc. With the exception of the main Tokyo- Shimonoseki line, all coastal and transverse railways in Japar are single- tracked secondary lines of low-carrying capacity. Transverse lines particularly have very circuitous routing over difficult mountainous terrain. The limiting factors govering all Japanese railways, however, are their.narrow gauge which limits speed and carrying capacity and their relatively low proportion of double-tracking.

B. ADMINISTRATION

1. Organization and Personnel

The Ministry of Railways, in Tokyo, is in charge of the general organization of methods of management, operation, finance and law in connection with The Government Railways, and in addition controls private railways and road transport in the country, the latter on similar lines as the Ministry of Transport and the Board of Trade in Great Britain.

The actual management and operation of the State Railways is decentralised to a very high degree in eight divisions or regions, each under a general manager (director) with full powers in his own division. The departments of the Ministry govering. the general policy are also eight in number:

Secretariat, including staff and law sections

Traffic and Operation

New Construction

Maintenance, Betterment, including land

Mechanical Engineering

Electrical Engineering

Finance and. Stores

Private Railways, Tramways and Road Transport Osaka R~ailroad Yards - 24 -

In addition, there is an independent section in charge of all the local operations in Tokyo, maintenance, communications, :staff, etc., in connection with the Ministry itself. Finally, there are three advisory bodies directly responsible to the Minister:

A railway council of 50 members with the Minister as Chairman, to advise on new developments, new construction, electrification, purchase of private railways, road services and similar schemes;

A committee of rates and fares consisting of twelve members appointed by the Government, advising on tariffs policy;

A council on tourism, made up of 60 members.

Actual management and operating are directed from the divisional head offices. Each division is a complete system in itself, with powers comparable with those of the former directorates of the German State railways of pre-1914 years. At present there are eight divisions, though the tendency is to increase the number, the last two having been created in 1935 and 1957 respectively. Six divisions are in Honshu, the main island, including also Shikoku island, -one in Kyushu, one in Hokkaido - the South Sachalien lines, only 200 miles, are under the local government of that territory, though under control of the Tokyo Ministry of Railways.

The size of each region is, as nearly as possible,.2,000 km. (1,250 miles), except the Hokkaido division, which covers the whole island's system of 2,000 miles. The Honshu divisions are Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, Hiroshima, Niigata, Sendai; the Kyushu division, Moji and the Hokkaido division, Sapporo. The main trunk line therefore runs through four divisions.

Each division is organised in seven departments:

General affairs, including staff; Operating; Traffic; Civil Engineer's; Mechanical Engineer's; Electrical Engineer's; Finance, Auditing and Stores; Marine.

In addition, railway schools, hospitals and hotels are managed separately under the direction of the divisional general manager (director).

There are several operating and permanent way districts in each - 25

division, also railway workshops and electric power stations under district superintendents and engineers directly responsible to divisional headquarters.

Locomotive running is under the operating department, maintenance under the mechanical engineer's; goods rolling stock is pooled, and need not return to the home division; locomotive, coaching and electric stock is allocated to each division and maintained by the divisional departments.

In addition to railway operating proper, a few shipping routes, mainly inter-island services, bus routes, hotels, hospitals, schools for railway staff are operated by the Government Railways. Delivery and collection of goods and warehousing are railway activities, but not port administration. Dining and sleeping cars are Government-Railway owned and worked.

The total staff employed on the Government Railways numbers 230,000. The sharp class distinction in the" ranks of all officials and staff, a typical Japanese feature, isa' apparent in the railway administration. Officers and clerical staff form one category, workmen (wages staff) the other; in each category there are three different classes:

Hiher Ca g

a. Chokunin: highest offica.is, ministerial department chiefs, managers, chief engineer. Appointed by the Emperor. 54, in number. Salary 4700 yen per year.

b. & ,,.in other chief officers, appointed by the Government, on nomination by the Minister of Railways. 1050 in number. 2600 yen per year.

o. Blau: all other clerical staff appointed by the Minister of Railways. 51,000 in number. 1050 yen per year.

Lower Cajgggai

a. Tetsudoshu: foremen and similar ranks. 7,000 in number. 750 yen per year.

b. Koin:, highly skilled workers. 85,000 in number. 670 yen per year.

c. lonin: other workers. 100,000 in number. 550 yen per year.

The Staff is well-trained and efficient. Characteristics of Japanese mentality are: High sense of individual responsibility for the Wakamatsu fRailroad Yards and Harbor - 27 - proper working of the whole railway apparatus; readiness, even keenness, to take the blame for errors and faults, even those committed by fellow workers, and particularly by superiors and inferiors; persistent work to master one's duty, and an excessively developed desire, to study and copy what is best in other administrations in the country itself and abroad. Research abroad in such matters will not only be carried out by the officer in charge, but by as many of his helpers as can be spared, each concentrating on his own particular section. On the other hand, there is an entire lack of individual initiative and inventive capabilities. Rules and regulations leave nothing to chance, and a high degree of efficiency in the management and operating of the system has been reached, though perhaps at the cost of over-equipment and rather slow working.

2. Railroad Operation

a. Character of Service

Operating methods are similar to those of the European railways rather than of the American railways, though some American practices have been adopted. This is natural, the country being thickly populated, and traffic being of a short-distance type generally. Passenger trains are of a high frequency, speed is low, never above 50 miles per hour. Through services are run on all principal routes between the main centres, and connections at junctions are well planned. Trains are light, consisting of up to 10 bogie carriages, 500 to 400 tons net. Three classes are run, but on the majority of trains, only 2nd and 3rd class passengers are carried. Some through expresses carry 1st, 2nd and 3rd, and one express between Tokyo and Shimonoseki is duplicated, one portion carrying 1st and 2nd class passengers only and the other 3rd class passengers only. 2nd and 3rd class coaches are of the open type with central passage and vesti- bules - 1st class are corridor-vestibule type. Dining and sleeping cars are run on the principal express trains; 1st class sleeping cars are made up of compartments with 2 or 4 berths, 2nd and 3rd class are of the American type, Luggage and mail vans are separate. All passenger rolling stock is bogie stock. In March 1944 practically all 1st and 2nd class trains including all diners, sleeping and observation cars have been taken off the lines, thus permitting higher freight train frequency.

Goods trains for fast and slow traffic are run by day and night. Wagon stock consists mostly of 4-wheeled covered and open wagons of 10-ton carrying capacity. In recent years, bogie stock, 25-ton covered wagons and 35-ton flat wagons have been put into service; coal trucks are 4-wheeled, 15 tons, and bogie, 30 tons. A number of tank wagons, refrigerator and ventilated box wagons and live-fish vans are in use.

All rolling stock, passenger and goods, is fitted with the Westinghouse brake, or piped. All rolling stock is fitted with automatic buck-eye couplers. Passenger stock y lighted. Containers -- - i~iB S .WL

- 28 -

for door to door traffic are in use, a small number of 1-ton carrying capacity, which are handled by crane, and an increasing number of small containers, of up to 330 lb. capacity dealt with by hand. About 5,000 of the latter should be in use by now; they are chiefly used for the transport of food parcels.

Train services are punctual--great stress is laid in all quarters on punctuality. This is attained by low train speeds, ample timing of train stops and ample margin between train weight and engine power.

Train crews are small in number, station staff is rather on the excessive side. All stations are "closed" stations. Stations in the important towns are similar in layout and equipment to British stations, those in smaller towns, and wayside stations are in Japanese style. All platforms are slightly below carriage floor level; footbridges are general as connections between platforms. All level crossings are guarded. Look and block working is in operation on some main lines, single line working is by train staff. British type semaphore signals are the rule; automatic colour light signals have been installed on most sections of the double track main lines and on some sections of single track main lines.

A small mileage of Government railways has been electrified, mostly in the Tokyo, Osaka and Hiroshima regions, serving interurban and suburban traffic. Among the electrified lines are the Tokyo-Numazu and the Kyoto-Kobe main line sections. Of the former section, electric locomotives are used for passenger and goods through trains, on the latter section, local trains only are electric. Route mileage electrified is 388; electrification is on the D. C. 1500 V. system, with overhead wires.

b. Rates and Fares

Passenger fares are on a sliding scale up to 500 miles, at a flat rate above 500 miles - from 2s sen per mile for the first 50 miles to 1 sen per mile for each mile above bO0 males third class. Second class fares are double, first class fare& threb imes the tnird class fare. 99 per cent. of the passengers travel third class. (1 sen equals approximately 1 farthing)-

Goods are carried as: a) parcels, classified in 7 classes; b) ordinary consignments, collected and delivered; c) wagon loads. -29 -

Classification of goods is similar to that in use on European railways. Until 1956,'an extra charge was levied on consignments which had to be transhipped at junctions en route. Goods are accepted at goods sheds and yards at all times of the day or night.

c. Shipping and Ferries

The Government Railways operate the following services by water connecting the 5 island railway system, and a passenger and cargo service between the main island and-Korea.

In operation are:-

Passenger and goods steamship service between Shimonoseki and Fusan, Korean railways-- two passenger and goods services daily;

Passenger and goods ferry service between Uno and Takamatsu main island to Shikok~a-several services daily. A goods wagon ferry is also operated on this route;

Passenger and goods ferry services between Aomori and Hakodate, main island to Hokkaido, with a goods wagon train ferry. Three passenger services and three goods services daily;

Passenger and goods steamship service between Hokkaido and South Sachalien, from Wakkanni to Otamari--1 service daily in summer, on alternate days in winter.

There are no passenger train ferries; at all places the trains run on the quays alongside the ship, or into the station with a direct connecoion to the quayside, under cover.

For all these services, the Government Railways have at their disposal: 60 vessels totalling 50,000 gross tons, 50 of which are steamers, 50 car ferry boats.

These ferry routes, 284 nautical miles in all, are included in the railways' rates and fares books. They carry approximately 8 million passengers and 5 million tons of cargo per annum. Receipts are - passenger, 6 million yen, goods, 6 million yen.

There are many other ports where railway sidings are run on to the quays for transhipment of goods from railway wagons to shipping I

SubstatiOn for Tokaido Irailroad -31l-

companies' vessels. A list of these ports follows:-

(1) Main tranahipment ports;. shipping lines to all parts of the world. Also by inland shipping:

Yokohama - Tokyo (under one authori ty) Nagoya Osaka Kobe Shimonoseki 103 i Nagasaki (2) Japan Sea transhipmient ports, for Korea, Manchuria, Siberia and

and Niigata (3)Turuga.RSbraad Transhipment ports for coastal.an inter-island traffic:

Ishinomai, north of Toko, partly silted up Yokkaichi, in Nagoya Bay Wakayama (fortified)

Uno Okayama Tomo (Fukuyama) South Coast Onomichi (well equipped) (Inland Sea) K'ure (naval port) Yoshiura U jina '(Hiroshima) well equipped lanai (naval port) Sakai Nanao Teradomari (poor) North Coast JMogemigawa (poor) Sea) (Arita) ?(Japan Tsuchizaki Noshiro (poor), Aomori r 32 r

Moji and Nagasaki (see above) Fukuoka Sasebo (naval base) Misumi Kagoshima (naval base) Shibushi

Shi sland

Takamatsu Komatausbima Kochi Susaki, Imabana and Tadotsu

Hkki~do isan

Hakodate (largest port) Muroran (important coal port) Kushiro (timber port) Nemuro, hbashiri (both frozen in winter) Wakkanai (third port in island) Temiya (Otaru port - second largest in island)

d. oa 'p ~3,#c

The Government Railways operate the following as feeders to the railways:

1,100 miles of bus services on 6 routes, carrying 8 million passengers per annum. Annual revenue, l1 million Yen; annual expenditure, lj million Yen. 270 buses in operation.

They also operate 1,100 miles of road goods transport services:

Tonnage of goods carried annually - 48,000 Revenue per annum - Yen -- 115,oO Expenditure pen annum - Yen - 100,000

Most of these operations are provisional in anticipation of railways being opened to traffic.

5,000 private companies operate 8,000 miles of bus routes; 350 companies operate 9,000 miles of goods trSnsport services.

Olin CAI

Railroad between Kyoto and Osaka - 34 -

5. R 1Z2n Financ

The Government Railways finances form the subject of a budget separate from the Government's general budget. The railway must be self supporting, and any deficits are to be met by public loans under a Govern- ment guarantee; any surplus must be used for capital expenditure on new construction and betterment works. The Government Railways' capital is now 4,000 million yen, half of this amount being capital proper and half debentures. The financial year runs from 1st April to 31st March.

Throughout the history of the Japanese railways, a steady increase in operating figures may be recorded up to 1930. Three years of declining results followed in the depression period; the increase was resumed from 1954, and in 1956 the pre-depression figures were reached again.

Table No. 4. RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE, 1936-57 Yen Passenger receipts 274,452,400 parcels, etc. 41,578,096 Total coaching revenue 516,001,496

Goods receipts 250,962,215 warehousing and other 51,207,688

Total operating revenue 598,171,599 Operating expenditure 554,420,557 Net revenue 242,781,026

Operating ratio - 59.5

South Sakhalin Railways (not included in Government Railways' figure)

Revenue 5,541,000 Expenditure 5,275,000 Net revenue 68,000

Interest Charges 95,750,891

'Surplus .available for new construction, etc. 121,246,225

Since 1957 there has been a steady increase in operating results without substantially altering the proportions of the figures under the various headings, or revenue and expenditure being now approximately 40 per cent. over the above figures. - 35 -

C. RAIIIAY LINES AND EQUIPM NT

1. i&ek_ 4 orkshans

The principal classes of engines in use are 4-6-2 passenger engines with double bogie tender, total weight, 115 tons, and 2-8-2 goods engines, with double bogie tender, total weight, 124 tons. The maximum axle weight is 15 tons..

The small containers, 216W by 1'8" by 2'40 are made of steel, steel and wood lining, fibre board, bamboo.

The maintenance of the rolling stock is of a high standard, but materials and workmanship are generally lower- than the British or American. Locomotives are not worked to the practical maximum of their power, large margins being kept in load and speed. Overhauls are frequent, light repairs .very frequent. The average man-day shift per unit repaired in the workshops is high, as shown hereunder:

Periodical Light geoneraJ. repairs rerparr

Locomotives 404 48 Electric locomotives 303 131 Carriages 55 4 Wagons 9 2

Rolling stock workshops are well equipped with modern machine tools. The Government Railways have 22 large rolling stock workshops, distributed over the divisions as follows:

Tokyo 3, Nagoya 4, Osaki 3, Hiroshima 2, Sendai Niigata 3, MoJi 3, Sapporo 4.

15,000 workmen are on the permanent staff of these 22 workshops; 97% of materials used are procured in Japan. - 36 -

Table No. 5. RAILWAY EQUIPMENT

193 1936 1937 ______C ___ I ___ I _C Locomotives N~fumber ncluding Electric) 3,986 4,124 4,255 Steam Locomotive- Kilometers 211,943,149 224,711,296 236,809,444 Electric Locomotive- Kilometers 7,944,200 9,285,279 9,594,109 Total: Locomotive Kilometers 219,887,349 235,994,575 246,405,553 Locomotive Kilometers per Unit 55,164 56,739 58,182

Passener Cars Number (inc. elec. cars) 10,815 10,958 11,209 Passenger Car Kilo- meters 888,331,190 960,565,447 1,009,836,750 Electric Car Kilo- meters 112,858,595 125,244,288 131,462,469 Total Passenger Car Kilometers 1,001,169,685 1,085,807,75 1,141,299,219 Passenger Car Kilo- meter per Unit 92,589 99,088 101,819 frijgjt? Cars Number 67,485 69,940 73,184 Freight Car Kilo- meters 2,222,680,466 2,325,670,976 2,575,969,079 Freight Car Kilo- meter per Unit 52,935 53,252 55,171

2. Tokai an o Liga

Probably the most important main route of the Japanese State Railroads is the Tokaido-SSao Section, 702.8 miles from Tokro to Shimonoseki, a port at the western end of the mainland of Japan. International traffic on this line leads to the Far East via Manchuria and the Siberian Railroad. This route consists of two lins, the Tokaido Line, 573.5 miles long between Tokyo and Kobe (Harbor) and the Sanyo Line, and 529.3 miles long from Kobe to Shimonoseki. Along it runs a daily express called "The Swallow" which makes the 375.8 miles betweenz To1go and Kobe in 9 hours at an average speed of 41.5 miles per hour. Railroad Station and Regional office, Nagoya - 38 -

For 78.3 miles from Tokyo to Numazu, the line is electrified and in this stretch "The Swallow" is operated electrically. Since the Tanna Tunnel was built, the steepest grade is 1 in 100. Other expresses also run on the same line. The "Fhji" and the "Cherry Flower" expresses make the 702.8 miles in 19 hours and 50 minutes inclusive of 22 inter- mediate stops totalling delays of a little over 90 minutes. The in- elusive over-all speed is 35 miles per hour.

With a view to increasing the transportation capacity available along this railroad route, the Railroad Trunk Line Committee has decided (1941) to initiate a double track 1.435 (4 ft 82 in.) gauge railroad between Tokyo and Shimonoseki. It is estimated that this construction will take 10 years.

3. The 12=1& Line,

Connecting the capital with the northwestern coast of the central or main island of Japan, the Jo-etsu line leaves Tokyo (Deno Station) and runs due north and almost dead-level for 63 miles to Takasaki. The only points of interest en route are the long Arakawa River Bridge, and Omiya (162 miles from Tokyo); for about 2 miles on the Tokyo side the main line passes through the extensive sidings and locomotives and rolling-stock works. At Oniya a line braches off to Nikko, famous for its shrines, and Aomori, the port in the extreme north of the main island. As far as Takasaki the line is double, but immediately after leaving this town a single line branches off to the left to Karuizawa, a mountain resort much frequented by foreigners, and the Jo- etsu line also single, bears to the right. A range of mountains now has to be crossed and the line gradually ascends, for the most part climbing a mountain valley, with splendid views. At Minakami (991 miles) steam gives place to electric traction. Gradients of 1 in 40 t2.5 percent) are common. The line rises to the southern portal of the Shimusu tunnel (9,702 m or over 6 miles in length), and beyond the mid-point, in the tunnel a double spiral reverse loop is made, and a sharp descent begins. At Ishiuehe (125 miles) steam again replaces electricity, and the line continiues to wind down through sparsely populated mountainous country to Nagaoka (166 miles) on the northern coast. From this point the railway once more runs almost dead level through seemingly endless rice-fields to Niitsu (195j miles), an important junction. Here a line continues to follow the coast to Aomori in the north, with a branch to the important city of Niigata (206 miles). In time this line may become very important, for Niigata is the nearest Japanese port to Manchukuo. This line is the standard Japanese 3 ft 6 in. gauge. There is one so-called express in each direction which takes 7 hours 10 minutes to travel the route in the northerly direction and 7 hours 15 minutes in the southeriy direction, making an overall average speed of approximately 28.6 miles per hour. It must be remembered, however, that there are 17 stops between Tokyo and - 39 -

Niigata, and heavy grades up to the Shimizu Tunnel; moreover, 14&3 miles of the route is single track. These trains carry a dining car where fairly good meals at low prices may be obtained. A sleeping car is attached to the overnight express. Two other day trains run each way. This line provides only second and third class passage.

4.l~Sectrificaton

Electrification of Government railway lines has proceeded slowly. 244 route miles have been electrified (up to 1940), on the direct current, 1500 volt system, with overhead transmission. 75 per cent. of this mileage is in the Tokyo division, where the main line sections electrified are:

Tokyo-Numayu 79 miles (section of the Tokyo--Shimonoseki main line) Tokyo-Omiya 20 miles (northern main line) Tokyo-Kofu 76 miles (alternative main line route, single track, to Ragoya)

In the Osaka division is the main line section:

Suita - Osaka - Kobe - Akashi 57 miles (section of the Tokyo-Shimonoseki main line)

The other electrified sections are suburban line and heavy mountain sections in cross country lines between north and south coast lines.

Electric trains are standard 2-car and 4-car units of the open type, similar to the District Railway cars on the London Passenger frans- port System; electric locomotives are used for through passenger and through goods trains.

Annual Mileage. electric locomotives - 6 million miles

Power used, 100 million K.W.H. Motor cars, 80 million miles. Power used,, 240 million K.W.H.

The Government Railways own and operate 5 power stations and 52 substations. Two new power stations have been under construction since 1959. They are at Senyu and Yamabo on the Shinano river, which flows into the Japan Sea at Niigata, and have a 118-mile long 140,000 volt transmission line between Seiru and Tokyo. Their capacity is to be 200,000 KW and they were expected to be put into service during 1941. t :re; rv r6 a 3 n " ' " "

an tn oim oiy an S,t Ko b e

AlSa -41 -

An electrically operated trackc railway section, 7 miles long, crosses a pass in the Tokyo-.Nitgata line (via Nagano) on a one in fifteen gradient, through 26 short tunnels.

Table No. 6 PARTIAL LIST OF ELECTRIFUED SECTIONS OF THE STATE RAILRIOADS

Railroad Linle jSub-Line Route I itaces 1 1 miles

Chuo Main Tokyo-bHachie ji-Kofa1 82.4 Joto Katamachi Takatori-Osakca 23.7 Shin-etsu Jo-etau Minakami-Ishiuchi 25.8

Shin-etsu Main Yokokawa-Karuisawa 7.0 Tohoku Yamamoto Tok yo--Akabane 5.4

Tohoku -Tokyo-Omiya 16.6

Tohoku Shingawa-Tabata 12.8

Tokaido Main anid Tokyo-Koz.u-Atami- 78.3 Atamni Nuuazu

Tokaido lokcosuka Ofuna-Yokosuka 9.9

5. Local ,R wy Spread over the country, ror the most part on the main island, there are operating:

575 local railways and tramways - total length 6,000 miles.

Rolling stock: 750 steam engines 164 electric engines 5 petrol engines 4,500 carriages U.,O0O0 goods wagons Elevated Railroad, Kobe 4

Capital total 1,250 million Yen Annual revenue 210 " expenditures

" passenger traffic 2,000 passengers " goods traffic tons

Table No. 7. TRAMWAYS AND LOCAL RAILROAD MILEAGE ACCORDING TO MOTIVE POWER - 1938

Type miles

Steam 363 Electric 5,015 Gas or Diesel 2,595

5,975

Tramways are under the general supervision of the State Rail- ways. They may be operated by the State. Railways, by the Municipality service or by the owners. Most of them use steam or electricity as their motive power except a limited few which employ gasoline, horse or human power.

In March, 1957, the State Railroads reported that 120 tramway companies were at that time open to business. The total length of their lines amounted to 1,566.5 miles.

Table No. 8* TRAMWAY MILEAGE CLASSIFIED AS TO MOTIVE POWER - MARCH 1937 - 44 -

Table No. 9.

TRAMWAY MILEAGE IN SOME IMPORTANT CITIES

I.r Len&t City Date miles Remarks

Tokyo 1958 146 15 private companies Yokohama 1957 57.2 5 private companies Osaka 1938 170.6 Municipal Kyoto 1938 44.1 Municipal Kobe 1958 20.2 Municipal - electric Nagoya 1938 52.2 - electric

The cities of Tokyo, Kobe, and Osaka have subways. In 1939 Tokyo had 5 miles of subway in operation, Osaka had 4.7 miles and Kobe 1.8 miles. The Tokyo and Osaka subways have a gauge of 4 ft 8j in. and all three are electrically operated.

For such purposes as transporting tourists auc' pilgrims to certain shrines in the mountains, a large number of funicular (cable) railroads have been built since 1918. These lines are short since their primary purpose is to reach some elevated point in mountainous country. All are electrically operated and most of them have 3 ft 6 in. gauge. The maximum grad( is about 60 per cent.

D. TRAFTIC AND FREIGHT

Before the war, Japan made great use of water-borne coastwise traffic-for the movement of freight. Railways were used for relatively short hauls from the ports to industrial centers, especially as large quantities of raw materials were imported. The railways were used more for passenger than for freight traffic. Passenger revenue was greater than freight revenue and passenger train mileage was about twice the goods train mileage.

Since the war, great effort has been made to expand the railway freight movement and to discourage passenger traffic, and there has been some conversion of passenger cars to freight service.

The goods moved on the railway are predominantly raw materials. Minerals make up the bulk of the freight, and coal is the chief item. j m

Osaka Railroad Station Platform - 46

In 939 coal was 38 percent of the total and is probably even more at present, because emphasis has been placed upon increasing coal movements by rail. Other minerals make up another 8 or 10 percent; agricultural products and fertilizers, 10 to 12 percent; timber and cement, 10 to 12 percent.

A very large proportion of the materials moving to industry must use the railways for some part of the journey. The goods produced inland in Xapan Proper move by rail, the raw materials from the Conti- nent and the southern areas also move by rail from port to factory, except where the factory is at the port. The finished products in their turn move out from the factories to the ports and to the points of consumption, for at least part of the journey, by rail.

Fluctuations in passenger traffic are not wide. There ie no great increase in week-end traffic, or decrease in Sunday traffic. Sumer passenger traffic is 'higher than winter, though far less difference exists than in European countries. Fairly heavy suburban traffic exists in the Tokyo - Yokohama, Kyoto - Osaka - Kobe, Nagoya and Fukuoka - Noji sections. These services are supplemented by private companies' local services; in other districts, suburban traffic is provided for by local privately-owned systems.

Table No. 10. TRAFFIC CANtIED, 1956-37

Passengers '.,058,630,711 Goods - metric tons 89,542,111 Passenger train km. 180,095,889 Goods train km. 75,516,822 Passe er kilometers 26,216,154,565 Goods (metric) ton km. 15,656,579,602

Passenger traffic is most dense in the Tokyo division, goods traffic in the Nagoya and Osaka divisions. The average number of daily passenger trains is 50 for the system, varying between an average of 70 in the Tokyo division and average of 8 in the Hokkaido division. The, average number of goods trains daily is 11 for the system, varying between 8 in the Nagoya division and 8 in the Holckaid division. The average length of a passenger train is 6 coaches, seating capacity 500, and the average length of a goods train is 54 4-wheeled wagons. The busiest passenger station is Tokyo (Central Station) with 350,000 passengers daily.

If 1iO r i a

Osaka Subway Station - 48-

Table No. 11

IMPORTANT GOODS HAULED BY STATE RLIIEIAIS IN. 1939 (In 1,000 Metric rcos )

Rice 3602 Wheat, Barlqy, etc. 1281

Timber 11221 Charcoal 134:6 Coal 40173 Ores 4807 Iron and Iron Ore 1816 Fertilizers 4687 Cotton Yarn and Cotton Fabrics 516 Cement 1567

Table No. -12 REPRESENTATIVE EXPRESS TRAIN SERVICE (Tokyo-.Shimonoseki I~ne) Cumulative Distance Hours (kms. ) Tokyo Lv. 3.00 p.a. 28.8 .26 Yokohar* Ar. 3.26 83.9 1.15 Odawara ,4.15 104.6 1.37 Atami 4.37 126.2 1.58 Nus 4.58 180.2 2.47 Shizuoka 5.47 257.1 3.53 Hamamatsu 6.53 293.6 4.29 Toyohashi 7.29 366.0 5.27 Nagoya 8.27 513.6 7.45 Kyoto 10.45 556.4 8.22 Osaka 11.22 589.5 8.58 Kobe 11.59 732.9 11.25 Okayam: 2.25 a~m. 894.8 14.39 Hiroshima 5.39 1097.1 18.25 Shimonoseki 9.25 -49 -

III. GENERAL DESCRIPTION 01 WATERWAYS

The rivers of Japan are, in general, short, rapid and shallow. On their upper courses, they flow through narrow and steep mountain valleys, making numerous sharp turns.* On their lower courses they often traverse wide cultivated flatlands, and empty into the sea through broad estuaries. On these stretches they are sometimes very shallow, because of the diversion of a considerable volume of water for irrigation. The river -bed on the upper and middle courses is generally composed of gravel and often obstructed b$ boulders.

The yearly variations of the water level in all the Japanese rivers is very considerable due to a large run-off. The frequent heavy rainfalls cause sudden and, violent floods. In some rivers the flood water level rises as high as 18.05 ft above the mean low water level (the lower Yodogawa River).

The tremendous volume of silt carried by the Japanese rivers, especially .during the floods, tends to form extensive bars at their entrances. (It is estimated that the Arakawa River carries 270,000 cu m or -9,557,000 Cu ft of silt annually). These -bars can be crossed only by light draft vessels, and only under favorable tide conditions. Main- tenance of navigable channels over these bars requires constand dredging. Because of heavy silting, the rivers of Japan offer no favorable conditions for the location of seaports at their mouths.

As a general rule, the rivers of Japan do not lend themselves to navigation, and the inland waterways, in general, have no importance as a means of communication..- Yet some of the larger rivers had for a long time been used for navigation. The number of such rivers in Japan is very small.

Works facilitating navigation consist mainly of dredging to correct the navigable channels.

The boats used for river navigation are generally flat-bottomed light native craft.

The average dimensions of these boats are about as follows:

Length of boat about 78.74 ft Beam about ll.48 ft Draft from 2.46 to '5.60 ft Capacity from 15, to 20' tons The Yodo River that beautifies the city and aids Osaka's transportation - 51 -

Projects for the caml and river improvement have been carried on by the Japanese government almost continuously since 1875, though some canals were built much earlier. The projects included comprise the following improvements listed in order of importance:

Irrigation projects Flood control projects Projects designed to facilitate navigava.on

Among the rivers on which the improvements were made between 1875 and 1921 were the following:

lodogawa Chikugo Tonegawa Kiso Sho Kuzuriu Onga Shinano loshino Takahashi Watarase

After 1921 improvements were begun on 57 other rivers.

The irrigation works are very extensive. Some irrigation canals are used for navigation also. Conversely, navigation canals are often used for irrigation.

The flood control works comprise mainly the building of levees to confine the flood stream to the river bed, the construction of retarding basins and the straightening of channels.

The standard dimensions of the levees are about as follows:

Width at the top - from 19.68 to 26.25 ft

Height of crest over high water: large rivers - 4.92 ft small rivers from 5.28 ft to 3.953 ft

Gradients of slopes -1:2 or 1:5

The following general method of river improvement has in recent years been worked out in Japan.

? I

- - 52 -

A diversion canal is constructed, beginning at a point on the river not far from its mouth and opening into the sea. at some distance from its entrance (to eliminate. silting). This canal. serves to release all the storm water of the main steams. It is usually flanked on either side by a,levee, and its cross section is designed to be large enough to accommodate the greatest possible flood.

Once the diversion canal is built the former bed of the river (below the point where the diversion eanal branches off) is reserved only for ;navigation, and the required minimum depth of water. is constant- ly maintained at it. For this purpose a movable dam, with discharge sluiceways and a navigation passage (or a lock), is built at the head of the old portion of the river. The sluiceways regulate the discharge, while the lock permits communication with the upper part of the river. - 53 -

IV. COMMERCIAL AVIATION

In January, 1956, air traffic was- inaugurated between Fukuioka and Taihoku, Formosa via Naha 1,610 kilometers and in the summer of the same year, two other lines were added, one connecting Taihoku with Taichu and Tainan, and the other Taihoku with Giran and Karenko, both lines being in Formosa. In the autumn of the same year, two air routes with Tokyo as a centre were added, viz. the Tokyo-Niigata line and the Tokyo-Toyama-Osaka line. In the meantime two more routes with Osaka as a centre were started, viz. the Osaka-Tottori- atsuye line and the Osaka- Tokushima-Kochi line. In April, 1937, the aerial line Tokyo-Sendai- Aomori-Sapporo, covering 940 kilometers, was opened to traffic, and on June 1st of the same year, express services between Tokyo-Hsinking and Toko-Tientsin were commenced to cover the distances in Lane day respective- Jy. These express services connect at Fukuoka with the Taiwan, Keijo and Dairen lines, and the latter connects at Dairen with the Keitsu Koku Koshi'a Dairen-Tientain line. There also exists a mail service between Tainan and Make, covering 95 kilometers. Besides the above routes which cover a distance of 9,871 kilometers, there are the Nippon Koku Yuso Kenkyusho line (540 kilometers), the Tokyo Kuku line (150 kilometers), the Nippon Kai Koku line (240 kilometers), and the Ando Hikoki Kenkyusho line (67 kilometers), etc. making a total of approximately 11,000 kilometers.

U.S. GOVERNMENTPRINTING OFFICE 0-1944 604102