HARVEY'S LANGUAGE COURSE

ELEMENTARY .GRAMMAR

AND

COMPOSITION

REVISED EDITION

BY .. THOS. W. HARVEY, A. M. .1 .

. NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI ·:· CIIICAGO AMRRICAN BOOK COMPANY

' HARVEY'S SERIES OF SCHOOL BOOKS. PREFACE. Graded School First Reader,. • $0 13 Grndcd School Second Reader, 25 Graded School Third Reader, 36 Grnded School Fonrth Reader, 45 THIS work iR a revision of the author's Elementary Grammar, Graded School Fifth Reader, 70 first published in 1869. Although many changes have been made, Elementary Grammar and Composition, especially in the arrangement of topics, the author has kept Revised, ...... steadily in view, in the work of revision, the aim he had in Practical English Grammar, Revised, . the preparation of the original treatise-to present the subject

Graded School Primary Speller, 13 in a style neither too difficult for the beginner, nor too simple Graded School Speller, . • . . 18 for the advanced student. Part I consists of lcssom1 in technical grammar, sentence-mak­ First Lessons in the English Language ing, and compoRition. Grt•at care has hccn taken never to define a. (old), ...... 20 Hle111cntnry Gra111111nr (old), ...... 33 term or to enunciate a principle without first pr<:'paring the mind Practical Ungtish Grnmmnr (old), 65 of the pupil to grnRp mul comprehl'nd tho meaning and nsc of

Coples mailed, postpaid, 011 receipt of price. the term defined or the principle enunciated. Idea• arc first de­ veloped by intelligent <1ucstioning and appropriate illustrations; Tlte- aut or would call special attention to the exercises i he "Cautions,'' if intelligently

Entered according to Act of Congress, Jn the taught and applie WILSON, HINKLE & CO., criticise, the most common inaccuracies of expression. In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the t'nlted State•, for the Southern District of Ohio. Sentence-making and composition are, it is believed, presented in a natural and attractive manner. Words are given for the __..._.,co. pupil to use in sentences. At first, all the words are given; then, HAiio ILi!. GhAM, A£V, E-P 84 a part of them. Having acquired some facility in the construc­ tion of sentences, the pupil is next taught to use groups of words, phrases, and clauses, a.~ single words. .. the pupil i11 rst taug ~=-~:::::'h=;:;::::-:: res nted in it.

' iv PREFACE.

a composition.

tice only to enable them to describe scenery, as well as occur­ CONTENTS. rences in actual life, readily and accurately. This course of instruction is introductory to that given in Part II, which contains a concise yet exhaustive statement of the prop­ erties and modifications of the different parts of speech, carefully prepared modelR for parsing and analysis, rules of i;yntax, and l?ART r. plans for the description of 11ingle objects-a continuation of the composition work begun in Part I. NoteR, remarks, and sugges­ PAGE, PAGF.. The Senses,. 7 Composition-Picture Lesson, • 41 tions are but sparingly introduced, as they serve rather to confuse Definition of Object, 7 The Pronoun, • 42 than to aRsi11t the learner. Definition of Word, • 8 Adjective Element, • 42 Diagrams for "mapping" sentences are given in connection Language, 8 Possessives, • • 43 The Sentence, 8 A11posltives, • 45 with the modelR for analysis. This is a new feature, introduced . Sentcnce-!lfnking-Deflnltlons, 9 Personal Pronouns, • 47 at the req11c11t of a large number of intelligent teachers. Quotntlon Marks, • 11 Person, • 47 Pnrts of Speech, • • 12 Possessive Pronouns, It has been said that there iR no royal road to geometry. The • 50 The Noun,. • 13 Relative l'ronoune, • - 52 same may be said of grammar and compositiol). The meaning Number, • 15 ClauRcs, • 62 and application of technical termR must be learned, sentences must Abbreviations, • 16 The Relative Clause, • 53 Contrnctlons, • 18 Jntcrrogntlve Pronouns, " be analyzed, words must be parsed, before the student can com­ • 55 ;t' Elements of a Sentence, . . 19 Incorrect Language-Cautions, • 56 prehend the philosophy that undcrlicR the correct use of any lan­ Analysis, . • - 21 The Adverb, • 57 guage. The labor necessary to acquire this knowledge, and the Composition-Picture Lessons, 22, 23 Adverbial Element, • • 58 The Verb, . • 24 Adverbial Clause, • 59 practice necessary to secure facility and accu~acy in the use of Classes of Verbs, • 25 Incorrect Language-Cautions, • 60 one's mother-tongue, may be made attractive, but it can not be Objective Element, • 25 Composition-The Lion, • • 61 dispensed with, neither can it be materially lessened. All that Incorrect Langunge-Cautions, • 27 The Preposition, • 62 is claimed for this work is, that it shows how this labor should Sentence-Making, . 28 The Phmse, • 63 Composition-Picture Lesson, • 30 The Infinitive, • • 65 be expended to secure the best results. The Adjective, . • 31 Position of Modifiers, • 66 The Article, • 3a The Conjunction, • 67 JUNE1 1880, Sentence-Making, . 31 f'.ompounParticiple, . 37 Complex Sentences, • • 73 The Partlclpinl Noun, • 39 Tho Interjection, - 77 (v)

' - ...... _ I - I .I vi CONTENTS.

l?.A:R.T :r:r.

rAUE. PAAF... THE NOUN, 79 Person nnd Number, . 108 Gender, 79 Auxiliaries, • 109 Person, 81 Conjugation, . 109 Number, 82 CotlrDeclension, 85 Irregular Verbs, • 118 Parsing, 85 De fee ti ve Verbs, • 119 Composltlon-Anlinals, 88 Redundant Verbs, • 119 THE PRONOUN,. 88 Composition-Sugar, . 121 PART I. Personal Pronouns, • 88 False Syntax-Cautfom, . 122 Possessl\·e Pronouns, 91 The Adverb-Clnsses, . 124 Relative Pronouns, . 93 Composition-Vegetable Products, 126 Interrogative Pronouns, • 95 THE PREPOSITION, • 127 False Syntax-Cautions, 97 TllF. CONJUNCTION, . . 129 ELEMENreARY COURSE. THE ADJECTIVE, 118 Composition-- Iron, • . 130 Descriptive Adjectives, 98 Tm,: INTEllJF.cTION, • . 131 OBJEOTS. Comparison, 98 Composition-The Metals, . 132 1. Definitive Adjectives, . 100 Elllpsls, • 133 False Syntax-Cnutlons, • 102 Abridgment, • 134 1. The Senses.-Wc have five senses: Beeing, hear­ Composition-Plants, . 102 !lfodlllcd Subject and Predicate, . 136 ing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. THE VERB, • 103 Composition-A Hurricane, • 13i Voice, . . 103 Rules of Syntax, . 138 When we see, feel, taste, or smell things, or hear sounds, Mode, . 105 Letter-Writing, . • 142 we are said to perceive them. Tense, . • 106 Mlscellaneous Exercises, • 14S I drop a book upon the floor. A force, called gravitation, • draws it toward the center of the earth. We can not perceive this force, but we arc consciO'U8 of it,-that is, we know such PA:R.T :r:r :r. a force must exist. PUNCfUATJON, • • 148 The Curv_es, • 153 We are conscious of many other things that we can not The Comma, • 148 The Brackets, • 1::3 perceive; as, love, hatred, jo.'f, sorrow. The Semicolon, • • 150 other Marks, • 154 All these things are called objects. What, then, is an object 7 The Colon,. • 151 APPENDIX,. • 156 The Period, • 151 Irregular Verbs, . 156 The Interrogation Point, . 152 Unlpcrsonal Verb•, • 159 2. An Object is any thing we can perceive, or of The Exclamallon Point, • . 152 Capital Letters, Italics, etc., • 160 which we may be conscious. The Dllllh, • 152 When we think, we think of objects; when we talk, we talk about objects; when we write, we write about objects. When we talk or write, we use words to express our thoughts. What, then, is a word1 (7)

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8 ELEMENTARY OltAMMAR. THE SENTENCE. 9

3. A Word is n. syllable, or n. combination of sylla­ We will join the words white, briule, and opaque with the bles, used in the expression of thought. word chalk, thus: Chalk is white. QUESTIONS.-How many senses have we? Name them. Name some Chalk is brittle. things that we can perceive. No.me some things that we can not per­ ceive, but of which we may be conscious. What Is an object? What Chalk is opaque. Is a word? . Each of these groups of words makes complete sense, and •,... is called a Sentence. · 2. DEFINITIONS. · 1. A Sentence is a group of words making complete 1. Language is the expression of thought by means sense. of words. Each group is also called a Proposition. When we talk, we express our idens by spoken words. This is called Spoken Lanauage. 2. A Proposition is n. thought expressed in words. In writing sentences, observe tlic following directlo11s: 2. Spoken Language is the expression of ideas by the voice. 1st. Begin each sentence with a capital letter. When we write or print our thougl1tR, wo use letters which 2question. 4. Grammar treats of the principles and usages of 5th. Never

3. THE SENTENCE. When I sny, "The window is open," I stnte a fact, using what is called a Declarative Sentence. What is the color of chalk? It is white. Chalk breaks easily: is it tough or brittle 1 It is brittle. We can not see 1. A Declarative Sentence is a sentence usc

11 When I say, Is the window open?" I ask a question, I· 4. An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence used in using an Interrogative Sentence. e.x pressing some feeling or emotion. 2. An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence used in An exclamation point (I) is usually placed after an ex­ asking a question. clamatory sentence.

Form declarative sentences out of the follototng words: Fo ..tn impe.. a.Uve Bcntcnces out of the followlng words: 1. Iceland, very, is, in, it, cold. 2. Lesson, an, this, easy, 1. Go, your, seats, to, boys. 2. Home, go, once, at, Ponto. is. 3. June, cherries, in, ripe, are. 4. Is, house, our, hill, 3. Me, your, lend, book, Jane. 4. Minutes, lesson, ten, pupils, the, under. 5. Always, good, happy, ~re,_ scholars. 6. Cap, study, the. 5. Question, Susan, this, answer. 6. Skates, John, river, into, the, fell, boy's, red, the, little. 7. Deep, our, is, lane, me, ho.ve, let, my. 7. Book, put, shelf, the, on, the. 8. Par­ very, in, snow, the. 8. Corn, spring, the, in, plants, farmer: entR, obey, your, always. 9. Team, into, the, drive, the, Jonas, 9. Ice, the, smooth, when, I, skate, to, like, very, is. barn.

Fortn tnterrogatftll! 11cntcncCR out of tlte follomlng tco,.ds: Fot•ut ,.,,,,,i,..,.,,to,.y Rrntcnccs m&t of the followtnu "'ords: 1. Lemons, where, grow, do. 2. Is, sick, to-day, brother, 1. Am, Im, Im, ha, I, it, of, glad. 2. Clock, four, hark, John's. 3. Cold, it, very, was, yesterday. 4. Aunt, does, the, strikes, tho. 3. Pretty, is, oh, she, how. 4. Don't, it, ugh, toll-gate, live, your, beyond, river, the, over. 5. Writing, like, I. 5. Alone, pshaw, me, let. exercise, is, pleasant, a, not. 6. You, school, at, not, yester· Tell tlw 1thou sluggard! 4. Pshaw, go away! 5. Ne­ them into sentences. Use this exercise until the pupils can easily cessity is the mother of invention. 6. Does God uniformly and readily construct sentences containing not fewer than fifteen words. · work in one way? 7. Oh, how I trembled with disgm1t f 8. Be not forward in the presence of your superiors. 9. Lend QUESTIONS.-Wbat Is a declarative sentence? An Interrogative sen­ me your wings! I mount! I fly! tence? Repeat the directions to be observed in writing sentences. Tell the kiudR nf 1mnt.r11cr.s i.n your rradtnu le1Jsons. Change the fo•.,,. of these scntcHccs ff'ott• declat•ative to intert-ogatlve, ""'· II. /I i /' Q,UESTIONS.-Whnt IR an Imperative sentence? An exclamatory sen­ When I say, "Clarence, open the window," I make o. com­ tence? What mark Is usually placed after an exclamatory sentence? 11 mand; and when I say, Do forgive me!" I express an en- ,LI treaty. Jn each instance I use an Imperative Sentence. 5. QUOTATION MARKS. 3. An Imperative Sentence is a sentence used in The man yawned, and said, "How sleepy I am!" expressing a command or an entreaty. 11 In this sentence, these marks ( ) are placed before the \Vhen T say, "Oh, that window is open again!" I express words that the man used, o.nd these ( " ) after them. They some feeling or emotion, using o.n Exclamatory Sentence . are co.lled Quotation .llfark1.

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THE NOUN. 12 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 13 J.! I . Quotation Marks should be used, in writing, when we quote the exact language of another. THE NOUN. Such a quotation should begin with a. capital letter. When we state what another says, without using his exact 7. ORAL LESSON. language, the quotation marks should not be used. In this book, the answers supposed to be given by tho pupils to the What are the words boy, girl, city, door, window, book, desk 1 questions asked by the teacher, a.re usually not quoted. They are names of objects. Use guotatlon mar1nouns. Why? Because they n.re names. Whnt aro tho words Jlfary, .Tolin, lVirnliington, O!ticago, Ohio, Amcrica1 Tlwy are nouns. Why? R<>en.use they n.re nnmes. 6. PARTS OF SPEECH. Cnn tlw 11mno bo,11 ho n.ppliod to n.11y hoy in tho school, or in tho worlcl? It c1t11. H is n. 1mnw, then, which is common "Scholars study." What word is hero used instcail of the to all hoys; that is, it can be applied to each of them. So, names of tho persons of whom we arc 11peaking? "Scholars." also, the name girl is common to all girls; the name house, to What word tells what scholars do1 "Study.'~ all houses; the name city, to all cities. Objects of the same "Good scholars study." What word here describes schol­ kind form what is called a class. The same name can be ars? "Good.'' applied to each object belonging to the same class. The names "Good scholars study diligently." What word here tells boy, girl, house, and city are called Common Nouns, because they how good scholars study? "Diligently." can be applied to any one of a class of objects. .. Words, then, not only have different meanings, but they are also used in different ways. 2. A Common Noun is a name which may be ap­ They can be divided into classes, according to their mean­ plied to any one of a class of objects; as, bird, door, ing and use. These classes are called Parts of Speech. lightning. Parts of Speech are the classes into whi.ch words Can the. name John be applied to all boys? It can not. are divided according to their meaning anJ use. Why? Because boys have different names, such as Oharles, . It is necessary to know its meaning and use in order to Frank, Samuel, Clarence. Why are boys called by different names? In order to distinguish one from another, or to dis­ determine to which class any word belongs. tinguish a particular boy from the rest of the boys in the QUF.STIONR.-What nre pnrts of speech? What ts necessary tn order school, or in the world. to determine the chu!S to which any word belongs?

' ------1 l l4 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. NUMBER. 15 -1

Can the name city be applied to all cities? It can. Is J•olnt o ..t rrll "'" 11oii1111 lti 11mu• t•errdtnu lt•t111010, nnd t"ll tvhiclt at-o ,he name Chicago applied to all cities? It is not. Why? ~ a.nd, 1f•lil,•1i ,,.,.,! ~ no1tna, tcstno tlin followl.ng 3ecause it is the name of a pal'ticular city. That is correct; md the names given to particular objects to distinguish them MODEL. 'rom the rest of their class, are called Proper Nouns. "Cicero was an orator." 3. A Proper Noun is the name of some particu­ Cicero is a noun; it is a name: proper; it is the name of a .ar person, place, people, or thing; as, Susan, Rome, particular person. Orator is a noun; (why?): common; it may American, Jfars. be applied to any one of a class of objects. It Q,UESTIONS.-Whn.t Is a noun? How mn.ny cl11&qe.q of nounR nre there? What kind of noun fa plow 1 is n common noun. Why? What Is n comm rm noun? Give cxn.mplc.r nouns should commence with capital let­ ~ers. A common noun should commence with a small letter, 8. NUMBER. unless it is the firRt word of a ientcnce or is a word of fan ~pecial importance. The words I and 0 should always be Does the word denote one object, or more than one? capital letters. It denotes but one object. Does the word Jans denote one object, or more than one? It denotes more" than one object. Wt-lte tho ntunr.s of jl.tJe k.i1uls of fr ..U; of ftt1e 1.tndR of (Jt-ain; of That is right. When a noun denotes but one object, it is t1it-ce n1•tLcles of clot II l11u; of ftt!c (Jtftltt'R; of f'11r. 1mtl h.t11•1tB; of sf.al said to be in the Singular Numher. fat"tnlt1(J implcmr.11tB; of fmtt" tf•ttdrs; of sf.al towns1tipt1 '" 11Plural Number.

Tell whkh rrt-o com.m o,. and which are pl"op er nouns '" the fol- l01vlt•u list: • --- 2. The Plural Number denotes more than one object. Rain. Snow. College. Augusta. Palestine. The last sound in the word fan readily unites with the Barn. Sarah. Minute. Volcano. Black Sea. sound represented by the letter s, and its plural is formed by Slate. Organ. Steeple. Railroad. Lake Erie. adding s to the singular. The plural of any noun ending with April. Boston. Church. Thunder. Indianapolis. a sound that will readily unite with the sound represented by Hour. Lesson. Temple. Vesuvius. Niagara Falls. s, is formed by adding s to the singular. The plural of any word ending with a sound that will not Rem. 2.-Common nouns, when in a tabulated list of words readily unite with tho sound represented by 11, is formed by as above, may begin with capital letters, as if each began a adding es to the singular, when the singular does not end sentence. with e; as, church, church-ea; mass, mass-e11. (, I

' 16 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ABBREVIATIONS. 17 These are two ways of forming plurnls. There are many W1•lfe tlie follotobiu al>brevlations and t•·-' , 7 mar cqu.tJa enta: other ways. Nouns ending in j or fe usually ·change these Dr. Doctor. endings to ves ; those ending in 9, with a v·owcl Lefore it, aplurals ...on is a guest of Superintendent Furnes11. 4. Doctor Metz of some of thcHo wordR. They ought not to he required to remem­ lt~cs on Wood Street, next door to Colonel Clark 5 W ' ber and npply n lar~e numbe r of rules. Tho J>lnrnl forms must be learned by Jlro.ctice 111 writing them. Mister .Joucs and President Tap11nn in tho city to-

Q.UESTIONS.-Wlmt docs tho slngulnr number dcnolo? Tho plural number? Mention some of the ways of forming the plural number. II.

"N. B.-Wm. Smith, Esq., lives in Utica N y" . . 1.n this sentence, the first two letters, '., N·. are the 9. ABBREVIATIONS. B" m1t~als, or first letters, of the Latin words Nota be~e, and are eqmvalent to take notice "N y " · th bb . . I. 1'i · · · 1s e a rev1ation for New ork, the first letters of each word being used. "Dr. Vinton is a brother of Gen. Vinton, and the father of Mrs. Noble." 1J'rfle tlie followlnu abbretriationa and tlicir equt.,alenta: In this sentence, the first word is Doctor; but in writing A . .llL Forenoon. P. M. Afternoon. it the first and last letters only have been use.d. This is a B. 0. Before Christ. A. D. In the year of our Lord. short way of writing a word, and is called an Abbreviation. U. 8. United States. 0. 0.D. Collect on Delivery. The word General is also abbreviated, the first three totters lrL 0. Member of Congress. Bbl. Darrel. only being used. In abbreviating the word llfistress, all the lrL D. Doctor of Medicine. Lb. Pound. letters are omitted except the first, the fifth, and the last. P. 0. Post Office. No. Number. A period should be placed after an abbreviation. P. 8. Postscript. Ult. The last month. R. R. Railroad. Prox. The next month. Rem.-A bbreviations generally bf'gin with capital letters. !fl. Noon. El. Ur.-2. Admr, Administrator. / .

... j 18 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ' THE SENTENCE. 19 Jn-ite tlie abl1rct1iatio.. s for tlw days of tlu• 1t1eek. ;!., . JVrU• tlie abbrct1iatfmis for tlw t,.o,.tlis of tit~ year. 11. ELEMENTS OF A SENTENOE. I - 1 ' Write the abbrct1iatio.. s for tlic States of the Union. ~ In the sentence, "Chalk is white," chalk is called the Sub­ Note.-"A. M.," when placed after the name of a person, is rI · ject, for it is that about which something is said, or ojfirmed. equivalent to },faster of Arts. "P. M.," when written or printed in a similar manner, is equivalent to Post1naster. t ' 1 The abbreviations for "·eights and -measures, as well as ult. and 1. The Subject of a proposition is that of which prox., should begin with small letters, unless they stand alone, or - : at the beginning of sentences. In some cnses, small letters may someth~ng is affirmed. be used as the abbreviations for fo1·e1won and afternoon. H'ldie is callml tho l'redicate, for U is that which is affirmed Make the proper abbret1la!lons 1.. tlw followinu sc,.tcnces: of the subject c!talk. 1. Take notice.-The train will leave at 3 o'clock in the afternoon. 2. Samuel Fish, Member of Congress, has removed 2. The Predicate of a proposition is that which is to Buffalo, New York. 3. Send the books to Joel Elkins, affirmed of the subject. Master of Arts, and collect on delivery. 4. My father left for Europe on the seventh day of the last month. 5. Send me Is is called the Copula, for it is used to join the predicate four barrels of flour this forenoon. 6. I will pay you on the to the subject, and the word copula means a link. The copula sixth day of the next month. also affirms that the predicate belongs to the subject. It is sometimes a group of words; as, will be, sltall have been, etc. QUESTIONil.-What Is an abbreviation? How are periods and capi­ ta.ls used in connection with abbreviations? 3. The Copula is a word, or group of words, used to .( join a predicate to a subject, and to make an assertion . I .. 10. OONTRAOTIONS. In the sentence, "Ice is cold," what is the subject? "Ice." .. Why? Because it is that of which something is affirmed. "Don't fail to come." In writing or printing don't, a mark What is the predicate? "Cold." Why? Because it is that (.' ) is used between n and t. It is called an Apostroplie. In ., which is affirmed of the subject. What is the copula? "Is." an abbreviation or contraction like this, it shows that one or • Why? Because it is the word used to assert the predicate more letters are omitted. cold of the subject ice. Why is it called the copula? Because it links or joins the predicate to the subject. Tell what letters are omitted in the contracted words in these sen­ tences: Poiut out the sul>jcct, predicate, and copula in eaclo of tl•e following 1. We 're going home. 2. We'll not go with you. 3. I sentences: ------didn't know that you told 'em not to go. 4. I '11 help you 1. Air is transparent. 2. Iron is heavy. 3. Nero was cruel. as soon as I've learned my lesson. · 5. We came from o'er 4. Jane has been studiouR. 5. Waltor will he tardy. 6. Mary the sea. 6. They 're bo~h truants. 7. The corporal said, 11hould bo kind. 7. J~lfon is unhap1iy. 8. 1\l:u·tlm wu.s cheer­ "'Bout face." ful. 9. George should have been industrious.

' 20 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ELEMENTS. 21

Potnt out the nouna tn these 11entence11, and tell .,,htch are common and wlilch are~ nouns. ___ 13. ELEMENTS. QUESTIONS.-What ls the subject of a prop0sltlon? The predicate? The copula.? What does the word copula mean? We have seen that a sentence is composed of parts'. These parts are called Elements.

12. THE PREDICATE. 1. An Element is one of the distinct parts of a ' sentence. In the sentence, "Man is mortal," the predicate mortal de­ notes a quality belonging to the subject man. Words which \ 2. The Subject and the Predicate are called Principal express qualities may be called quality-words. Elements, because no sentence can be formed without Nouns may be used as predicates. When they are thus them. All other distinct parts of a sentence are called used, they denote kind or class. l Subordinate Elements. The Copula is not called an In the sentence, "Horses are animals," what is the subject? "Horses." Why? What is the predicate? "Animals." Why? element. What does the word animals denote? It denotes the kind or 3. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its class of beings to which horses belong. What part of speech elements. Any sentence can be so separated. is it? It is a noun. Why? What is the copula? "Are." Analy111c tlto followfnu scntet•cc11 ustt1u tlits Alfl.rn• qu.n.1/1.lt?R of tltc folfowlnu Btt11jccts: 1 Iron -- Trees -- Fishes Oranges MODEL. Play -- Books -- Apples -- Marbles "Iron is heavy." Lead -- School -- Flowers __ Swimming-- This is a sentence; it is a group of words making complete Model.-Oranges are yellow. sense: declarative; it states a· fact. A.lfl.rm the following qualities of appropriate sub}ccts: Iron is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed: - soft. -- hard. --young. -- opaque. heavy is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the sub­ --wise. -- sweet. -- happy. -- mellow. ject: is is the . copula; it joins the predicate to the subject. --blue. -- round. -- square. -- transparent. Iron I is : heavy. Model.-8ugar is sweet. I (t

Alfl.rn~ ~or~ of tlte fotlowh•g subjects: 1. Indigo is blue. 2. Flies are insects. 3. Mary was tardy. Gold -- Oxen -- Sheep -- Wheat -­ 4. Boys will be playful. 5. Children should be careful. 6. Corn .-- River -- Eagles -- Houses -­ Men may be imprudent. 7. John can be studious. 8. Roses Coats -- Silver -- Tables __ Wagons-- are fragrant. 9. Julius should be diligent. "/-'I Model.-Eagles are birds. Point out the ~ and ~ nouns in the above sentences. QUESTIONS.-What Is an element? What are the principal element.st Q,UESTIONB.-What are quality-words? Can they be used as predi­ l cates? Olve example. Oive an example ot a noun used as a predicate. Subordinate elements? What Is analysis T

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22 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. COMPOSITION. 23

14. OOMPOSITION.

l- II. 1' I. What do you see in this picture? l 2. What is the dog doing? I 3. How many rats has he killed already? 4. What are the rats trying to do? I. 5. Will the dog catch the one that is trying to climb the ~ broom? Why? Note.-The answers to the questions in this and similar exercisesJ should first be given orally, and then written on slates or slips 01 6. Where do rats live? paper. The first answer should begin with the words, "I see." 7. What harm do they do? Look at the pfrt..-re, and a•uuwr the follotolnu questions: .Read wliat has been written. I. What do you sc>e in this picture? Notc.-Scll'ct other J>icturcR, and ask questions concerning what 2. What are q1e boy ancl the girl doing? is to be seen in them. Sl:onl

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24 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR CLASSES OF VERBS. _ 25

THE VERB. 16. CLASSES OF VERBS. In the sentence, "Boys study grammar," the word "gram­ 15. ORAL LESSON. mar" is required to complete the meaning of the predicate "study." That which tells what the boys study, completes its In the sentence, "Fishes swim," what is the subject? meaning, and is called an Objective Element, or Object. "Fishes." Why? What is the predicate? "Swim." Why? Is there any copula expressed? There is not. 1. An Objective Element is a word or a group of The predicate, then, can be affirmed of the subject directly; words which completes the meaning of a verb. one word expressing both the copula and the predicate. A word which can be used to affirm something of a sub­ Those verbs which require the addition of an object to ject, is called a Verb. It usually expresses action, being, or complete their meaning, are called Transitive Verbs. state; as, I run, denotes action; I am, denotes being; I sleep, 2. A Transitive Verb requires the addition of an denotes state. object to complete its meaning. • . A Verb is a word which expresses action, being, or Ex.-" Columbus di;covered America." The verb "discov­ state; as, George writes, I am, he dreamB. erc1l" requires the addition of Bouie word, ns "America," to complete its meaning, and is, therefore, transitive. What is the word "trot" in tho sentence, 11 Horses trot?" It is a verb. Why ? Because it affirms action of the subject Rem.-The oltiect of a transitive verb -is not always ex­ "horses." J pressed; but some word different from the subject can always What is the word 11 stand" in the sentence "Houses stand?" be made its object. It is a verb. Why? Because it affirms state of the subject /: In the sentence, "Clarence walks," no word is required to "houses." I.' complete the meaning of the verb "walks." Those. verbs which do not require the addition of an object to complete 1JTrfte 11entcnce11, using t1&c foll011Jinr1 verbs as pre1Ucatcs: their meaning are called Intransitive Verbs. ·'· -- sail. -- look. -- loiter. --whine. -- pur. -- limp. -- listen. -- cackle. .i 3. An Intransitive Verb does not require the addi­ -- run. -- mow. -- study. -- gobble. 'tion of an object to complete its meaning. -- sing. -- howl. -- neigh. -- reform. Ex.-" Horses run." The verb "run" does not require the -- play. -- walk. -- stand. -- scream. addition of an object to complete its meaning. It is, there- -- reap. -- work. -- recite. -- whistle. fore, intransitive. Model.-Birds sing. Rem.-Some verbs are transitive in one sense and intransi­ Point o~d all _tlw ~in your readlnu lesson. tive in another sense. To determine whether a verb can be QUE8TIONS.-What ts a verb? What does It usually express? Give used both transitively and intransitively consult a dictionary. the directions for writing sentences. (See page 9.) The copula is always a verb.

' 26 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. CAUTIONS. 27

4. A Copulative Verb is used to join a predicate to Potnt otd ""' ~ tn flrn f11llowtng llf'nfflneelf, tisbig these a subject, and to make an assertion. MODELS. Ex.-" Lambs are playful." The verb "are" is used to join I. "The nights are chilly." the predicate "playful" to the subject "lambs." It is, there- .l Are is a verb; it denotes being: copulative; it joins the pred· fore, a copulative verb. icate to the subject. . Write """"n 11tmtm1celf eontalnlng tran11fthm verbs. II. " Corn grows." Model.-J ohn struck James. Grows is a verb; (why?): intransitive; it does not require an object to complete its meaning. Write seven 8fltlfe11c"" containing lntram1IUt1e vM-bs. Models.-Houses stand. Boys swim. III. "Horses draw wagons."

Wrtte seven sentencelf contatnhau copul1tUt'e verbs. Draw is a verb; (why?): transitive; it requires an object to complete its meaning. Model.-The weather was warm. I. Viola. blushed. 2. Stephen whs a martyr 3. Boys may Write sentences, ulllnu the followtnu nottnl as objertitle elements: be useful. 4. Merclmnts sell goods. 5. Mechanics build -- cars. -- grass. -- books. -- churches. houses. 6. Fish<•s swim. 7. James is sick. 8. John should • -- laws. -- wood. -- whc>at. -- elephants. be careful. 9. DogR kill sheep. JO. ITemy stmck William. -- lions. --.bon.tR. -- lc>ttcrs. -- geography. J,oi·nt ortt tl1n !!!!!!.!!.!! 111. tl1r.Rt! ,.-cu.tcncca, and tell tvlilclt. ai•e conunon -- trees. -- debts. -- pictures. -- mountains. and wltlclt a1·c P"'"per nouns.

I/ Model.-Fire burns wood. Q,UESTIONS.-Wlmt Is an objective element? A trnnsltive verb? An I· lntrnnsitlvc verb? A copulative verb? Is the object of a trnnsltlve verb always expressed? Give a sentence In whlch It Is not expressed.

MODEL. "Scholars learn lessons," 17. INCORRECT LANGUAGE. This is a sentence; (why?): declarative; (why?). Caution 1.-Do not use saw for seen, or went for Scholars is the subject; (why?): learn is the predicate; (why?). "Learn" is modified by lessons, an objective element. gone, after has, have, lias been, or liave been. _Ex.-1. I have saw a fine horse to-day. 2. The little boy Scholars learn I lessons. I has went into the woods. 3. George has went there several times. 4. Have you saw Mr. Olds to-day? 1. Dogs hunt rabbits. 2. .Tnnc studies botany. 3. Eli drives hol'fles. 4. Horses draw wagonR. 5. Mon huild houses. Caution 11.-Do not use see or seen for saw in ex­ 6. Farmers sow grain. 7. Mcrchnnts sell goods. 8. Jla.<1te pressing past time. makes waste. ~· Soldiers fight battles. IO. Cats catch mice. ! \

' 28 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. SENTENCE-MAKING . 29

.. .: i . Ex.-1. Hiram see n flock of wild turkeys yesterday. 2. I When scvern.1 words are used in the same way, they are ~. seen a. dog running after a fox. 3. I know ,John was whis­ sn.icommas. Write Ca ~ tion 111.-Do not use done for did, or come for the following rules for punctuation on your slates, and commit came, ·in expressing past time. them to memory: Ex.-1. He done his work well yesterday. 2. My father Rule 1.-Three or more words of the same kind, or come home last week. 3. I done my task before Eli come. rank, used together, should be separated by commas. Caution IV.-Do not use is, was, or has been as the Rule 11.-Two words of the same kind, or rank, copula or predicate of a sentence whose subject denotes used together, are not usually separated by commas, 0 more than one object. · but are connected by and, 01·, or some similar word. Ex.-1. The horse and the cow is in the stable. 2. Weasels Rem.-Whcn two words of tho sn.mc rnnk, used together, was plenty around there. 3. Eliza and Snrnh has been hero. nre not connoctod by and, or, or some similar word, they a.re 4. We was very much surprised. 5. Are you sure that they usually separated by commas. was there? • Arrange the folloiolng words lnto 11entenccs: Caution V.-Do not use was for were as the copula 1. Houses, mills, build, and, bridges, mechanics. 2. Raise, or predicate of a sentence whose subject . is you. wheat, corn, farmers, barley, and. 3. In, oranges, West Indies, lemons, grow, the, and, pine-apples. 4. Metals, gold, a.re, sil­ Ex.-1. You was there, we know. 2. Perhaps you was try­ ver, precious, and. 5. Mary, Susan, cousins, are, Ada, and. ing to hide somewhere. 6. New York, cities, and, large, Philadelphia, are, San Fran­ cisco. Notc.-In writing these sentences, observe carefully the direc­ 18. SENTENCE-MAKING. tions given in the t\Vo rules for the use of the comma.

In the sentence, "John and Silas went to town," two words FtU t1te blan1cs ln the followlng e:x:erclses: are used as the subject-what are they? John and Sila,s. Jn · 1. I have ------in my desk. the sentence, "John, Silas, and Ezra. went to town," how 2. ------are wild aniumls. many nouns a.re used as the subject? Three-John, SilM, and 3. A 'merchant sells ------·-----. Ezra. 4. I can buy ------. . of a grocer.· Observe that in the first sentence the two nouns used as 5. Have you seen--.------.- ---? the subject are .joined by the word and. There is no comma. 6.·k------are --- in: Colorado. ( , ) after the first word. Observe, also, that in the second 7: &~can see ------from my wmdow. sentence, there is a comma after the first two nouns-John 8. Violets ------are --- flowers. and SilM. 9. - -- and four and ·--- and six equal ---.

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' ------30~ ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE ADJECTIVE. .31

19. COMPOSITION. THE .ADJEO':CIVE.

20. ORAL LESSON.

When quality-words arc joined to nouns by copulas, they are said to be predicated of those nouns. They may be written or printed in connection with nouns, without being joined to them by copulas; thus: wliite chalk, sour apples, a square table, good boys. When thus used, they describe or restrict the meaning of nouns, but are not predicated of them. Words that do not express quality may be used as modi­ fiers of nouns. In the sentences, "This book is heavy," "Tltat book is light," "Two boys were sick," "Three boys were idle," the words, this, that, two, and three, are modifiers of the nouns that follow them; but they do not express any quality. Tltis and that point out the nouns to which they belong; two and three denote number. Those words which modify nouns by expressing quality, pointing them out, or denoting number, arc called Aqjectives.

Tell what the!lc children arc doing. Give them names. 1. An Adjective is a word used to descriye or define Tell whether the two standing together are ~t home, or at a noun. the home of the little girl holding the doll. Tell how old you think the little girl is .that has a basket 2. There are two classes of .Adjectives: Descriptive on her arm. How much older is the little boy? aµd Definitive. Write a story about three children that played at. keeping shop one afternoon. All quality-words are Descriptive Adjectives. Write a story about a brother and a sister tirn.t spent a day 3. .A Descriptive Adjective describes a noun by ex­ with their cousin, who lived in the country. Tell what games they played. pressing some quality belonging to it; as, good, white. Write a story about three little girls that were left alone Pointing-out words and number-words are Definitive Ac{jec­ at home one afternoon. Tell how they spent the afternoon, tives. what books they read, what gamE>!l they playE>d, l'tc. · Write a dPRcription of your play-house at home. Tell how 4. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines a noun large it is, and what playt~ings are in it= without expressing any of its qualities; as, this, few.

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' ------T---- ~---....,.,--,--:-::-:--=-= ·-- - ~ · -· ·

32 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE ARTICLE. 33 Rem.-Most adjectives derived from proper nouns, should commence with en.pita.ls; n.s, American cotton, French customs. TIIE ARTICI-'E. J'lace eacl• of the f1Jllowinu ndJecUve11 brfore a noun t Dry Dirty Rough Spnnish Bad Light Round Healthy 21. ORAL LESSON. Soft Moist Square Pleasant Good -- Warm -- Smooth Australian -- When we say, "A horse was stolen," a denotes that one horse is meant, but it does not point out any particular horse. Mod,els.-Smooth ice. Olean hands. When we say "The horse was stolen," the denotes that a What kind of adjectives are these? Why? particular horse is meant. The words "A" and "The," in these sentences, are definitive Place each of the f1Jllowh•u mUeeHve" before a noun t adjectives, because they limit nouns without denoting any of That -- Some -- Latter -- Yonder their qualities. They are also called Articles. Four -- Many -- Either -- Neither A and an are difforent forms of the same word. A is used Such -- These -- Certain-- Another when the following words begin with a subvocal or aspirate; Each-- Those-- Sundry-- Fourfold an, when the following word begins with a vocal. Models.--Much money. Sundry books. 1. The is caJled the Definite Article, because it points Whn.t kind of adjectives are these? Why? out definitely the object which it restricts.

Point out the ndJecHves in the following sentences, ttsing thi11 2. A or An is called the Indefinite Article, because it restricts in an indefinite or general manner. MODEL, "Fearful storms sweep over these islands." Place!! o't' !!:!! before tl•e follot11ing t11ords, and tell t111•y U should be fl.Bed: Fearful is an adjective; it is a word which modifies the mean­ -- egg. -- hour. -- hearth. ing of n. noun: descriptive; it denotes a quality. These is an -- memory. -- ode. -- eagle. -- humor. adjective; definitive; it defines without denoting any quality. -- measure. -- cart. -- stand. -- orange. -- opossum. -'/.' 1. Both horses are lame. 2. Ripe peaches are plentiful. -- goat. -- house. -- turkey. -- elephant. 3. Large houses are expensive. 4. You may take either road. -- oven. -- honor. -- vulture. -- advantage. 5. That boy has a kind father. 6. Every man carried a square box. 7. This lesson is hard. 8. The brave soldier received Use..!!. O't' ..!!!! instead of the dashes in the following sentences, and a severe wound. 9. That large cat caµght this beautiful bird. tell why U should be usedt 11( Poin out tlie ~ and~ in the above •entences, I. Temperance is - virtl'e. 2. The house stands on - hill. 3. - loud report was heard. 4. Life is but - vapor. Point out the a<(jectives in your 't'eading lesson. 5. He is - honest man. 6. He has - ax to grind. 7. Father Q,UESTIONS.-What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? A de- has bought - horse. 8. My being - child, was - plea for 6.nltlve adJectlve? What adJectlves should commence with capitals? my admission. F.I. Gr.-3,

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' - - - - 34 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. CAUTIONS. 35

Use the p1•oper articles instead of the dashes in the foZlowlng sen­ II. tences: 11 1. Such - law is - disgrace to any state. 2. Repeat - In the sentence, I saw a little old man," little and old are first four lines in concert. 3. Love took up - harp of life, adjectives, but they are not separated by commas. The ex­ and smote on all - chords with might. 4. - fox is cunning. pression old man is modified by little, and not the noun man 5. - days are calm. 6. - wise son maketh - glad father. only. When an adjective and a noun form a single expres­ sion in this way, tho adjective is not separated by a comma

Polnt out tlie ~ ln your reading lesson, uslng tlib from another ii.djective placed before it.

MODEL. Pltnctuate the following sentences properly: "The man was riding in a wagon." 1. The kind ol

22. SENTENOE-MAKING. 23. INCORRECT LANGUAGE.

I. Caution 1.-Do not use a before vocal sounds, or

Write sentence• contalnbig the following words, .tupplying words, an before subvocals and aspirates. where neceHary, to make complete sense: Ex.-1. An hundred cents make one dollar. 2. There should 1. Flowers, the, garden. 2. Fishes, sea. 3. Nests, birds. be an universal rtiioicing. 3. This is a open country. 4. Henry 4. Winter, go, robins, where. 5. Quarts, how, gallon. 6. Five, is a honest lad. thirty. 7. Columbus, Ohio. 8. Lion, man, the. 9. Let, book, me. 10. Dog, that, cross, is, ugly, and. 11. I, in, large, live, Caution 11.-Do not use these or those before a noun a, roomy, house, brick. 12. Col. Smith, prudent, man, brave, in the singular number. and, honorable, a, is. 13. Sugar, grocer, soap, coffee, a, sells. Ex.-1. I don't like these kind of apples. 2. These sort .Fill tl&e blanks in these ea:erctses, carefully choosing words. of people are good neighbors. 3. Those yoke of oxen belong to me. 1. ------America. 2. San Francisco ------California. Caution 111.-Do not use them for those; this here 3. ------in the winter. for this; or that 'ere for that. 4. I have ------lesson. 5. ------when the ice is smooth. Ex.-1. Look 11.t them tramps. 2. Do you live in this here 6. Where

... ·-

36 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE PARTICIPLE. 37 r.f. 24. OOMPOSITION. THE PARTICIPLE.

25. ORAL LESSON. \ "James saw the man plowing." What is the subject of this sentence? Why? What is the predicate? Why? What is the o~jective element? Why? Whnt words limit or restrict "man"? The words "the" and "plowing." What docs the word "plowing" denote? It tells what the man WM doing. Does it affirm l\ny thing of man? It does not: it modifies it like an adjective. The word "plowing," then, partakes of the properties of both a verb and an adjective. Like a verb, it expresses ac­ tion: like an adjective, it modifies a noun. Because it par­ takes of the properties of two parts of speech, it is called a Participle, which means partaking of

1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the properties of a verb, and of au adjec­ tive or a noun. What do you see in this picture? What can be seen When we sny, " The boy is writing," the participle "writ­ through the window? ls the storm approaching the ho.use ing" denotes a continuance of the act: the boy is continuing to where the girl is, or has it passed it? Why do you thmk write. so? Does the picture represent a morning or an evening When we say, "The letter is written," the participle "writ­ scene·t ten" denotes a completion of the act: the writing of the lett~r Write a description of the prominent objects to be seen is finished. from the door of the school-house-also, a description of any When we say, "Having written the letter, he mailed it," the thing thnt may occur while you are lookmg at these objects. words "having written" denote that the writing of the letter Describe what may be seen through the wmdows and doors was completed hefore the time represented hy the verh "mailed." of the sitting-room and parlor at home. Describe what may be seen from various places near your home-also, what may have occurred during your visits to 2. There are three Participles: the Present, the Per­ those places. je,ct, and the Compound.

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38 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE PARTICIPLE. 39

3. The Present Participle denotes the continuance ~f Point out all the pa1'ticiple11 in the following ~moeille11, using these

action, being, or state; as, loving, being loved. MODELS. present active participle ing. The always ends in This participle I. 11 The boy, laughing, ran away.'' may be used as an adjective. It is then placed before the noun it modifies, as in the sentence, "Look at the twinkling Laughing is a participle; it is a word derived from the verb stars," and is called a participial adjective. It may also be used lau,qli, and partakes _of the properties of a verb _and of an as a noun, as in the sentence, 11 I am fond of reading.'' adjective: present; it denotes the continuance of an act.

II. 11 The lesson, studied carefully, was recited.'' 4. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of Studied is a participle; (why?): perfect; it denotes completion. action, being, or state ; as, loved, been, lived. III. "Having recited, we were dismissed.'' The perfect participle usually ends in d or ed, but frequently in n, en, or t. This participle is frequently used as an adjec­ Having recited is a participle; (why?): compound; it denotes tive, but never as a noun. the completion of an act before the time represented by the principal verb. r:~----- . 5. The Compound Participle denotes the completion 1. Look at Dash playing with Rose. 2. I send you this of action, being, or state at or before the time rcpre­ note, written in haste, hoping it will reach you before you \ sented by the principal verb; as, "Having learned the leave town. 3. Here it comes 11parkling, and there it lies llesson, he recited it." darkling. 4. Having finished the task assigned ~e, I will rest awhile. 5. The boy passed on, whistling as before. 6. The Rem.-The "principal verb" is the verb used as copula or fort, situated on a high hill, was captured at day-break. 7. I predicate of the sentence in which the compound participle see men as trees, walking. is found. Q,UESTIONS.-What ls a participle? The present partlclple? How The compound participle is formed by placing having or does it end? The perfect participle? How does it usually end ·t The having been before a perfect participle, or having been before a compound participle? How ls It formed? I,, present active participle; as, having learned, having been learned, having been learning. 26. THE PARTICIPIAL NOUN.

Give the preBent, perfect, and compound partlciplt!B of tlte following In the sentence, "I like skating," what part of speech is verbs: 1kating 1 It is a noun. Why? It is a name, the name of an Go. El pell. Take. Suffer. Answer. action. Sit. Hope. Make. Enjoy. Demand. That is correct. It is a noun; but, as it expresses action, See. Grow. Learn. Recite. Enchant. and is derived from the verb "skate," it is called a participial Help. Come. Write. Arrive. Resemble. I noun. A participial noun is also a common noun; but it need Find. Paint. Study. Inquire. Reconcile. (' not be called such in parsing. P l

- ---- . r ·- ET 7 2 I . ·.

' 40 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. COMPOSITION. 41

Po«nt out tlle pa1'tlciplal nouns in tlle following eaJe..ctses1 using tit ts 27. COMPOSITION. MODEL. "Miss Gray teaches writing." This is a sentence; declarative. Writing is a noun; (why?): participial; it is derived from the verb "write," and partakes of the properties of a verb and a noun. 1. IT c was in danger of losing his life. 2. Let there be no more running and jumping on the lawn, 3. These strawber­ ries are of my own raising. 4. The two men commenced searching for a shelter. 5. They could not avoid being dis­ covered.

:I'oint ottt the pnrt/r,lplrR afld participial t1oun.• ht tlte following c~crciscs: 1. John would have avoided meeting him, if he could have done so without being called a coward. 2. Looking over the wall, we saw a fox caught in a trap. 3. Seeing is believing. 4. The poor woman stood at the door, wringing her hands. 5. Who told you of my being here? 6. Do you see the t~e~--­ pointing his finger at us?

.Read tlw following tlu•ee times, tlwn 1'rproduce i Where do yon think these children havo boon? Wl1at n.re THE DOG AND THE P ARTRIDU · the man and tho litLlo boy talking about? Tell what time As I was hunting with a young pointer, the dog mn on a of day you think it is. Aro tho children going to a picnic brood of very small partridges. The old bird cried, fluttered, or coming home from one? Write a description of what you and ran tumbling along just before the dog's nose, till she think they have been doing. had drawn him to a considerable distance, when she took Write a story about a drive to a grove, a lake, or the wing and flew still farther off, but not out of the field. On sea-shore. tflis, the dog returned to me, near the place where the young ·write a composition about the last picnic in the woods birds lay concealed in the grass. The old bird no sooner r that you attended. perceived this, than she flew back to us, settled just before Write a story about a foolhardy boy that was hurt at a. the dog's nose, and, by rolling and tumbling about, drew off picnic by falling from a tree which he was told not to climb. his attention from her young, and thus preserved her brood a I Describe a fishing excursion. Describe a walk on the bank second time. j__J of a river. Tell what you saw. I l

' 42 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE POSSESSIVE. 43

,.. 1. An Adjective Element is a word or group of THE PRONOUN. words which modifies a noun. . ~ • 28. ORAL LESSON. In the sentence, "Ripe peaches are plentiful," what element is "ripe"? It is an adjective element. Why? Because it "John put John's hat on John's head." modifies the noun "peaches." Is this a correct sentence? It is not. What word is un­ In the sentence, "This boy has six peaches," what elements necessarily rl'peated? "Joh n's." How should the sentence are "this" and "six"? They are adjective elements. Why? be written? It should be written, "John put !tis hat on his Write ftve sentences, modlfyhig their subjects by descriptive adJec­ head." \Vhat word is here usC'd instead of John's? "His."­ tiveB• This word is called a Pronoun, which means instead ef a ~ oun. Model.-Llild weather is unpleasant.

/ 1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; Write ftve 11entence11, niod/f11b1g tltelr subjeets by deftnittve adJecttves. as, lie runs, she sings, they listen. · Model.-Both horses are lame. \ Paine o;it t1'e pronot?<>k. 10. Who will find it for her? ~'ll ownership; as, Ray's Algebra. 1. A Possessive is a noun or pronoun used to modify 29. THE ADJEOTIVE ELEMENT. <7a noun dijfe1·ent in meaning from itsel£ When a noun

I. ) or pronoun is used as a possessive, it is said to be in In the sentence, "Small ln.kes are abundant," what word · ~he posse.'!Sive case. modifies "lakes"? Tlie adjective "small.h 111 C\ Rem. 1.-The apostrophe (') is used to show that a noun In the sentence, "John's hat is torn," what word modifie~ is a possessive. "hat"? The noun ",John's." In what manner does it modify ... Rem. ~.-A possessive may be modified by another possess­ "hat"? It den~tes that it is the hat which John owns. · '!f ive and by an adjective. In the sentence, "John's brother's In the sentence, "Mr. Jones the mason is insane," what slate is broken," the possessive "brother's" is modified by word modifies "Mr. Jones"? The noun "mason." In what ·"John's." manner does it modify " Mr. ,Jones"? It tells his trade, or In writing the possessive case of nouns, remember that­ business. These modifying words are called .Acljective Elements, because lst. When a noun denotes but one object, the letter they modify nouns. s follows the apostrophe; as in John's, M0Rr.11's.

\ ' '

' ...... ~ ...... - - ~ ...... - .

44 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE APPOSITIVE. 45

Rem.-The apostrophe only is used after a few words; al inibstitttte ~ for the possessfoes in the following . sentences: in conscience' sake, goodness' sake, Jesus' sake, etc. <._,-~;, ''1, ( 1. I grasped the boy's hand. 2. Daniel was in the lion's 2d. When the noun denotes more than one object, den. 3. The vessel's owner was drowned. 4. Have you found /and ends with s, the apostrophe alone is used, as in the fox's den? 5. We were startled by the lightning's flash. "1 ladies'. 6. Were you at home when the barn's roof was blown off? 7. An owl's hoot was heard. 3d. ·when t.he noun denotes more than one object, and does not end with s, the apostrophe is usually 1. Su.l>stltute possessiues for the gro1fps beginning with "of" in the following sentences: followed by s, as in men's. II"' I I ~Jl(I' •·! /-<... 1. The head of the horse wns hurt. 2. We loitered by the ~ Note.-Illustratc these rules by writing on the blnckboard ap- ! bank of the river. 3. The house of the squirrel was a hollow propriate examples of plural nouns in the possessive case. ,:I'he ex­ amples should always be used in sentences. Show, also, that the t tree. 4. ':f'he hunters came to the den of a tiger. 5. The apostrophe is never used in writing the possessive case of a pronoun. owner of the dog was much surprised. Model.-Rli's uncle is rich. IRs head is bald.

Write ftve 11entence11, tnodlfyhig thelr subjects by posseRRh"'·•• I V . P oint ottt tltc posRessfves in the followtng sentences: In the sentence, "Mr. Jones the mason is insane," the / 1. Your father's brother is my uncle. 2. Mr. Eddy sells noun "mnson" iR called an Appositive. An appositive nlwa:fs , children's shoes. 3. Our farm once bclongc1l to your grand- denotes tho Ramo ohjoet as thnt dC'note

' 46 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE PRONOUN. 47

PolnC out tlie appolfltLtielf in tloe following aenteneea: t:-Cla.rence iR n good scholar. 2. Charles found an old 1. M;. Whitcomb the lawyer is out of knife. 3. Helen's mother is sick. 4. Miss Young the milliner the Chmese miller acted fi r bl 3 . town. 2. Whang, : is dead, 5. Mary studied her spelling lesson. blind. 4. Stephens~n the o~ i~ ~d . Milton the poet was ·s: The thief stole father's horse. 7. The sheriff caught gland. 5. Have yoi: ceMe ra . engineer, lived in En- seen r. Hicks the h Hobbs the burglar. 8. Five boys earned three dollars. 9. Both strawberries? 6. I am readin th • man w o sells vessels have sailed. 10. Each boy earned a dollar. man Webster 7 h. g e speeches of the states- w I' 11. Several scholars were tardy. 12. Few men escaped. Stat;s, is situated ~n ta.sh ipngtton, the capital of the United e o omac. 13. Many men died. 14. Mr. Snooks the grocer boards Mr. · Sea.l's the tailor. 15. John's slate is broken. .Analyze the followtnu sentences, """•u tlwao Point otit t11c ,,,,..,,,,, pn ..tLclplca, at1d mU,,ctft1r11 in tftese cxcrclscs. MODELS. Q,UF-'ITJONR.-Whnt IR n pronoun? Wlmt 111 nu a< bo n>1e

sounds I soothe I ear. In the sentences, "I write," "You read," "They study," what I Sweet I the are the words "I," "you," and "they 1" They are pronouns. Why? Because they are used instead of nouns-" I," instead ,1 .... II. "Frank's father is a merchant." of the name of the person speaking; "you," instead of th_e name of the person spoken to; "they," instead of the names This is a sentence; declarative Father is tl1e sub· t· ·h of the persons spoken of. is modified b Fra ~~c • mer~ a~t, the predicate. " Father,; The name of a person speaking, or a pronoun used instead a an adj t.Y l n s, an adJective element: "merchant" by of that name, is said to be of the First Person. • ec ive e ement. • 1. The First Person denotes the speaker. III. "Milton the poet was blind." The name of a person spoken to, or a pronoun used instead T~is is a sentence; declarative. Milton is the subject· blind th . of that name, is said to be of the Second Person. copufa "Mil to " . ci· ' e predicate; was is the ' { "poet.~ by the n isdjmo. ified by poet, an adjective element· 2. The Second Person denotes the person addrE>.ssed. ' • an a ective element. ' ) The nnme of a person or object spoken of, or a pronoun Milton I was : blind. used instead of that name, is said to be of the Third Person. I I fl 3. The Third Person denotes the person or object ~ ~ spoken of. } t (

/ ~...;, -

' 48 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE SENTENCE. 49

Those pronouns which show by their form whether the 81tbstitute appropriate pronouns for tl~e dashes In the following I sente1icea: · ·~ ·...t' nouns which they represent are of the first, second, or third I , , ,'1(.'~L ( f '< · . person, are called Personal Pronouns. 1. Steven died a martyr to .-- faith. 2. -- house to ·\ 4. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns and show --· was a strange land. 3. - ·- said of -·- son, "__.::_ is l -- brother."· 4; Let there be no strife betwixt -- and t by their form whether they are of the first second or I ' 5. J,cnd ---- pen till -- .write -- exercises. h. d ' ' I t 1r person. 6. How much -.-· -- missed --- brother and --- sister. , Rem.-The personal pronouns are L thou he she it we our 7. -- say --· are -- friends. 8. -- asked -- to visit /. • _1.. I , ' 1 -~ I ·\us,. my, mine, !I_!! Y~ your, thy, thine, thee, hi;, him, her, its, they, -.-. 9. Would -- think -- right for -- to neglect (their, them, myself, himself, etc. · - I --·garden? I i I ( / •' · '.Potnt out all the personal pronotJects. 1. Thou callest. 2. I come. 3. She studies. 4. I like her \ Model.-lVe are scholars. 5. They are honest 6. Her lesson was learned. 7. I bor~ .... rowed his books. 8. They have sold their farms. 9. you ' Wt'ite five snntm•r,cs, usfng pcrsonnl prnnowns n.• ~ an.d ~ should study your lesson. 10. Yo arc tho people. 11. It can Cpersonal pronoun? Nam,e Rome themselves, an objective element. of the personal pronouns. What ls the first person? The second person ? The third JlCl"'Oh? El. Ur._..

' 50 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. POSSF.SSIVE PRONOUNS. 51 . /' Write fttJe sentcncc11, 11sftt.f1 possessftJe pronouns as predicates. 31. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. Model.-That desk is mine.

Analyu tl•e followinu sentences, usinu tl•esc In the sentence, "This house is ours," what is. the subject? ·"House." Why? W_hat is the predicate? "Ours." Why? MODELS. It is that which is affirmed of the subject. What is the copula.? " Is." I. 11 Ours is an easy task." What modifies "house?" "This," an adjective element. This is a sentence ; declarative. What words can be used instead of " ours? 11 Our house. Ours is the subject; task, the predicate; is is the copula. What does the pronoun "our" denote ? It denotes that we "Task" is modified by an and easy, both adjective elements. own tho house. "Ours," then, is used to 11o11otc both the posseAsor and the Ours is: thing possessed. In this sentence, it represents both "our 11 and "house." Because it does this, it is called a Possessive Pronoun. II. "That factor.y is theirs." Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent both This is a sentence; declarative. Factory is the subject; theirs, the predicate; ls is the copula. the peissessor and the thing possessed. The possessive "Factory" is modified by that, an adjective element. pronouns are mine, . thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, our own, etc. III. "This land is our own." This is a. sentence; declarative. In the sentence, "That book is his," what is the predicate? Land is the subject; our own, the predicate. "Land" is "His." Why? What does it represent? It represents the modified by this, an adjective element. words his hook. What is it? It is a possessive pronoun. Why? Because it represents both the possessor and the thing 1. This book is hers. 2. Thoi:ie apples are his. 3. Yours is possessed. hard lesson. 4. Those marbles are mine. 5. This book is In the sentence, "That is his book," what is the predicate? hine. 6. The evenings are our own. 7. The victory is ours. "Book." What modifies "book?" " His," an adjective ele­ ment. What is "his?" It is a personal pronoun. Why is it Point out the possesBitJe pronouns ln t1J.eS6 sentences, using thu not a possessive pronoun? Because it modifies the noun fol­ lowing it, and does not represent both the possessor and the MODEL. thing possessed. It is a possessive, because it is used as an adjective element; but it is not a posseaaive pronoun. "That book is mine." Mine is a. pronoun; posses.~ive; it represents both the possessor Write ft"" •entence•, ulllng po"8ellsive pronoun. as subjects. and the thing possessed : it is equivalent to 11 my book." I Model.-Jiia is a ho.rd lot. Q,UF.STIONH.-Whnt nro poSHesslvo p11mon11~? Nmne some of them. )

' 52 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 53

· Point out the relative pronouns ,.;, the following sentences, using 32. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. this · • MODEL. When we say, "A rich man owns that house," what element ;1-'/" "A man who is industrious, will prosper." is the· word "rich?" , It is an adjective element. Why? . . When we say, "A tnan who is rich, owns that house," what ' Who · is a pronoun; relative; it represents a preceding word, words do we use instead of ·.. rich " to modify "man?" '\Ve to which it joins a modifying clause. The word it represents use the words, "who is rich." What element nth lilJ~ ~ho vnil - ·- · hi11cs a brighter sphere. 2. Blest '~~is an adjective elonwnt mo1lifying tho subjcmt of the first. arc the fon.stE!-·-· 'simple plenty crowns. 3. -- · ~od, in -­ "-!....__~These propositions arc called Clauses. - trust. 4. Tho mn.n - paid - the money, was the 'cashier. "- The pronoun "who" is not only tho subject of a proposi- 5. The m{!~sage ---- sent, was received. 6. No one can tion, but it also joins the modifying clause "who is rich" to telf ~ ' )! 'others may do. 7. -- will do -- is proper. the noun which it limits. Q,UF.STIONS.-What are clauses? 'Vhat is o. relative pronoun? No.me Those pronouns that represent preceding words or expres­ the pronouns In this class. What sutllxes are sometimes added to rela­ sions, to' which they join modifying clauses, are called Relative tive pronouns? What ls an antecedent? -P,.onouns. · '/' .A Relative Pronoun is a word used to represent a 33. THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. preceding word or expression, to which it joins a modifying clause. The relative pronouns are who, Clauses introduced by relative pronouns are called Relative wliich, what, and that. As is also a relative after Clauses. such,, many, same, and some other words. . .A Relative Clause is a clause introduced by a rela­ Rem.-The suffixes ever, so, and soever, are sometimes added ( tivc pronoun. to these pronouns; as, whoever, wT1oso, whosoever. The word or expression represented by a relative pronoun, Write ftve se•tf.enees, motllf!uuig their snl~Jeets by relative clauses. . ~"' is called its Antecedent. Model.-The boy that studies, will learn. I 11

' 54 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 55 j

1f'rile ftve sentences, modlfylng thrlr ~ by relative clauses. Use relativ" clattlleB instead of adJectlve11 in tlte following sentences: Model.--1 have lost the knife which you gave me.. 1. I nduRtriomi people always prosper. 2. There are many I rich men in New York. 3. He has some counterfeit money. Analy111e tlte following sentences, uslng tliese 4. A barking dog seldom bites. 5. The moldy paper was \ burned. MODELS. h'J I. "The fish which you caught, is a trout." 34. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. f This is a sentence; declarative. •") ( {J: , ' .r (. In the sentences: II Who is that man? II "Which comes Fish is the sul\ject; trout, the predicate; is, the copula. first?" " What is he?" what words are used instead of the "Fish" is modified by the and the clause which you caught, answers to the questions? The words "who," "which," and both acljective elements. "what." fish Which and what, not used as modifiers, together with who, The' ~ whose, and whom, when used in asking questions, are called which you aught / / I' /, Interrogative Pronouns.

II. " I like a horse that is gentle." The Interrogative Pronouns are who, whose, whom, which, This is a sentence ; declarative. and whai, when used in asking questions. I is the subject; like, the predicate. '' Like" is modified by Rem.-The words which and wliat are sometimes placed horse, an objective element, which is modified by a and the before nouns. They are then called Interrogative At{jectives. clause that is gentle, both adjective elements. Ex.-"Which road shall I take?" The word "which" is I I like I horse an interrogative adjective, modifying "road." "What noise is thnt?" The worcl "what" is an interrogative adjective, modi­ I I:hat is gentle. fying "noise."

1. A very old man who is'wealthy, lives there. 2. I have a Poi.. t out the l1lterrogatlve pro1lotins in the following sentences, knife that has a white liandle. 3. Ile who studies, will learn: ' I ushig this f'!l. You have many blessings which I can not share. 5. Solo­ MODEL. mon, who was the son of David, built the temple. 6. He is a man that deserves respect. 7. The lord chastens him whom "Who visited your school yei;terday?" he loves. 8. They that . forsake the law, praise the wicked. Who is a pronoun; interrogative; it is used in asking a question.

Use adJectlves instead of relative clattse-B in the following sentences: I. What did he say? 2. Who wrote that letter? 3. Which 1. I have an apple that is rotten. 2. A little boy who is trots the fastest? 4. Whom did you call? 5. Whose house lame, came to our house yesterday. 3. How far do you go was burned? 6. What can he mean? 7. Who has learned with the rivers that flow? 4. I like pepple that are honest: this l<>sson? 8. Who re

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56 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE ADVERB. 57

Point out the noun,,, ndjective6, "erb6,particlple6, and per6onal p1·0- Ex.-1. He and you are brothers. 2. They and you attend no1tn6 i?& tl•ue 6entence6. the same school. 3. I and you must study hard this forenoon. 4. We and hEI will stay in at recess. 5. We and you must .Analyze the forcuoin(J sentences, u6in(J this camp out next vacation.

MODEL. C~ution IV.-Do not use which to represent persons, "Whom can you trust?" or who or whom to represent animals, objects without This is a sentence; interrogative. life, or children not referred to by name. You is the subject; can trust, the predicate. "Can trust" is modified by whom, an objective element. Ex.-1. The man. which you saw is my father. 2. I love ) . ,.,.;. all which i:;pcak the truth. 3. Have they found the child You I can trust I whom? who was lost? 4. The man always bowed to the children whom !10 met. 5. Was that your dog who was killed? 6. I QUF.'ITION!!.-Deflne n. relative clnuRe. Wlmt Is an Interrogative pro· saw the man which was here yesterday. noun? What words are URed ns Interrogative pronouns? Which of these are sometimes used 11.~ Interrogative objectives? At .==t THE ADVERB. 35. INCORRECT LANGUAGE.

Caution 1.-Do not use him, me, or her ns the sub­ 36. ORAL LESSON. ject or the predicate of a sentence. In the sentence, "Birds sing sweetly," does the word Ex.-1. Him and me were in the boat. 2. Jt was me. "sweetly" denote wliat the birds sing? It does not; it tells 3. Me and the doctor were there. 4. Him and you were ·~ how they sing. Does it complete the meaning of the verb tardy. 5. It is her. 6. You, and him, and me were boys 1: "sing," like an objective element? It does not: it modifies together. 11·1'·· it in another way. In the sentence, "Very large vessels were seen," what is Caution 11.-Do ·not use improper forms of pronouns. modified by "very?" The word "large." What is "large?" Ex.-1. Is that book your'n? 2. No; it is his'n. 3. She It is an adjective. took my shawl, and left her'n. 4. You'uns were not with us In the sentence, "He rode quite fast," what word tells how last night. 5. No; w.e:uns stayed at home. 6. Will you let he rode? The word "fast." What word tells how fast he us have your boat? we have sold our'n. rode? The word "quite." j. Words used in this manner are called Adverha. Caution 111.-The ~pronoun you should precede he, she, or they; nnd he, she,· or they should precede I or An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an ad­ we. ! jective, a participle, or an adverb.

' 58 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 59 I Point out the adverbs in the following sentenees, using tlits I .Analy11te #lie stmtenceR in the p••eccdtng stmtlon., using t11ese MODEL. MODELS. i­ The wind blew furiously." I. "Our house is very small." Furlously is an adverb; it is used to modify a verb. i ·i This is a sentence ; declarative. '- . House is the subject; small, the predicate; is, the copula. I. That vessel sails slowly. 2. He built a house there. !· "House" is modified by our, an adjective element; "'small," ·3, Emma is quite late. 4. Those mountains are very high. by very, an adverbial element. 5. We were agreeably surprised. 6. I will shortly return . . 'l, 7. You will never see him again. 8. I 'Yould gladly pardon · house I is small. you. 9. So thought Palmyra. 10. He afterwards escaped. ·f I I Our I I very Point out the nouns, verbs, pronouns, and adjeettves in these sen­ tences, II. "We should study our lessons carefully."

Point out the ~in your reading le1111on. This is a sentence; declarative. , We is the subject; should study, the predicate. "Should Write seven sentences, modlfytng their predicates by advet'bs, study" is modified by lessons, an objective element, and by carefully, an adverbial element. "Lessons" is modified by Model.-We should walk quietly. our, an adjective element. Write seven 11entence11, modlfyltig their tmb}ectR by adjectives, and We should study lessons these adjeeUves by adverbs. --- I carefully Model.-Very loud reports were heard. ,.. , ! I QUESTIONs.-What ls an adverb? What do adverbs usually denote? Write set1en sentences, modlfylng tlietr predicates by adt1erbs, and What ts an adverbial element? thoae adtierbs by other adverba. l Model.-He walks quite slowly. !· j 38. THE ADVERBIAL OLAUSE.

In the sentence, "Flowers bloom when spring comes," 87. THE ADVERBIAL ELEMENT. what group of words tells when flowers bloom? The group "when spring comes." What element is this group? It is A word or group of words used like an adverb-that is, an adverbial element. Why? Because it modifies the verb used to modify a verb, an adjective, a participle, or an ad­ "bloom." verb-is called an Adverbial Ele~ent. Is this group a proposition? It is. Why? Because it An Adverbial Element is a word or group of words contains a subject and a predicate. What is the subject? used to modify a verb, an adjective, a participle, or "Spring." Why? What is the predicate? "Comes." Why? an adverb. · The group is called an Adverbial C'lause, because it contains a subject and a predicate, and is used as an adverbial element.

' 60 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. CAUTIONS. 61

( A!1 Adverbial Clause is a clause used as an adverbial Caution 11.- Do not use adjectives as adverbs • ~lement. · Ex.-1. I feel tolerable well. 2. Does not Mary dress neat? Adverbial clauses begin with when, where, while, · because, if, .] 3. Samuel speaks very distinct. 4. He was that cold he and a large number of other words. could n't move. 5. You ought to read slower. 6. I am ex­ ceeding glad to see you. 7. How careless Julia holds her pen I 8. You should· always speak distinct. P otnt out Ute ad11erblal clauRes in tlui followtno sent(lnces: · 1. I left the spade where I found it. 2. John was whis­ Caution 111 .-Do not use adverbs as adjectives. , pering while you were talking. 3. The bear growled when . he snw the hunter. 4. I cnn not go before my father returns. Ex.-1. I felt i;ickly yesterday. 2. We arrived safely at \ 5. Henry will play with you, if you desire 'it. 6. We traveled San Francisco last evening. 3. This flower smells sweetly. slowly, because we wished to see the country. 7. I can go 4. 8t.arul as nearly to me ns you can. 5. The country looks now, for my task is finished. beautifully after a shower. 6. Things look somewhat more favorably this morning. 7. The doctor said that his patient felt more comfortably. Analyze t1te above sentences, ustno t11e followtno

MODEL. 40. COMPOSITION. "He trembles when it thunders." This is a sentence; declarative. . Ilr.nd tllr ft1l111"''"" ,,,.,,,,,./ptlm• tl1r1"' or fm1r times, tltcn reprodu ce He is the subject; trembles, the predicatEI. " Trembles" is it f•••m• '"""""'11• modified by the clause when It -thunders, an adverbial element. THE LION. A full-grow n lion is nC'arly nine feet in length, nnd be- ' Ile I trembles twcC'lt fo11r n.n

1 Ile usually crouches in a thicket, and. watches until some/ / 39. INCORREOT LANGUAGE. } / animal passes within fifteen or twenty feet of him, when he leaps upon it, and generally seizes it at the first bound. ';J, Caution 1.-Do not use such expressions ns, don't Should he hnppcn to miss his object, he returns to his hiding see nothing, Don't tell nobody, etc. place, with n me!l.Sure~ step, and waits for another oppor­ tunity. He most frequently hides near a spring or a river, Ex.-1. I don't want nothing to-day. 2. Don't tell nobody that he may seize the animals which come thither to quench nothing about it. 3. We didn't catch no fish. 4. John don't their thirst. lle rarely attacks men, unless wounded or driven fee~ no better than he did yesterday. . by hunger. \\

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62 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE PHRASE. Paint mtt tll.e prepasitfons in the. folfowing... sentences, urinu tlais THE PREPOSITION. MdOELI .Jlfl,• "Ile came from France to America." 41. ORAL LESSON. From is a preposition; it shows the relation between its object and some other word. It shows the relation between In the sentence, "A man of wealth rode by our house," "France" and "came." To is a preposition ; it shows the relit· what does the group of words "of wealth" modify? It modi· tion between "America" and " came." fies the noun "man." What element is it? I~ is an adjective element. Why? Because it modifies a noun. 1. The old :nan was often in want of the necessaries of What does the group of words "by our house" modify? life. 2 .. The boy went through the gate into the garden. I It modifies the verb " rode: " it tells where he rode. What 3. Be not forward in the presence of your superiors. 4. He element is it? It is an adverbial element. Why? Because was not, at that time, in the city. 5. He drove over the it modifies a verb. bridge into the city. 6. He went to the doctor for advice. 'l The word "of" connects the noun "wealth" to the noun 7. The path brought them to the end of the wood. 8. She "man." The word "by" connects tho noun "house" with the turned to tho old man with a lovely smile upon her face. ! verb "rode." They are said to show the relations between the 9. 1'he light came through the stained windows of the old · JI words which they connect, and are called Prepositions. The church. nouns which follow them are called their Objects. 1.>oint out the nonns, tmrbs, n~/ectives, nnd pro•ion•.,. «n these sen~ tcnccs. · t A Preposition is a word used to 8how the relation ~ QUJ!:STIONS.-What Is a preposition '1 What ls the object or a preposi­ between its object and .some other word. tion '1 Name the principal prepositions. I

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PREPOSITIONS. 42. THE PHRASE. A=at, on, or in. At. Ere. Till, until. Aboard. Athwart. Except. Through. I. I r About. Before. For. Throughout. Above. Behind. 1. A group of words consisting of a preposition and i From. To. ~ According to. Beside, besides. In, into. Toward. its object is called a Phrase. Across. Beneath. Of. Towards. After. Phrases are most com~only used as adjective or adverbial Between. Off. Under. elements. Against. Betwixt. On. Unto. Along. Beyond. Over. Up. Analyze the following se•deneu, ustnu thta Amid, amidst. But. Past. Upon. Among, amongst. By. Round. With. MODEL. Around. Down. Save. Within. "Habits of industry will lead to prosperity." .As to. During. Since. Without. This is a sentence; declarative.

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' 64 l<~LE.l\lENTARY GRAMMAR THE INFINITIVE. 65

Habits is the subject; 'Xiii lead, the predicate. "Habits" is ~· An Infinitive is a form of the verb used to express modified by the phrBBe of industry, nn ndjective· element; act10n without affirming it. "will lead" is modified ' by the phrase to prosperity, an ad­ verbial element. . Rem.-The word "to" is usually placed before the verb and is called the ~ign of tl~e infinitive. The two parts should not Habits I will lead be separated m analyzmg or parsing. . -!1-n infinitive may be ·the subject or the predicate of a propo- Iof in~ustry Ito prosperity. 1nt1on, or an adjective, objective, or adverbial element.

1. Light moves in straight lines. 2. They went aboard the Analyze tlw followtng sentences, using these ship. 3. I differ from' you on that point. 4. The two thieves divided the money between them. 5. The ship was driven MODELS. upon the rocks. I. "To love is to obey." 1;6 . Our sincerest laughter is fraught with some pain. 7. The young lambs ar»bleating in the meadows. 8. They came to This is a sentence; declarative. 1 the country of the free. 9. I will divide this farm among To love is the subject; to obey, the predicate; is, the copula. my three sons. 10. Man goeth to his long home. 11. The To love I is : to obey. sleep of a laboring man is sweet. I SttbaUtute alnuu wo,,.rls or ~ for me~ in tile fbllotain(J II. "The lawyer went to his office to write a. letter." Bet&tencea: This is a sentence; . declarative. Models.-!. "Henry studies his lessons with care"="Henry studies his lessons carefully." II. "lee forms in cold weather" L~wyer is the subject; went, the predicate. "Lawyer" is modified by the, n.n adJ' ective clement· "went" b th h ="Ice forms when the weather is cold." . · , , y eprases ~.o ~1s .?f!tce an.d to write a letter, both adverbial elements. 1. The sailors weighed anchor at sunrise. 2. The enraged Ofbce is modified by his, an adjective element· "to write" lion struggled in vain. 3. Flowers bloom in the spring. by. let~er, an objective element, which is modifi~ by a, ~n adJect1ve element. 4. Some seed fell on stony ground. 5. The face of the poor boy was disfigured. 6. Our schools should be the pride and lawyer went boast of our country. 7. I have written this letter in haste. ~Ito write letter. I' II. ~ In the sentence, "To play is pleasant," "to play" is the 1. To lie is wicked. 2. He wants to go to the city. 3. To subject. Why? It is that of which something is affirmed. doubt the promis.:i of a friend is a sin. 4. John studies to It is a form of the verb "play." It expresses action, but does learn.. 5. My sister wishes to remain here. 6. Are you ready not affirm it. For this reason, it is called an Infinitive or an to remte? 7. Boys seldom like to work hard. 8. To teach infinitive Phrase. the young is a pleasant task. El. Gr.-G. ' 1

' 66 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE OONJUNCTION. 67 III. The menning of n sentence mn.y often bo chn.nged by chang­ THE OONJUNOTION. ing the position of the single wor

Locate the phraBea and elattBetl properly (n theBe •entencea: A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, and members. 1. The sled was bought by a boy going to school for a dollar. 2. Wanted.-A horse by an English gentleman, six­ Conjunctions merely connect word11, phrases, clauses, and teen hands high. 3. A man was hanged yesterday with a ·members; they

' 68 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. · COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 69

,- 1. We moved alQng silently and cautiously. 2. I consent Rem. 2.-When it is the intention of the writer to ma.fee to the constitution, because I expect no better. 3. He heaped the parts emphatic, the conjunction and the comma may both up great riches, but passed his time miserably. 4. He is both be used between any two of them. learned and wise. 5. I shall not go, if it rain. 6. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 7. They submit, Jf'rite ft"e sentences, each ""ntaininu a compound subject. since they can not conquer. 8. He has many faults, still he Model.-Ellen and Lucy are my sisters. is very popular. • 9. Emma or Susan will remain at home. Q,uESTIONS.-What ls a conjunction? What Is the dllference between Write ft"e sentences, en.ch containinu a compounci preclieate. a conjunction and a preposition? Model.-We run, jump, and talk at recess.

Write five 1tP.ntcnees, en.cl• rontaininu a compound ob,leetive r.lement. 44~ COMPOUND ELEMENTS. Model.-My father owns a farm and a factory. "James and Samuel are kind, honest, and faithful." In this sentence, "James" and "Samuel" are the parts of what Write ft"e sentences, eaeh containinu a compound n.dJeetlve clement. is called a Compound Subject; "kind," "honest," and "faithful," Model.-Tray is a large, black, and cross dog. · are the parts of a Compound Predicate. Two or m...>re similar parts of a proposition, connected by Write five sentences, en.eh containing a compound ad.,erbial element. conjunctions,- form a Compound Element. Model.-W e stopped then and there. A Compound Element consists of two or more simi­ .tl.naly111e the followinu sentences, ttsinu these lar parts of the same proposition connected by con­ junctions. MODELS. Rem. 1.-The conjunctions may be expressed or understood • I. "William and Henry study nlgebra." .Any element of a proposition may be compound. This is n sentence; dcclarntive. William and Henry is the compound subject; study, the predi­ Directions for Writfog.-When a compound element cate. "Study" is modified by algebra, an objective element. consists _of more than two parts, I. Place a comma after each part except the last. ~I study I algebra.. II. Use the conjunction between the last two parts ~ - 1 . only. When a compound element consists of two parts, . II. "Mr. Edson buys and sells butter and eggs." I. Connect them by a conjunction. This is a sentence; declarative. Mr. Edson is the · subject; buys and · sells, the compound II. Or, omit the conjunction and use a comma m it.~ . predicate, which is modified by butter and eggs, a compound . stead. "' objective element.

' 70 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. COMPOUND SENTENCES. 71

buys butter Combine the sentences ln the followlnu paraurnphs lnto single sen- Mr. Edson~ and and ~ sells eggs. J. l found n. hook. I found n. pencil. I found a elate. I found n. knife. III. "The two boys moved along silently and cautiously." 2. App le trees grow thriftily. Apples grow in our orchard. This is a sentence; declarative. l . 3. John walked to the lake. ,John walked over the hill. ,Boys iR the euqjcct; moved, tho predicate. "Boye" is modi­ J olm walkrnl rn.p'iclly. fied by the and two, !1-djective elements; "moved," by along, 4. The horse ·was old. The horse wn.s lame. The ho~ee an adverbial element, and by silently and cautiously, a com­ was blind. pound adverbial element. 5. The wind blew fiercely. The wind blew la.st night. The wind blew from the north. silently 6. William gave me a new book. William sold me ten and marbles. William bought a. sled f~r my brother. cautiously. Q,UESTIONB.-What la a. simple sentence? How may several sen­ tences be combined so aa to form a single sentence? 1. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 2. Mr. Mann owns and cultivates a large and valuable farm. 3. Two and two are four. 4. Duty and interest forbid vicious and wicked indulgences. 5. Your levity and heedle.seness will 46. COMPOUND SENTENCES. prevent all improvement. 6. Forty pupils study arithmetic, grammar, and geography. 7. The wearied soldiers fought "Wheat grows in tho field, and men reap it." This sen­ bravely and successfully. tence consists of two propositions, each of which will make Q,UESTIONB.-What ls a compound element? Give directions for writ­ complete sense when standing alone. It is called a Oompound ing a compound element consisting of more than two parts. Of two Sentence. parts only. I. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more 45. SIMPLE SENTENOES. connected sentences, each of which will make com­ plete sense when standing alone. "Wheat is a vegetable." This sentence consists of a single ';, proposition. It is called a. Simple Sentence. Rem.-The sentences of which a compound sentence is com­ posed, are called Members . .A Simple Sentence consists of a single proposition. In tho ·'!lentence, "Exercise strengthens the constitution, In the sentences, "I see a dog," "I see a boy," "I see a and tempera.nee strengthens the constitution,'' "exercise" and tree," "I see a house," "I see" is a part common to a.11 of "temperance" are parts not common to the two members. them. We may combine these, and form a. single sentence, The sentence may he changed to a simple one by uniting by using this common part but once; thus, "I see a dog, a these, and using the common parts but once; thus, "Exercise boy, a tree, and a house." and tempera.nee strengthen the constitution."

' 72 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. COMPLEX SENTENCEJ. 73

2. A compound sentence containing common parls, 1. Ta.lent is something, but tact is every thing. 2. Art is may be changed to a ~imp]e one by uniting the parts t long, and time is fleeting. 3. Lead us not into temptation, not common to all its members, and using t.he common .! but deliver us from evil. 4. The gathering clouds threatened f an approaching storm, and the deep darkness of the night parts but once. I I soon enveloped them. 5. The stores were closed, and t~e Write' ft11e compound "en.fence,., eqcl• contafn.ln.g two membe1'B. hum of business was hushed. 6. Every eye was filled with tears, and, for a moment, all were silent. ,. ..,_ You may stay

Cl•ange the following compottnd 1tentenceB to stmple oneB: here with me, or we will go to the lecture with Susan. 1

1. Behold my mother and behold my brethren. 2. J saw QUESTIONS• ....:. What Is a compound sentence? What are Its members? n. man in a boat and I saw a boy in the water. 3. Washing­ How can 11. compound sentence containing common parts, be changed ton was a warrior and Washington was a statesman. 4. The to 11. simple sentence? mari. you sBw was si6k, or he was in trouble. 5. The river was swift, and it was very deep. ! ' 47. OOMPLEX SENTENOES. ,. Analyze the followlng BentenceB, ttBlng thl11 I. I MODEL. .A sentence, any element of which is a clause, is a Oomple:e Sentence. A clause must contain a subject and a predicate. "The heavens declare the glory 'of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork." 1. A Complex Sentence is one some element of This is a sentence; compound. "The heavens d~clare the which contains a subject and a predicate. glory of God" is the first member; "the firmament showeth his handiwork," the second member; "and" is the connective. In the complex sentence, "I know where gold is found," Heavens is the subject of the first member; declare, the the first clause, 11 I know," makes complete sense when stand­ predicate. "Heavens" Js modified by the, an adjective ele- · ing alone. J t is therefore ca.lied the Principal Clause. ment; "declare," by glory, an o~jective element, which is 2. A Principal Clause is one which makes complete modified by the and the phrase of God, adjective elements. Firmament is the subject of the second m@mber; showeth, sense when separated from the rest of the sentence. .,) '1'· '.· ' the predicate. "Firmament" i• modified by the, an adjective The second clause, 11 where".gold is found," doE's n~t make element; "showeth," by handiwork, an objective element, which . ' \. is modified by his, an adjective element. ·1 1 '1 complete sense when standing alone, and is therefore called \ a Subordinate Olause. heavens I declare glory 3. A Subordinate. Clause is one wl1ich does ·not make I The I I the I of God, complete sense: when separated from the rest of the an

' 1, 11 '

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR 74 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 75

Rem. 1.-A complex sentence whose subject or predicate III. "He never denied that the letter was lost." only is a clause, need not be separated inti> principal and subordinate clauses in analysis. This iR asentence; declarative; complex. II IIe never denied" is Rem. 2.-Some complex Rentences are composed of many the principal clause; "the letter was lost," the subordinate clauses. Each clause should be annlyzed in the order indi­ clause. "That" is the connective." cated by its position. He is the subject of the principal clause; denied, the predi­ cate, which is modified by never, an adverbial element, and by the clause that the letter was lost, an objective element. MODELS FOR COMPLETE ANALYSIS .• Letter is the subject of the subordinate clause; was lost, the I. "He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips." predicate. "Letter" is modified by the, an adjective element. That is a connective joining the clause " the letter was lost" This is a sentence; declarative; complex; it is composed of a to "denied." principal clause and a subordinate clause. "He dissembleth (that) letter I was lost. with his lips" is the principal clause; " that hateth," the He I denied I the I subordinate clauRe. I He is the subject of the principal clause; dissembleth, the I~ predicate. "Ile" is modified by the clause that hateth, an "He builds a palace of ice where the torrents adjective element, of which that is the subject, and hateth, IV. fall." the predicate. " Dissembleth " is modified by the phrase with This is a sentence; declarative; complex. "Ile builds a palace his lips, an adverbial element; "lips," by his, an adjective of ice" is the principal clause; "tho torrents foll," the subor­ element. dinate clause. "Where" is the connective. . He is the subject of the principal clause; builds, the predi­ He disRembleth I cate, which is modified by palace, an objective element, and I that I hateth I I with Ii~ by the clause where the torrents fall, an adverbial element. I IS " Palace" is modified by a and the phrase of ice, adjective elements; "torrents,'' by the, an adjective element; "fall," by II. " That he is very sick, is evident." where, an adverbial element. I This is a sentence; declarative; ,complex; its subject is a clause. Ile builds That he Is very sick is the subject; evident, the predicate; is, I palace the copula. He is the subject of the subject clause; sick, the predicate; Is, the copula. "Sick" is modified by very, an ad­ verbial element. That is a conjunction used to introduce the subject clause. 1. He that flattereth, deceiveth his neighbor. 2. The boy (That) he is : sick that you saw, is my younger brother. 3. Ile was frightened when he first saw a lion. 4. I can not study where pupils Ivery Iis : evident. make so much noise. 5. I would pay you if I had the money. 6. That ha will suc«eed, is uncertain. 7. The mes-

' 76 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE INTERJECTION. 77

. senger reported that the brave general was dead. 8. He is a roll was called. 7. They weighed anchor when the tide turned . .; ':\good man, though very eccentric. 9. . Nature never qid betrayt 8.. My brother has gone to the city that he may find employ­ the heart· that loved her. ment. J 0. The poor too often turn away, unheard, From hearts that shut against them, with a sound 5. Simple sentences may often he enlarged t.o com­ That shal~ be heard in heaven.-Lon!Jlellow. plex sentences by using subordinate propositions, in­ stead of single words or phrases, as modifiers. Wrtte fttie 11entence11, ustng clam•es as 11ulJjr,ct11. Enl1u·ge tl•c follatofn.g simple senterces: Model.-" Haste makes waste,'' is a•true saying. Model.-'; None think the great unhappy bv.t the great" = I I Wrtte ft.,e sentences, using clauses as ~ "None think that the great arc unhappy but the great." Model.-1 believe that the earth is round. I. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 2. I went down to the river at ten o'clock. 3. Time wasted is existence; used, Write /I.tie 11entence1t, u1tfng clau•es as a~ecttve elements. is life. 4. Thou hast uttered cruel words. 5. The poor must Model.-The report tl~at he is insane, is unfounded. work in their grief. 6. They came here to see the country. l 7. The wild beasts kept for the games, had broken from their Write ft.,e aentence1t, u11ing clatt1tes as adt1erbial elements, dens. 8. Haste to cheer my father's heart.

Model.-Our teacher is delighted when we are studious. Q.UESTIONS.-What is a complex sentence? A principal clause? A subordinate clause? Into what five clnsses may clauses be divided? .Analyze the aenteneea f/Ott ha"e written, How may complex sentences be reduced? How may simple sentences be enlarged? ... II. -+- 4. Complex sentences may often be reduced to sim­ ple sentences by using single words or phrases, instead . THE INTERJECTION. of subordinate propositio.ns, as modifiers. 48. ORAL LESSON. ~the foll01Dlng coniplez sentenceit to simple sentenceit: Models.-!. "A man who is wealthy, lives there"= "A man "Hurra I we have found him." of wealth lives there," or, "A wealthy man lives there." Is this a sentence? It is. What is the subject? The pro­ II. "We started when the sun rose"= "We started at noun "we." What is the predicate? "Have fottnd." What sunrise." modifies the predicate? The pronoun "him," an objective 1. A pupil that is studious, will learn rapidly. 2. Men who element. are honest, are respected. 3. A boy, when he is at play, is What docs the word "hurra" denote? It denotes t-hat the happy. 4. An accident that was unavoidable, occurred at the speaker or writer is highly pleased. Does it affirm or deny factory this morning. 5. Franklin, who was a philosopher, any thing? It docs not: it simply implies a. feeling or emotion ~as an .American. 6. One soldier was not present when the of pleasure.

.... 78 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

There are words, also, used to denote sorrow, grief, surprise, disgust, pity, hatred, etc. All such words are called Interjection&. An Interjection is a word used to denote some sud­ den or strong emotion. PART II. Rem.-Interjections usually, but not always, require an ex­ clamation point [ I ] after them.

· Point out the lnterjectl.on" In eacl• of the follot.0ing 8entcnua1 uafng SYNTAX.-OOMPOSITION. thu · MODEL. 49. PROPERTIES OF THE NOUN. "Hush I they are coming." Hush is an intetjection; it denotes some sudden emotion. To the noun belong Gender, Person, Number, and Gase. These are called its Properties. 1. Hal it freezes me. 2. Ahal you a.re a truant. 3. Ahem! I will think about it. 4. Hark I ihe clock strikes one. 0 5. Pshaw I I knew thnt yesterday. 6. Alas I we shall see him 60. GENDER. no more. 7. Tush I tush I man, I made no reference to you. 8. Ay, he is every inch a. king. 9. Oh, what a noble mind is Objects are either male or female; as, boy, girl; or neither here o'erthrown I 10. Alas I they had been friends in youth. male. nor ~emale; as, apple. Their names, therefore, may be 11. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 12. Alas! for classified with regard to sex. This distinction is called Gender. the rarity of Christian charity. Point otd all the parts of speech in the abot16 aentencea. 1. Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns Note.-Interjectio~s may be omitted in the analysis of the sen­ with ·regard to sex. tences In which they are found. They may be placed before and a little above the first words in a diagram. 2. There are ·four genders : Masculine, Feminine, Q,UESTIONS.-What ls an Interjection? What should usua.Uy be placed Common, and Neuter, after an interjection f 3. The Masculine Gender denotes males; as, boy. 4. The Feminine Gender denotes females; as, girl. Some words, ns children, parent, etc., are used to denote either males or females. The gender of such words is said to be Common. (79)

' •

80 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. PERSON. 81

5. The Common Gender denotes either males or Tell tTw gr.ndrt' of n.ll the netinR in your reading lr.sson. females ; as, ·parent. Q.um1T10Ns.- Whnt belong to nonnR? What IR gentler? How many genders are there? What Is the mn.~cullne gender? The fcmlulne 6. The Neuter Gender denotes neither males nor gend.er? 'Fhe common gender? The n euter gentler? How mnny wnys females; as, houBe. are there ,.,, tllstingulshlng the masculine antl feminine genders? Give them. 7. There are three ways of distinguishing the mas­ culine and .feminine genders : 51. PERSON. 1. By using different words; as, father, mother; brother, sister; \. boy, girl; gentleman, lady; Mr., Mrs.; Charles, Caroline; drake, 1. Person· is that property of a noun or pronoun duck; hart, roe. which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to, 2. By different terminations; as, actor, actress; executor, exec­ aucl the pcrAon or ohject spoken of. utrix; hero, heroine. 3. By joining some distinguisliing, word; as, man-servant, maid­ 2. There arc three persons, Pfrst, Second, and 1'hird. servant; he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady; merman, mer­ (Sec page 47.) maid. Tell the pcto,•on of the notittB and pronouns ln the following sen- Xetl the g~nder of the following nouns: tences:-- } " !4'"- Cart. Duke. Father. Nephew. Countess. 1. My lesson is learned. 2. Have you seen our old friend Poet. Susan. Joseph. Milliner. President. lately? 3. Ellen, tell your sister to come home. 4. I saw .Aunt. Baker. Madam. · Empress. Administratrix. him on the battle eve. 5. They left the plowshare in the mold. 6. Your horse is in our barn, Mr. Eckel. 7. He left Git1e the corresponding masculine or feminitie for the following · home early in the morning. nouns:

King. Uncle. Francia. Augusta. Miss Jones. Write jl.11e sentenceR1 using nouns or protwttns of the ftr11t person as subjects, predicates, or objects. Niece. Widow. Br'other. Sorcerer. Grandfather. Count. Female. Prophet. Media.tor. Hen-sparrow. Model.- We are pupils. I defended myself.

Write fl,1Je sentences, using masculine nouns as subjects. Write ft11e sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the second person as subjects Of' objects. Model.-John left hie book on my desk. Model.-You may be excused. I envy thee.

W1'ite ftt1e sentence~, using feminine nouns as objects. Write ftve sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the third pet•son' Model.-The teacher sent my sister home at recess. tu subjects, predicates, or objects. Models.-Studious pupils learn long lessons easily. They left Write siz sentenees, using nouns in the common or neuter gender as t1ubjeets er object•· · ___ their homes in sorrow. Model.- A beggar frightened me this morning. QUESTIONB.-Wlrnt Is person 7 How many persons are there? D11flnc them. El. Or.-8. I

' ~ 1 1 - ·~ '. , : ! f I 82 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR CABE. 83

62. NUMBER. 12. In compound words, the part described by the rest is generally pluralized; as, brothers-in-law, courts-martial, ox-carts. 1. Number is that property of a noun or pronoun 13. Nouns ending in Jul or full, form their plurals by add­ which distinguishes one from more than one. ing s to the singular; as, handfuls, mouthfuls. 2. There are two numbers, Singulat and Plural. Write the plurals of the following words, letters, and signs: {See page 15.) Calf. Clam. Truth. A, b, c. Analysis. Tax. ,John. Tooth. Armful. Mischief. ir. t. Folly. Reply. Charles. Creature. !1 63. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. Hoe. Rake. Horse. Salmon. Chimney. Turf. Child. Radix. Woman. Embargo. 1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s form their Vase. _ Glory. Studio. Incubus. Momentum. plurals by adding s only to the singular; as, book, books; boy, Plow. Tariff. Cameo. Wrench. Wagon-load. boys; desk, desks. Write tlw sl.nunlar of the followlng nouns: 2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite withs, form their plurals by adding es to the singular; as, bush, bushes; box, Feet. Geese. Errata. Heroes. Ellipses. boxes. Mice. Folios. Rubies. Badges. Beauties. 4 3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y Oxen. rcnco. J.. oaves. .Judges. Children. into i, 11:nd add es ; as, mercy, mercies. Genii. Strata. Horses. Valleys. Monkeys.

4. Some nouns ending inf or fe, change these endings into Tell tlw ~ <>fall tlw '1.tnt>M in ymir rt•mllny lesson, ves; as, knife, knives. .,., 5. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add QUESTIONS.-Whnt Is number? How many numbers nre there? What is tho singular number? The plural number? Repeat the rules es; as, cargo, cargoes. for the formation of the plural. 6. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, adds; as, folio, folios. 7. Letters, figures, marks, and signs add 's; as, p's ~nd q's; 54. CASE. 9's and ll's; the *'s; the 5's and B's. · 8. Proper nouns usually add s only in forming their plu­ "T.he sun is shining:" here "sun" is used as.the subject rals; as, Mary, Marys; Sarah, 8arahs; Nero, Neros. The forms of a proposition. "Every st.ar is a sun:" here "sun" is used Maries, Neroes, etc., are sometimes used. as the predicate. "The sun's rays are warm:" here "sun" is 9. Most nouns from foreign languages change us to i; um used as an adjective element, modifying "rays." "We saw and on to a; is to es or ides; a to re or ata; and x to ccs or ices ; the sun at noon:" here "sun" is used as an ol\jective element, as, calculus, calculi; arcanum, arcana; phenomenon, plienomena; modifying "fmw." "Dear is thy light, 0 Run!" here "sun" thesis, tl1eses; ephemeris, epl1emerides. is used absolutely-i. e., it is absolved or s<>parated from any 10. Some nouns {orm their plurals irregularly, as, :In.an, grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. men; ox, oxen ; mouse, mice. In no two of these sentences has the word "sun" the same 11. A few nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, relation to the other words. trout, yoke, hose, vermin, and others. These different relations are called Chses.

--..·- · -- ··- ----· - ~ - -- -~ - - · - ·~- · -- · ------

' 84 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. DECLENSION. 85 J , 1. Case is the relation of a noun or a pronoun to other words. 4. Witli a participle; as, "The sun being risen." 5. By position.; i. e., by using it as the heading of a chapter, Rem.-The term case is also applied to the form of a noun as the superscription to a letter, etc.; as, "TAe Noun," "M. F. or a pronoun used independently or as a part of a sentence. Jones." 7. A noun limiting the meaning of another noun 2. There are four cases : Nominative, Possessive, Ob­ denoting the same person or thing, is, by apposition, J°ecUve, and Absolute, or Nominative Absolute. in the same case; as, "Washington the general became 3. The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pro­ Washington the statesman." noun as the subject or the predicate of a proposition ; as, Boys skate ; I-Iorses arc animals. 55. DECLENSION. . 4. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pro­ noun to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or kind; The Declension of a noun is its variation· to denote as, John's hat, Ray'.'f Algebra, the sun's rays, men's number and cusc. clothing. Rem.-The nominative absolute case always has the same Note.-For rules for forming the possessive case, see pp. 43 and 44. form as the nominative. t The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pro­ EXAMPLE. noun as the object of a transitive verb in the active Singular. Plural. Singul,ar. Plural. voice, or of ,a preposition; as, "Indians hunt bvffa­ Nom., Fly. Flies. Nom., Goodness. Poss., Fly's. Flies'. "They ran over the bridge;" "John threw a Poss., Goodness'. wes;" Obj., Fly. Flies. Olij., stone at the dog." floo

Rem.-A noun may be in the absolute case: 56. P ARBING. 1. By direct address; as, "James, bring me a book." · 2. By exclamation; as, "Oh, my daughter!" Parsing consists (1) In naming the part of speech ; 3. By pleonalJm; i. e., by placing it before a sentence in (2) In telling its properties; (3) In pointing out its which an affirmation is madb concerning it; as, "Your faJliers, where arc they?" · relations to other words; ( 4) In giving the rule for its construction.

' -'r'

,~ , .... PARSING. 86 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. --··-- 87 III. "Samuel, study your lesson with care."

57. ORDER OF PARSING. Samuel is a noun; proper ; masculine gender; second person; it denotes the person addressed; singular number; it denotes but I. A noun, and why? 2. Common or proper, and why? one: nominative absolute case; it is used independently. Rule V. 3. Gender, and why? 4. Person,.and why? 5. Number, and "A noun or pronoun used independently is in .the nominative why? 6. Case, and why? 7. Rule for construction. absolute case." Lesson is a noun; common; neuter gender; third person; singular number; objective case; it is the object of the verb "study." Rule VI. "The object of a transitive verb in the active voice, ';.;:/; -,, - 58. MODELS FOR PARSING. or of its participles, is in the objective case." Care is a noun; common; neuter gender; third person; singular ~~~ - I. "Wheat is a vegetable." number; objective case; it is used as the object of the preposi- " tion "with."· Rule VII. "The object ·of a prep,osition is in . , . >f" ';_';~~i . Wheat is a noun; it is a name: common; it can be applied to the objective case." •J , , ~ ..... ~·l-f; ·j · (t;--4ny one of a kind or class: neuter gender; it denotes neither . I " males nor females: third person; it is spoken of: singular num­ Analyze the following sentences, and parse Ute ~ lier; it denotes but one: nominative case; it is used !l.S the sub­ I. Borneo is a large island. 2. Our father lives in Washing­ ject of the proposition. Rule I. " A noun or pronoun used ton. 3. ,John's dog bit Clarence. ll. J~4~son'ir farm is mort­ as the subjf'ct of a proposition, ii1 in tho nominative case." gaged. 5. Mr. Trowel the mason is unwell. 6. 0 Helen I Vegetable is a noun; common; neuter; t!tird person; singular father is coming. 7. The statue fell from its pedestal. 8. Gad, number; nominative case; it is used ns the predicate of the a troop shall ove~come him. 9. Jocko has stolen my specta­ · proposition. Rule II. "A noun or pronoun used as the predi­ cles. 10. Susan's mother is my aunt. 11. Is the doctor's cate of a proposition, is in the nominative case." office open? 12. Next to sincerity, remember still Thou must resolve upon integrity. II. "Henry's uncle, the sheriff, was wounded." God will have all thou hast; thy mind, thy will, Thy thoughts, thy words, thy works.-Herbert. Henry's is a noun; proper; it is the name of a particular

person: masculine gender; it denotes a male: t!tird person; singu­ ~the following sentences: lar number; possessive case; it denotes possession, and modifies "uncle.'' Rule III. "A noun or pronoun used to limit the 1. Jane has two brother-in-laws. 2. Storms are interest­ ing phenomenons. 3. Three chimnies were on fire. 4. The meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing, is in Shaker's are industrious. 5. Di

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' - .. I .. 88 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 89

59. COMPOSITION. 2. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by adding self ~r selves to some form of the simple per­ Write a description of a squirrel, using the following sonals; as, rnyselj, you,rselves, himself, tliemselves. Plan.-1. Size, as compared with some other small animal. 2. Form, noting particularly its teeth, claws, and tail. 3. Hab­ Remarks.-1. You is used to represent both singular and plural nouns. ~i--, .., its, nest, and food. 4. Its disposition, whether timid or bold, ~tc. 5. Different kinds, and their peculiarities. 6. Migrations. 2. We is used . in place of I, in editorials, royal proclama- r \" ·~ 7.. Enemies. tions, etc. ; as, "We, George IV., King of Great Britain_and Ireland;" ''.We were mistaken." Write drseripUrms of sonic of tlrn fnllr>wing animals, tt11ing tltis 3. It is sometimes used in the nominative, without refer­ General Plan.-1. Size. 2. Form, noting marked features. ence to iiny rmrticular antecedent, and in the objective for 3. Color. 4. Food. 5. Habits. 6. Disposition. 7. Where euphony alone, or tt) supply the place of some indefinite found. 8. Hemarks, anecdotes, etc. object; as, "It thunders;" "Come and trip it on the green." 4. Wlwn p1·onotms of difforcnt pnrRons are used, the second Rem.-The pupil should he permitted and encouraged to should prcceuo tho tltird, and tho tliird the first. vary the orclcr in which the topics are nrranged in this plan, and to introduce such other topics as seem necessary to com­ plete the description of any animal. .\ 62. DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. The dog. The shark. The turkey. The elephant. The owl. The horse. The pigeon. The muskrat. .. The bee. The crow. The mouse. The mosquito. FIRST PERSON.

Parse tltc !!:!!!!.!!!! ht your coni1>ositfons. Si11gular. Plural. Sin,gular. Plural. Nom., I. We. Nom., Myself. Ourselves. Poss., My, mine. Our. l'oss., 60. PROPERTIES OF THE PRONOUN. Olg., Me. Us. Ohj., Myself. Ourselves. -To pronouns belong Gender, Number, Person, and ·· Gase. SECOND PERSON.

Singular. Plural. Singular. 61. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Plural. Nom., Thou. Ye. Nom., You. You. 1. The Simple Personal Pronouns are I, thou, he, 8he, Poss., Thy, t.hine. Your. Poss., Your. Your. Oh}., Thee. and it, with their declined forms we, onr, us, my, mine, You. Ohj., You. You. ye, yon, your, thy, thine, thee, !tis, Mm, her, its, they, 8ingular. Plural. lhefr, them. { · Thyself. Nom. and Obj., Yourselves. Nom. and Ohj., Yourself.

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' 90 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 91 THIRD PERSON. II. "I myself told you so.'' Singular. Plural. llAB, PEil. llEOT. COil. OB 1ucur. Myself is a pronoun; personal; compound: its antecedent is Nom., He. She. It. Nom., They. the name, understood, of the speaker: -- gender, first person, Poss., His. Her. Its. Poss., Their. singular number: Rule ~X. Decline it: nominative case, in appo­ Obj., Him. Her. It. Obj., Them. sition with "I:." Rule IV.

) Singular. Plural. An1:dyze the followbig sentences, and parse the~ and personal MAB. pronouns: Himself. ~1. You and he are my friends. 2. I saw them in their '•ti Nom. and OIQ., FEM. - COM. OR 1'ltUT. carriage. 3. The soldiers helped themselves. 4. Thou art the ;q~·~·;i, Herself. Nom. and Obj., Themselves. ~ · ·('·.. ·· man. 5. Ile saved thy money for thee. 6. Your father knows ~~~ ':'i WSUT. us. 7. Ile himself hid your slate. Itself. I 8. Where shall I see him? angels tell me where. You know him; he is near you; point him out. Shall I see glories beaming from his brow, 6 3. ORDER OF P A RSING. Or trace his footsteps by the rising flowers ?-You11g.

A pronoun, and why? 2. Personal, and why? 3. What Writ" t11e (I.rift tmo sllnleueeR of' a eoniposftion ou the Engle, and ~ · partm l.11(! pnrRtnuil pronouns. is its antecedent? 4. Gender, person and number? Rule. 5. Decline it. 6. Case, and why? Rul~. Fluish tlio composttfon.

QUESTIONS.-What Is a pronoun? A personal pronoun? What are the Rimple personal pronouns? The compound personal pronouns? 64. MODELS FOR P ARsING. What does" yon" represent? · How ls "we" used? How Is "It" some­ times used? Give examples of the use of these pronoum1. When pro­ nouns of different persons are used, how sbbuld they be arranged? 1 I. "I see them on their winding way." Decline· the personal ~ronouns.' Repeat the order of parsing personal pronoun& I is a pronoun; personal; it shows by its form that it is of the first person : its antecedent is the name, understood, of t~e sl'.eaker: - - gender, first person, singular number, to agree 6 5. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. with its antecedent. Rule IX. "Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number." Decline it: nominative case: Rule I. _ 1. The Possessive Pronouns are mine, thine, his, hers, Them is a pronoun; personal; its ant.ccedent is the name ou1·s, yours, theirs. understood, of the person spoken of: -- gender, tliird person: 2. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used plural number: Rule IX. Decline it: objective case; it is the object of the transitive verb "see: " Rule VI. for mine, his own for Ms, thy own for thine, our own for ours, yo1J,r own for yours, t~eir own for theirs. 7, , ·i .

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92 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 93

66. ORDER OF PARSI NG. 68. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

1. A pronoun, and why? 2. l'ossesciive, and why? 3. ·what 1. The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which, is its antecedent? 4. Gender, person, number, and why? Uule. what, and tliat. 5. Case, and why? Rule. Rem.-That is a relative when who, which, or -whom can be used in its place. . As is . used as a relative pronoun after such, many, and same. 67. MODELS FOR PARSING. 2. The Compound Relative Pronouns are whoever, I. "That house is mine, not yours." whoso, whosoetier, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and FIRST MJ!,'THOD. wliatsoever. Mine is a pronoun; possC$sive; it represents both the pos- . 3. Some relative pronouns not only connect clauses, sessor and the thing possessed: its antecedent is "house:" neuter gender, third person, singular number, to ngree with its an­ but also comprise in themselves both antecedent and tecedent: Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the predicate relative. T!1ese arc called Double Relatives, and they of the proposition: Rule II. Parse "youn" in a similar may be either simple or compound. manner. .. ~ In the sentence, " I got what I desired," wl1at is a double SECOND METHOD. relative, and is used instead of t!ie tliing wlticli-" I got the Mine is a pronoun; possessive; it is equivalent to "my houPe." thing wliich I desired." "Thing," the object of "got," is the Parse "my" as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, ac­ antecedent, and is modified by "the" and "which I desired," cording to Rule II J, and "house" as a predicate nominative, both adjective elements. according to Rule II. Jn the Rent<'nce, '"fell what you know," what is a double relative, n111l is e11uivalent to that wliich-" Tell tliat wliich you Analy:ee the followtno sentences, a ntl parse t1•c pm•scR.dvc prnn.01111.19: know." "That," the object of "tell," is the antecedent, and 1. That horse of yours is lame. 2. This sled is not yours: is modified by "which you know," an adjective element. it must be hers., 3. The money is your 'own. 4. Friend of In the sentence, "Whatever is, is right," wliatever is a double niine, you are welcome. 5. That garden of theirs is a very relative, and is equivalent to that which-" That wliich is, is fine one. 6. This book is not mine; · it must be his or hers. right." "That," the subject of the proposition, "That is right," 7. She is an old friend of ours. 8. These books are yours, is the antecedent, and "that," the subject, is modified by not theirs. 9. We love this land of ours. 10. The boy left "which is," an adjective element. his hat, and took mine. 11. You should study your own In the sentence, "Whoever runs may read," whoever is books, and not borrow hers. equivalent to he who, or any person who-"He who runs may QUESTIONS.-What Is a possessive pronoun? Name the poSReSBlve read." "He," the subject of the sentence, "He may read," is . pronoune. How Is empbatlc distinction denoted ? Repeat tbe order of the antecedent of "who," and is modified by "who runs," nn parsing pos11088lve pronouns. adjective clement.

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94 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. I INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 95 In the sentence, "Whichever road you may take, will lead to the city," whichever is equivalent to any which-"Any road III. "I remember what you said." which you may take," etc. "Any" and "which you may take" What is a pronoun; relative; it is equivalent to that whic/1- are adjective elements, modifying "road," the antecedent of " that,; being the antecedent pa.rt, and "which" the relative. "which." Parse "that" as an adjective used as a noun, in the objective case after "remember." 69. DEOLENSION. Which is a pronoun; relative; its antecedent is "that:" neuter gender, third person, singular number : Rule IX: objective case; Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. object of the transitive verb "said:" Rule VI. Nom., Who. Nom., Which. I Analyze Ute follotohiu sentences, and parse tlte pronouns: Posa., Whose. Poss., Whose. Obj., Whom. Obj., Which. 1. He that hateth, dissembleth with hiis lips. 2. This is the child that was lost. 3. The dog which you bought, was stolen. 4. Ile will do what is right. 5. Ask for what you 70. ORDER OF PARSING. want. 6. That is the man whose house was burned. 7. This is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate . I. A pronoun, and why? 2. Relative, and why? 3. Name the malt that lay in the house that Jack built. its antecedent. 4. Gender, person, and number? Rule. 5. De­ Write the ftrst tttto sentences of a composition on the Quail, and cline it. 6. Caso, and Uule. parse tlte ~ and pronouns. ---

Fluislt .,_,,.. , <'ompolfttlon,

71. MODELS FOR PARSING. Q,UESTIONS.-Whnt Is n rclatlve pronoun 'l Who.t are the simple relatives? Tho compound rolntlve.,? Whnt are double relatives? To what Is "what" equivalent? "Whntcvcr?" "Whoever?" "Which­ I. "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom." ever?" "Whoso" and "Whosoever?" Am.-He who. Decline "wbo" I and "which." Repeat the order of parsing a. relative pronoun. That is a pronoun; relative; it represents a preceding word or phrase, to which it joins a limiting clause: its antecedent is "man: " masculine gender, third person, singular number : Rule 72. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. IX: nominative case; it is the subject of the relative clause, "That findeth wisdom:" Rule I. 1. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and II. "Whoever perseveres will succeed." what, when used in asking questions. Whoever is a pronoun; relative; it is equivalent to lie who, · or 2. The Subsequent of an interrogative pronoun is any one wlio-"he" being the antecedent, and "who" the rela­ that part of the answer which it represents. tive. Parse "he" as a personal pronoun, subject of "will suc­ ceed," or "one" as an adjective used as a noun, subject of Rem.-An interrogative pronoun must agree with its sub­ "will succeed," and "who" as a relative, subject of "perse­ sequent in gender, person, and numbor. When the answer is veres," according to Rule I. not given, or clearly implied, its gender and person are in­ determinate, and it is in the singular number.

' 96 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. CAUTIONS. 97 · Ex.-" Who is hurt?" The answer to this question not be­ ing given, it is evident that tlrn gender and person of" who" 76. FALSE SYNTAX. are indeterminate. "Who is hurt?-Silas." TJ1e answer to this question is False Syntax is any violation of the Jaws of good given. "Who" is masculine gender, third person, singular number, agreeing with "Silas," its subsequent. usagP, in the application of words or the construction Apply Rule IX in parsing interrogatives, changing "ante­ of sentences. cedent" to "subsequent." 76. CAUTIONS.

73. ORDER OF PARSING. Caution 1.-Do not omit the subjects of clauses or declarative sentences. 1. A pronoun, and why? 2. Interrogative, and why? 3. Name its subsequent, if expressed. 4. Gender, person, and Ex.-1. Glad you hnve come. 2. Hope you will remain long number? Rule. 5. Decline it. 6. Case, and Rule. with u~. 3. What say? 4. 'Tis a poor school can't keep it­ self half nn hour. 5. Jt was Johnson snved the drowning mnn. 6. Aftl.'r a long tramp, folt VPry much fatiguccl. 7. !lead his 74. MODELS FOR PARSING. poems: like them very much. 'l'hink them sublime.

I. "Who invented gunpowder?" Caution 11.-Do not use who as the object of a Who is a pronoun; interrogative; it is used in asking ·a ques­ transitive verb or preposition. tion: its subsequent is not expressed: gender, person, and number Ex.-1. Do you know who you a.re t-nlking to? 2. He is a indeterminate: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the proposition : Rule I. fellow who I do not like. 3. Tell me who you work for.

II. " What is that man ?-A lawyer." Caution 111.-The second person should precede the What is a pronoun; interrogative; its subsequent is "lawyer;" third, and the third the first. masculine gender, third person, singular number : Rule IX: nominative Ex.-I. lie and you a.re in the same class. 2. I o.nd you will ~ase; it is used as the predicate of the proposition: Rule II. not whisper. 3. I and he went skating. Analyze the following •entence•, and par•e tlic pronoun•: Caution IV.-Do not use a pronoun ·and its ante­ 1. Who came with you? 2. Whose horse ran away? 3. cedent as subjects of the same proposition. Whom did you call ?-Mary. 4. What did you say? 5. What is that ?-It is a velocipede. 6. Which will you have ?-The Ex.-1. Mr. Kellogg he has bought our farm. 2. Many large one. 7. Who told you how to parse "what?" words they darken speech. 3. The boys they all staid in at re­ cess. 4. The horse he ran, and th~ man he yelled "whoa." Q,UESTIONS.-What are the interrogative pronouns? What ls the sub­ sequent of an interrogative? With what must an interrogative agree In gender, person, and number? Repeat the order of parelng an lnterl'Oga­ Caution V.-Avoid the use of different kinds of pro­ tlve. nouns in the same construction. El. Gr.-'7.

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98 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. DEscRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 99 Ex.-1. If you will go, I will take en.re of thy farm. 2. I hope you· will put money into thy purse. 3. I will tell thee that expressed by the positive; as, "An older man ; " what we have, and which will suit you. 4. Learn thy lesson, "Charles is more studious than Mary." then amuse yourself. 5. You may have my sled if you will Rem.-The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed lend me thy skates. by adding r or er to the positive: the comparative of acljectives Review "Cautions" on pages 56 and 57. of more thnn one syllable is formed by prefixing more or less to the positive; as, rough, rougher; more honorable, le.ss honorable. ~ tlie follomL>1g 1ttm.t.et1ce1t by refct-ence to Ru.le IX: 1. Every person should mind their own business. 2. Each 5. The Superlative Degree ascribes the highest or day has their own anxieties. 3. If any one hasn't voted, they lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two will rise in their places. 4. Many a youth have injured their objcct.c:i; as, "The oldest man;" "Tlic least fertile farm health by keeping late hours. in the township." Q,UESTIONS.-What ls false syntax? Repeat the cautions. Remarks.-1. The superlative of monosyllables is regularly form~d by adding st or est to the positive: of adjectives of more than one syllable, by prefixing most or least to the posi­ 77. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. tive; as, rouglie.st, most honorable, least honorable. 2. Some adjectives a~~.pared irregularly; as, good, better, Most descriptive acljectives, by ;;'t"arige of form or the addi­ best; bad, worse, worat. :.. .· · · tion of modifying words, express quality in different degrees. This is called Oompariaon. 3. Some adjectives can not be compared; as, square, inJinite, supreme. 1. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to 4. Adjectives should not be doubly compared. express different degrees of quality; as, rich, richer, richest. Com.pare the following adJcctlttes: Far. Holy. Great. Honest. Cheerful. 2. There are three Degrees of Comparison : Positive, Old. Loud. Proud. Narrow. Studious. suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, ete., ex­ Later: Eldest. Stormy. Rather nice. Very frightful. press a small amount of the quality; as, saltish, having a little Better. Hieber. Farthest. Less studious. Less confident. taste of salt; rather warm, somewhat awkward. Round. Perfect. Greenish. More hopeful. Least sensible. Comparative Degree QUESTIONR.-Wlmt is eompnrlson? How mnny degrees of eompari­ 4. The ascribes to one of two son are there ? \Vlmt docs t.he positive degree express? The compara­ objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than tive? The Ruperlatlve? How are the comparative nnd superlative degrees formed?

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100 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE ADJECTIVE. 101

78. DEFINITIVE ADJEOTIVES. eo.' MODELS FOR PARSING.

1. Pronominal Adjectives are those definitives, most I. "Fearful stormf! swCClp over tlrnsn islands." of which may, without the articJe prefixed, represent a noun understood. Fearful is an adjective; descriptive; it modifies a noun by de­ noting some quali,ty :_ compared, pos. fearful, com. more fearful, The principal pronominals are: sup. moRt · fearful:' positive degree, annumeral adjectives: Oardinal, Or- , 6. Either road leads to town. 7. That course was most hon?r- dinal, an

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102 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE VERB. 103

4. Appearance when in bloom. 5. Is it found wild? If so, 8 1. CAUTIONS. where? 6. What part of the fruit is eaten? 7.. "Different kinds of peaches. Caution 1.-Avoid double comparatives and superfa. fives. Write composftions on some of the plants named below, using the following Ex.-1. He is the most miserablest man in town. 2. No man can't be more neutraler than l on the temperance ques­ General Plan,- 1. Size, as compared with some other plant. tion. 3. Ile seems more cheerfuller to-day. 4. Always choose 2. Form noting important parts. 3. Wild or cultivated-where the lesser of two evils. 5. That is more preferable than to be found ,~ild. ·4. If useful, how protected or cultivated. 5. If imprisoned. worthless or noxious, how destroyed. 6. What parts are used 'Ji for food or for manufactul'ing purpose.'!. Caution lf.-Omit the article before a word used as a title, or as a mere name. The pine. The violet. The hickory. The rose-bush. The tulip. The beech. The chestnut. The wheat-plant. Ex.-1. They gave him the title of an emperor. 2. A rascal The daisy. The maple. The dogwood. The tomato-plant. formerly meant a servant. 3. Riches and honor are the gifu! of fortune. 4. He is a better sailor than a soldier. 5. They QUESTIONS.-What ls an adjective? A descriptive adjective? What elected him as a chairman. Is comparison? What ls a detlnltlve adjective? What are pronomi­ nal adjectives? What are numeral adjectives? Cardinals? Ordinals? Multiplicatives? Caution llf.-Place ordinal adjectives before cardinals Repeat the cautions on page 102. in most constructions.

Ex.-1. The four first houses on the right hand belong to 83. PROPERTIES OF THE VERB. me. 2. Sing the two first and two last verses. 3. Read the three first chapters. To verbs belong Voice, .Afade, 1'ense, Number, and Caution IV.-Plural adjectives should modify plural Person. nouns; singular adjectives; singular nouns. J,et the pupil now review sections fo, 16, and 25. Ex.-1. I do not like these kind of apples. 2. These sort of people don't amount to much. 3. These yoke of oxen cost seventy-five dollars. 84. VOICE.

82. COMPOSITION. A verb may represent its subject as acting or ns being acted upon. I n the sentence, ",John struck •J ames, " "J• o 'h n, " th e Write a composltfon on the Pr.acll.-trr.e, using the follotvinu sultjcct, is represented as acting: in the sentence, "James was Plan.-1. Size, as compared with the apple-tree. · 2. Form, struck by .John," ".James," the subject, is represen~ed as ?e­ division of branches. 3. Color of leaves i~ spring and fall. ing acted upon. This property is called voice, a.nd 1s peculiar to transitive verbs.

' ·., ; A 104 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. MODE. 105 1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon . . 85. MODE.

2. Transitive verbs have two voices: an Active and 1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being, a Passive Voice. or state is expressed. 3. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting 2. There are five modes: Indicative, Subjunctive, Po­ upon an object; as, "The boy wrote a letter." tential, Imperative, and Infinitive. 4. The Passive Voice represents the subject as being · 3. The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact, or acted upon; as, "The letter was written." · as actually existing; as, " Fire burns; " "A battle was fought." 5. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing some form of the verb to be to the perfect participle of a 4. The Subjunctive Mode asserts a thing as doubtful; transitive verb. ns a Ruppo.~ition, or denies the fact supposed; as, "If this be true, all will end well;" " I shall go, if you R?m.-When a verb in the active voice is changed into the passive, the direct object in the active becomes the subject in remain." the passive; as, "The cat cauglit the mouse" (active); "Tho mouse was cauglit by tho cat" (passive}. 5. The Potential Mode assert~ the power, necessity, libel'ly, duly, or liability of acting, or of being in a certain state; as, "He can talk;" "You must go; " Tell which "erbs are !!!:.!..!!:!!. and which passlt1e in the following -- crctacs: - "They should be more careful." l. The girl sings. 2. Fire burns. 3. The mail was robbed. Rem.-May, can, mu8t, might, could, would, and should are the 4. Truants will be punished. 5. A meteor was seen. 6. He signs of the potential mode. should have told the truth. 7. Children love play. 8. Ile has found his knife. 9. A watch waA found in the street. IO. 'l'he burglar might have been arrested. II. The bad boy G. The Imperative Mode expresses a eo,mma.nd, an was whipped for stealing apples. exlim·tation, an entreaty, or a permission; as, "Go;" "Do not liurt me." QUE..'!TIONS.-What Is a verb? A tmnsltlve verb? An Intransitive verb? A copnlatlve verb? i What Is a po.rtlelple? Tho present partlelplo? How does tho present 7. The Infinitive Mode expresses the action, being, participle always end? Whnt Is f.hc J>crfect participle? How docs It ot· state, without affirming it; as, "To go;" "He wants usually end? Whnt Is tho compound participle? How Is Jt formed? What belong to verbs? What Is voice? How many voices have to speak." transitive verbs? What is the active voice? The passive voice? How Is the passive Yolce formed? How Is a verb in the active voice changed Rem. 1.-Thc infinitive may usually be known by the sign Into the passive? Give examples; to placed before it. This sign is omitted after the words bid,

' - 106 ELEM4NTARY GRAMMAR. - - TENSE SIGNS. 107 Future Tense denotes future t~me;. as, "I" I. The army encamped by the river. 2. Run for some 8na1.. ll wri't e; " " The lion shall eat straw hke the ox. water. 3. You must recite your lesson. 4. I will recite my 8 Th Future Perfect Tense represents an ac.t as lesson, if I can. 5 . .I like play. 6. Hope thou in God. to fi • ' d e

· QUESTIONS.-What Is mode? How many modes are there? Name 87. SIGNS OF THE TENSES: AOTIVE VOIOE. them. What Is the Indicative mode? What Is the subjunctive mode? What Is the potential mode? What nre the signs of the potential mode? INDIC~TIVE MODE. · What Is tho Jmperatlvo mode? Tho Infinitive mode? What ts the sign ot the 1Dflnltlve mode? What modes are used In asking questions? Present, Simple form . of the verb. Past,. . When regular, add ed to the simple form. Future, Prefix shall or will to the simple form. . . 86. TENSE. Present Perfect, " have, hast, or has to the perfect p ~r~1c1ple; Past Perfect, . " had or hadst to the perfect participle. 1: Tense denotes the time of an action or event. Future Perfect, " shall have or will have to the perfect par- ticiple. 2. There arc six tensos: the Present, the P1·esent Perfect, the Past, the Past Perfect, the Future, and SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. the Future Perfect. lj, though, except, un l ess, e tc. , P l a ced before tense forms given 3. The Present Tense denotes present time; as, "I in the conjugation. write; " " The wind is blowing." POTENTIAL MODE. 4. The Present Perfect Tense represents an action Present, Prefix may, can, or must to the simple form .. or event as past, but connected with present time; as, P

' 112 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE VERB "TO LOVE." 113

PARTICIPLES. PAST TENSE. Pre.rent, Being; Perfect, Been; Compound, Having been. Singular. Plural. 1. I loved, 1. We loved, Note.-Shall, in the first person and will, in the second and third, future tenses, are used to denote .fltturity. When will is used in the 2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, first person, or shall, in the second or third, determination or necessity, 3. He loved; 3. They loved. as well as futurity, is represented. ,

A Synopsis of a verb shows its variations in form, PAST PERFECT TENS~. . through the different voices, modes, and tenses, in a 1. I had loved, I. We had loved, single person a.nd number. 2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 3. lie had loved; 3. They had loved. Write a synopsis of the verb "to be" in the first person, singular number. FUTURE TENSE. '/ 1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 92. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOV~' 2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 3. He will love; 3. They will love. ACTIVE VOICE.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. PRINCIPAJ, PARTS. 1. I shall have loved, I. We shall have loved, Pre.rent Tense. Past Tense. Perfect Participle. -2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, Love. Loved. Loved. 3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. I

INDICATIVE MODE. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. \ PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I love, 1. We love, 1. [f I love, 1. If we love, 2. Thou lovest, 2. You love. 2. If thou love, 2. If you love, .3. He loves; 3. They love. 3. If he love; 3. If they love.

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. PAST TENSE. ! 1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 2. Thou hast loved, .1 2. You have loved, 2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 3. He has loved; 3. They have loved. 3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. El. Gr.-8. I , · ! . l • l

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114 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE PASSIVE VOICE. 115

PAST PERFECT TENSE. •. PARTICIPLES. Singular. Plural. Present, Loving; Perfect, Loved; Compound, Having loved. 1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 3. If he had loved; 3. If they had loved. 93. SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB "TO LOVE.. , .

11 PASSIVE VOICE. POTENTIAL MODE. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing the various forms PRESENT TENSE. of the verb to be to the perfect participle. 1. I may love, l. We may love, 2.' Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, INDICATIVE MODE. 3. lie may love; 3. They may love. Present, . . I am loved. Present Perfect, I have been loved. PRESENT PERFECT TEN'BE. f I'a.~t, . . · f i t J wn.R loved. ' I ,~ ) I 1. I may have loved, l'ast l'erfeel, . I hml hccn lovccl. 1. We may have loved_. ·\ ' 11 !, 2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have lovect;- Future, . . . . . I shall be loved. 3. ' 1 He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. Future Perfect, . : . I shall have been loved.

PAST TENSE. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. l. I might love, 1. We might love, Present, . . If I be loved. Past, . . If I wel'e loved. 2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, Past Perfect, • • If I had been loved. 3. He might love; 3. They might love. POTENTIAL MODE. PAST PERFECT TENSE. Present, . . I may be loved. 1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, Present Perfect, I may ho.v,e been loved. 2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, Past,. . · I might be loved. 3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. Past Perfect, I might have been loved.

IMPERATIVE MODE. IMPERATIVE MODE, Present, ...... Be loved, or be thou loved. 2. Love, or do_thou love; 2. Love, or do ye or you love. INFINITIVE MODE. Pruent, To be loved. Present Perfect, To have been loved. INFINITIVE MODE. PARTICIPLES. Pruent, To love; Pruent Perfect, To have loved. P:resent, B emg· lo ved · · Perl'cctJ' • Loved.

' 116 ELEMENTARY GRAMM.AR. CONJUGATION. 117

POTENTIAL MODE. 94. OOORDtNATE FORMS OF OONJUGATION. Present, . I may be loving. Present Perfect, I may have bee~/loving. 1. The Progressiv(', the Emphatic, and the Inter­ Past, . . · . I might be lovirlg. rogative are called the Coordinate Forms of Conju­ Past Peefect, I might have been loving. gation. INFINITIVE MODE. 2. The Progressive Form is used to denote action, Present, To be loving. Present Peefect, To have been loving. being, or state in progress; as, "He was writing." Jn the Progressive Form, tho various forms of the verb to IMPERATIVE MODE. he are prefixed to the present active participle. l'rcscnt, . . Be thou loving.

3. The Emphatic Form represents an act with em­ PARTICIPLES. phasis; as, "I do w1·ite;" "He did write." Present, . . Loving. Compound, . . Having been loving. 4. The Interrogative Form is used in asking qu"l;­ TI-IE EMPI-IA TIC FORM.-SYNOP8I8. tions; as, "Love I ? " "Did he write? " INDICATIVE MODE. Present, 1 Jo love. l'ast, . I did love. PROGRESSIVE FORM.-8YNOP8I8. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, If I do love. l'ast, . . If I did love.

Pruent, . . . I am loving. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present Perfect, · I have been loving. Present, . . . . . Do thou love. Past, ..• I was loving. Past Perfect, I had been loving. INTERROGATIVE FORM.-SYNOPBIB. Future, . . I shall be loving. Future Perject, I shall have been loving. INDICATIVE MODE. Present, . . . Love I? Do I love? Am I loving? SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Peefect, II ave I loved? Have I been lovin~? Past, . . . . Loved J 'i Did 1 love? Was I lovmg? Present, . If I be loving. Past, . . If I were loving. Past Peefect, . Hnd J loved? Had I been loving? Past l'eefect, . . J f I lm

' 118 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. VERBS. 119 POTENTIAL MODE. the present indicative; as, go, went, gone; see, saw, Present, . Must I love? Prcsr.nt Perfect, Must I have loved? seen; do, did, done. Past • Might I love? · For list of Irregular Verbs see Appendix. Past Perfect, Might I have loved?

WJite 1t synopl'liR of the tranRitivc verbs tliink, instruct, com­ 96. DEFECTIVE .AND REDUNDANT VERBS. mana,;_punish, teach, and see, in the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Potential Modes, Active and Passive Voices. 1. Defective Verbs are those which want some of the prin­ cipal parts. They are beware, from be and aware., ought, quoth, Tell tlte n•od,., fen.11,., per1111n., and ntimT11•r of eaclt tJ£rb in tlie fol­ lowing sentences: quod, wit, and its derivatives, wot, wis, weet, wist, wote. 2. Redundant Verbs are those ~hich have more than one 1. He ran. 2. You teach. 3. They have seen. 4. lf he go. form for their pa.st tense or perfect participle; as, cleave, clove, 5. They may have written. 6. Has he departed? 7. They will clave; cleft, cloven, or cleaved. command. 8. Emma will hnvc recited. 9. The army will be ~r diRbanded. ~ tlte followlng sentences, tuLng tl&ill 10. America was discovered. 11. The people Rhould be con­ tented. 12. Ile hm1 invented 1t velocipede. 13. A ttcnd to your MODEL. lesson. 14. He can go, if the enrriage is not too full. 15. The mnn loves to Ree it rain. "The mnn throwcd 1t stone." This sentence · is incorrect. Tho word "th rowed" shoulcl Jf'rlte a dt1Rcrlpli11n of tlui C1t1'1'ffllf-Tm11/1 1 nnd pat•Rr. tlrn tJCrbs. be "threw," the past indicative of the verb "throw." The Q.UESTIONS.-What ls conjugation? What a1·e the principal parts of n verb? What Ii; the synopsis of a verb? GI ve the synop.~ls of " to be." sentence should read, "The man threw a stone." Of" to love," In both the active and the pnsslve voice. How Is the pas­ sive voice formed? What are the coordinate !orms of conjugation? 1. I have saw some fine cattle to-day. 2. He ought to have What Is the progressive form? The emphatic form T The interrogative went home. 3. The beads were stringed on a ·silk thread. form? Give the synopsis of ea.ch form. 4. He has brung some snow into the school-house. 5. ·~he doth was weaved by hand. 6. The horse come cantermg along. 7. This coat has wore well. 95. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 8. The cars have ran off the track. 9. The bells ringed when the news was got. 10. I clumb the tree and sbaked 1. A Regular Verb forms its past indicative and the apples off. ] 1. The candle should be blowed out. 12. I perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present laid down and ris much refreshed. 13. Was the cow drove indicative; as, love, love-d, love-d; count, count-ed to pastur~? 14. The plastering has fell from the ceiling. count-ed. Cor.-cct all errors iH the use of irregnlar ""r'"' yott n•au notice in your .,onversation wllh you1· scltool-mntcs. 2. An Irregular Verb is one which docs not form its Q.uEl!TIONS.-Wlmt Is a regnlar verb? An Irregular verb? A defect­ past t.ense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to ive verb? Which nre the defective verbs? What are redundant verbs? Give examples. ' ' .. -

120 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. COMPOSITION. 121

IV. "We heard the owl hooting." 97. ORDER OF PARSING. Hooting is a J>articiple; it partakes of the properti~s. of n. ver.b 1. A Verb, and why? 2. Regular or irregular, and why? and an adjective : present participle; it denotes contmuance: it 3. Give its principal parts. 4. Copulative, transitive, or in­ belongs to "owl." Rule XII. "An adjective or a participle be­ transitive, and why? 5. Voice, and why? 6. Mode, and why ? longs to some noun or pronoun." 7. Tense, and why? 8. Person and n"!lmber, and why ? Rule. V. " I study to improve." To improve is ·a verb; regular ; give the principal. parts; tran­ 98. MODELS FOR PARSING. sitive· active voice · inGnitive mode; it expresses action without nffi10Ming, it: it depends' ~· upon "study." Rule X VI . "A n m-. I. "Liberty is sweet." finitive not used as a noun, depends upon the word it limits." Is is a verb; it is a word which denotes being: irregular; it does not form its pnst tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present indicative: principal parts are pres. am, 99. COMPOSITION. past ind. was, perf. pii.rt. been: copulative; it asserts the predi­ cate of the subject: indicative mode; it asserts a fact: pre.sent Rend tfie following de1tcription <&number of tbnu, then r eproduce_ it fron• 11ie11iory: tense; it denotes present time: third. per.son, &ingular number, to SUGAR. agree with its subject "liberty." Rule XIII. "A verb must Sugar is obtn.ined from many plants. The sweet tMte of all agree with its subject in person and number." kinds of fruit is owing to the sugn.r in their juices. Grapes II. "I shall go, if you remain." contn.in grnpn-sugn.r, which mn.y bo 11e(\n in 11mn.ll, white grains in raisins, or drieci grapes. The snp of thn maple and some Shall go is a verb; irregular: give its principn.l pn.rts; intran.si other fm·eRt tree's contains a large nmount of sugar. In France, tive; it does not require nn object to complete its meaning, it is mn.cln from bPct-root.'I in ln.rg<'

' ,, t1 122 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. CAUTIONS. 123

Describe the process of tapping tlie Maple-tree, gathering the Sap, Caution 11.-Tense-forms should express time in har­ and ntakinu Maple S"fla•·· - mony with that indicated by other parts of the sen­

Analy:11e tlie followinu scntenemr, and parse the ,.0 .,.. ,,, pron0 ,.,.,., tence. a~ectioo•, t1erb11, and participles: Ex.-1. They have visited us yesterday. 2. You mn.y take 3. I 1. The earth rings hollow from below. 2. We soon shall a walk after you finish your task. Ile was tn.rdy every day ! reach the boundless sea. 3. The night was tempestuous. this week. 4. I would help you, if you ca.rt 't get some one I ' 4. He should be more industrious. 5. Remember thy Creator. else to do so. 5. He was under obligations to have assisted 6. The poor must work in their grief. 7. I could not learn me. that lesson. 8. He was beaten with many stripes. 9. Clarence has been chosen captain. 10. They might H'ave Caution 111.-General truths should be expressed in finished their task yesterday. 11. The crops were destroyed the present .tense. by grasshoppers. 12. The girls were playing croquet. 13. He did not return my umbrella. 14. Is he writing a letter? Ex.-1. I have heard that en.ch star wai; a sun. 2 I always 15. Help us to help each other. 16. Shake off the dust that thought that mctcorR were falling starR. 3. What did you say blinds thy sight. was the capital of Indiana? 4. I should think it was time for · 17. No cheating nor bargaining will ever get a. single thing school to be dismissed. 5. 1 always thought that dew fell. I out of Nature's "establishment" at half price.-Ruskin. . I 18. T~ink that day lost whose low descending sun ,., Caution IV.-Do not use t.hc perfect participle to Views from thy hand no noble action done. ,, express past time, nor t.hc past tense form instead 19. May is a pious fraud of the almanac A ghastly parody of real spring, ' I of the perfect participle. Shaped out of snow and breathed with eastern winds.­ .. Ex.-1. He come here last week. 2. He done it: I seen Lowell. him. 3. The tree had fell, and it was broke in two. 4. The JJl'rite the ftrst two sentences of a composition on Lazy Boys and squirrel bad ran up a tree. 5. Ile set down on a log. 6. I parse tlie ~ . ' have saw the man. Finial~ me composition. Caution V.-Avoid the inelegant use of participles in place of other forms. 100. FALSE SYNTAX. Ex.-1. Going to Congress is no evidence of greatness. 2. I Caution 1.-Never use will for shall, uor would for do not like being punished. 3. Ile neglected the plowing of should. his land. 4. Boys, be ashamed of being found in bad company. Ex.-1. I was afraid I would be hurt. 2. If I would try, Caution Vl.-Do not use isn't or aint for is not, I would learn fast. 3. I shall go; no one will prevent me. have n't or haint for have not, 'taint for it is not, 4. I would be very careless if I would leave my books at home. 5. Should I be punished if I would play truant? might of for might have, et.c.

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' 124 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. T HE ADVERB. 125

Ex.-1. 'Taint ono RWallow that nmkc11 a summer. 2.• fane 6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions, How much 1 ho.int got her lesson. 3. Aint you going to tl1e concert? How little1 4. Samuel might of Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words used and par~ed as a single adverb; as, "In general," "hand in hand," "no Correct tlte foliowtnu 11entenees by t•eferenee to ll1iles JI.III and XIY: nwre. " I. Henry an

101. THE ADVERB.-OLASSES.

1. Adverbs are divided into five classes: Adverbs 109. COMPA.RISON OF ADVERBS. of Time, Place, Gause, Manner, and Degree• . 1. Many adverbs admit of comparison. 2. Adverbs of Time answer the questions, Wlien1 How long1 How often1 2 Three adverbs n.rc compared by adding er and est to the sim~lo form, viz.: fast, faster, fastest; often, oftener, oftenest; soon, Ex.-After, again, always, early, never, frequently, hereafter, soo11er, soonest. lately, immediately, now, often, seldom, then, when, etc. 3. Adverbs ending in ly arc usually compared by .prefixing 3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Where 1 Whitl1er 1 most las and least to the simple form·; as, wisely, more Whence1 more a nd • · l wisely,. most wisely ; swiftly, less swiftly, least swift Y· · Ex.-Above, below, hither, here, there, herein, whence, some­ 4. Some adverbs are compared irregularly; as, well, better, where, far, yonder, forth, aloof, away, backwards, first, etc. best; little, less, least. 4. Adverbs of Cause answer the questions, Why1 Wherefore, Ex.-Wherefore, therefore, then, why? .r 103. ORDER OF PARSING. 5. Adverbs of Manner answer the question, How1

. Ex.-Amiss, anyhow, well, badly, easily, sweetly, indeed, 1. An adverb, nml why? 2. Compare it• 3. Tell what iii nay, no, perhaps, peradventure, perchance, etc. modifies. Rule.

' 126 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE PREPOSITION. 127

'! plant raised? 4. How procured and prepared for food or man­ ufacture? 5. How manufactured: products of manufacture? 104. MODELS FOR PARSING. 6. In what forms ~ml for w hut purposes used?

· I. "The soldiers fought bravely." Hay. 8trnw. Stn.rch. A pMch. Cnoutchouc. Bravely is an adverb ; it is used to modify the meaning of o. Flour. Paper. Vinegar. An orange. A strawberry. verb: con:pared, po8. br:avely, com. more bravely, sup. most bravely; 1t modifies "fought." Rule XVII. "Adverbs modify Wrltr. t1w jlf'flt ftoo Rf'11.f.t'n(

Analyze the following Bf'nfenees, and pa1'B6 the nouns, pf'onouns adjeeth•l'B, f!ef'bR, and adverbs: ' 106. THE PREPOSITION. 1: I Rn.w hi~ frequently. 2. You must call oftc>n. 3. Ilow rapidly the moments fly. 4. Ile ~n.s ' becn reproved again and I. The relations between objects of thought are sometimes again. 5. Pcrhnp!'l he can tell you. 6. Doubtless, he is a wise so obvious that they need no expression. This occurs when man. 7. Peradventure, tho olcp. 8. I hnvo nouns denoting time, distance, measure, direction, or value follow. not scon him Rincc I returned from California. 9. The mys­ verbs or ndjoctivcs; as, "Ile left yesterday;" "Ile lives 8outh tery will be explained by and by. 10. He visits us now and of this town." Such words are said to be in the objective then. case without a governing word. 11. Live and love, 2. The names of things following the po.ssive forms of the Doing both nobly, because lowlily. verbs ask, lend, teach, refuse, provide, and some others are usually Live and work, strongly, because patiently.­ in the objective case without a governing word; as, " I was Mrs. Browning. asked a quution ; " "I was taught grammar." 3. The words of some phrases need not be separated in 105. COMPOSITION. parsing; as, in vain, on high, round and round, in general, etc. Such combinations may be parsed as single words. Wf'ite n deBC1'iption of nn ~ usbig tiie foll0t.t1fng 4. Sometimes two prepositions are used together, forming a Plan.-1. Form. 2. Parts-peel, pulp, etc. 3. Color. 4. c

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' 128 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE CONJUNCTION. 129

108. MODELS FOR PARSING. 109. THE OONJUNOTION.

11 They went aboard the .ship." Conjunctions are divided into two general classes: Ooordi­ Aboard is a preposition; it shows the relation between its nate and Subordinate. object and some other word: it shows the relation between 1. Coordinate Conjunctions are those which join ele­ "ship" and 11 went." Rule XVIII. "A preposition shows the relation of its object to the word upon which the latter ments of the. same rank or name. depends." Ex.-A nd, also, moreover, but, still, or, nor, however, otherwise, then, therefore, for, because, etc. .Analyze tlie following sentences, ancl parse the nouns and prepo- slUons: ------Rem.-Some of these are also used as subordinate conjunc­ 1. A lark reared her brood amid the corn. 2. They wan­ " tions. dered in throngs down the valley. 3. Emma came from the village, through the woods, to our house. 4. We have seen 2. Subordinate Conjunctions are those which join the moon rising behind the eastern pines. · 5. I came from ·elements of different rank or name. beyond Richmond to-day. (Parse 11 to-day" in the objective case without a governing word, by Rule VIII.) 6. I went to Ex.-That, if, unless, as, because, since, though, for, lest, ere, after, ·Detroit yesterday. 7. John came home last night. 8. They until, when, where, there, how, although, than, etc. allowed themselves no relaxation. 3. Correlative Conjunctions are coordinates or sub­ 9. To me the meanest flower that blows, can give Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.­ ordinates used in pairs, one referring or anBwering to Wordsworth. the other. 10. The locust by the wall Stabs the noon-silence with his sharp alarm. Ex.-Both - and, as - as, so - as, so - that, either - or, A single hay-cart down the dusty road neither-nor, if-then, though-yet, nevertheless, not only Creaks slowly, with its driver fast asleep -but also, whether-or, or-or, nor-nor. On the load's top.- Whittier. Rem.-Such combinations as as if, as though, as well as, as Write the fl,rst two sentences of a clescrfption of Spruce Gum, and. .!oon as, f orasmuch as, in so much that, but also, but likewise, not ~ the prepositions. only, etc., may be parsed as single conjunctions or conjunctive Fln,sh the composition. f adverbs. QUESTIONS -What ts a preposition? Do the relations between ob­ jects of thought always need ilxpresslon? When do they not need ex­ 110. ORDER OF PARSING. pression? What words are In the objective ca.~e without a governing word? What ts a complex preposition? Can the words In all phrases iI be toepnrated? How should such combinations be parsed? A Conjunction, and why? 2. Coordinate or subordinate, ~ . 1. Repeat the order of parsing a preposition. I and why? 3. What does it connect? Rule. El. Or.-9. i I I 11

' 130 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. THE INTERJECTION. 131

In the manufacture of iron, the ore is first roasted, usually 111. MODELS FOR PARSING. in the open air. Many of the substances associated with the metal aro driven off by this process. It is next subjected to I. "Ellen and Mary study algebra." a very great heat in a blast furnace. This process is called smelting. The metal is melted by the intense heat, and is And is a con.junction; it connects words: coordinate; it con­ drawn off from the bottom of the furnace into channels made nects words of the same rank or name: it connects "Emma" and ."Mary." Rule XIX. "Conjunctions connect words, in sand. It is then called pig iron. Pig iron is converted into wrought iron by being again phrases, members, and clauses." smelted and stirred; after which, while still hot, it is ham­ II. "Neither Ellen nor Mary learned the lesson.'' .mered and rolled into bars. Wrought iron is the strongest and the most tenacious ·of all metals, and is therefore used Neither ... nor ... are conjunctions; correlative; one refers or where great strain has to be resisted. Separate pieces can answers to the other: "neither" introduces the sentence and also be welded, or beaten into one. mass, better than pieces "nor" connects "Ellen" and "Mary:" Rule XIX. ' .,of any other metal. .Analy21e the following sentences, and parse the co11.junctlonat Parse all the conj1tnctio11.s in three sentences of yottr reading lesson. 1. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 2. He came and Q,UESTIONS.-What ls a conjunction? Into how many classes are conjunctions dlvlded? What are e<>Ordlnate conjunctions? Subordi­ went like a pleasant thought. 3. Wisdom is the principal nate conjunctions? Correlative conjunctions? How should as if, not thing; therefore get wisdom. 4. We can not thrive unless we only, etc., be parsed 'l are industrious. 5. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction. him. 6. lie was not only proud, but vain also.

113. THE INTERJECTION. 112. COMPOSITION. 1. Interjections are expressions ·of emotion only. Bead the following description three or four ilmes, then reproduce it from memory: They are called interjections because they are thrown IRON. in between connected parts of discourse, though gen­ Iron is a heavy, solid, incombustible metal, of a white color erally found at the commencement of a sentence. when pure. Its most useful property is its hardness, which is greater than that of any other metal. It can be ma.de into 2. Most words when used as exclamations may be steel, which is next in hardness to the diamond. treated as interjections; as, " What I are you mad? " Like most other meta.ls, iron is rarely found in a pure "Revenge I" cried he. state, being associated with oxygen, sulphur, and other sub­ s~ances. The mixture is called iron ore, and varies much in quality and value. It is found in all countries, and is very 114. ORDER OF PARSING. abundant in the United States, where valuable deposits of it are found in the neighborhood of coal. 1. An Interjection, and why? 2. Rule.

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' 132 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ELLI.PSIS•• 133

115. MODEL FOR PARSING. 117. ELLIPSIS.

"Eh I nre you sure of it?" 1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words of Ehr is an interjection; it denotes some sudden emotion. a sentence. The words omitted are said to be under­ Rule XX. "An interjection has no dependence upon other stood. words." Rem.-If required in analysis or parsing, the words omitted .l't1rse all flui ·words in fhf! following llM&fencrs: _, must .be supplied. 1. Hah I it is a sight to freeze one I 2. Ah I ha I you thought me blind, did you? 3. Oh I Oh I 'tis foul! 4. O 2. All but the most important part of a sentence excellent young man! 5. Aias, what have I seen or known! may be omitted. 6. Mercy, how it burns! 7. Fie upon thee! 8. Soft.I J did but dream. 9. Tush I tush I man, I made no reference to you. I. Nouns may be omitted; as, "Ye are Christ.'11 [disciples]." IO. Don't you hear? Don't you sec? 2. Pronouns may be omitted; as, "Come [tlcou ]." Hush! look! Jn my tree I 'm · as ~appy as happy can be I 3~ Adjectives may be omitted; as, "'fhat. kind of exercisb Q.UESTIONS.-What Is an Interjection? Why Is It called an tnterJec­ may be good for you, but not [good] for me." tlon? Repeat the order or parsing an !nter,Jectlon. 4. Articles may be omitted; as, " Henry has a slate and [a] pencil." 116. COMPOSITION. .! 5. Participles may be omitted; as, "This [being] done, Wb I resumed our journey." Writrepared for use. 6. Uses. 7. Describe the manufacture of 7. Adverbs may be omitted; as, "Ile acted honorably, but ;mall shot. you did not [act honorably]."

Df!llerl~e •ome of t1ie11e •ub•tanee•, 11J1lng the followi~au 8. Prepositions may be omitted; as, "He gave [to] me aIJ G~neral Plan.-1. Properties-color, weight, transparency, orange." >pamty, etc. .2. Where found. 3. With what associated. 4. 9. Conjunctions may be omitted; as, "A good, [and] wise, [low obtained. 5. How prepared for' use: separation of a and truthful friend." netal from its ore, refining, alloying, etc. 6. Uses. 10. Entire Phrases and Clauses may be omitted ; as, "You rin. Zinc. Glass. Brass. Copper. Arsenic. have more t-0

' 134 ELEMF~'l'ARY GRAMMAR. ABRIDGMEN'f. 135

MOD.EL FOR ANALYSIS. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. "Forward I" \ ... ~.sr.v I. "I knew it to be him." This is a sentence; exclamatory. Its sn.bject and predicate a,_r;t' AS· ~ . . · · l omitted by ellipsis. It is equivalent to "March yt forward.;, - '¥". This is a sentence; declarative; simp e. Ye is the subject; march, the predicate, which is ~odified by . 1 is the subject; knew, the predicate, whi~h is modified b! forward, an adverbial element. th bridged . proposition it to be him, eqmvalent to that it Q,UESTIONS.-Wbat is ellipsis? When are words said to be under­ wa~ ~e, an objective element. "It" is modified by "to be stood? What parts of a sentence may be omitted? him," an adjective element. • it .. 118. ABRIDGMENT. I I knew ITto be-him•

1. Complex Sentences arc often changed into simple • ! ones by abridging their subordinate clauses. II. " I was aware of its being he." Rem.-This is done by droppieg the subject or changing its This is a sentence; declarative; simple. case, and by changing the copula or verbal predicate to an - ~~ 1 is the subject; aware, the predicate; ~~s, the copula. \.\•i infinitive, a participial noun, or a participle. .,~ "A ware" is modified by the abridged propos1t1on of its being ~. he, equivalent to that it was he, ~n adverbial element. "Being" 2. A subordinate clause illms chaaged is called an Abridged is modified by "its," an adjective element. Proposition...... Rem.-When the copula or principal vfrb is ce-hge~ fo the i1•, I r.-l'Was : a.ware infinitive mode, a noun or pronoun~ used as subject or predi­ I I of being he. cate is changed to the objective ~8.se. ; ~ ,...... \ .. " . d" Ex.-" I knew that it was he" = " I k~ it to be liim." III. "The snow being deep, we could not procee . 3. When the copula or principal verb is changed·•to a parti­ l'J cipial noun, the subject is changed to the possessive case, bi.I~ . This is 'a sentence; declarative; simple. • . . a noun or pronoun used as the predicate, remains unchangtll · · $ · ' We is 'the subject; could proceed, the predicate, wh1~h 1s in the nominative. .' +. ·~ · _' . mod'fi 1 e d by not• an adverbial element, and byb the abndgedh .tr,·•: n th~ snow being deep equivalent to ecause t e snow 1 , propos1·r 10 ' ,, . d'fi d b .. th " Ex.-" I was not aware that it was he"=" I was not aware 1 . ·~ . was deep, an adverbial element. "Snow ts mo 1 e Y e of its being he." ~-. •. and "being deep," both adjective elements. 4. When the copula or principal verb is changed to a partici­ we could ple, the subject is put in the nominative case absolute with it. Ex.-" The fair was not held, because the weath~r · was un­ favorable" = " The weather being unfavorable, the fair was not held."

' 136 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. COMPOSITION. 137

Analyze the following •entence•: Ex.-" The storm rages furiously." "Rages furiously" is the 1. Attention I 2. On, Stanley, on! 3. Magnificent! 4. A logical predicate. "The wind blows with great violence."­ rope to the side I 5. How now, my old friend? ~. Arey~ " Blows with great violence" is the logical predicate; "blows" cold ?-Somewhat. 7. Honest, my ford? 8. Better late than ''°'• is the grammatical predicate. never. Rem.-All the parts of a sentence may be simple or com­ . 9. I ~ished him to be a farmer. 10. His being a foreigner plex; but' it is not necessary, in analysis, to distinguish them is no d1sgraca. 11. No rain having fallen, the crops were de- as such. The distinction, however, may be observed with the 11tro~ed .. 12. There is no danger· of his falling. 13. The storm subject and the predicate. contmumg, we dropped anchor. 14. Having led an active life, he could not endure confinement. 15. Being human, he is Point oiit the urntnmnticnl nnd loylcnl lf1'l~/rct• nnd predicates ln not perfect. 16. Honor being lost, all is lost. any of the pre<'eilinu exercises r;;;;;;;;lysis. Q.tTF.STIONS.-Wlmt ls the grammatlcnl subject of n proposition? The complex or loglcnl subject? The grammatical predicate? The complex or loglcnl prctltcate? 119. MODIFIED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. I t 120. COMPOSITION. 1. The Grammatical Subject of a proposition is the unmodified subject. .llcnil Uui fnllowh•fl -dllserlptio1• a number of time•, then reprodu<'e l /f'OH& tl&tJllWt'Y: • ' it Ex.-" A great storm is raging." "Storm" is the grammat- A HURRICANE IN THE WEST INDIES. ical subject. .., , A huhicane in the West Indies is generally preceded by an 2.. The or Logical Subject is . the . a~e-inspiring stillness in the atmosphere. The air becomes ~omplex ~! close and heavy. The sun is red, and at night the stars seem mat1cal subject taken with all its modifiers."" unusually large. The mercury in the barometer falls rapidly, Ex.-"A great storm is raging." "A great storm" is the and the thermometer usually indicates a rise in the tempera­ logical subject. "He who runs may read." "He who runs" )' ture. Darkness extends over the earth, but the upper atmos­ is the logical subject. phere is lighted up by flashes of lightning. The coming storm is first observed on the sea. Huge waves rise sud

' 139 138 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. RULES OF SYNTAX. with fear. The elements seem to be thrown into confusion, Rule 11.-A noun or pronoun used as the predicate ~nd the stability of nature to be destroyed. of a proposition, is in the nominative case. The next morning's sun shines upon a scene o~tt er deso­ .ation. Fertile valleys have been changed to dreary wastes. Rule 111.-A noun or pronoun used to limit 'the Uprooted trees, branches torn from their trunks, dead ani­ meaning of a noun denoting a different person or nals, and the ruins of houses have been strewed over the thing, is in the possessive case. and. In some instances, the destruction is so complete that >hmters are unable to distinguish the boundaries of their Rem. t.-The limited noun is sometimes ·omitted; as, "We ~t.a.tes. visited St. Paul's [church]." Rem. 2.-The limited noun need not be plural because the rn•Uc a detl(J1'lption of an Eartltquake, usino tlte followlno possessive is plural; as, "Their intention was good." Plan.-1. Definition. 2. Cause. 3. Movements-horizontal, •ertical, etc. 4. Duration of shocks. 5. Effects. 6. Where Rule IV.-A noun or pronoun m;cd to limit the nost frequent. 7. Connection with volcanic eruptions. meanmg· o f a nonn or p ro11011n denoting the same person, place, or thing, is in the Ranrn case. 'JcscrUm Rmnc of t11tlRC p1umomen.n, 1ulno "'" followln.o General Plan.-1. Indications of occurrence. 2. Cause. 3. Rem. t.-A noun may be in apposition with a sentence, and ~rogress from beginning to end. 4. Consequences or effects, a sentence with a noun; ns, "/le is dangero11sly ill-a f act that ,f whatever character. can not be denied;" "Remember Franklin's maxim, 'God helps them that help themselves.' " • firage. A hail-storm. Formation of dew. Rem. 2.-A word in apposition with another, IS frequently •sunset. An avalanche. A volcanic eruption. ' ' introduced by as or or ; as, "As mayor of the city, I feel ag· • snow-storm. A thunder-storm. An eclipse of the sun. grieved;" "mayor" being in npposit1on· · w1'th " I : " ." ,:r1aize,•r · or Indian corn, is extensively cultivated."

121. RULES OF SYNTAX. Rule V.-A noun or pronoun used independently is in the nominative absolute case. 1. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of Rule Vl.-Thc object of a transitive verb in the act­ ~ e construction of sentences. ive voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case. Rem.-All the exercises in the formation of sentences, in Rem. 1.-Some verbs have two objects, one representiug n iis work, are exercises in syntax. person, the other a thing; as, "He ask ~d m.e a qu est i~n.". When such verbs are used in the passive vowe, 1f the thing IS made 2. A Rule of Syntax is a statement of the manner nominative, the person is governed by a prepo~ition, exp~esse? l which words should be used in sentences. or understood: if the person is mnde nomino.t1ve, the thmg IS in the ohjcctive case without a governing wonl; . . . Rule 1.-A noun or pronoun m~ed as the subject of a Rem. 2.-A noun or pronoun following tho mfimtivc to be, u1 roposition, is in the nomiuati vc case. in the same case as a word which precedes it; as, "I did not

' 140 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. RULES OF SYNTAX. 141 think it to be him;" "him" is in the same case· e.s ·11 it:" · Rule Xl.-A pronoun with two or more antecedents "lflhom do you take me to be?" "w horn" is in the same case in the singular, connected by or or nor, must be as "me." See section ll8. singular. Rule Vll.-The object of a preposition is in the · Rem.-When one of the antecedents is plural, it should be objective case. placed last, and the pronoun should be plural; as, "Neither the farmer nor his. sons were aware of their danger." Rule Vlll.-Nouns denoting time, distance, measure, or value, after verbs and adjectiveR, are in the ob­ Rule Xll.-An adjective or participle belongs to jective case without a governing word. some noun or pronoun. Ex.-" He came home yesterday." Both "home" and "yes­ Rem.-An adjective used as a predicate, belongs to the terday" are in the objective case without a governing word. subject. Rem.-Nouns and pronouns following the pa..ssive forms of Rule · Xlll.-A verb must agree with its subject in certain verbs, may be said to be in the objective case without a governing word; as, "I was taught grammar;" "He was person and number. offered a situation." Rule XIV.-A verb, with two or more subjects in the singular connected by and, must be plural. Rule IX.-Pronouns must agree with their anteced­ Rem.-When two or more sulrlects in the singular are liut ents in gender, person, and number. .l. different names for the same thing, the verb should be singu­ Rem.-A pronoun used instead of a collective noun, denot­ lar; as, "Descent and fall to us is adverse." When two or ing unity, should be in the neuter singular: one used instead more singular su~jects are · emphatically distinguished, the of a collective noun, denoting plurality, should be plural, tak­ verb should be singular; as, "Every bird and beast cowers ing the gender of the individuals composing the collection. before the wild blast."

Rule X.-A pronoun with two or more antecedents Rule XV .-A verb, with two or more subjects in the in the singular connected by and, must be plural. singular connected by or or nor, must be singular. Rem.-When the antecedents are the names of the same Rule XVl.-An infinitive not used as a noun, de­ person or thing, the pronoun must be singular: when they are pends upon the word it limits. limited by each, every, or no, the pronoun must be singular: when the antecedents, taken together, are regarded as a single Rule XVll.-Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, par­ thing, the pronoun must be singular. ticiples, and adverbs. Ex.-" The patriot and statesman receives his reward; " "Each Rem.-Adverbs also modify phrases and entire propositions; officer, each private, did his duty; " " Bread and milk was brought as, "He lives just around the corner;" "Verily, ye are the us, and we ate it." people."

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142 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. LETTER-WRITING. 143

Rule XVlll.-A preposition shows the relation of its a little below the middle of the envelope. Below this, and a object to the word upon which the latter depends. little to tho right of the first letters of the name, write the nn.me of tho post-office. This is usually the name of some Rule XIX.-Conjunctions connect · words, phrases, township, village, or city. The no.me of the county should be clauses, and members. written below and a little to the right of the name of the post-office, and the name of the state in the lower right-hand Rule XX.-Interjections have no dependence upon corner of the envelope. The name of the county is sometimes other words. written in the lower left-hand corner. If the letter is to be sent to a foreign country, the name of that country forms· the . .· . last line of the superscription. A stamp should be placed on 122. LETTER-WRITING. '· the envelope, in the upper right-hand corner, before a letter is sent to the post-office to be mailed. ~RAL ~EssoN.-1 have o. letter in my hand. You may look I will now open my letter. You see that the name of the at . 1t. First, however, look at the superscription, or what is \ city in which the writer lives, and the do.y of the month on written on the envelope. You seo tlrnt it looks like this: which tho lnttor wns written, are placed ncnr the top of the page. Thi11 part of n. letter is called tho date. (See page 144.) After writing the date, my friend wrote my name on the next line beneath, beginning about half an inch from the left side of the page, and the name of my post-office on the line , below that, and about half an inch to the right. The words ,.. "Dear Sir" were written next, beginning about an inch and T::J a half from the left side of the page. This part of a letter is called the address. Some call "Dear Sir," etc., when written in this way, the introduction or the complimentary address. These words are, however, only a part of the address. I·j The body of the letter, which contains who.t the writer wished ~·~ - ~~, me to know, wns then written; after that, the signature. The .' first word of the body of the letter was written under the last @16~, word of the address. Some begin this part of a letter f4rther to the right. The words " Yours truly" should begin a little ~~~~., to the right of the center of the line. Instead of these words, some prefer "Yours faithfully," "Very respectfully," etc. The ~~- signature, and, in fact, every part of a letter, should be writ­ ten as legibly as possible. Avoid all attempts at "flourishes." A letter introducing a friend or an acquaintance should This is a good form for the superscription of a letter; but ;. not be sealed; and it is customary to write "Introducing other forms are allowable and in common use, Write the I A. E!UJ.," or 8ome similar expression, in the lower left- name and title of the person to whom the letter is to be sent, n., hnnd corner of the envelope. · ·' · ' ·

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144 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 145

123. MISOELLANEOUS EXEROISES.

(DATE.) 1. She saw a glory in each cloud. 2. Still waters are com­ <$odo.n, @//6-rukl.,

18. Princes have but their titles for their glories; 25. The timid it concerns to ask their way, An outward honor for an inward toil.-Shakespeare. And fear what foe in caves and swamps may stay; To make no step · unt~l the event is known, 19. My soul is an enchanted boat,. And ills to come, as evils past, bemoan. · Which, like a. sleeping 1:1wan, doth float Not so the wise; no coward watch he keeps, Upon the silver waves of thy sweet singi~g; To spy what danger on his pathway creeps. And thine doth like an angel sit - Go where he will, the wise man is at home- .· • Beside the helm conducting it, Uis hearth the earth, his hall the azure dome.-Emerson. •.,_'· . While all the winds with melody are ringing.-Shelley. .-.· 26. Every worm beneath the moon 20. The year leads 'round the seasons in a choir Draws different threads, and late or soon Forever charming and forever new, Spins toiling out his own cocoon.-Tennyson. Blending the grand, the beautiful, the gay, The mournful and the tender in one strain.-Percival. r\' 27. Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, With 'charm of earliest birds; pleasant the sun, 21. King David's limbs were weary. He ha.d fled I When first on this delightful land he spreads From far .Jerusalem; and now he stood, ,. His orient bea~s, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower, With his faint people, for a little rest Glistening with dew.-Milton. Upon the shores of Jordan. The light wind Of morn was stirring, and he bared his brow 28. The day hath gone to God,- 'fo its refreshing breath; for he had worn Straight--like an infant's spirit, or a mocked The mourner's covering, and he had not felt And mourning messenger of grace to man.-Bailey. That he could see his people until now.-Willis. 29. It is a little thing to speak a phrase 22. One hour beheld him since the tide he stemmed, Of common comfort, which, by daily use, Disguised, discovered, conquering, ta.'en, condemned; Has almost lost its sense; yet on the ear A chief on land, an outlaw on the deep, .,... Of him who thought to die unmourned, 'twill full Destroying, saving, prisoned, and s.sleep.-Byron. ' Like choicest music.-Talfourd.

23. Who e'er, amidst the sons 30. A song to the oak, the brave old oak, Of reason, valor, liberty, and virtue, Who hath ruled in the greenwood long; Displays distinguished merit, is a noble Here's health and renown to his broad green crown, I Of Nature's own crea~ing.-Thomson. I And his fifty arms so strong.-Chorley. 24. He that attends to his interior self, I 31. J,11.bor is life! 'Tis the still water faileth; That has a heart, and keeps it; has a mind · 1- Idleness ever despaireth, bewaileth; That hungers, and supplies it; and who seeks Keep the watch wound, for the dark rust assaileth; A social, not a dissipated life, Flowers droop a.nd die in the sti.llness of noon.­ Has business.-aiwper. Jtrances S. Osgood.

' PUNUI'UATION. 149

Rule 11.-The members of a compound sentence, when ,• short, and connected by conjunctions, should be separated r I• by commas. Ex.-He was not fond of the technical language of meta­ PART III. physics, but he had grappled, like the giant he was, with its most formidable problems.-Everett.

Rule 111.-Two correlative clauses should. be separated· by PUNCTUATION. commas. Ex.-As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made 124. DEFINITION. alive. 1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written dis­ Rule IV.-Each couplet of words arranged in pairs should course into sentences and parts of sentences, by me~ns be set off by commas. of points and marks. Ex.-Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and my 2. The principal marks used in punctuation are the heart to this vote. following: Rule V.-Words placed in opposition to each other should Comma,. . ' Exclamation Point, be separated by commas. Semicolon, . Dash, Colon, Curves, . () Ex.-Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. Period, . . Brackets, (] Interrogation Point, ? . ... c .,. . Rem.-This rule applies, also, to phrases and clauses placed ' in opposition or antithesis to each other. 125. THE COMMA. Rule Vl.-When a verb is omitted, its place is usually sup­ plied by a comma. The Comma denotes the slightest degree of separa­ Ex.-W ar is the law of violence; peace, the law of love. tion between the parts of a sentence. Rule 1.:-Two or more nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, or Rule VII.-'Transposed words, phrases, and clauses are usu­ adverbs, m the same construction, should be separated by ally set off by commas. ·· commas. Ex.~l. Integrity is, no doubt, the first requisite. 2. Whom Ex.-1. Spring, summer, autumn, and winter are called the ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you. · seasons. 2. You, he, and I were boys together. 3. David was a brave, wise, and pious man. 4. In a letter, we may advise, Rule .Vlll.-Adverbs used independently, or modifying an exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. 5. Success depends upon entire proposition, should be set off by commas. our acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. Ex.-Indeed, you must wait a while. (148)

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151 150 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. . PUNCTUATION.

. Rule IX.-Nouris and pronouns in the nominative absolute Rule 111.-Semicolons should separate the members of com­ case by pleonasm or direct address, should be separated from pound sentences, if the connective is omitted, or if their parts the rest of the sen~ence . by commas. · are separated by commas. Ex.-1. Straws swim upon the surface; pearls lie at the . Ex.~l. Our souls, how heavily they go, to reach immortal ;.I Joys. 2. Take, 0 boatman, thrice thy feel bottom. 2. Philosophers assert that nature is unlimited in ·.\ her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; I Rule X.-Nouns in apposition, modified by other w~rds than ) that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future '.he, should be set off by commas. generations will · continue to make discoveries, of which we Ex.-The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. , have not the least idea. Rem.-Nouns in apposition, introduced by or or as should I ,• i 127. THE OOLON. 1e set of by commas. · · ' l l Rule Xl.-A direct quotation should be set off by commas. > 'fhe Coton denotes a degree of separation greater Ex.-Quoth the raven, "Neverm~re." than that indicated by the semicolon. "' Rule 1.-The colon should precede an example or a lengthy Rule Xll.-Words repeated for emphasis should be set ~ff quotation, and follow the introduction to a speech. y commas. · Ex.-The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of Ex.-Verily, verily, I say unto you. ·the Deity in these words:' "God is love." Rule 11.-The members of a compound 'sentence, whose parts are set off by semicolons, should be separated by colons. 126. THE SEMIOOLON. Ex.-We do not say that his error lies in being a good The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation greater member of ,society; this, though only a circumstance at pres­ ent is a very fortunate one: the error lies in his having dis· ian that denoted by the comma. , carded the authority of God as his legislator; or, rather, in Rule 1.-Th~ semicolon should be used before as, namely, his not having admitted the infiuence of that authority over .c., introducing an example or an illustration. his mind, heart, or practice.

Ex.-There are four seasons; namely, spring, summer, I . 1tumn, and winter. 128. THE PERIOD. Rule 11.-Clauses having a oommon dependence should be The Period denotes the greatest degree of separa­ parated by semicolons. tion. Ex.-Exp~rie.nce teaches us, that an entire retreat from Rule 1.-The period should be placed at the end of a de· '.rl~ly affairs is not what religion requires; nor does it even JOin a long retreat from them. clarative or an imperative sentence.

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152 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. PUNCTUATION.. 153

Ex.-1. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 2. Rule 11.-The dash is frequently used before and after a Walk quietly. parenthesis-the curves being omitted. Ru~e 11.-The period should be used after every abbreviated Ex.-They see three of the cardinal virtues of dog or man­ word. cou_rage, ·endurance, and skill-in intense action. Ex.-H. G. Lloyd, Esq.; Mich., Ind., Ill.; Ps.lxxv,6,7; Rem.-The dash is frequently used where. there is an omis­ Chap. XIV. sion of letters or figures; as, L-d N-h; i. e., Lord North : Ps. xxxv, 6-10; i.e., Ps. xxxv, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.

129. INTERROGATION POINT. 132. THE OURVES. The Interrogation Point denotes that a question is asked. The Curves inc1ude an expression which has no Ex.-1. Where is Singapore? 2. Do you own this farm? necessary connection, in sense or construction, with the sentence in which it is inserted. Rem.-Such an expression is called a parenthesis. 130. EXOLAMATION POINT. Rule 1.-The curves should include those words which may The Exclamation Point denotes passion or emotion. be omitted without injury to the sense. Ex.-1. My gun was on my arm (as it always is in that Rule 1.-The exclamation point should be placed after ex­ pressions denoting strong emotion. district), but I let the stoat kill the. rabbit. 2. Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know), Ex.-1. Alas, poor Yorick! 2. Fie on youl Virtue alone is happiness below.-Pope. Rem.-The curves sometimes include letters or figures used 131. THE DASH. to enumerate subjects or divisions of a subject; as, "(a) What it does; (b) What it is." The Dash is a straight, horizontal line, placed be·· tween the part.-; of a sentence. 133. THE BRAOKETS. Rule 1.-'l'he dash should be used where a sentence breaks off abruptly, or where there is a ch~nge in its meaning or Brackets are used to include words, phrases, or construction. clauses explaining what precedes them, or correcting Ex.-1. Dim-dim-I faint-darkness comes over me. 2. If an error. thou art he, so much respected· once-but oh I how fallen f Ex.-1. They [the Indians] are fast disappearing. 2. I dif· how degraded I fer with [from] you in opinion.

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154 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. PUNUfUATION. 155

X. The Tiide [ fl ] annexes to n the sound of y ; as, canon, 134. OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. pronounced canyon : the Cedilla [ <;] gives to c the sound of s; . ' as, fa9ade: the Macron [ - ] marks a long sound, as i'n tone: I. The Apostrophe ['] is used to denote the omission of one the Breve.[v], a short sound, as in ton: the Dieresis[··] sep­ or more letters, or to mark the possessive case; as, "You 're arates two vowels into two syllables; as, aeriform. mifltaken;" "The Queen's English." XI. The Acute Accent['] commonly denotes a sharp sound; I I. The Hyphen [ - ] is used (I) to join the parts of com­ the Grave Accent ['] a depressed sound; the. Circumflex Ac­ pound words and expressions; as, "Nut-brown maid;" (2) to cent [ \ or -, ], a broad sound. divide words into syllables; as, "eon-fu-sion; " (3) after a syl­ .,• Rem.-In most reading books, the acute accent denotes .the lable the end of a line, when the rest of the word is carried · ~t .. rising inflection; the grave accent, the falling inflection; the to the next line. circumflex, a union of the acute and the grave. · III. Quotation Marks [" "] are used to sl1ow that a passage Suggestion to Teachers.-Rcquire pupils to give rules for is taken verbatim from some author; as, "Shakespeare says, the use of all the points found in their reading lesson. Se­ 'All the world's a stage.'" lect pam'l ag <~s from good authot·R, and prononnco tho words in consecutive order, ns in a spelling lesson, without indicating IV. The Index [.u@"'] and Asterism [***] point out a pas­ the grammatical construction by tone of voice or 'inflections. sage to which special attention is called; as, "Jltir Be punctual Let the pupils write these as pronounced, and separate them in your attendance at school." into sentences and parts of sentences by the proper points. V. The Asterisk [*],the Obelisk, or Dagger [tJ, the Deuble Punet~ate properly the following ea:ample, an_d observe the rules Dagger [ t ], the Section [ *], the Parallels [II], and the Para­ for the use of capitals: graph [if], refer to notes in the margin, or at the bottom of · j his personal appearance contributed to the attraction of his the page. social intercourse his countenn.nce frame expression and pres­ VI. The Brace. [ ,_.....___] connects a number of words with a ence arrested and fixed attention you could not pass him un­ common term. noticed in a crowd nor fail to observe in him a man of high mark and character no one could see him and not wish to VII. The Paragraph [if] denotes the beginnin~ of a new see more of him and this alike in public and private. subject. edward everett, Q,UESTIONS.-What is punctuation 1 Define the principal marks used VIII. The Section rnJ denotes the division of a treatise.. in punctuation. ·Repell.t the rules for their use. \Vhat docs the.apostrophe denote? For what purposes Is the hyphen IX. The Caret [ A J i& used in writing to show that some­ used? The quotation marks? The Index and asterlsm? The asterisk, etc.? What does the brace connect'! What does the paragrapll denote? thing has been omitte.d. The section? a not countries For what purpose ls the caret used? What cfoes the tilde denote'! Tho ccdllln? Tho mncron? Tho brovo? The dlcrcRIR? Whnt dom1 f.110 Ex.-The scsons are alike in all of the same region. acute accent denote? The grave nccent? 'l'ho clrcurnilox accent? What /\ 1\ A do these denote ln most reading books?

' ! IRREGULAR VERflS. 157

J'F.RFF.CT J'ERP'lr.CT :I PRE!IENT. PAST, PARTICIPLE. PRESENT. PAST. PARTICIPLE. APPENDIX. ·f' cleft, Freeze, froze, frozen. "I Cleave, clove, cloven, Freight, freighted, fraught, R, j (•plit,) r·'~clave, cleaved. {got, Get, got, Cling, clung, clung. gotten. {clothed, clothed, Gild, gilt, R. gilt, R. ffiREGULAR VERBS. . i Clothe, clad, clad. Gird, girt, R, girt, R. given. The following list contains the Principal Parts of most of Come, came, come. Give, gave, the irregular verbs. Those marked Cost, cost, cost. Go, went, gone. R have also the regular " forms. Creep, crept, crept. Grave, graved, graven, R. Crow, crew, n. crowed. Grind, ground, ground. PRESENT. Pl

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' .58 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ' j IRREGULAR VERB.~. 159 PERFECT t PERFECT PERFECT PRESENT. PAST. PRESENT. PAST. PERFEC"l'. PRESENT. PAST. PRESENT. PAST PARTICIPLE. PABTIC'IPLE. PARTll'IPLE. PARTICIPLE. Seethe, sod, n. sodden, n. s~it, spit, swam, ~ie, {1ay lain. · 8pit, { Swim, { swum. (reohne), ' Shake, shook, shaken. spat, spitten. swum, 1ight, Jit, R. lit, R. Shape, shaped, shapen, R. Split, split, R. split, R, Swing, swung, swung. .oad, loaded. laden, Ii. Shav~, shaved, shaven, R. . Spoil, spoilt, R. spoilt, n. Take, took, taken. IOSe, lost, lost. Shear, shore, n. shorn, R. Spread, ilpread, spread. Teach, taught, taught. lake, made, made. Shed, shed, shed. sprang, Tear, tore, torn. Spring, { sprung. lean, meant, meant. Shine, shone, R. i;hone, n. sprung, Tell, told, told. [eet, met, met. Shoe, shod, shod. Stand, stood, stood. 'fhink, thought, thought. .\ [ow, mowed, mown, R. Shoot, shot, shot. Stave, sto\'e, n. 11tove, n. Thrive, throve, n. thriven, R. .•·.· ass, past, R." past. Show, showed, .shown. Stay, staid, R. staid, R. Throw, · threw, thrown. ay, paid, paid. Shred, shred, shred. Steal, ti tole, stolen. Thrust, thrust, thrust. Shut, shut, shut. Stick, 11tuck, stuck. trodden, en, {pent, R. pent, R. Tread, trod, { (inclose), sang, Sting, stung, stung. trod. l' Sing, { sung. plead, R. plead, R. sung, strid, Rtrid, Wake, woke, R. woke, n. lead, Stride, { pied, pled. sank, { strode, stridden. Wax, waxed, waxen, n. Sink, sunk. ut, put, put. { sunk, struck, Wear, wore, worn. Strike, struck, { stricken. Weave, wove, n. woven, n. nit, quit, n. quit, n. Sit, sat, snt. . ' ap, rapt, n. rapt, R. Slay, slew, slain. String, strung, strung. Wed, wed,n. wed, R: ead, read, read. Sleep, slept, slept. Strive, strove, striven. Weep, wept, wept. eave, reft, reft. Sling, E"lung, slung. strowed, . Wet, wet, It. wet, R. Strow, slrowe d , { end, rent, rent. Slink, slunk, slunk. strown. Whet, whet, n. whet, n. id, rid, rid. Slit, slit, R • . slit, R. swore, Win, won, won. Swear, { sworn. ridden, Smell, smelt, R. smelt, n. aware, W!nd, wound, wound. ide, rode, { rode. sm~tten, Sweat, sweat, R. sweat, n. Work, wrought,&. wrought,&. Smite, smote, { rang, sm1t. Sweep, swept, swept. Wring, wrung, wrung. ing, rung. { rung, Swell, swelled, swollen, n. Write, wrote, written. Sow, {sowed sown, n. ise, rose,, risen. (aoatter), ' ive, rived, riven, R. Speak, spoke, spoken. 11n, ran, run. Speed, sped, n. i;ped, R. UNIPERSONAL _VERBS.

~w, sawed, sawn, R. Spell, spelt, R. spelt, n. A Unipersonal Verb is one by which an act or state is ~y, said, said. Spend, spent, spent. asserted independently of any particular subject; as, " It e, saw, seen. Spill, spilt, R. spilt, R. snows;" " It behooves us to be watchful." In each of these ek, sought, sought. spun, Spin, spun. sentences, " it'' represents an indefinite subject. The term t, { set, set. span, "unipersonal" need not be used in parsing. • . 'l i/.. . . ' Ii\ ~l ~ - )' " 160 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ), v .

OAPl'l'AL LETTERS, ITALIOS, ETO.

I. The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital letter. • ..:, ; ...., II. The first word of every line of poetry should ..• ... begin with a capital letter. • III. Proper names of persons, places, days, etc.; should begin with capital letters. --.. "' IV. Titles of honor or distinction should begin with capital letters. V. All appellations of the Deity should begin with capital letters. VI. Words denoting races or nations should begin with capital letters. VII. Most words derived from proper names should begin with capital letters. VIII. Words of special importance may begin with capital letters. IX. I and O, used as single words, should be capi­ tals. X. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are fre­ . quently printed in capitals.

Rem. 1.-Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied by translators to explam the original. Rem. 2.-Jn manuscripts, one line drawn under a. word indi­ cates italics; two lines; SMALL CAPJTALs; three lines, CAPITALS.

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