The Northeast, as we delimit it for the purposes of this chapter, is =cult ktegrate in a cogent manner, and northeastern paleoethnobo~cal eU& has not provided balanced coverage of all the periods and subregions. this chapter, therefore, we define the Northeast narrowly, as an area &ding the boreal regions. Our focus is on the Great Lakes region, Atlantic and New England. This chapter deals with the Eastern Collecting, astern Coastal, and Northern Mixed Economy patterns. Ill g the past 20 years, researchers at the University of Toronto have J \\ tensi~elystudied a variety of plant remains collections. These include assem- tfa& Northeast from the late precontact Iroquoian seed-~arkerand Wallace sites neap orthwest end of Lake Ontario; the Auger, Ball, Bidmead, and Peden sites Georgian Bay in Huronia (Monckton 1992); the early Late Woodland GARYW. CRAWFORDAND DAVIDG. SMITH dB&, Cayuga Bridge, Meyer, and Forster sites (Bowyer 1995; Saunders 2; Smith and Crawford 1997); a number of Early Iroquoian sites in south- tern Ontario (Ounjian 1998); an Iroquoian site in New York State onckton 1988); the probable Algonkian Shawana and Providence Bay sites Manitoulin Island, the Hunter's Point site on Bruce Peninsula, and the ghland Lake site in the Madawaska Highlands (Crawford 1989; Goode 1993; Gernet 1992); and the Late Maritime Woodland Skull Island site in New 0th foragers and peoples with a mixed fora ck (Leonard 1991, 1996) (Figures 6.1 and 6.2). Because a single chap- farming economy lived in the Northeast in the ot do justice to all of the data available, we explore the paleoethno- past. About 40 distinct local populations occupi of the Northeast focusing on primary data from University of Toronto region stretching from the Atlantic coast west to the Gre earch. Data from the Seed-Barker and Wallace sites are reported here for and from the Arctic south to the headwaters are first time, as are summary metric data on cultigen remains from Ontario. Mississippi River. Despite this extraordinary cultural have made every attempt to appropriately integrate the University of researchers have discerned five cultural patterns through onto data with paleoethnobotanicd data from the rest of the Northeast. space: Eastern Collecting, Adena-Hopewell, Mississi t we outline the history of research in the region. Next we briefly dis- Northern Iroquoian, and Northeastern Coastal (Trig nvironmental history, emphasizing pollen data. Our approach in the The patterns that we distinguish di£fesomewhat quent text is to move from general to specific issues. First we summa- scheme. We consider ulterior New England groups aleoethnobotanical studies, grouped according to the three main cul- 2 s-i crops to be distinctive, ~articularlybecause they wer atterns on which we focus. The Eastern Collecting pattern is subdi- Algonkian rather than Iroquoian. Furthermore, because to four topics: (1) Paleoindian and Archaic, (2) Early and Middle I3 3 groups occupied the westernmost edge of the Northeast &and, (3) Late Woodland and Upper Mississippian (non-mixed-econ- H we feel that the label "Northern Iroquoian" is too limi examples), (4) and wild rice collecting. Discussion of the Northern 3 we prefer "Northern Mixed Economy." The New d pattern is split into two topics, Late Woodland 1 and Late Woodland 3' Algonkian mixed-economy groups are discussed in the 1% Middle, and Late). The history of crop husbandry is taken up in a 5 the Northeastern Coastal pattern, which subsumes gr ate section, as is a detailed examination of uldividual crops and anthro- 3 3 varying dependence on crops, including those with non me environments. t&

a-t 173 native plant remains. Sites of unspecified cultural affiliation brought the to In the 1960s and 1970s, paleoethnobotany suffered from a lack ofinsti- number of sites with native plant remains to 59 and the total number of tutional support in the Northeast. Eastern Canada lacked proper resources to 21 (Yamell 1964:2 1). Cultigen remains had been recovered from a larg completely. This is no longer entirely the case. In the 1980s and 1990s, field number of Late Woodland sites. Despite the paucity of archaeobotanical da schools and cultural resource management (CRM) work have regularly in the mid-1960s, Yamell succeeded in stimulatingpaleoethnobotanical rese hcluded flot~tion.In addition, two doctoral theses have focused on paleo- in the Northeast, and anyone researching Northeast paleoethnobotany to ethnobotanical data in Ontario (Monckton 1992; Ounjian 1998; Saunders must familiarize him- or herself with Yamell 1964. 2002). Curiously, though, among the 19 contributors to Hart's 1999 volume Two years after his monograph appeared, Yamell produced a separate trea on Northeast paleoethnobotany, the minority were specialists. The demand merit of Wisconsin plant remains, adding reports from three sites and brin for research is outstripping our ability to train paleoethnobotanists. the total number of published reports of identified plant remains in that stat Yarnell (1964) explored a number of lines of research that, in some cases, to 10 (Yarnell 1966). The three sites all postdated A.D. 950. Thirteen taxa w have seen significant progress in the last three and a half decades. These reported, three of them (maize, bean, and cucurbit) cultigens. In the late 196 include cultigen distributions and the correlation of these distributions with the Effigy Mound Project in Wisconsin incorporated extensive flotation as climatic data; seasonality interpretations; anthropogenic change, including of its program (Hurley 1975). This program was the first of its land in the s the creation and use of disclimaxvegetation; plant range modifications; small but, unfortunately, it had little impact on furthering pale~ethnobotan~ seeds as food; the history of crops in the area; and the degree of correspon- Northeast because it fell victim to a common problem, namely, a lac dence between plant remains and ethnobotanical data. resources and expertise to complete the analysis. The samples that were c Research foci today are varied. Studies include examination of the inter- lected were not examined in any detail until the 1980s (Crawford and Hurl action between foragers and farmers (e.g., Algonkian and Huron); the ori- 1982). Flotation subsequently tookplace in Wisconsin at the Armstrong site gins of food production; the nature of local adaptations; the extent to which the early 1970s (Crawford and King 1978) and since then has become a stan- cultigens indigenous to the U.S. Midwest, such as sumpweed (lva annzla ssp. dard data recovery technique (e.g., Arzigian 1987; Arzigian et al. 1990). macrocarpd), rnaygrass (Phdaris cadiniana), chenopod (Chenopodiinn By the mid-1970s, research was still lagging in the Northeast. In fa berlandieri ssp.@nesianu?fi), and sdower (see Table 6.1 for scientific names MacNeish claimed that in the intervening years since the publication of summary), intruded into the Northeast; questions pertaining to Iroquoian in situ theory of Iroquois origins, "environmental, ecological, and other food production and subsistence ecology in general; spatial patterning of sophisticated study in Iroquoia... seems rarely to have been attempted or com- plant remains; site formation processes; detailed examination of specific pleted" (1976:96). Despite this observation, which was for the most part true, plants, for example, the characteristics of local sunflower; the precontact the first flotation sampling had already begun at a few Ontario Late extent of wild rice use; the role of maple (Acer sacchanmz) sap in precontact Woodland sites (Fecteau 1985; King and Crawford 1979). Since 1973, animal subsistence (Munson 1989); and variation in archaeological corn, as well and plant remains analyses have become commonplace on Late Woodland as other topics. sites in the province. That year marked the beginning of extensive flotation One of the more widely studied topics, the beginnings of food production, 2P at the Late Ontario Iroquoian Draper and White sites (Hayden 1979) an is becoming increasingly well documented in the Midwest, but in the g at the Middle Ontario Iroquoian Crawford Lake site (Finlayson and Byrne Northeast the period of early plant husbandry was extremely poorly known 2^ 1975). During the following decade, more than 30 post-A.D900 sites were before the 1990s (Fritz 1990). A research program begun in 1993 at the sampled for detailed plant-related subsistence-ecological data. In addition, University of Toronto has helped clarify many of the issues. A few sites 4 cultigen remains were reported from more than 100 Late Woodland sites in located in the northern extremes of the mixed-forest zone provide insights 9 Ontario. By the late 1970s, collections were being amassed from sites dat- into the paleoethnobotany of the Eastern Collecting pattern. For example, 5 ing to as early as the Archaic period. research that relates specifically to Yamell's Juntunen workwas accomplished 3 ^a. r-t A -- Table 6.1 Commonly Identified Plant Taxa from Northeastern Archaeological Sites

Mixed Mixed Early/Middle NE Coastal Economy Economy Common Name Scientific Name Paleoindian Archaic Woodland Northern Tier (Pottery) (South) (North)

NEW WORLD CULTIGENS Bean (common) Phaseolw vzilgaris x x x x Bottle gourd Lngenaria siceraria x Chenopod Chempodium berlandiwi x Cordmaize Zea mays x x x x Cucurbit Cuairbita pep0 x x Little barley Hordeziv~pztsillwn x x Sunflower Helianthw annzizts ssp. macrocqvs x x x Tobacco Nicotiana sp., cf. N. nuticn x x x OLD WORLD CULTIGENS Barley Hordezinz vzilgarc Flax Linwn sp. Pea Pisii7/; sativzinz Rhubarb Rheum sp. Rye Secale Wheat Eitimaeati'vzin~

GRAIN~GREENS Aster family Asteraceae Wild sumpweed Iva nn~uii Wild? sunflower Helinnthw sp.

Bean family Fabaceae Buckbean Me~zyanthesw!foliata Groundnut (tuber) Apios tiiberosa Hog peanut Ampbicarpa bracteata Bush clover Lespedeza sp. Tick clover Desr~zodiumsp. Vetchling Lathy-iia sp. Chenopodium/Amiiraiitbw sp. Amaranth Amnranthts sp. Chenopod C/~cnopodizinzsp. Chenopod C. berlandieri ssp. jonesianum Maple-leafed C. hybridurn ssp. gigantospenm goosefoot Chickweed Stellaria sp. Grass family Poaceae Barnyard grass Echinochloa critsgal/i Big bluestem Aiidropogon Crabgrass Digitaria sp. Ditchgrass Ruppia nznritimn Foxtail grass Setaria sp. Gramagrass Bouteloztn airtIpendula Knotgrass Paspalzmi distiamz Little barley Hordezin~piisillzi?fz Panic grass Pnniatm sp. Ryegrass Elymus sp. Wheat grass Agi'opyron sp. Wild rice Zizania aqztatica or Z. pahati-is Continued on next page Table 6.1 continued

Mixed Mixed Early/Middle NE Coastal Economy Economy Common Name Scientific Name Paleoindian Archaic Woodland Northern Tier (Pottery) (South) (North) Knotweed family Polygonaceae Dock Rimicx sp. x Erect lcnotweed Polymnwn erection x Knotweed/dock Polygonwn/Rumex sp. Knotweeds Polygonmn sp. x x Smartweed Polygonmit persicaria Water pepper Polygonz~nzhydropiper x Peppergrass Lepidiwu virginiat7tz, L. denst'flomm x Purslane Portltiaca ole7.acea x Sorrel Oxalis sp. x x FLESHY FRUITS Bayberry Bead-ruby Bearberry Blueberry Bramble Cherry/~lum Cherry Plum Crabapple Deerberry Dogwood

Bunchberry C. canadensis Red osier dogwood C. ahemafolia Round-leafed dogwood C. qosa- Elderberry Sanzbziais canadensis/S. pvibew Grape Vitis sp. Heath Family Ericaceae Hawthorn CritMegiis sp. Huckleberry Gaylzusacia sp. Mountain ash Sorbw sp. Nightshade Family Solanaceae American nightshade Solanurn americanum Ground-cherry Physalis sp. Pokeweed Phytolacca ainaicana \ Serviceberry Amelanchier sp. Spikenard Aralia sp. Bristly sarsaparilla A. bispida Wild sarsaparilla A. nudicalzu Spurge Euphorbia sp. Strawberry lhgt7+zvirginim Viburnum Vibuinzt~tzsp.

OTHER PLANTS American lotus Ncluptzbo lutes Ash Fraxinw sp. Basswood Elia sp. Bedstraw/cleaver Galirznz sp. Bellwort Uvularia grandifloria Birch Betitla Continued on next page Table 6.1 continued

Mixed Mixed Early/Middle NE Coastal Economy Economy Common Name Scientific Name Paleoindian Archaic Woodland Northern Tier (Pottery) (South) (Nordl)

Blackgum Nyssa ylvatinm x x Bog rosemary Bulrush Bush lioneysuclde Buttercup family Buttercup Carpetweed Cattail Evening primrose False Solomon's seal Haclcberry Hemloclc Hornbeadblue beech Impatiens Ironwood Jersey tea Leafcup Lily family Lousewort Milkweed Mustard family Prickly ash Ragweed Robin runaway Skullcap

Sea lavender Sedge -

Solomon's seal Spruce Sumac Sweetfern Three-seeded mercury Trout lily Violet Vervain Water lily Wild onion Wild thyme

NUTS x x x x x x Acorn QZLC~CIISsp. x x Faglls gran(l$lia x x Beech x x Butternudwalnut 3tglfi7~sp. x x x x Butternut 3itglans cinerea x Chesmut Castg7zea dentate x x x x Walnut Jztglans 7zigra x x x x x x x Hickory Ca7 ya sp. x x Bitternut hickory C. cordf077>1is x x x x x x Hazel Co7ylr1.s sp. cf. C. anzerica7za or C. cornztta

Soztrces: Data follows Gray and Fernald 1950 and Soper and Heimburger 1982. onlyin the late 1980s. The Shawana and Providence Bay sites on Mdt0 h Ontario, Zone 1represents the first colonization of plants in deglaciated Island as well as the Xghland Lake site in Redew County have been sa geas (Campbell 1992; McAndrews 1994:184). This zone has high propor- pled (Figure 6.1) (Conway 1986; von Gernet 1992). eons of spruce and herbaceous plants. Mean temperatures during the time spm represented by Zone 1were about -2 degrees C (-3.6 degrees F) or lower Natural Environment &an today. Spruce is well represented in deposits dating to the end of this period of plant colonization. Zone 2 is dominated by pines. Red pine (Pinz~ The Holocene environmental context of the Northeast is generally well doc rej?~~~a)and jack pine (I! banhiana) are the most commonyfollowed by white umented (e.g., Almquist-Jacobson and Sanger 1999; Anderson 1985 pine (I? mobes) (McAndrews 1994:184). Gaudreau and Webb 198.5; Holloway and Bryant 1985). This discussion i Zone 3 consists of four subzones spanning the period from 6000 B.C to A.D. based on the pollen record, a form of data complementary to carbonized pla 1850 (McAndrews 1994:184-185). By 6000 B.C the mean temperature in remains. Although reconstruction of environmental history is an objective 0 Ontario had risen to about 9 degrees C (16 degrees F). During the earliest archaeobotany, it is not an end in itsel& rather, it provides a basis for under- phase represented by Zone 3 (3a)?hemlock (T~L~Lzcanademis) and beech (Fagz~ standing human interaction with the environment. For example, human set- gfi?zd@lia) percentages increased?but the phase ended with an abrupt decline tlement and its relationship with climate, disturbance, and sedimentary in the hemlock percentage. This low representation of hemlock marks Zone processes in the Lower Penobscot River basin is the subject of one recen 3bywhich represents about 1,000 years. The impact of this hemlock decline study (Almquist-Jacobson and Sanger 1999). People and the environment b on humans is unclear, but at least one study suggests that the impact was sig- the Crawford Lake area of southern Ontario are closely linked through a nificant (McAndrews 1984). Prairie was replacing forest in Indiana and Illinois study of pollen and local archaeology (Boyko 1973; Campbell 1991 by 6000 B.c., but by 3000 B.C. the prairie was receding westward ~olloway McAndrews 1988). In another study, pollen core data taken fkom near the and Bryant 1985:237). The warm and dry trend evidenced by the prairie Late Archaic McIntyre site at Rice Lake?Ontario, indicate that changing lake expansion is part of what is termed the mid-Holocene Hypsithemal episode. levels and marsh development affected the locale's suitability for habitation The Hypsithermal is not particularly discernible in data &om Ohio and (McAndrews 1984). Pollen analysis of six peat monoliths from the EAnse am Ontario, although after 4500 B.C. it is relatively clear in northern Ontario data Meadows site, Newfoundland, supporn the view that the Norse occupation (Holloway and Bryant 1985:23&237). In fact, a recent study revealed evidence there was short-lived (Davis et A. 1988). For the most part? the contribution that the Hypsithermal began in southern Ontario around 3500 B.c.; since then, of pollen analysis in the Northeast has been to further understanding of cli- the average annual temperature there has cooled about .4 degrees C (.7 degrees mate and vegetation history. F) (McAndrews 1994:187-188). A warmer period is recognized in eastern Palynologists have been aware for many decades of regionally similar pollen Canada by 6000 to 4000 B.c., followed by a cooling trend between 2000 and stratigraphies in the Northeast (Gaudreau and Webb 1985:247) and have iden- 1000 B.C. (Anderson 1985:320). The variability in the pollen record of that tified general strata or zones with particular pollen assemblages. The classic time is not surprisingyconsidering that a worldwideysynchronous Hypsithemal zones (T A, B, and C) represent herb-? spruce-, pine-, and oak-dominated episode is difficult to resolve (Gaudreau and Webb 1985:275). pollen percentages?respectively (Gaudreau and Webb 198.5:247). In Ontario, Zone 3c marks the return of hemlock followed by a decrease in beech. The these roughly correspond with Zones 1 through 4 (McAndrews 1994). These £inaphase of Zone 3 (3d)) dating the period from A.D. 650 to 1850, is char- zones are usefd only in simplifjmg the description of pollen diagrams; their acterized by very low beech percentages and high oak (Qz~eraualba) and white utility in modeling climate is subject to many variables (Gaudreau and Webb pine pollen percentages. Oak peaked during the seventeenth century, whereas 1985:275). Here we use Ontario pollen diagrams to exemphfy the complexities pine peaked in the nineteenth century (Campbell and Campbell 1992:18; involved in applying such data to interpretation of vegetation and climate his- Campbell and McAndrews 1993). By the fifteenth century in southern tory in the Northeast. In general, the pollen record reflects climatic warming Ontario, a mixed pine-oak-birch forest succeeded a mainly hardwood for- from the end of the last glaciation (McAndrews 1994:185). est. Zone 3d is thought to reflect a period of relative cooling following the mild era about a thousand years ago. The latter half of this cool peri Phe northern hardwoods-Great Lakes-St. Lawrence (with seven sections); a relatively significant impact worldwide in the form of the Little Ice ad boreal (Braun 1950). Braun's New England section of the Great Lakes-St. The Little Ice Age (LIA) was a period of cooler average temperatures Lawrence forest is also termed the "Acadian forest'' mosie 1969). present and lasted roughly &om the mid-sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth c Somewhat distinct from the forest regions are the biotic provinces. The tury (Grove 1988). A succession of we^ cool summers and disastrous h mo major biotic provinces of interest in this chapter are the Carolinian and befell lowland England as early as the mid-fourteenth century and led to he Canadian. The northern boundary of the Carolinian province and south- spread rural depopulation (Grove 1988:412-414). These earlier cooler epis ern boundary of the Canadian province coincide with the boundary between suggest that the onset of the LIA may have slightly predated the sixteenth hebeech-maple forest and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence forests. In general, tury. The mid-fifieenth century rather than the mid-sixteenth century is he forests of the Great Lakes region form a vegetation continuum, with considered the beginning of the LIAin Ontario (Campbell and Campbell 1 geater representation of boreal species in the no+ and no community pos- The LIA apparently caused a nonequilibrium forest to develop in so sessing entirely unique characteristics (Maycock and Curtis 1960:34). em Ontario and appears dcientto account for the southern Ontario p Aboriginal plant use would have been affected by a trend toward decreasing assemblages (Campbell 1992). The climate change evidently triggered as variety of plants with decreasing latitude (Yimelll964). In phcular, as the type succession, with the death of beech trees creating canopy openings boreal character of the vegetation increases northward, the diversity and allowed oak and pine to grow (Campbell and Campbell 1992). Similarly, abundance of nut-bearing trees decrease. northern Europe by the seventeenth century, the growing season was pro ably shortened by about five weeks (Grove 1988:414). Researchers ha a~butedvarious cultural phenomena to the LIA, including the developme of the Iroquois, the decline of Cahokia (Dincauze and Hasenstab 198 As mentioned above, Yamell's 1964 monograph explored for the first time the changed geographic distributions of horticultural peoples around the Gre richness of the ethnobotany of Upper Great Lakes peoples. The work is sig- Lakes, and dietary change due to the decreased reliability of corn producti nificant because it was the first attempt to integrate archaeological and eth- (Campbell and Campbell 1989; Demeritt 1991; Riley and Friemuth 197 nobotanical data in an interpretive kamework. The research is still useful The possibiliv that this sera1 ecological succession also increased the area despite the huge gains in archaeobotanical knowledge since the monograph was of favorable habitats for deer and other animals, as well as certain useful plant written. Ymell's work is complemented by Black's (1980) ethnobotanical resources, should remain open for consideration. research on four Algonkian communities and one Cree group in Quebec. Finally, Zone 4 has high proportions of grass and ragweed, whereas tree Ymell's summary of 560 uses by primarily Algonkian groups for some 373 pollen declines. The principal influences underlying this pattern appear to plants highlighted the potential for paleoethnobotanical research in the Great have been anthropogenic; that is, if climate impacted the vegetation during L&es region. Esplant use categories include foods, beverages and flavorings, the Zone 4 period, the impact is disguised by anthropogenic change. Euro- medicinal teas, other medicines, charm and ceremonial items, dyes, smoking Canadian logging, farming, and harvesting of white pine for ship masts are materials, and utilitarian products. The limitations of the ethnohistoricalrecord 3 generally thought to be responsible for the characteristics that differentiate are clearly highlighted by the report and are underscored by recent fieldwork 8 Zone 3 &om Zone 4 (Boyko 1973). documenting that 541 plants are used for medicine alone by Algonkian speak- 9 Northeastern potential vegetation composition ranges &om deciduous hard- ers in the Northeast (Black 1980:66). Monckton (1992) provides an assessment 2Yn Q wood stands to tundra. The northernmost areas considered in this chapter lie of ethnohistorical data regarding plan^ and plant use among the Huron, with 4 to the south of the boreal forest. The topography of the Northeast is extremely an emphasis on relevance to paleoethnobotany. Ounjian (1998) expanded the 3.-t varied and correlates with a wide variety of forest communities (Braun 1950:32). ethnohistorical assessment to include much of the non-Huron Iroquoian data. z Five major forests with nine sections comprise the region's vegetation: oak- Thus, the gaps in Ymell's original assessment are slowly being filled. Moeman 3 hickory; maple-basswood (with two sections); beech-maple; hemlock-white (1999) has provided a detailed assessment of individual plants and their uses 5 3 187 cz to aboriginal North Americans in general. Other usefd, but limited, resow -3 years before S include the Jesuit Relations (Thwaites 1899) and later compilations AD 2000 Period Sub-period Ontario m 6 Densmore (19281, Parker (19101, and Waugh (1916). i2 UseM as the ethnobistorical information is, some areas of investigation cl Q must rely on archaeological data. During the historical period, social and tec 3 nological change, population decline, and economic changes such as an increase < involvement in the fi~~trade all may have conmbuted to changes in plant use, '$$ ti&Iy to the reduction in numbers of plants used &rnell1964:47). ue Plants used for food are available from early spring through autumn in 3 Northeast. Yaell(l964) described about 40 plants that were prepared an 5 stored for future use, especially over the winter. Spring resources were parti ' larly bportant after months of little plant resource availability. Early spm plants were mainly exploited for sap, whereas later spring plants were tant for their tubers, cambium, and buds. Presumably greens of young plants were valued. Sugar maple provided food in the early spring, when few other foo were available. Maple syrup is quite nutritious, containing the same amount calcium as an equal volume of whole milk (Black 1980:45,66). Spring beauty (Ckzytonio spp.) and pepperroot (Dmtmio spp.) were the main tubers used by Algonkians in the spring. In late spring, greens and berries were collected; in the summer, fleshy fixits and berries were harvested; fleshy fixits and berries, hazel- nut, and wild rice were late-summer plant resources; fleshy fixit, berries, and nuts were collected in the early aum,and acorns, tubers, small seeds, lichens, fleshy hits, and berries were gathered in mid- to late autumn. Sugar maple and blueberry availability was the most significant influenc on Algonkian seasonal movements and location of campsites (Black 1980:46). Furthermore, blueberries, maple sugar, and maple syrup are the most com- monly preserved plant resources among the groups Black studied. Maple sugar likely was not produced in the precontact Northeast, so a storable, eas- ily transportable maple product was unavailable to prehistoric groups (Mason 1987). In all probability, however, maple syrup was important in prehistory and so-called maple sugar camps identified by archaeologists such as Pendergast may well have been maple ymp camps (Munson 1989). FIGURE 6.3 A general precontact cultural chronology of the Northeast r-7 3 Cultural Pattern and Paleoethnobotany 4 Thus, for each cultural pattern discussed below, we provide a summary of cul- 3 Current interpretation of culture history in the Northeast reflects trends that turd history and a general review of interpretations of settlement-subsistence $ occurred throughout the Eastern Woodlands. For example, the Paleoindian, patterns. Figure 6,3 provides a general precontact cultural chronology of the 3 Archaic, and Woodland periods are recognized in the Northeast as they are Northeast. Dates and terms vary across the region; the righmost column of $ elsewhere. On the other hand, there are details particular to the Northeast. Figure 6.3 provides examples of regional subdivisions in Ontario only gleaned $ 189 ientral West Central East East North Northern klgonkians LqLL - -?-- Garoga quehannoc Chanca 'I Oak Hill Middle Ontario lmquoian

Owam 3len Meyer Pickering Blackduck

- >lemson's Island 4/ 1,lW Riviere au Wnwss Point Sandbanks 1.m Vase - Green Creek 3 1.m kite Noodland l.~Gibraller mc Point 1.m Peninsula Middle A Noodland Middle Point Noodland Peninsula Laurel Western &sin ~~h WoodlandMiddle Middle Point l,ml Peninsula 1 Woodland 1.m Saugeen

Middlesex 2m Leimbach Middlesex / A Early Eariy Early Woodland Woodland Woodlan( -

Meadowooc Meadowood Meadowooc Meadowooc

FIGURE 6.4 Woodland cultural chronology of the northeastern United States & FIGURE 6.5 Woodland cultural chronology of southern Ontario and Quebec

from Ellis and Ferris (1990). Figures 6.4 and 6.5 provide a more detailed loo to have had a mixed economy, this was not always the case in the Northeast. at the Woodland period across the Northeast, subdivided by region and pen FP2 Here, we emphasize pre- and non-mixed-economy periods. A trend through In general, the subdivisions are based on changes in artifact styles and, to a 1 time from specialized to general, broad-spectrum foraging is ofien assumed 2S degree, on settlement-subsistence changes. Fitting (1970), Ritchie (19 3 for eastern North America. However, Paleoindian and Early Archaic groups Mason (19811, Ellis and Ferris (1990), and Halsey (1999) provide further details 38' likely were not as specialized as some have argued (Meltzer and Smith 4 Eastern Collem'ng Paftern 1986:3). Foraging theory and environmental reconsmction suggest that a 3 generalized subsistence pattern characterized these early Holocene cultures. $ Paleoindian and Archaic subsistence strategies were probably not particularly Eastern Collecting pattern groups existed from Paleoindian through La 3 different from one another (Meltzer and Smith 1986). The limited plant Woodland times. Although Late Woodland groups are generally consider $, 8* 191 192 remains from the Northeast dating to these periods are consistent with -ti randlines were occupied briefly in the spring or fall to intercept migrating E CO view. More substantial data are available from the Late Archaic, and bou; during the rest of the annual cycle, small interior sites were occupied (A remains indicate greater diversity in resource use than in preceding peri a broader range of subsistence resources. Late Paleoindian has been We cannot assess whether this is an artifact of sampling, a result of pre eewed as a modification of this pattern in the context of boreal forest suc- Q vation, or a real trend. At the moment we simply have higher-quail sion. Largely because of a lack of data, plant exploitation patterns during from the Late Archaic than from the Paleoindian. Nevertheless, dat e Paleoindian period are relatively unknown. s^ the Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania, the Saginaw i3 The beginning- of the Archaic period generally coincided with the estab- 3 Mchigan, sites in Maine, and the Mchtyre site in Ontario are roun fisbentof Holocene climate and biological communities that were more like 8 our knowledge of the Eastern Collecting pattern. those of today than those of the preceding Pleistocene. The Archaic is marked 3 by the disappearance of lanceolate projectile points, the appearance ofwood- £ Paleoindian and Archaic 4% working(ground stone) tools, increased stylistic variation of projectile points through both time and space, and larger, although not necessarily more per- The Paleondian occupation represents the first human presence in manent sites than those of the Paleoindians (Ellis et al. 1990). Only recently, Northeast subsequent to Pleistocene glaciation. The traditional diagno 8s more data are collected, has the diversity of Archaic cultures been appre- trait of Paleoindians is the lanceolate projectile point, and the divis dated. In fact, it is somewhat questionable whether a period of 7,000 years between Early and Late Paleoindian is made on the basis of the &sapp should be included under one label. The partition of this period into Early ance of fluting from these points. However, environmental and subsisten (8000-6000 B.c.), Middle (6000-2500 B.c.), and Late (2500-1000 B.c.) sub- criteria, arguably, can be applied to this transition as well (Jackson an periods and the further division of these subperiods into horizons (Figure 6.3) McKillop 1991). are based almost solely on projectile point styles. Regional cultural diversity Paleoindian sites have been found throughout the Northeast in what is rec increased during the Archaic, although some Late Archaic projectile point ognized as the Carolinian biotic province and in the Carolinian-Canadi forms (e.g., the Broadpoint Genessee type) have a broad distribution through- boundary zone. Recent work has demonstrated both spatial and temp out the Eastern Woodlands. The evidence for mortuary ritual practices diversity within both the Early and Late Paleoindian subperiods. For ex increases in the archaeological record dating to the end of the Archaic in the ple, Ontario Early Paleoindian is divided into three successive phases, Gain form of specific cemetery sites, perhaps indicating a greater concern with ter- Barnes, and Crowfield, on the basis of variation in fluted point styles. L ritoriality within larger groups, although these still appear to have been Paleoindian is divided into Holcombe, Hi-Lo, and Lanceolate phases (E organized at the band level (Spence et al. 1990). and Deller 1990). There is some debate over environmental conditions d The Archaic settlement-subsistence pattern is interpreted to have been one ing the Paleoindian period. On the one hand, EUis and Deller (199052) ar of strictly food foraging conducted according to a schedule of seasonal move- that Early Paleoindian occupation of the Northeast occurred between 9000 ment and resource exploitation. The primary difference between Archaic and 8400 B.c., when conditions are thought to have been similar to those of bands and their predecessors is the inferred expansion of the subsistence base 2sr^ the modem Subarctic (spruce parIdand/woodland). On the other hand, Fiedel to include an increased variety of both animal (particularly fish) and plant ;3-< (1999) argues that the radiocarbon-based age estimates for Early Paleoindian resources. The frequency of heavy ground stone tools indicates a growth in 2 are up to 2,000 years too young. If &s is the case, Early Paleoindians would importance of woodworking. Grinding implements (e.g., manos and metates) 2' have occupied an ameliorated tundra environment during the immediate appear in Middle Archaic sites in very small numbers and continue as rare 3 postglacial succession. The Early Paleoindian settlement-subsistence pattern finds on Late Archaic sites. 3 is interpreted to have been one of strictly food foraging, with a few very small, The paleoethnobotany of the Paleoindian and Archaic periods is not as well itinerant hunting bands dependent on relatively large animals such as cari- studied as that of the Woodland cultures in the Northeast. What few data we 3 bou. Jackson and McKillop (1991) have argued that large sites on glacial lake have for the Paleoindian in the Northeast are from Delaware (Dent and $,E &&an 1985), Maine (Asch Sidell 1999), and the Meadowcroft Rockshelte Table 6.2 although there is some debate whether the early Holocene assemblages -AMS-Dated Maize and Cucurbits in the Northeast Older than A.D. 1100 Meadowcroft are actually Paleoindian. In the relevant levels, particularly Lab Radiocarbon Stratum Ha, nuts are common and include acorn, butternut or walnut, -Site Number Sample Date (B.P.) Calibrated Datea hickory nutshell (Cushman 1982). Acorn is the latest of the three to app Lone Pine, ON TO4586 maize cupules 1040  60 A.D. 890 (1000) 1160 (about 5200 B.c.). Butternut or walnut is found throughout the early and mi rand Banks, ON TO4584 maize kernel 1060  60 A.D. 790 (990) 1150 die Holocene levels. The presence of these nuts indicates the existence 211-1-1, Ny B-53451 maize cupdes 1090  60 A.D. 780 (980) 1030 Forster, ON TO-7039 maize kernel 1150  100 A.D. 660 (890) 1150 mixed forest near Meadowcroft as early as the late Pleistocene. Wood c 211-1-1, Ny B-53452 maize cupule 1130  70 A.D. 710 (850) 990 coal of each nut type is present as well, supporting the view that mixed Grand Banks, ON TO-4586 maize cupules 1250  80 A.D. 650 (780) 980 occurred nearby (Cushman 1982). Small seeds are also present. Bla Meyer, ON TO-8150 maize cupde 1270  100 A.D. 600 (720,750,770) 980 stones are the earliest small seeds (11,290 B.c.). Hackberry is common Grand Banks, ON TO-5308 maize cupules 1500  150 A.D. 238 (560,590,600) 670 Grand Banks, ON TO-5307 maize cupules 1570  90 A.D. 260 (440,450,470,480, els of all periods, but quantities decrease in more recent strata. Elements oft 530) 610 perate vegetation were apparently being exploited early in the Northeast, Memorial Park, PA AA-I9128 cucurbit rind 2625  45 890 (800) 760 B.C. both Paleoindian and Archaic groups, as recorded in the Meadowcroft depo Memorial Park, PA AA-19129 cucurbit rind 5404  552 5480 (4320,4300,4250) The Hedden site in Maine is distinctive among Paleoindian sites in that s 2900 B.C. Sharrow, ME AA-7491 cucurbit rind 5695  100 4780 (4520,4510,4500) 4300 because it has well-preserved plant remains, the result of their being dee buried (Asch Sidell 1999:197). Unlike Meadowcroft, nuts are not represent ~Stuiverand Reirner 2000. at Hedden. Instead, only a variety of fleshy fruit seeds have been identified. As Sidell(1999:197) considered the possibility, yet untested, that nut trees did sitional region between the Carolinian and Canadian biotic provinces. A yet grow in the area. By the Early Archaic, at least one nut-bearing tree, bee Middle Archaic occupation there, presumably a late-summer to early-fall was growing in southwestern Maine (Asch Sidell 1999:198). Beechnu hunting camp, dates to 4280-2610 B.C. and has produced the only substantial acorns are present in the Middle Archaic archaeological record in Maine archaeobotanical collection from the period in the Northeast (Egan 1988). Sidell1999:203). The Middle Archaic is similar to the Paleoindian in that fles Nut remains are present but not abundant (42 fragments weighing .6 g) and fi-uits are represented in the record. The presence of bedstraw, a legume, che appear mainly to be acorn. Small seeds, however, are relatively abundant. pod, sweet fern, hawthorn, a lily, and buttercup round out the Maine Mid They are mainly one taxon of Brassicaceae (mustard family), but fleshy fruits, and Late Archaic record. Cumbit rind directly dated to the fourth millenni including bramble, grape, and elderberry, have been identified as well. Egan B.C. at the Sharrow site, Maine, and Memorial Park, Pennsylvania fla (1988) considers the chenopod, nightshade, violet, and grass seeds from is evidence of its cultivation or exchange into the Northeast during Archai Weber I to be part of the natural seed rain. The pattern at Meadowcroft, con- tunes (Asch Sidell1999:212; Hart and Asch Sidell1997). Further south at th sisting of nut remains as well as other plant remains such as small seeds, is evi- stratified Shawnee Minisink site, Delaware, seven plant taxa dominate the re dent in the Saginaw Valley as well. atively small number of seeds recovered (Dent and Kauf&nan 1985:72). Th A Late Archaic component at Weber I dates from 1000 to 900 B.C. (Egan mainly represent fleshy fruits but also include chenopod (23 specimens). M 1988). This occupation was more intensive than the Middle Archaic one, of these plants are represented in the Early Archaic samples (Dent although the seed density is three times higher in the Middle Archaic sam- Kauffman 1985:67). Ground-cherry is by far the most common seed in ples (Egan 1988:85-88). In contrast to the Middle Archaic samples, nuts are Early Archaic samples, making this the only significant nona@cultural a a much more common component of the plant remains. The 78 g of nut ciation of the plant in the precontact Northeast. Nuts are not reported in remains represent five taxa: acorn, hazelnut, black walnut, butternut, and pre-Woodland samples from Shawnee Minisink (Dent and Kaufiman 1985:7 hickory. Egan feels that acorn likely was the most important nut in the Late The Weber I site is located in the Saginaw Valley, Michigan, in the tr Archaic subsistence regime at Weber I. -

The most comprehensive Late Archaic plant remains study in Ontario is 0 mt resource among Archaic groups. In fact, nut foods appear to have been material from the McIntyre site on Rice Lake (Yarnell 1984). Here, Johnst important in the Michigan Late Archaic because of their buffer- (1984:109) demonstrated that much could be learned from collecting pl mg role relative to both environmental variations and resource distributions remains from Archaic sites in the Great Lakes region. Nearly 7,500 seeds (Lovis 1986). The same may apply to Ontario. Finally, despite the Middle 233 g of wood charcoal were recovered from about 5,400 liters of so Archaic presence of cucurbit in the Northeast, undisputed evidence for cdti- Chenopod seeds are the most densely represented of the seeds at McIntyre, gens in Late Archaic contexts has yet to be found. Cucurbit is well repre- about .6 per liter. The seeds are from maple-leaved goosefoot, a weedy fo sented in the Late Archaic of the U.S. Midwest and Southeast, so we expect that grows in a range of habitats, including forest openings with some shad cucurbit to have been present in the Northeast as well. A sunflower seed has clearings, and waste places. Acorn, butternut, chenopod, and fleshy frui been recovered from a Late Archaic feature at the Eidson site (Parker 1984), appear to be the main plant foods represented among the approximately but it has not been AMS-dated to confirm its Late Archaic association. (minimum) taxa reported (Yarnell1984:109). The array of remains indicat exploitation of a number of habitats, including clearings, thickets, groves, Early and Middie Woodland forest borders, the selective cutting of woods, and selective burning. Notab anthropogenic habitats were significant plant-collecting locales (Yam The division between the Late Archaic and Early Woodland periods (ca. 1000 1984:106). Apollen core taken from nearby sediments documented an ope B.c.) is somewhat arbitrary, marked throughout the Northeast simply by the water community having been replaced around 2000 B.C. by an aquatic gra first appearance of pottery. The difference between Early Woodland and that was "probably wild rice" (McAndrews 1984:173). No wild rice seeds we Middle Woodland is somewhat more substantive; although the distinction recovered from the core. McAndrews (1984:185) believes that, despite i is based largely on stylistic changes in pottery and projectile points, there is absence in the flotation samples, wild rice was a prime food of the McIn also some evidence for settlement-subsistence and social change. inhabitants. For now, however, wild rice use at McIntyre is unsubstantiate The Early Woodland is represented by two horizons in the Northeast: During the McIntyre occupation, a profound change in forest composin Meadowood (1000-450 B.c.) and Middlesex (450-0 B.c.). Early Woodland soci- took place, with a significant loss of hemlock over its previous ran eties varied little from their Late Archaic antecedents (Spence et al. 1990). (McAndrews 1984:185). Beech, maple, and birch woodlands would have pe Population increases are not evident in the archaeological record nor are changes mitted a rise in deer populations that would have provided an expande in settlement-subsistence patterns, social organization, or mortuary practices. resource base for Late Archaic peoples (McAndrews 1984185). Some of th Early Woodland culture may best be seen as a continuation of Late Archaic prac- habitats Yamell (1984) reports as important collecting areas may well have be tices with the addition of pottery. A-trend toward smaller territories may have amplified by a combination of anthropogenic effects and the hemlock dec characterized the Early Woodland in Ontario (Spence et al. 1990:136). The relative importance of nuts to northeastern populations is still an o A number of contemporaneous cultural groups existed during the north- question. Although nuts are a significant component of archaeological eastern Middle Woodland, indicating an increase in regional diversity. In lections from purported Paleoindian levels at Meadowcroft and from the La southern Ontario, Point Peninsula, Saugeen, and Western Basin (Couture) 2 Archaic McIntyre and Weber I sites, they were only one component of e are all characterized by "large sites with structures and substantial middens..., and mid-Holocene plant use, with fleshy fruits and herbaceous plants, am usually spring macroband occupations focused on the intensive exploitxion $ other probably diverse plant resources, also important. Flotation at of spawning fish" (Spence et al. 1990:167). The evidence of increased terri- 3 3 Archaic Bell, Innes, and Wade B sites in southwestern Ontario also indic tonality is attributed to "packing," that is, greater population density leading 3 nut use along with a variety of fleshy fruits (Lennox 1986;Monckton 1992:9 to smaller band territories. In addition, there is some indication of changing g- A Late Archaic feature at the Eidson site, Michigan, was one of two conte social complexity: sites with relatively complex burial structures, such as found on the site with the highest concentration of nut remains (Parker 198 at Serpent Mounds (Point Peninsula), may indicate the existence of a ranked S, 3 Other seeds were also common. Nuts should not be dismissed as an impo social organization (Spence et al.l990:168). 5 $ 197 The Early and Middle Woodland archaeological record of the Strawberry is the only small-seeded plant represented in the Leimbach Midwest is indicative of a time of substantial innovations that included mo collection (Ozker 1982:197). The pattern of nut collection during the Early building and its material and sociopolitical correlates as well as the devel and Middle Woodland thus appears to have been widespread. At Meadowood- merit of a gardening complex that depended for the most part on a se phase sites in New York, charred nuts consist mainly of hickory, but acorn and native cultigens (Smith 1989). A good deal less is known about the plant aape have been identified as well (Ozker 1982:203-204). The situation is sim- strategies of the Early and Middle Woodland Northeast, although cul ilar in Ontario. At the Early Woodland Boyd Lakefront site, butternut is interaction between midwestern and northeastern populations clearly to reported (Spence 1990:133). Black walnut, hickory, and acorn were recovered place. Our initial impressions of these periods were formed by results ofw from a hearth on the Middle Woodland Couture site (Spence et al. 1990:146). at the Schultz site (Ozker 1982; Yamell 1964). Yamell (1964:32) reported Until comprehensive flotation programs become standard procedure at Early Middle Woodland material collected at that site in 1962 and Ozker the r nrM\ Middle Woodland sites, we will continue to know little about non-nut from the Early Woodland excavations there two years later. The paleoe use patterns. If the Archaic McIntyre site is any indication, the archaeo- nobotanical data they describe did not result from a comprehensive pi logical record of the immediately subsequent periods must contain extensive related research program, but a systematic study was subsequently condu evidence of nonarboreal plants. Preliminary results suggest that this is, indeed, (Lovis et al. 2001). The pattern of nut use seen in the preceding Arc the case. At the Dawson Creek site, in addition to acorn, flotation samples con- period continued. Acorn, butternut, hickory, walnut, and hazelnut are c tained seeds of sorrel, hawthorn, bramble, hornbeamhlue beech, a dogwood, mon throughout the Schultz sequence (Lovis et al. 2001:625). The hyp and a sunflower seed @'Andrea 1983; Spence et al. 1990). Considering that esis that the Schultz site occupants consciously avoided acorn (0 sunflower dating as early as the Late Archaic is reported from Michigan, the 1982:33), therefore, is no longer supportable. Dawson Creek specimen may represent the earliest use of this plant in Ontario. Among the plant-related evidence from the site is a cucurbit s The presence of a Late Woodland occupation at Dawson Creek, however, (Cuairbitapepo var. ovifera type) impression found on a cord-marked Sc complicates the issue @'Andrea 1983;Jackson 1983). Accelerator dating of Thick sherd dating to the sixth century B.C. (Ozker 1982:40). Two seed these specimens should resolve the problem. what may be a larger variety of cucurbit were found at the similarly d Green Point site just downstream from Schultz (Ozker 1982:40; Wn Late Woodland 1964). Cucurbit rind is reported from a Middle Woodland sample (Unit 8 at Schultz (Lovis et al. 2001:627) and has also been reported in four featur e onset of the Late Woodland marked a significant shift in settlement-sub- at the Leirnbach site in northern Ohio, excavated by C. 0. Shane (Oz sistence patterns, and these changes appear to have permeated all levels of Late 1982:198). The Leimbach remains constitute the first significant represen Woodland culture. Maize was first introduced to the Northeast during Late tion of cucurbit in the Northeast archaeological record postdating the Mi Woodland 1 (discussed below) but was not universally adopted into an agri- Archaic. Two Middle Woodland sumpweed achenes are reported from cultural system. In the northern portion of the northeastern woodlands, the Schultz site, and the single measurable specimen is in the size range of c aditional seasonal foraging subsistence pattern continued. The northern temporaneous domesticated sumpweed in the Midwest (Lovis et ands developed significant forms of contact with southern food producers, 2001:628). This is the only occurrence of domesticated sumpweed such that they had access to crops through exchange. Late Woodland groups Michigan. Chenopod is common in the Schultz flotation samples, but it that apparently did not adopt agricultureyet still had access to crops represent not appear to be a cultigen (Lovis et al. 2001:626). No sunflower has b a variant of the Eastern Collecting pattern. In this chapter, we follow Mason's recovered, but we might expect it to occur, based on the Eidson site res (1981) division of the Late Woodland period into Late Woodland 1 (A.D. mentioned earlier. Eidson also produced sunflower from a feature wi 450-950) and Late Woodland 2 (A.D.950-1500). We refer to the time from radiocarbon date on wood charcoal of A.D. 300 Â 70 (Parker 1984). about A.D. 1500 on as the Contact period. Researchers have identified a num- The other plant remains at Leimbach include walnut, hickory, hazelnut, her of regional expressions during Late Woodland 1 (see Figures 6.4 and 6.5). These cultures are characterized primarily by cord-wrapped-stick j, hazel, bearberry, cherry or plum, bramble, elderberry, cleaver, and trout oration and triangular projectile points (e.g., the Levanna type). Se (Conway 1989; Crawford 1989). In contrast to Juntunen, maize is repre- data suggest that sites were neither seasonally occupied stations nor p sated not only by kernel fragments but also by cupules and a probable maize nent, compact villages but, rather, something in between. nibryo fragment. The most common plant group at Providence Bay consisted By early Late Woodland 2 times, maize cultivation had intensified ffleshy fruits and included bearberry, cherry/plum, bramble, and elderberry southern parts of the Northeast. Other exotic cultigens such as the co (27 see&and nine whole berries). The Shawana site, an Algonkian campsite dat- bean were introduced to the Northeast as well. Much larger semipem ing to the seventeenth century, is situated on Wekwemikong Bay, Manitoulin villages than previously existed appear in the archaeological record in island. Crawford (1989) identified five plants among the botanical remains from texts postdating A.D. 950. These villages were the home bases for ho e site: maize (three to five kernels), bramble, elderberry, acorn, and hazelnut. tural, tribal-level communities, such as characterized the Monongahe one tuber is yet to be identified. The Shawana site plant remains include no southwestern Pennsylvania and Iroquoian societies in Ontario, Quebec annualweedy plants. The plants all belong to the summer- to fall-collected plant New York State. Locations of the villages appear to have had less to do pup. This is consistent with the site being a short-term encampment. availability of wild resources than with access to arable soils and defensi juntunen and Providence Bay, on the other hand, both contained ample botan- situations. Population densities appear to have been much higher than ical evidence of local ecological disruption, consistent with their identification ing the Late Woodland 1. Toward the end of Late Woodland 2 times, ch 2s long-term use locales. On the Brace Peninsula across the main channel from in Iroquoian social organization led to the formation of the codede mtoulin Island is the Hunter's Point site. Twelve flotation samples to&g (e.g., Huron, Neutral, and League of Five Nations) first contacted by Euro 60 liters of soil brought to light 35 seeds (Goode 1993). The collection contains in the sixteenth century. corn (eight kernels and one cupule) and a sunflower seed, several bush honey- Paleoethnobotanical data from the Late Woodland Eastern Collectin suckleand elderberry seeds, and two knotweed achenes. This extremely limited tern derive from five sites: Highland Lake, Hunter's Point, Jm sample is consistent with the results of the Shawana and Providence Bay stud- Providence Bay, and Shawana. The plant remains are informative alth ies, in that cultigens and fleshy fruits are significant constituents. not abundant, except at Juntunen. The Juntunen site in northern Michi The Highland Lake site is situated further outside Northern Iroquoian ter- was the first site in the Northeast to produce a rich assortment of p ritory than the Manitoulin Island sites (von Gernet 1992), yet maize, sun- remains (Yamell 1964). We are still not clear whether Juntunen, or the flower, tobacco, and Iroquoian pottery have been recovered there. In addition three sites, for that matter, belong to the Eastern Collecting pattern. to the cultigens, David Goode and Crawford have identified the following likelihood, they do, but cultigens have been found at all five sites. plant remains: wild rice, bramble, elderberry, and knotweed. No nuts have TheJuntunen site has about 25 strata, most of which have yielded evide been recovered. The low-density plant remains give little indication of sea- of occupation (Yamell1964:3 l). Excavation produced the remains of 18 plan sonality or local ecology. Given the site's location (largely inaccessible today 15 of which are food plants. A complex of nine or 10 plants was generally fo except by boat), its small size (50-100 m2), and its rugged setting, it may have together in the upper levels. Corn kernels occurred in 16 locations, altho supported no more than six people at a time (von Gernet 19921, and it is 3 no other remains of maize were found. The site is located just within the re ?s"' entirely reasonable to suspect that most of the plant foods were transported to g that could have supported maize production, so the crop may have been gro the site from elsewhere. However, the research is ongoing, and this unusual s^ at Juntunen. There is also a strong likelihood, however, that maize was brou site still needs considerable work. Much can be learned by collecting plant 8' into the site through exchange with Northern Iroquoians. The site appear remains from sites north of the Iroquoian food-producing heartland. ^ST have been occupied only seasonally, likely during the late summer. Finally, the Schwerdt site is a single-component Upper Mississippian camp 3 Located not far away on Manitoulin Island, in the traditionally Algonki on the Lower Kalamazoo River in southwest Michigan. The residents of this $ region, are the Providence Bay and Shawana sites. Providence Bay samples, camp supposedly inhabited the region in order to fish for sturgeon (Cremin lyzed by Crawford and Fecteau, contain maize, a single bean, vetchling, che 1980), but the plant remains suggest that foraging was more broadly based. The $, 3 2 01 site also illustrates that foraging alone could have supported groups ofp who normally had a mixed economy, at least for a short time. Researc Wild Rice in the Northeast and Adjacent Areas floated over 2,000 liters of soil from 46 features, recovering six plant taxa: / Location Period Citation Site leberry, elderberry, cherry, small quantities of acorn and beechnut (C gdde Alabama Mississippian Starry, this volume 1980), and tubers of the aquatic American lotus, which occurred in 14 pi ~~ttleCreek Alabama Mississippian Scarry 1995 ,$cod Illinois Middle Woodland Munson et al. 1971 Lopinot 1988 Wild Rice Collecting sandRun West Iowa Late Archaic ~~dfieldsCave Iowa - Bern 1980 carlston Annis Kentucky Late Archaic Crawford 1982 Wild rice harvesting was an Eastern Collecting pattern that characterize ~~nnFarm Michigan Middle Woodland Brose and Ford 1975; Sank, Fox, Mascoutin, Potawatomi, and Menominee of Wisconsin, Minn Brose, pen. cornrn. 2002 Michigan Middle-Late Lovis et al. 2001 Iowa, and Michigan (jenks 1900). Wild rice was conspicuously absent from Woodland 1 archaeological record when Yarnell completed his 1964synthesis. In the Big Rice Minnesota Laurel Valppu 1989 vening decades since then, archaeological evidence for wild rice use has old Shakopee Bridge Minnesota MiddleLate Woodland Gibbon 1976 obtained over a much broader geographic range than the four-state di Wiord Minnesota Late Prehistoric Schaaf 1981 Minnesota Late Prehistoric Johnson 1969 reviewed by Jenks (1900). Reports of archaeological wild rice come from a Nett Lake Petanga Point Minnesota Historic Bleed 1969;Johnson 1969 bum of 37 sites in the Northeast and adjacent areas (Table 6.3). The e Kettle Hill Cave Ohio - Goslin 1952 archaeological record of wild rice dates to the Late Archaic at sites well Grand Banks Ontario Late Woodland 1 Saunders 2002 Ounjian 1998 of its expected distribution (Crawford 1982). The earliest report in the Kelly Ontario Early Ontario Iroquois Seed-Barker Ontario Late Ontario Iroquois Crawford 1985 Lakes region is from the Laurel occupation at the Big Rice site in Minn Parsons Ontario Late Ontario Iroquois Monckton 1998b (Valppu 1989). Wild rice from the Dunn Farm site was thought to date to Highland Lake Ontario Late Woodland von Gernet 1992 Late Woodland 1 Hart and Asch Side111996 Late Archaic, but AMS dates place it at A.D. 300. Other reports are relativ Memorial Park Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Late Woodland 1 King 1999 late as well. The later reports are from the wild rice district as defined by J Catawissa Mitchell South Dakota Middle Missouri Benn 1974 and from Ontario (Figure 6.6), where there are ethnohistorical records of Iddens Tennessee Late Archaic Chapman and Shea 1981 rice use. In northern Minnesota, pollen evidence indicates that wild ric Bacon Bend Tennessee Late Archaic Chapman and Shea 1981 Tennessee Historic Chapman and Shea 1981 not present in any abundance until about 550 B.C. (McAndrews 1969). Chota Hunter's Channel Ea Wisconsin Middle Woodland Arzigian 1987 mound-building Laurel tradition began about the same time. The resource b Brogley Rockshelter Wisconsin Woodland Tiffany 1974 for this development may have been wild rice (McAndrews 1969), and Sanders Wisconsin Effigy Mound Crawford and Hurley 1982 remains from the Big Rice site are consistent with this explanation. Wild Tremaine Wisconsin Oneota Hunter 1990 Arzigian 1990 seems to have been used during the Middle Woodland in southwest Overhead Wisconsin Oneota Pammel Creek Wisconsin Oneota Boszhardt et al. 1984 Wisconsin, but not until about A.D. 1250 did the plant attain any level of s Olson Wisconsin Oneota cited in Hunter 1990 nificance, as reflected in the archaeological record (Arzigian 2000). Setdemen Sand Lake Wisconsin Oneota? cited in Hunter 1990 pattern, ethnohistorical evidence, and productive wild rice beds in the Lake o Valley View Wisconsin Late Prehistoric Stevenson 1985 Wisconsin Protohistoric cited in Hunter 1990 the Woods area in western Ontario suggest that people relied on wild rice Filler XY Company Wisconsin Historic Oerichbauer 1982 A.D. 1250, but no archaeological wild rice has been reported from the Cass Lake I Wisconsin - Kluth 1995 (Rajnovich 1984). All in all, wild rice has a significant presence in the ological record, particularly in contexts postdating 50 B.C. There is no macrobotanical evidence to suggest that wild rice was a signif- icant resource in the Lower Great Lakes region during Late Woodland 1times. -.

ay have done some gardening (Snow 1978). Corn g seems to have been of little significance north of a zone between the Kennebec Rivers (Demeritt 1991). The Maliseet and Pa~samaquodd~ m annual round that included retuming to summer settlements to grow on 1978). Among groups further south, however, including the em Abenaki, food production was more important. though research on the prehistory of these vast regions has developed surprisingly little exploration of paleoethn~botan~,the situation is has been undertaken in the Atlantic provinces onard, Michael Deal, and Frances Stewart. Numerous locations tematically sampled in New England. These include the Eckart, , and Sasqua Hill sites in Connecticut (Powell 1981), gansett Bay, Rhode Island (Bernstein 1990), Delaware Park, Delaware FIGURE 6.6 Wild rice tree 1983), and the Skitchewaug site, in the Connecticut River valley of from the Seed-Baker site, rmont (Heckenberger et al. 1992). A series of sites from Ontario iderable time depth to our understanding of paleoethno- in the easternmost portion of the Northeast (Asch Sidell1999). To the Wild rice was available, however, in localized dense stands. At the ozen sites on Long Island and Block Island Sounds have Paradise wetland at the western end of Lake Ontario, for example, pollen f plant remains (Bernstein 1999). contain high densities of grass pollen in deposi e Melanson site in Nova Scotia is a late precontact Mi'kmaq occupa- years ago. Through comparisons of scanning e lored periodically for 50 years (Nash et al. 1991). Only images of archaeological and modem specimens, the polle rporated into the research strategy at the site. identified as wild rice (most 1ikelyZizaniaaquatics) (Lee et al. sample contents have been reported. Among the 514 land was the focus of relatively dense occupation by Princ ur types of fleshy fruits as well as sumac, knotweed, would have had direct access to the wild rice, but no wil es, and a sedge (Deal 1990). Kevin Leonard managed recovered from flotation samples collected at three sites in Cootes Paradis oat the entire fill of the SkullIsland burial site, New Brunswick (Leonard ing the 1990s (Smith 1997b). ered all represent wild plants. Twenty-six en identified among the charred remains (Leonard Northeastern Coastal Pattern 6:132). Hazelnut, beechnut, Aralia sp., plum, strawberry, bramble, undnut, dogwood, and American nightshade are among the remains with 3 The Mi'kmaq and Beothuk of the Atlantic provinces of Canada we highest densities. Linguistic and ethnohistorical evidence strongly sug- $' who practiced a diverse subsistence regime, including fishing, she ement by the Mi'kmaq (Leonard 1996). The large 3'1 vesting, hunting, and gathering. The Mi'kmaq appare antity of tubers found at Skull Island attests to the importance of the plant %2 (Bock 1978). Their New England neighbors in the Mi'kmaq. Further implications of the Sfoill Island plant remains are 4 the Mahican and Westem Ab text of anthropogenic factors. The rich precontact 3 Maliseet, Passamaquoddy, Pawtucket, Massachusett, P botany of Atlantic Canada is slowly coming to light. TO and Delaware, whose territories included portions of the coas elaware Park, Delaware, the southernmost site discussed in this section, was Al 3 and New England populations all spoke eastern chaic to Early Woodland, 1800 B.C. to A.D. 650 5 Mi'kmaq to the north, the Eastern Abenaki were mainly e 1983). Some 43 features were flotation-sampled, and recovered plant 2 --

remains are all wild. Large quantities of hickory and some acorn comprise Plaat resources was quite important (e.g., Monckton 1992). Sunflower was nut remains. Bramble is the most abundant of the seeds from the site. In a but ethnohistorical records for its use are rare. Tobacco was grown and tion, chenopod, grape, hog peanut, smartweedhotweed, pokeweed, used ceremonially and socially, as it is today (Fenton 1978:299). Solomon's seal likely represent intentional plant collecting. Three-seeded Corn was planted in small hills (Parker 1910:17). Three or four kernels cury, duckweed, sassafras, skullcap, nightshade, wild thyme, slender bush do were placed in one heap of earth, each about 90 cm apart. Three or four beans bayberry, a spurge, and a few carpetweed seeds have been identified, but they were planted in the same hill and the bean plants interlaced with the maize as thought not to represent human activity (Crabtree 1983). The lack of cdti they grew. The only relict cornfield studied in Ontario is located near is consistent with the view that horticulture was a late arrival to the region. Creemore. The 169 mounds average 1 m in diameter and are separated by The oldest plant remain identified in coastal Rhode Island is hickory an compacted soil, probably a result of the areas between mounds being used as pathways (Heidenreich 1974:3 85,391). The mounds also contain charcoal 2 associated with a 2000 to 2500 B.C. occupation at the Greenwich Cove $' (Bernstein 1990). Hundreds of flotation samples were taken from an0 to a depth of 20 cm; charcoal is not present in soils elsewhere in the area, Narragansett Bay site, but other than fragments of hickory and acorn, very indicating that the mound vicinity was purposefully burned (Heidenreich tie plant material is present (Bernstein 1990:339). Nearby, at RI 670 in N 1974:390-391). Outside Iroquoian territory and scattered across Wisconsin and southern Kingstown, a 50 B.C. pit contained acorn, hazelnut, and hickory rem (Morenon et al. 1986). Plants other than nuts are not evidenced in the area Michigan are ridge-and-farrow fields ranging in size from .4 to 40.5 ha and much later in the archaeological record. Sumac, cherry, bramble, carpe arranged in patterns including spoked wheel, parallel ridge and furrow, and bulrush, cleavers, and grape are added to the list of identified material from 1 checkerboard (Gallagher 1989; Gallagher et al. 1985; Riley and Friemuth precontact-period occupations such as Carpenter's Point and North Sh 1979). The ridges average about 1 m wide. Their distribution is coincident (Bernstein 1990). Elsewhere in Connecticut, evidence for non-nut p with the northern limits of maize agriculture. Experimental data indicate that remains may be as old as 4,000 years (Powell 1981). Flotation samples h such ridges are able to mitigate cold damage (Riley and Friemuth 1979). Corn brought to light bead-ruby, deerberry, false Solomon's seal, hackberry, Je hills may have had a similar effect. tea, and smartweed from the Eckart site, which is Terminal Archaic/transiti Comprehensive paleoethnobotanical data are available from numerous into Woodland (Powell 1981). Other taxa reported from the Woodland- sites, mainly as a result of CRM work in addition to a few field schools and occupation at Sasqua Hill include maple-leaved goosefoot (a chenopod), b research projects (Table 6.4). The list provided in Table 6.4 is not exhaus- berry, grape (Vitisaestivalis), hawthorn, acorn, and pokeweed. tive but includes sites spanning the period from about A.D. 450 to protohis- tone times in New York, Ohio, Ontario, and Pennsylvania. In the following Northern Mixed Economy Pattern: Late Woodland sections, examples of studies on sites are chronologically organized. Patterns and chronological trends, or lack thereof, are examined for the Northern Late Woodland peoples of the Great Lakes region had much in co Iroquoians and their neighbors for the period from about A.D. 150 to 1550. A (Fenton 1978). In Pennsylvania, the Monongahela culture, known only fro discussion of the beginnings of food production that characterized the 2 K" the archaeological record, appears to have had a mixed economic pattern s Northern Mixed Economy pattern is taken up afterward. : s-i ilar to that of Iroquoian peoples (King 1999). Swidden horticulture was p Late Woodland Sites with Sz~bstantialPlant Remains from Flotation 8' ticed by groups living in the area from the Susquehanna Valley to Hur 2' along with hunting, fishing, and collecting of a wide variety of resources. C 4 bean, and cucurbit were the main crops. One view holds that fleshy fruits wer LATEWOODLAND 1 5' the most common wild plant foods for the Huron but that, in general, ga We are currently investigating Late Woodland 1 sites along the Lower Grand River in Ontario (Crawford and Smith 1996; Crawford et al. 1997; Crawford ering was unimportant (Heidenreich 1971 : 16 1). The archaeological recor is not consistent with this view, however, indicatingthat the gathering of 0th et al. 1998; Smith 1997a, 1997b; Smith and Crawford 1995,1997; Walter et al. $, 5 207 n able 6.4 ~~rtheasternLate Woodland Sites with Substantial Plant Remains from Flotation

Ontario sites from this period was at the Varden fishing camp and the Stra .+ Flats site. Bramble, sumac, strawberry, elderberry, plum/cherry, and grape Site PeriocL'Phase Citation Late Woodland 1 Bowyer 1995; Smith and Crawford 1997 been identified from those two sites so far (Fox 1990:178). Tobacco seeds Lone Pine, Grand Banks Forster Late Woodland 1 Saunders 2002 been reported from Stratford Flats as well. A radiocarbon assay of material Chenango Point Owasco Gardner 1992 Stratford Flats yielded a date of A.D. 900  190 (1-13081) (Fox 1990). Bohd Owasco Brose 1992 Princess Point plant remains from the Lower Grand River valley are more Memorial Park Clernson Island, Stewart Hart and Asch Sidell 1996 phase later Iroquoian (particularly Glen Meyer) collections than remains from th Bois Clair, Elliot Village, Early Ontario Iroquois Ounjian 1998; Tirumins Late Woodland 1 sites (Bowyer 1995; Crawford et al. 1997; Crawford et Ivory Hill, Glen Meyer, 1992 1998; Smith and Crawford 1997). Cultigens include corn and sunflower. Wee Kelly herbaceous plants are well represented, as are fleshy fruits and nuts. Calvert Early Ontario Iroquois Timmins 1997 Hibou Early Ontario Iroquois MacDonald and Williamson 1995 Little flotation has been carried out at Owasco sites in New York. The Bol (Owasco links) site is an exception. The early and late Owasco samples from Boland contain Dymock I and JI Western Basin Young Cooper 1982 densities of plant remains, but there is enough material to indicate that the Crawford Lake Middle Ontario Iroquois Fecteau 1985 Dunsmore, Myer's Road, Middle Ontario Iroquois Monckton 1994 recovered are similar to those from Princess Point sites, although less diverse. Wilcox, Hubbert main plants idenaed are maize, bean, whuq a hickory, some fleshy fruits, Wiacek Middle Ontario Iroquois Lennox et al. 1986 members of the knotweed, mustard, and grass families. Sunflower is confine Draper and White Late Ontario Iroquois Fecteau 1978; King and Crawford 1979 samples from the late Owasco occupation (Prezzano and Stepponaids 1990 Robin Hood Late Ontario Iroquois Fecteau 1980; Williamson 1983 Dawson Creek Late Ontario Iroquois D'Andrea 1983 To the south, research in the West Branch of the Susquehanna River Keffer Late Ontario Iroquois Wright 1991 clarifying early Clemson Island paleoethnobotany (Hart and Asch Side Parsons Late Ontario Iroquois Monckton 1998a 1996). The Memorial Park plant remains are generally similar to the Prin Seed-Barker Late Ontario Iroquois Crawford 1985 Point remains but include more chenopod and indicate that little barley Wallace Late Ontario Iroquois Crawford 1986 Auger, Bidmead, Ball, Late Ontario Iroquois Monckton 1992 grown. Fleshy fixits are common, with American nightshade dominath Peden (Huron) Wild rice is reported from both Princess Point and Clemson Island sites. Black Kat, Coleman, Late Ontario Iroquois Ounjian 1998 variety of nuts, including a substantial quantity of chestnut, occur in Harrietsville, Lawson, Pincornbe 2,5,6, Ronto, Memorial Park samples (Hart and Asch Sidell1996: 16). Smallman, Windermere Maynard-McKeown St. Lawrence Iroquioan Ounjian 1988 EAELY LATEWOODLAND 2 Otstungo Late Woodland Monckton 1998 Auda and Porteous were among the first Early Iroquoian sites from which pi remains were reported (Kapches 1987; Stothers and Yarnell 1977). Corn frag- Economy pattern in Ontario. A better understanding is now available because ments are represented in two features at the early Picke~g-phaseAuda site of research at the Hibou site near Auda, east of Toronto, where maize has been which has yielded a radiocarbon date on wood charcoal O~A.D. 855  110 (S AMS-dated to A.D. 1220  50 (TO-3844) and A.D. 1360  500 (TO-3845) 1948) (Kapches 1987). Numerous maize kernels were recovered from the Glen (MacDonald and Williamson 19951, and five Glen Meyer sites in the London, Meyer-stage Porteous site (Fox 1990; Stothers and Yarnell 1977). By the early Ontario, region (Ounjian 1998). In both studies, corn appears to be as sigmfi- 1980s clear evidence of crops had been obtained from Early Iroquoian contexts, cant as it is at later sites in Ontario (MacDonald and Williamson 1995:33; but the lack of extensive flotation sampling prevented a fuller understanding of Ounjian 1998). At Hibou the dominant wild plant remains are bramble, straw- the paleoethnobotanicalissues attending the beginning of the Northern Mixed berry, and chenopod. Cattail is also present. Four phases have been identified at the Glen Meyer Calvert site. C Gtsand nuts are quite similar to the Glen Meyer assemblages. The plat cucurbit, sunflower, and tobacco are all present in samples with specific p from Skitchewaug were collected by wet-screening rather than flota- associations (Ounjian 1998; Timniins 1997:98). Crawford recently reex tion. Und flotation is carried out at the site and similar sites in New England, ined the bean specimens from Calvert and concluded that they are better c more detailed comparisons cannot be made. A.D. all sified as unknown or unidentifiable seeds. Nuts from Calvert include bee By 1150-1250 maize, bean, cucurbit, and sunflower were present black walnut, and butternut, and acorn and shagbark hickory have been re in the Northeast. In addition, a wide array of fleshy fruits, grains, greens, ered fiom other GlenMeyer sites (Ounjian 1998; Timmins 1992). The weedy annuals, and perennials indicate a diverse, mixed economy. Plant hus- ber of plant taxa from Glen Meyer sites in the London area is exten bandry had rapidly become an important aspect of life shortly after its intro- (Ounjian 1998). duction. In New England, however, the introduction of tropical cultigens at The DymockI and II sites are Western Basin Younge phase oc A.D. 950 was not associated with detectable changes in settlement sys- easternmost representatives of this phase in Ontario (Cooper 1982; tems (McBride and Dewar 1987). Settlement changes occurring by^.^. 1500, however, are attributable to large-scale horticulture. In contrast to the situ- The occupations date to about A.D. 1050 and, thus, are contemporaries o Glen Meyer and Pickering Branches of the Early Ontario Iroquois stage. ation in Ontario, sedentism, ceramic production, and population aggregation in New England were not consequences of the adoption of agriculture. flotation samples from Dymock II and two from Dymock I were examined the University of Toronto. Maize is abundant, and tobac Families there continued to disperse out of villages for a major part of the year Feature 50 at DymockII (Cooper 1983). Other cultigens include (McBride and Dewar 1987). and probable sunflower. Among the wild remains are prickly ash, and MIDDLE 2 include Agropyron/E/ymz~s(wheat grass/rye grass) and Setaria sp. (fo LATEWOODLAND densities of sumac, the highest of which we are aware from a northeastern The paleoethnobotanical pattern identified at Early Iroquoian and Young- occur in the Dymock samples. Also present are butternut, br ~hasesites is evident with slight variation at Middle Iroquoian (Middleport) strawberry, elderberry, ground-cherry and chenopod (Cooper 1982). sites such as Crawford Lake, Dunsmore, Myers Road, Wdcox Lake, Hubbert, The later Clemson Island phase in Pennsylvania and Ow and Wiacek (Austin 1994; Fecteau 1985; Lennox et al. 1986; Monckton 1994, 1998b; Murphy and Ferris 1990). At Wiacek, perhaps the earliest known agri- York are roughly contemporaneous (Gardner 1992; Hart and 1996; King 1999). Plant remains from Clemson Island and Owasco occup cultural community in Huronia, the plant remains (by seedlfragment count) tions are similar to remains from both late Princess Point and Glen Mey comprise 70 percent cultigens (maize, bean, sunflower, cucurbit, and occupations except for the presence of plentiful little b tobacco), 28 percent wild plants,-and 2.6 percent nuts (Lennox 1986). Bean In northeastern Vermont, data from the multicompon (n = 11) is second to corn (n = 5,906) in the samples, with sunflower a close indicate a plant husbandry and collection regime not significan third (n = 9). The fleshy fruit category is by far the best-represented wild plant from contemporaneous sites in Ontario. Two houses at the sit group. A large number of ryegrass/wheat grass seeds (n = 2 14) were recov- ered definite Late Woodland 1 structures (Heckenberger 1992: ered from House 2. Grass stalks were also present in one of the features pro- ducing a large number of the grass seeds. The remains may represent the 51, dated to A.D. 1100  50, contained 5 1 whole or fragmentary maize nels, cob fragments, and nine beans. Thirty-eight additional be grass lining of the pit (Lennox et al. 1986:141). Bellwort, also found on sev- were recovered from two other features dating to about the same time. So eral Glen Meyer sites (Ounjian 1998), is reported from House 1 and extra- cucurbit rind was reportedly recovered from contexts dating to the same house features (n = 32). period. Remains of acorn, beechnut, butternut, hazel, hickory, and bitternut Butternut, acorn, and hickory are represented by 2 17 fragments from 38 fea- hickory have been recovered as well. Sumac and fleshy fruits are common tures at Wiacek. About 74 percent of the fragments are butternut meat and in the samples (Heckenberger 1992:135). The assemblage of cultigens, with shell. Wood charcoal of these taxa has not been identified at Wiacek, so pre- the exception of sunflower and tobacco, and the representation of fleshy mably the site's occupants were seeking out the relatively sparse nut trees in the area specifically for subsistence purposes. Such abundance of nut rem and Peden in Huronia (Monckton 1992). Pits and middens contrast with is rare at Late Woodland sites in Ontario. In fact, an analysis of midden s hearths, in that the hearths have much lower densities of carbonized seeds, pies from wacek (Monckton 1994) shows barely a trace of nuts, indicating possibly because they were cleaned periodically and any seeds remaining after such remains are differentially distributed on these sites and may have been cleaning were oxidized more completely by further exposure to heat. Also, important to the area's prehistoric inhabitants than researchers originally there is considerable variation in the contents of samples from the same class pected. Nuts are rare in other Middleport plant remains assemblages. of features. External house middens seem to be more consistent in their com- position. As mentioned elsewhere in this chapter, specific taxa may vary in their representation in particular areas. At Auger, for example, bean is more The range and relative abundance of each type of plant from Late Iroquoi abundant in houses that burned than in unburned contexts. Ounjian (1998), sites are similar to what has been reported from Early and Middle Iroquoi while controlling for context variation, discovered little significant variation sites. That is, usually less than 20 percent of the plant remains from a site between Glen Meyer and the much later precontact Neutral assemblages. cultigens. Udy,maize ranks htin abundance among the cultigens, followe Some archaeologists have assumed a greater dependence on maize through by sunflower and, occasionally, bean. Fleshy fruits are second in abundance an time and that this would be reflected in the plant remains (Fecteau 1985). are usually dominated by bramble. Grains and greens follow, usually repr This appears not to be the case when contextual vatriation is taken into sented mainly by chenopod. Other plant remains are often dominated b account (Ounjian 1998). Contextual analysis is still in its infancy in the paleo- sumac. With a few exceptions, nut remains are rare on Ontario Late Woodlan ethnobotany of the Northeast, but its significance to the interpretation of sites. The result of plant remains analysis at the St. Lawrence Iroquoi diet, ecology, and so forth cannot be underestimated. Maynard-McKeown site near Cornwall indicates that this pattern is manifate well to the east (Ounjian 1988). To the south in the Mohawk Valley, at the Otstungo site excavated by Dean Snow (Monckton n.d.), plant remains fall within the range of variation of Ontario Late Woodland samples in most ways. Most paleoethnobotanicaLdata in the Northeast pertain to the Northern About 10 percent of the seeds are cultigens. Cucurbit, sunflower, and tobacco Mixed Economy pattern. The subsistence regime of Ontario Iroquoians, have not been recovered. Fifty percent of the assemblage is bramble. whose settlements lay at the northern limit of plant husbandry in the The Late Iroquoian period is particularly well represented because of a set Northeast, was in many ways similar to subsistence in the Midwest, yet there of relatively complete paleoethnobotanical studies (Crawford 1985; were significant contrasts. Maize, bean, squash, sunflower, and tobacco are Monckton 1992; Ounjian 1998). These studies are differentiated from other the only cultigens so far confirmed in the Ontario archaeological record. Iroquoian paleoethnobotanical studies in their attempts to explore sample Chenopod, knotweed, and little barley have been recovered, but their CUE- variability, particularly contextual variation. Contextual analysis demonstrates gen status in Ontario is in question, as will be discussed later in this chapter. that systemic contrasts exist among contexts at Late Woodland sites Bean is common only at the Auger site in Huronia and at the Lawson site in (Monckton 1992). Exploration of contextual variation began in order to - London, Ontario (Monckton 1992) but is reported from most late Ontario determine the best way to compare site assemblages as well as to explore pos- sites. This contrasts with the Illinois Valley and American Bottom, where sible spatial differentiations on sites. At Parsons, for example, longhouse and bean is rarely reported. Bean was presumably far more common in Ontario exterior features differ in the relative proportions of cultigens and fleshy fruit, than the general archaeological record indicates. Charred bean occurs in they contain (Monckton 1998a). Exterior features produce about 80 percent small, dense clusters throughout longhouse floors at Auger. The site, or por- fleshy fruit seeds, whereas interior house features have either more cultigens tions of it, burned, providing particularly well-preserved plant remains. or roughly equal proportions of cultigen and fleshy fruit seeds. A more However, bean rarely occurs at Auger in unburned contexts, for example, in detailed contextual analysis attempted to explore systematic differences middens where other plant remains are represented in high densities. among hearth, pit, midden, and house samples from Auger, Ball, Bidmead, The quantity of maize in the diet cannot be estimated from plant remains, hey were to their contemporaries in the American Midwest. Butternut and but a comparison of the archaeobotanical and ethnohistorical data with is topic analyses of human remains from Ontario is instructive. Heidenre acorn occasionally occur in sixteenth-century samples from Ontario, but they (1972) and Murdock (1967) estimate that maize comprised over 60 perc sefar more common in early Late Woodland contexts such as Ivory Efill of the Huron diet. However, calculations based on carbon isotope analys (Ounjian 1998). An insignificant quantity of acorn and butternut occur at of human bone indicate that maize probably never accounted for more th seed-Barker (sixteenth century). Wallace (sixteenth century) samples include 50 percent of the total carbon intake of the Huron (Schwarz et al. 1985:2 some hickory as well. Dawson Creek, a multicomponent site, documents a Part of the human bone sample reported by Schwarz et al. (1985) is from steady decrease in nuts over time @'Andrea 1983). Studies of strontium con- Kleinberg Ossuary, a few kilometers north of, and dating slightly later th tent of human bone support the hypothesis of decreased nut consumption the Seed-Barker site. The dietary contribution of maize relative to other pi (Katzenberg 1984). Fleshy fruit seeds and achenes, on the other hand, are food cannot be estimated (Schwarz et al. 1985), but, in our view, maize c ubiquitous and occur in high densities at Late Woodland sites in Ontario. tributed the greatest proportion. About 34 percent of the total seeds by co Fleshy fixitsmay have played a dietary role similar to that of nuts in diets h- are kernels and 44 percent of the total plant food remains by weight are her south, as the nutritional content of these fruits is similar to that of nuts nels, but these figures are difficult to translate into dietary importance. (Monckton 1992). provocative analysis of the relative nutritional importance of various pi groups from Huronian sites suggests that fleshy fruits were far more su Crop History stantial contributors to aboriginal diets than originally suspected, althou not more important than corn (Monckton 1992). The emphasis on fles Plant husbandry in the Northeast is best examined in the context of second- fruits is also apparent from data recovered from Iroquoian sites outsi ary origins, that is, difiusion and migration-related models. The indigenous Huronia. For example, seeds of 10 taxa of fleshy fruit constitute 27 perce domestication of plants preceding the corn-based intensification that occurred B.C. in of the total of 7,400 cultigen and other seeds from the Seed-Barker site. M during the late second millennium the Midwest and Southeast (Smith are American nightshade, strawberry, and bramble. At South Park, New Yor 1987; 1992) is not evidenced in the Great Lakes, Atlantic provinces, or New grape and plum are the most common among the wild seeds, and bramble England regions. Some researchers have hypothesized that a northward migra- also present (Brose 1994). tion of descendants of people who had developed corn horticulture in the The Iroquois apparently ate chenopod greens (Yamell 1964). Americ Midwest during the Middle Woodland-and who, consequently, were less nightshade and knotweeds are other sources of edible leaves. Parker (1910 dependent on Hopewellian interaction-was responsible for the beginning of mentions that squash (cucurbit) flowers were also eaten, so these might b corn production in the Lower Great Lakes (Stothers 1977; Stothers and included in the leafy-food category. Undomesticated greens generally are Yamell 1977). In recent years, however, we have learned that Middle Woodland plant husbandry in the Midwest was not based on corn, so the cen- poorly understood food resource in the native North American diet (B 1981). Two of the most commonly eaten greens in Mexico are purslane tral thesis in this migration hypothesis has been contradicted (see also Stothers chenopod (Bye 1981:1 lo), both represented at most Northern Iroquoian sites. and Graves 1983). However, other archaeological data have not been suffi- Nuts are common in most Late Woodland and Mississippian sites in the ciently explored to identify the antecedents to cultures such as Princess Point. East. They include walnut, hickory, acorn, and hazel. Beech and chestnut Rather than corn being the catalyst for change in the Midwest, new tech- rare. The proportion of nut remains declined over time in the Americ nologies may have been responsible for the demise of the intensive interaction Bottom gohannessen 1984). Nut use decreased through time in Illinois, fo characteristic of the Middle Woodland (Muller 1987). New resource pro- example, but the density of nutshell and nutmeat remains high in Lat curement strategies became associated with changed settlement patterns that Woodland and Mississippian samples (Asch and Asch 1985). This parallels facilitated increased population. Pressure on wild resources resulted from the pattern seen in Ontario. Nuts are rare, however, on later occupations. Nu more localized populations. The development and intensification of horti- appear to have been far less important to sixteenth-century Iroquoians th culture, including the addition of corn, would have been profitable under these circumstances (Muller 1987:266). The Northeast is a large area, however, and I .4-> apparently not in the Northeast. Not until corn became established in the  recent research suggests that no single theory may account for the develop '4 region did further significant social change occur. vj-, ment of agriculture (Gebauer and Price 1992:3). Researchers are turning to Intensification of food production systems occurred in the Northeast after explicating the details of local histories in order to develop our comparative A.D. 1000. In Ontario this date marks the transition from late Princess Point Q database, a process we refer to as "neoparticularism." to Glen Meyer. Corn became the foundation of local horticulture by this time In the areas of the U.S. Midwest bordering the southern and western lim- in the Lower Great Lakes and farther east several centuries later. Isotope stud- its of this chapter's geographic focus, cucurbit, chenopod (Chenopodh k ies on human bone suggest that corn became a significant part of local diets by 3 berlandieri ssp.jonesianum), erect knotweed, little barley, maygrass (Phalari. 5 Glen Meyer times and stayed at a relatively constant level in the diet caroliniana), sunflower, and sumpweed (Iva annzia var. macrocaya) were sig- (Katzenberg et al. 1995). Plant remains from a set of related sites were com- 3 nificant Early and Middle Woodland crops (hzigian 1987; Fritz and Smith pared to a set of late precontact sites in the same area (Ounjian 1998). After $' 1988,1990; Smith 1987,1989,1992; Yamell 1976). Mate was not widespread taking variation due to context into account, differences between the two peri- in the Midwest at the time but became significant throughout the Eastern ods were minimal. Only nuts declined in density/abundance through time. Woodlands sometime dUnng the Late Woodland period. In the American The development of the mixed economic system that was eventually to take Bottom, however, Late Woodland peoples appear to have grown little maize hold in the Northeast took several centuries, spanning the period from A.D. 450 (Johannessen 1984), whereas nearby Emergent Mississippian and to 1000. Crawford et al. (1997) introduced the evidence used to date the intro- Mississippian populations appear to have relied on corn to sustain their rel- duction of corn to the Northeast. The earliest corn found so far is from the atively high populations. Corn, bean, cucurbit, sunflower, and tobacco were Grand Banks site, Ontario (Table 6.2). Several maize fragments date to the only crops undoubtedly grown in precontact Ontario. Chenopod, erect A.D. 450-950 at Grand Banks. Early maize in the Grand River valley is not iso- knotweed, and little barley are reported from Ontario sites, and we discuss lated to Grand Banks. An A.D. 680 corn fragment was recovered from the Meyer their possible cultigen or husbandry status later in this chapter. Three sump- site just upriver from Grand Banks, and another maize fragment from Forster weed seeds have been recovered from Midden 1 at Windermere, Ontario dates to about A.D. 750 (Table 6.2). The onset of corn production coincided with (Ounjian 1998). A range extension for this plant northward into Ontario is the appearance of Princess Point culture. Princess Point flourished in the Lower unlikely, based on the seeds' occurrence in one context well outside the plant's Grand River valley, southern Ontario, during a period of floodplain stability that known range. However, aboriginal southwestern Ontario residents may well enabled several centuries of bottomland habitation (Crawford et al. 1998). have known about a wider range of cultigens than they actually grew, through Tobacco was present in Ontario by^.^. 850-950, the earliest report being their travels or exchange. from Stratford Flats. The common bean appeared several centuries there- Cucurbit is the only member of the group just described that is confirmed after. There is only one confirmed Early Ontario Iroquois bean example. It in the Northeast before A.D. 1, with evidence coming from seven sites: comes from the Glen Meyer Kelly site, dating to A.D. 1220Ñ1 85. John Hart Sharrow, Maine, and Memorial Park, Pennsylvania (both Middle Archaic; (1999a, 1999b) has reassessed the date for bean at the Roundtop site, usu- Table 6.2), Meadowcroft, Pennsylvania (about 1000 B.c.), King Coulee, ally reported as the earliest occurrence in the Northeast. The Roundtop 3?a Minnesota (580  60 B.c.), Schultz and Green Point, Michigan (about 500 example is virtually the same age as the Glen Meyer bean from Ontario and g B.c.), and Leimbach, Ohio (Asch Sidell1999; Cushman 1982; Hart and Asch significantly younger than previously suspected (Hart 1999b:65). These late s-'2 Sidell1997; Ozker 1982; Perkl1998). The solitary report of 1000 B.C. sun- dates on what were thought to be earlier beans triggered a comprehensive ¤ flower from Eidson, Michigan, may add a second entry to the list of early examination of possible pre-1200 A.D. beans in the Northeast. None of the 3 cultigens in the Northeast (Parker 1984). Sunflower appeared during the specimens examined dates to earlier than the thirteenth century, indicating 3' Clemson Island phase in Pennsylvania by^.^. 750-850 (Hart and Asch Sidell that the crop rapidly spread several centuries later than once thought (Hart $ 1996). Non-corn-based plant husbandry supported relatively complex and Scarry 1999; Hart et al. 2002). 3 sociopolitical systems for at least a millennium and a half in the Midwest but Until recently we have been limited in our ability to resolve the question Z'3 5 of just when early corn and bean appeared in the Northeast. The early L the plant remains assemblage from Bumham-Shepard fits within the range Woodland dating of these cultigens should not depend on associated wo of variation of plant remains on Ontario Late Woodland sites. In addition, charcoal radiocarbon dates and stratigraphic interpretations alone. We one should not be too tightly constrained by the ethnohistorical record; one had some firsthand experience with such problems. A bean cotyledon should be open to the possibility that the archaeological record will have Grand Banks and corn from Lone Pine are much younger than our not ethnohistoricdy documented. impressions of their context suggested. The bean came from about the s Linked to the expansion of maize production into the Northeast is the stratum in the same excavation unit that produced Princess Point pottery, question of how Eastern Eight-Row, the variety of maize that appears to have the bean has been AMS-dated to about A.D. 1740  60 (TO-4558). Our 1 facilitated this expansion, developed. The origin of Eastern Eight-Row maize excavations clarified the stratigraphy of that area, and we now understan is somewhat problematic in light of the known archaeological record. It may the stratum from which the bean was recovered is a mixed deposit. have been introduced as eight-row corn via the Southwest from Mexico In areas immediately to the south in Pennsylvania, corn was not commo (Galinat and Gunnerson 1963), or it may have evolved in the Northeast from until sometime between A.D. 650 and 950 (Wagner 1993), although it m the chapalote line, a high-row-number maize prevalent in the Southwest have been present at Meadowcroft by 400 B.C. (Adovasio and Johnson 1981 before large-kernel eight-row (Maiz de Ocho) developed (see Wagner 1993 Corn similar in age to the oldest in Ontario is conspicuously absent from for a full discussion). Another variant of this proposal (e.g., King 1989) sug- record in New York State. The earliest AMS-dated maize so far recover gests that Eastern Eight-Row evolved from a putative midwestern 12-row in the Northeast outside Ontario comes from site 211-1-1 in the Huds maize (a type of popcorn) grown by Middle Woodland peoples (Blake 1976). Valley (Table 6.2) (Bendremer and Dewar 1994; Cassedy and Webb 199 Maize was rare during the Middle Woodland, however, and it cannot be clas- McBride 1984). The best examples of early corn east of Pennsylvania sified (Conard et al. 1984; Fritz 1990). Furthermore, Eastern Eight-Row New York were recovered from storage features at the Burnham-Shepard si maize normally includes 12-rowed cobs. Genetic research indicates that (Bendremer et al. 1991) and from Skitchewaug, Vermont, where the corn w Eastern Eight-Row maize is so distinctive, it likely resulted from a small associated with bean and cucurbit remains (Heckenberger 1992). Skitchewaug founder population in the East. Since southwestern races have chromoso- is the only site in the region with evidence of a commitment to food prod mal knobs not found in Eastern Eight-Row (Doebly et al. 1986), an ancestral tion similar to its contemporaries in southern Ontario. However, in gener population in the Southwest cannot be identified. Nevertheless, Eastern intensification of corn production does not appear to have occurred un Eight-Row maize genetics are consistent with an origin in the Southwest AD. about 1500 .m.in New England (Bendremer 1999; Bendremer and Dew (Doebly et al. 1986). The scanty, fragmentary remains predating A.D. 900 have 1994; McBride and Dewar 1987). In the Connecticut River vall made understanding the origin of northeastern eight-row maize almost "Woodland" societies developed in the apparent absence of horticultural pr impossible (Fritz 1990; Wagner 1993). Surprisingly, the best collection from duction. Cultigens were rare but present after about A.D. 1000, only beco this period comes from the northern extreme of corn growing in the ing abundant before the Final Woodland, A.D. 1450-1550 (McBride and Northeast (i.e., in Ontario). Dewar 1987). In greater New England corn is reported from 44 sites and Eastern Eight-Row corn is particularly suited to a growing season as short bean from nine sites (Bendremer 1999:136). The majority of sites with corn as 120 to 140 days (Yarnell 1964). This appears to mark the northern limit of are inland rather than coastal occupations. Chilton (1999) and Bendremer aboriginal corn production in the Northeast. However, focusing on an area's (1999) do not clearly agree on the meaning of this pattern. Bendremer feel frost-free season oversimplifies the nuances of corn's distribution. For example, that it reflects a real difference in subsistence between inland and coastal peo- parts of New England with a growing season appropriate for corn do not sup- ples, whereas Chilton prefers to conservatively interpret the relatively large port corn production. In some of these areas, this can be explained by reference quantities of corn from such sites as Bumham-Shepard. Both sides rais to cumulative summer heat, reflected in growing degree days (GDD) rather important issues. Neither compares the data to clear mixed-economy site than growing season length. A threshold of 2,000 GDD seems to be a good in New York and Ontario. Crawford (1999-228)has already pointed out tha delimiter of corn-growing potential in New England (Demeritt 1991). The 220 isons of maize across the Northeast The collections tend to be composed mainly ^-e archaeological corn distribution in New England conforms in a general w .fe E to the 2,000 GDD isoline (Demeritt 1991). Adoption of corn gardening alon of cobs, with lower proportions being kernels, cupules, and stalk fragments. t/2 Cob row number and attributes such as internal and external cupule width, 6 this GDD isoline would have engendered some risk, but inland the risk wa lower than on the coast, where other resources were generally dependable. degree of cupule pairing, and kernel width are among the few traits considered I to be sigmficant for differentiating Eastern Eight-Row corn from popcorn, the ^Q The Crops other type of corn said to have been grown during the Late Woodland in the 2 Northeast (see King 1994 for more detailed discussion of corn attributes). Maize Cupule measurements are appropriate for comparative purposes because they can be made on whole cobs, fragmentary cobs, or single cupules. Carbonized 3 Archaeological corn throughout the Northeast is the Eastern Eight-Row vari corn is generally difficult to assess because of the differential affects of heating $' ety (Eastern Complex or Northern Flint/Flour): Southern dent corn did on corn varieties and cob components (King 1994). Nonetheless, seven basic yrl reach the Northeast until the beginning of the eighteenth CenturyA.D. (B measurements are recommended (Bird 1994). Not all are significant when and Cutler 1982). The best archaeological evidence for dent maize in the Eas comparing Eastern Eight-Row corn with popcorn. Here, we summarize four is from the eighteenth-century King Hill site, Missouri (Blake and Cutle variables for a sample from the Seed-Barker site and several sites in Huronia 1982). The spread of this maize variety is associated with the introductio in order to test the proposal that popcorn, or Midwestern Twelve-Row corn, of the horse as well as with European movements. Both Waugh (1916) an is present in late precontact collections in the Northeast. The Seed-Barker and Parker (1910) report that the Iroquois used popcorn. However, these refer Huronia corn populations show no sigmficant deviation from Eastern Eight- ences are relatively recent and tell us little about precontact maize in th Row maize. Most of the cobs are eight-row, with some 12-, lo-, six-, and four- Northeast. Popcorn is relatively easy to recognize in the archaeologica row cobs (Figures 6.7 and 6.8). Strong row pairing is prevalent and cob bases, record, having more than 12 rows of kernels distributed on cupules tha when present, are expanded. exhibit a low degree of row pairing. High-row-number (14-16) cobs Fort Ancient maize from Ohio is similar to the Ontario populations reported from Cahokia, and these are probably popcorn (Winter 19 (Figure 6.9). The four- and six-row cobs at Seed-Barker, for example are, to Lopinot (1983) reports popcorn from the Bridges site in the central Kaskaskia a large extent, basal or tip portions of broken cobs that are likely eight- or 10- Valley as well. This maize has alternately arranged cupules (that is, they are row types. At least one complete six-row cob is present. Sykes (1981) reports not strongly paired) and a mean cupule width of 2.6 mm. Eastern Eight-Row that 16 percent of the eight-row and 10 percent of the 10-row cobs he stud- cupule widths generally average about 10 mm. In general, cupule width ied have similar variations. Some of these low-row-numbered cobs may be inversely correlates with row number. diminutive nubbins from tiller stalks (for example, 17 percent of the cobs at Considerable quantities of maize remains have been recovered by flotation and South Park, New York, are nubbins, according to Brose [1994], but the aver- by hand excavation from sites across southern Ontario. Large collections in our age cupule width for the six- and four-row cobs is relatively large) (Table 6.5). laboratory at the University of Toronto, for example, come from Seed-Barker, The contention that 12-row maize on Ontario sites may be popcorn Wallace, Auger, and Bidmead. In all cases, corn comprises the majority of the derived from the Middle and Late Woodland 1high-row-number cobs (Sykes plant food remains by weight at these sites (Crawford 1985, 1986; Monckton 1981) is no longer tenable, for reasons mentioned earlier. Popcorn has been 1992). Sykes (1981) reports another large collection from Warminster with a sam- codkned on some post-A.D. 700 sites in the Plains and mdwest, for exam- ple of 323 cobs and 867 cob fragments. Elsewhere in the East, large collections ple, the King EWl and Utz sites in Missouri, but such maize is relatively late of cobs have been reported from South Park, New York (Brose 1994); Sheep (Figure 6.8) (Blake and Cutler 1982). Part of the maize population from those Rock, Pennsylvania; Crawford Farm, Illinois; Crabapple Point, Wisconsin (Blake sites consists of cobs with 12,14, and 16 rows and cupule widths of 5.5 mm and Cutler 1976); and King Hill and Utz, Missouri (Blake 1982). The quantity or less (Blake and Cutler 1982:90). Eastern complex or Eastern Eight-Row of data from these sites indicates the feasibility of deriving meaningful compar- populations normally have some cobs with 12 rows of grain (Cutler and Blake SOUTHWEST

0 I four six eight ten twelve fourteen sixteen ¥Bo Canyon (AD 600) HHinkle Park (AD 1100-1200) DZape Cave (AD 1350)

MIDWEST 70,

FIGURE 6.7 Maize from the Northeast: (a) 10-row maize cob, (b) rectangular, 8-row cob cross section, (c) maize kernel

four six eight ten twelve fourteen sixteen 1982:90; Yarnell 1964:107), so claims of popcorn in these collections Hill & Utz (AD 1700) sKIng Hill & Utz (pre AD 1600-1714) be carefully assessed. In general, cupule measurements may provi ONTARIO clues to the type of maize grown in the Northeast, in particular, he 80 distinguish popcorn from Eastern Eight-Row maize with its si 70 wider cupules. Cob tip cupules could affect our ability to distinguis ence of popcorn because these cupules are quite small and their me 60 is significantly smaller than the mean widths of middle and base cu 50 few tip cupules are in the size range of popcorn cupules (Figure 6.9). 40 comparisons should specifywhether cupules are from a cob tip. Tip 30 however, are relatively rare in the Seed-Barker collection (3-5 percent 20 sample) and probably in other collections as well. This accounts for th amalgamated cupule widths by cob row number exhibiting no signific 10 ferences. Popcorn, if not present as whole cobs or cob segments, o almost certainly show up in cupule width distributions as a group of ve seed-Barker (by number) aSeed-Barker (by w) cupules. The cupule widths from the four- through 12-row cobs a Barker are not significantly different, averaging about 9 mm (Ta IG- 6.8 Frequency distribution of maize cobs by row number from the Cupules from South Park, Ohio, are similar in width, averaging outhest, Midwest United States, and Ontario -

1.0 (1.0-1.1) .9 (.8-.9) "9 (.8-.9) 1.0 (.6-1.4) .9 (5-1.2) .6 (.4--8) .8 (.7-.9) .8 (.7-.9) -

71:191) estimates that the average cob has 200 kernels, but this number ears to be too high. Sykes (1981:30) arrived at a lower estimate of 147 ker- s per cob after studying actual maize remains. Maize from Bowman's ok, New York, has about 154 kernels per cob (Ceci 197950). Estimates the Seed-Barker site maize are difficult to make because few complete

arker, four virtually complete specimens average 172 kernels per cob. Each

FIGURE 6.9 Cupule width comparison: quantile box plots, means diamo and graphic results for the Seed-Barker site, Ontario s. Broken cobs average about 120 kernels and, if complete, would have 150-160 kernels on average. The cobs at Seed-Barker appear to be more productive than those reported by Sykes (1981) and Ceci (Brose 1994). If popcorn were present, it would appear as high-ro bered cobs with narrow cupules. The smallest cupule width in the

Seed-Barker is complete enough to permit a conclusive evaluatio d sandier soils than Seed-Barker; the New York maize reported by Ceci all cob shapes, but they are cylindrical and kernel rows are straight hctrow pairing. None of the Seed-Barker maize fits the description e Ontario collections exemplify the variation in Eastern Eight-Row corn. Applying the same criteria to the maize studied by Sykes (1981 ze. This variation probably existed from the time of its introduction to to the conclusion that none of it is popcorn either. Productivity of precontact maize in the Northeast has been estim several researchers on the basis of number of kernels per cob (Cec these estimates. The cupule size of some Eastern Eight-Row pop 226 '-s; eight-row kernels have an R value in that range. Many of the ke -5 C<1E indeterminableside angles and their Rvalues range from 1.0 to 1.8. 6 other sixteenth-century populations should show a similar distribu '3 8 Sunpower S3 3 Several large collections of sunflower have been recovered from 9 ical sites in Ontario. Two collections are particularly notable: 393 s ih seeds and achenes from Seed-Barker and 1,416 sp 3 believed to be a single sunflower inflorescence excavated by S 2 Late Woodland Lawson site. These are among the largest stu w1 of Late Woodland sunflower in the Northeast. Bodner (1999) describ achenes from seven Seneca Iroquois sites. Other large samples of specimens exist for Early Woodland (Salts Cave J4 levels and feces: Mississippian (Paul McCulloch, Missouri: 1,000; Campbell, Island, 0 from the Wallace site, Ontario sites (described in Yarnell 1978:292-293). Monckton (1992) was able t measurements on 71 of 189 sunflower seeds and achenes from the Bidmead, Peden, and Ball sites in Huronia. We also have measurements 999:136). The mean "size," presumably length, of 35 specimens from achenes from the Late Woodland Wallace site (Figure 6.10) ects to 8.3 nun, almost identical to the Ontario Late Wallace, Lawson, and Huronia samples provide our first opportunity t length. Bendremer (1999:136, based on a personal pare a sunflower population that was near the plant's no cation with Heiser in 1990) suggests these are a "primitive" domes- bandry with other populations from different time periods and regions. variety. This may be the case, but it oversimplifies the situation. Sunflower achene metrics are crucial for identifying the variety and ower achenes generally increased in size through time; first millen- ity of sunflower. Size, shape, and pigmentation of the achene are the . achenes are long and narrow, with length-width products ranag acteristics that exhibit the greatest variation in cultige 22 to 25, whereas the largest precontact achenes, with length-width 1951). Pigmentation is not visible in carbonized specirn Mississippian (Yamell 1978). Sunflower achenes our specimens do not vary a great deal, so only size is considered here. crease in size over time, but variation within a carbonized and desiccated sunflower seeds and fruits indicator of varietal diversity (Yamell 1981). sites in eastern North America, so in order to facilitate comparison, Lawson, and Huronia sunflower achene pop- rected the carbonized seed and achene measurements to noncarbo ar in size to Early and Middle Woodland populations and sig- 3 (fresh) achene dimensions by multiplying achene length by 1.1 1and wid rent from Mississippian achenes (F'igure 6.12). The few meas- 5' 1.27, and seed length by 1.30 and width by 1.45 (correction factors det s from other precontact Iroquoian sites are within the range of $' mined by Yamell and Waselkov and reported in Yamell 1978:296). The ur populations. Two small achenes (both 6.2 ¤ ric data are summarized in Figures 6.11 and 6.12 and in Table 6.6. The <-+ Draper (King and Crawford 1979), for example, and '^5 age measurements for the Ontario specimens are within the ran and achenes from Harrietsville range from 6.5 to 10.0 rnm long by 3 for cultigen sunflower, but the mean length, width, and overall size (len ected) (Fecteau 1985). An achene from the Hamilton 5 x width) are smaller than anticipated for this period. Small sunflower ache mm (corrected) (Lennox 1981:340) and is among the 3, are also reported in New England from Burnham-Shepard sunflower achenes so far reported in Ontario. The 3z' 2t-t 227 Achene Length (mm) ONTARIO SUNFLOWER ACHENES

Huronia Seed-Barker Lawson Each Pair Student's t = 0.05 Length (rnrn) FIGURE 6.1 I Northeastern sunflower achene length: quande bo plots, means diamonds, and graphic results largest examples come from the Lawson site. Many of the spec Lawson are similar in size to the Mississippian mean, as ar and the Hamilton site specimens. Mean dimensions are not rep er, his description is still helpfid. The Seed-Barker sunflower may be a Seneca specimens; only the size ranges from seven sites are reported, parison with the Ontario and New England samples is difficult. The small achenes typical of Ontario and, presumably, New Eng1 may have resulted from local growing conditions or may represe ety of the dtigen. High soil moisture content may be resp smaller than expected achenes at the A.D. 400 Boyd site in Mississip 1978:290). Low-lying, poorly drained soils are not recommended for husbandry; sandy soils are suggested for good yields (Putt 1957:6). Exp indicate that achene size "is in part correlated with the size of th 1951:439). Thus, poor growing conditions could result in smaller proportionately smaller fruit. The soils at Seed-Barker and in some of the smallest sunflower achenes are reported, are well drained atively sandy, so the conditions appear good for sunflower husbandry a locations. The small Northeast sunflower therefore may simply be a seeded variety. Heiser (1951:44) reports one Ankara varie averaging 7.1 mm (range 6.3-7.9) by4.3 mm (range 3.8-5.0). -

Table 6.6 er the oil nor the kernel was eaten (Thwaites 1899, vol. 43:325). This nnation is actually contained in a note added by Thwaites, citing Carr 5:171-172), who, in turn, cites Charlevoix (1 744). Sunflower seeds were n and used for medicine by aboriginal North Americans throughout the East

Lawson. n = 837 the Southwest; we can assume this was the case in the Northeast as well. Length 8.5 Width 4.6 ean, Cucurbit, Tobacco, and Bottle Gourd Product 39.7 Seed-Barker, n = 150 Length 8.1 m and sunflower are numerically the most common cultigens at most Late 3 Width 3.9 quoian sites, but seeds of three other cultigens are present in significant quan- Product 31.7 es: tobacco, bean, and cucurbit. Tobacco occupies a special place among Wallace, n = 18 Length 7.8 enous Americans because of its fundamental link to religion via its ability Width 3.7 uce altered states of consciousness (Winter 2000:302). The sacred nature Product 28.8 acco and its use is reflected in pipe ceremonialism, bird associations, and obacco invocation (von Gemet 2OOO:8O). Tobacco and pipe smoking are also Huronia (Auger, Ball, Bidmead, Peden), n = 74 portant social mediators in Iroquoian society. Tobacco appears in substan- Length 7.5 quantities at Early Ontario hoquoian sites (EUiott: 1,869 in one feature; Width 3.5 kman: 465 in Feature 5) as well as Late Iroquoian sites (e.g., Auger: 161 in Product 27.2 sample, Draper: 12, Windermere: 122, and Wolf Creek 352) (Fecteau 1985; ;Ounjian 1998). Tobacco in precontact and contact-period sites obably Nicotiana nmCa, a species originating in South America; however, characteristics do not provide a sufficient basis on which to positivelyiden- lions were, indeed, a factor influencing achene size. The large a s species in the archaeological record (Wagner 2000:189). the Harrietsville and Hamilton sites in southwestern Ontario are can is usually not particularly dense on precontact Iroquoian sites but is sent in variable quantities. At Ball, the bean density is about .05 per liter in growing conditions among the three areas. Yamell (1964) notes, idmead and Peden, bean densities are .I and .08 per liter, ctively (Monckton 1992). At Auger, however, the mean bean density is ,about .3 per liter (Monckton 1992). Concentrations of beans asso- samples if this south-to-north pattern extends to northern New other carbonized seeds are found in shallow, posthole-like pock- Seneca size range does appear to be slightly larger than the On e. At the Lawson site, a cylindrical pit had a bean density of 2.8 per 2 none of the seeds in Bodner's sample is shorter 6.7 mm, and zed bean remains (normally cotyledons) exhibit some size vari- n (Table 6.7). The Auger sample is quite large compared with the two $' mail, Ontario samples from Seed-Barker and Wallace. All but 8' 3 of the Seed-Barker and Wallace site beans are smaller than beans from 4 &g Hill and Utz sites in Mssouri (Blake and Cutler 1982). 3 used as an oil source. Champlain mentions that in his Only one cultigen cucurbit taxon is known from precontact Ontario: $ Ca'iague he saw sunflowers "from the seeds of which they make oil rbitapepo. This taxon is quite variable, comprising some six varieties: pump- ? 3 scallop, zucchini, summer crookneck squash, acorn squash, and 5 gourd. Some of these varieties, for example, crookneck and zucchini, are a

231 ers, for example, acorn squash and p~~~~pkin,are winters Summary of Bean Metrics (mm), Northeastern sites vested until (cutler and Whittaker 1961; Heiser 1979:38-39). Bl Mean and Cuder (1982:98) ~~~h summer from winter squash on the basis ofs Range size. The squash seeds from the King Hill and Ua sites range ins L 8.1 from 8.7 by 5.0 mm to 17.3 by 9.5 mm. Only one seed was mder than 1 6.8-1 1.0 W 5.1 4.0-6.3 by 5.0 mm is considered to be a summer squash; the remaining seeds Pumpkin (Blake and Cutler 1982). King reports that "seed size is a relatively L 8.7 6.411.0 w 5.2 ble within a single specimen, popdafton Auger, Ball, Bidmead, 4.1-7.3 of clmdrbj~,~(1985:87). &Jh,imum fruit weight was Peden (Huron$, n = 182 cotyledons with cucurbit seed length (King 1985). L 12.0 8.1-18.9 w 7.1 ~~thrind seeds are reported in Ontario. ger, n = 50 whole beans 4.8-10.3 Seed-Barker sample are consistently small, avers L 12.6 9.1-15.3 Wdacesite average 10.1 by 6.5 awson, II = 46 whole beans W 7.8 6.49.7 of cumbits by Blake and Cutler (1982). Using King3 (1985) L 9.79 5.7-1 1.4 tion, these seeds are probably from fruits weighin w 5.92 some sagedue to carbonization, the fruit diameters were Pro amon, n = 84 cotyledons 3.8-7.4 jar to those reported from Salts Cave (14.5-25 cm) (Yamell L 9.61 7.1-11.6 w 5.41 Barker Wallace cucurbits do not appear to be true puqkins. oleman, n = 10 cotyledons 3.7-6.8 L 9.36 6.5-1 1.2

One hundred desiccated specimens averaged 12 These seeds may be from smd jack-o-lmtem pumpkins (Monckton 1992). If this is the case, then the only true P- in the Ontario record date to the historic pen0 are all relatively thin, measuring less than 2 mm in thickn contact cumbits in Ontario do not appear to be p-pbsy they may harvested for their rind. Cucurbit marrow (whole s edy baked or boiled before eating (Parker 1910:92). ~ind~bottle gourd is relatively rare in the Northeast, havingbe ass does not occur in archaeological sites in the ~~rth~~~~.~h~ north- from Late Monon&ela sites in southwestern Pennsvfvania and of maygrass today extends to southern Ohio (cowan 1978), so it g in the eastern part of that state (Kms 1999:17,19; Yamell 1964) surprising that it is absent in northeastern sites. ~ittl~barley, however, 5"' Indigenous Cultigens and Small Grains

Middle Late Woodland of Ohio and aoisexten em Pennsylvania (King 1999). Chenopod, erect hotweed little barley occur at northeastern sites, but the extent to

2^ site, east of Memorial Park. Little barley is not considered native to 0 and has been collected only once, in 1888, along a railway near Amhers (Dore and McNeill 1980). In fact, the plant may not be indigen whole of the Northeast. Sumpweed, a crop grown in adjacent re south and west, has been recovered from one late precontact site Wmdermere, but the grains are small and few in number (n = 3 does not seem to have been locally grown (Ounjian 1998). The sumpweed is also unusual because the plant is not native to th People may well have played a role in the precontact presence o in Ontario and little barley in New York, Pennsylvania, and Ont Erect knotweed and chenopod occur at most Late Wood Ontario (Figures 6.13 and 6.14). At Seed-Barker, for examp together represent 7 percent of the carbonized seeds (1 1perc the Seed-Barker site, Ontario ing maize kernels). Chenopod is far more abundant than erec however. At Auger, chenopod and knotweed would dominate aeological data is not entirely unexpected. Preservation of plant remains chaeological sites is a result of use, processing techniques, the likelihood articular plant parts will survive, site formation processes, and temper- and oxygen levels to which plant parts have been exposed, among other rs. Yet considerable information is retained in the archaeobotanical . Here we itemize a few observations based on Table 6.1. e diversity of plants in the archaeological record increases through time. rsity is highest among the mixed-economy groups. The apparent dif- ce in diversity between northern and southern mixed-economy groups e Northeast is likely a reflection of research activity, with more attention g been paid to northern mixed-economy sites. Northeast coast sites also it considerable diversity, with some yielding evidence of agriculture and s not. The diversity is probably linked to the early-succession, disturbed abitats common to mixed economic situations. Forest edges, clearings, and er anthropogenic settings result in the growth of weed communities and ductive, sunlit habitats conducive to a variety of plants (Crawford 1997; ell 1964; see also below). Cultigens are important plants in the most spe- lized anthropogenic habitats, that is, agricultural fields. Plants such as the nopods, knotweeds, grasses, and others in the grains/greens category are o more commonly associated with fields and their edges. In fact, except for FIGURE 6.14 Seed-Barker site cheno- rice, grasses are primarily found at late sites. Fleshy fruit-bearing plants pod: (a) thin-pericarp specimen, (b) nut trees are highly productive in open habitats as well. Both categories SEM photograph of pericarp section best represented at mixed-economy sites in the Northeast. A few weedy ts whose seeds are found in high densities archaeologically occur mainly y at mixed-economy sites. These include ground-cheny, American night- World cultigens, grainslgreens, fleshy fruit, nuts, and other. This cla hade, strawberry, prickly ash, milkweed, and purslane. At least one exception tion has archaeological utility. Ethnobotanists favor other groupings s o this pattern occurs at the Mi'kmaq Skull Island site, where American night- drugs, foods, fibers, dyes, and other (Moerman 1999), or foods, bevera ade and strawberry are reported. We should not overlook the possibility flavorings, medicinal teas, other medicines, charms and ceremo at some of these weedy plants were actively managed. stances, dyes, smoking materials, and utilitarian products (Yarnell 1 Although plant remains increased in diversity through time, plants from all do not explore these uses here; rather, we emphasize ecology and, to IXbotanical groups are represented at sites representing all cultural patterns extent, food. Among the top 10 plants with multiple uses by native xcept Paleoindian (Table 6.1). The accuracy of this apparent distribution will Americans (Moerman 1999:12; see Table 6.1) three are among the e tested by future research. Too little has been done on the earlier periods. reported from archaeological sites in the Northeast: chokecherry, do contrast to other types of remains, the nut category does not show an (Coffins sp.), and cattail. In the food category, four plants in the No crease in diversity through time. Nuts were least important at northern-tier archaeological record are listed among Moerman's top 10 plants us tes, probably because there are fewer nut-bearing species in the north. food: corn, bramble, cattail, and chokecherry (Moerman 1999:lS; see Old World cultigens so far have only been recovered from the latest north- 6.1). The lack of direct correspondence between the ethnobotanical m mixed-economy and northeast coastal sites (e.g., Monckton 1997; Robertson - et al. 1998). This may be a result of research intensity, or it may reflect the a Yamell has reviewed the evidence for range modification of plants in the -2 E early routes of introduction of these crops to the Northeast. The garde Great Lakes region (1964:89-94). Few of the plants he discusses, except blue- c/) berry and Canada plum, appear in the archaeological record. Canada plum yh rye, and rhubarb from two sites with Neutral affiliation in Ontario, Blac and Ronto, are possible contaminants, but the presence of these cultige appears in the archaeological record in northern New Brunswick, indicat- ing a human role in establishing the tree in the Atlantic provinces (Leonard Q indicate that these plants were being traded into the interior well Europeans visited the area (Ounjian 1998:166). If this turns out to be th 1996). Another case of a wild plant fruit being transported by people beyond 2 its natural range comes from L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, where 2 archaeologists need to pay attention to plants, not just European-manufac items, as evidence for contact between First Nations and Europeans. butternut has been recovered. The Norse appear to have brought butternuts 3 to Newfoundland from the New Brunswick-Nova Scotia area, where it nat- us ?: Anthropogenic Environments urally occurs, around A.D. 950 (Davis et al. 1988). Ethnohistorical evidence documents groundnut management by Iroquoians and the Mi'kmaq (Leonard Fe w1 The influence of anthropogenic factors on local habitats in the Great 1996:145-147). The recovery of groundnut tubers in high density from Skull region has long been recognized as significantly affecting the abo Island, New Brunswick, confirms the cultural importance of the plant in the region. Northern groundnut does not reproduce from seed; apparently resource base (Dincauze 1981; Yamell 1964). Plant range modificati of disclimax vegetation, fire, and village construction and movement, groundnut from Ontario through Nova Scotia and Vermont is triploid and other factors, all contributed to a vegetational mosaic in the Northe belongs to a single clone (Seabrook and Dionne 1976). in many ways, changed the region's productivity and structure from w Weedy plants were significant to aboriginal peoples and included nettle, would have been without human presence. The magnitude of these Indian hemp, Jerusalem artichoke, common milkweed, and butterfly weed. is difficult to determine. Certainly, major ecological changes have oc Intentional cultivation of such plants is also mentioned by Yarnell in historic times because of European in£luenceHuman impact on re (196492-93). Archaeological evidence has yet to aid significantly in under- vegetation patterns by precontact populations in the Northeast is no standing the precontact dispersal of useful weedy plants in the Northeast except in the most general ways. For example, Canada onion, Alliz~wzcanadense, as clear. Local impacts are easier to detect. In Ontario, botanists have surmised for some time that the increase outhern species that reproduces exclusively from bulbs, appears to have been centages of white pine and oak in Pollen Zone 3, representing the splanted into Ontario (Dore 1971). Canada onion has a distribution coin- immediately before European influences, reflect a response to earli ent with Late Archaic sites along the Moira River in southern Ontario, so e plant may have been introduced during the Archaic (Barber 1977:105). ing by maize-producing Iroquoian populations (Boyko 1973). The pine rises are associated with an A.D. 1450 increase in grasses and er than this example, the best evidence for range extensions concerns culti- (McAndrews and King 1976). One interpretation has been that oak ns. Their weed associates, such as chenopod and knotweed, show up regu- increased as a result of post-Iroquoian ecological succession on Ian ly on Ontario sites after about A.D. 850, but we still need to determine ether these weeds were native to the area or introduced. Little barley, for were formerly fields and villages (Bowman 1979;McAndrews and pie, may have been brought to Ontario. Yamell (1964:98) observed that However, recent modeling indicates that this explanation is genetic variation among the plant species utilized by Upper Great Lakes (Campbell and Campbell 1992; Campbell and McAndrews 1993). and oak rises are found also in Iroquoian territory and in Algonkian te original peoples is about twice that found in the regional flora generally. where maize production never occurred. Furthermore, human cl Ie may not have caused this variation; rather, it may have been the vari- ty that made the plants suitable for subsistence use and other purposes. efforts never would have attained the extent necessary to affect the fo wever, part of the variation could well stem from aboriginal activities such the regional scale evidenced by the many pollen diagrams in th (Campbell 1992). The Little Ice Age is a more likely explanation dispersal of plants into new habitats, the creation of anthropogenichabitats, d the like (Yamell 1964:lOO). The dispersal of Old World cultigens is appar- 1992; Campbell and McAndrews 1993). 240 '-s: ent in the latest precontact and earliest Contact-period sites (Table ecological changes during Late Woodland times but not AC .¥ World weeds are less visible. The pollen and seed record from A.D. 9 odland (Asch Sidell2002). In parts of New England, generalized b cnS 6 associations at L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, contain no in ter-gatherers may have been as intensive as that by agnculturalis of European plants (Davis et al. 1988:62). erson and Sassaman 1988:130-13 1). Pollen records indicate two land 8 The best evidence so far for anthropogenic influences is ance episodes. One postdates European contact, but another episode Woodland Northern Iroquoian sites. Obviously, crop production is ay date to A.D. 1250. The earlier one may be related to the initial intro- b^ ologically visible human endeavor, but its secondary effects-clear ction of food production, but this is not clear. 3 fields, large village construction and maintenance-as well as firewoo 8 tion also should be archaeologically traceable. The abundant repres 2 of fleshy fruits and weedy plants on these sites is likely a result of hum 2 ities. At the Seed-Barker site, for example, most ~lantfood would h oet.nobotanyin the Northeast has come a long way since Yarnell (1964) u:n available within or at the boundaries of the fields. The only plant rem mpleted the first detailed overview of the area. This chapter has reviewed Seed-Barker that would have come from outside such areas are wild progress in paleoethnobotanical research in the Great Lakes and New perhaps butternut, although the latter could have been gathered fro glandlAtlantic regions. Research programs, CRM work, and field schools standing in fields. Hawthorn, bramble, plum, cherry, and hazel utinely contribute to archaeobotanical studies in the Northeast. Gaps in the forest-edge plants that are quite ~roductiveand would h cord are numerous, however. Research on periods earlier than the Late perimeters of fields or within them, if fields were patchy. To put thi odland is spotty, but ongoing. The Northeast coast is receiving much spective, if the Seed-Barker exploitation territory (the area habitu eded attention. The paleoethnobotany of the early Late Woodland period, the site occupants) was within 10 to 15 minutes walking time from en plant husbandry was incorporated into local subsistence ecology, is then the Seed-Barker exploitation area had a minimum perimeter (b ing examined with a view to determining how it may assist in resolving perimeter of the maximum field area) of up to 11 km, taking into a ues surrounding significant cultural changes throughout the Northeast. irregularities of the local topography. In addition to the area enclose ultigen distributions and their histories are far better understood than perimeter, other exploitable areas would have included disturbed area were in 1964. Cucurbit and maize were grown in the Northeast well river bottoms and floodplains, old fields near Seed-Barker, and perh e A.D. 850, and sunflower and tobacco may have been cultivated much abandoned village localities nearby. The quantity of available wild PI er. In the next few years we hope to have better data than we now have would have been far greater than without anthropogenic influences. rtaming to the initiation of plant husbandry in the Northeast. One Open-, disturbed-habitat herbaceous plants are represented by ab proach to this ~roblemis to explore the nature of interactions betweens taxa in Northern Iroquoian sites. Estimates of relative importanc ter-gatherers and fanners during the early Late Woodland period, as we plants are difficult to make, but we feel this group of seven taxa was doing in our Princess Point project. A relatively large database of cdti- economic importance. The weeds consist mainly of chenopod, ns, including seedlfruit metrics and varietal identification, has been 2 grass, and knotweed. The narrow range of such weeds suggests assed for the period subsequent to the early Late Woodland. New ques- human selection occurred and that anthropogenic plant communitie ns are being raised. For example, why is the archaeological sunflower in 5 Q similarities with other such communities in the Northeast. Che Northeast so small? The correlation of northeastern sunflower size vari- 3 on with latitude needs further exploration. g knotweed, in particular, were important economic plants from at '-E: Archaic times on. Regional studies and projects examining temporal trends, such as The archaeological weed assemblage dating to the first millenni onckton's Huronia work and Ounjian's southwestern Ontario research, are $ southern New York State is consistent with agriculture, although loring the variability of the paleoethnobotanical record (Monckton 1992; 3 unjian 1998). The ethnohistorical record is being carefully examined for 3 are absent in botanical samples (Asch Sidell2002). Fire appears resp f at-t- 241 242 comparison with the abundant archaeological plant remains available Northeast Paleoethnobotany, edited by John P. Hart, pp. 177-190. New Yo& State 2s Museum, Albany. S Clearly, archaeology has added a hitherto unknown dimension to the V) (J) of plant use in the Northeast. Remains of many of the plants recorded 87 The Emergence of Horticultural Economies in Southwestern Wisconsin. In Emergent nohistorically are being excavated from archaeological sites. However, Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands, edited by William I!. Keegan, pp. s out the ethnohistorical and recent ethnobotanical research, the ric 2 17-242. Occasional Paper No. 7. Center for Archaeological Investigations,Southern Q Illinois University, Carbondale. 3 medicinal plant use would be relatively unknown. For now, some plan 2000 Middle Woodland and Oneota Contexts for Wild Rice Exploitation in Southwestern 2 as sweet grass are conspicuous in their absence in the archaeological r Wisconsin. Midcontinental Journal ofArchaeology 25:245-268. Spatial studies of plant remains are showing promise. Both M gian, Constance M., Robert F. Boszhardt, James Theler, and Roland L. Rodell "^> 1990 The Pammel Creek Site: An Oneota Occupation in LaCrosse, Wisconsin. Reports of ('i (1992) and Ounjian (1998) point out that plant taxa are not rando Investigations No. 112. Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center, La Crosse. 3 tributed at sites. Both classify archaeological contexts according to sev ch, Nancy B., and David L. hch I-' egories, such as exterior or interior pits, middens, hearths, posts, and 1985 Prehistoric Plant Cultivation in West-Cend Illinois. In PrehistoricFood Production in u?l Although plant processing areas have not been isolated, detailed int America, edited by Richard I. Ford, pp. 149-203. AnthropologicalPapers NO. 75. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. comparisons should not be made without taking context into account example, the quantities of maize remains vary significantly between s 1999 Prehistoric Plant Use in Maine: Paleoindian to Contact Period. In C71rrentNorthem from inside houses and samples from exterior pits at Glen Meye Paleoethnobotany, edited byJohn P. Hart, pp. 191-223. Bulletin No. 494. New York State (ounjian 1998:84). Museum, Albany. 2002 Paleoethnobotanical Indicators of Subsistence and Settlement Changes in the Northeast. Not until recently have archaeobotanical studies begun to complem In Northeast Subsistence-Settlement Change: A.D. 700-A.D. 1300, edited by John P. Hart and early work at Juntunen (Yarnell 1964). Research on the paleoethnobo Christina B. Rieth, pp. 241-264. Bulletin No. 496. New York State Museum, Albany. aspects of the Late Woodland Eastern Collecting pattern is still in its Austin, Sbaun J. 1994 The Wdcox Lake Site (AlGu-17): Middle Iroquoian Exploitation of the OakRidges but progress is being made. Ethnohistorical records indicate a strong Moraine. Ontario Archaeology 58:49-84. tionship between northern foragers and southern rnixed-economy pe Barber, Richard Jeffrey with adtigens important items moving northward into foraging co 1977 Disjunct Plant Distributions and Archaeological Interpretation. Man in the Northeast ties. Although the archaeological record makes it difficult to assess 13:103-107. Bendremer, Jeffrey C. 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