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The Effect of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on the Production of Cyclooxygenase and Lipoxygenase Metabolites B

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The Effect of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on the Production of Cyclooxygenase and Lipoxygenase Metabolites B nutrients Article The Effect of Omega-3 and Omega-6 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on the Production of Cyclooxygenase and Lipoxygenase Metabolites by Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells Pedro Araujo 1,* , Ikram Belghit 1, Niels Aarsæther 2, Marit Espe 1, Eva Lucena 3 and Elisabeth Holen 1 1 Institute of Marine Research, PO Box 1870 Nordnes, N-5817 Bergen, Norway; [email protected] (I.B.); [email protected] (M.E.); [email protected] (E.H.) 2 Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5009 Bergen, Norway; [email protected] 3 Department of Chemistry, Organic Analysis and Catalysis Laboratory, Simon Bolivar University, Caracas 1080A, Venezuela; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +47-4764-5029 Received: 8 March 2019; Accepted: 24 April 2019; Published: 27 April 2019 Abstract: Although the correlation between polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and the production of pro- and anti-inflammatory metabolites is well documented, little is known about the simultaneous effect of different PUFA on the production of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase metabolites. The present research examines the association between different omega-3 (!-3) and omega-6 (!-6) PUFA and the release of four cyclooxygenase and six lipoxygenase metabolites in cell medium by human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The different combinations of !-3 and !-6 PUFA were prepared according to a full 24 factorial design that enables studying not only the main effects but also the different interactions between fatty acids. In addition, interactions diagrams and principal component analysis were useful tools for interpreting higher order interactions. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report addressing the combined effect of !-3 and !-6 PUFA on the signaling of prostaglandins, prostacyclins, leukotrienes and resolvins by HUVEC. Keywords: polyunsaturated fatty acids; docosahexaenoic acid; eicosapentaenoic acid; α-linolenic acid; arachidonic acid; human umbilical vein endothelial cells; eicosanoids; prostacyclins; leukotrienes; resolvins 1. Introduction Since the publication of the articles by Dyerberg and collaborators in the early seventies on the low incidence of heart disease in Greenland Eskimos [1,2], there has been a growing interest in the nutritional and pharmaceutical properties of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), especially those of the omega-3 (!-3) family. Studies on the beneficial effects of !-3 PUFA and the detrimental effects omega-6 (!-6) PUFA on humans have been carried out extensively. Long chain !-3 PUFA including α-linolenic acid (18:3!-3, ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5!-3, EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (22:5!-3, DPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6!-3, DHA) are a group of compounds possessing anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties. They have demonstrated to be beneficial to cardiac [3,4], musculoskeletal [5], gastrointestinal [6] and immune systems in humans [7,8]. Nutrients 2019, 11, 966; doi:10.3390/nu11050966 www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients NutrientsNutrients 20192019, 11, 11, x, 966FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of2 18of 18 OneOne of of the the most most important important functions functions of PUFA isis relatedrelated to to their their enzymatic enzymatic conversion conversion into into eicosanoids.eicosanoids. PUFA PUFA areare released released from membranefrom membra phospholipidsne phospholipids by the action by of variousthe action phospholipases of various phospholipasesand metabolized and to metabolized different eicosanoids. to different Arachidonic eicosanoids. acid Arachidonic (20:4!-6, ARA)acid (20:4 is theω-6, substrate ARA) is for the substratetwo classes for oftwo enzymes, classes cyclooxygenasesof enzymes, cyclooxyg (COX) whichenases produce(COX) thewhich 2-series produce of prostaglandins, the 2-series of prostaglandins,prostacyclins andprostacyclins thromboxanes, and andthromboxanes, lipoxygenases and (LOX) lipoxygenases which catalyze (LOX) the which biosynthesis catalyze of the biosynthesishydroxyeicosatetraenoic of hydroxyeicosatetra acids (HETE)enoic and acids the 4-series (HETE) leukotrienes. and the 4-series EPA exhibits leukotrienes. a similar EPA metabolism exhibits a similarto ARA, metabolism but it is metabolized to ARA, but to theit is 3-series metabolized prostaglandins, to the 3-series prostacyclins prostaglandins, and thromboxanes prostacyclins through and thromboxanesthe action of thethrough COX enzymes the action and 5-series of the leukotrienes COX enzymes and hydroxyeicosapentaenoic and 5-series leukotrienes acids (HEPE) and hydroxyeicosapentaenoicfrom LOX. DHA is mainly acids converted (HEPE) to D-seriesfrom LOX. resolvins DHA byis mainly LOX. The converted metabolism to D-series of PUFA resolvins is shown by LOX.in Figure The metabolism1. of PUFA is shown in Figure 1. FigureFigure 1. 1.MetabolismMetabolism of different of different ω-3 !and-3 andω-6 !PUFA.-6 PUFA. EPA EPA and andARA ARA compete compete for forthe thesame cyclooxygenasesame cyclooxygenase (COX) and (COX) lipoxygenase and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzyme (LOX)s and enzymes they are and converted they are into converted prostaglandins, into prostacyclinsprostaglandins, and prostacyclins thromboxanes and thromboxanes by COX byen COXzymes enzymes and andinto into leukotrienes, lipoxins,lipoxins, hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids by different LOX enzymes. DHA produces the anti-inflammatory hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids by different LOX enzymes. DHA produces the anti-inflammatory resolvins D (RvD) through the action of LOX enzymes (5-LOX and 15-LOX). The studied PUFA and resolvins D (RvD) through the action of LOX enzymes (5-LOX and 15-LOX). The studied PUFA and metabolites in the present research are indicated by blue and red stars, respectively. metabolites in the present research are indicated by blue and red stars, respectively. Studies on human cancer cells have indicated that !-3 (e.g., EPA, DHA) and also !-6 (e.g., ARA) PUFAStudies are actively on human incorporated cancer cells into have endothelial indicated cells that and ω interconverted-3 (e.g., EPA, DHA) to anti- and and also pro-inflammatory ω-6 (e.g., ARA) PUFAmediators, are actively such as eicosanoids,incorporated leukotrienes into endothel andial resolvins, cells and through interconverted the actionof to the anti- COX and (cyclic pro- inflammatorypathway) and mediators, LOX (linear such pathway) as eicosanoids, enzymes [ 9leukotrienes,10]. These studies and resolvins, have also revealedthrough thatthe highaction levels of the COXof ! (cyclic-6 PUFA pathway) in the Western and LOX diets (linear is one ofpathway) the main en factorszymes responsible [9,10]. These for manystudies maladies, have also including revealed thatcardiovascular, high levels of cancer, ω-6 PUFA autoimmune in the Western and inflammatory diets is one diseases of the [ 11main–17], factors while !responsible-3 fatty acids for exert many maladies,suppressive including effects [cardiovascular,18,19]. cancer, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases [11–17], while ω-3 fattyThe acids majority exert of suppressive reported studies effects are [18,19]. focused on evaluating particular fatty acids from specific familiesThe majority (either ! of-3 reported or !-6 PUFA). studies However, are focused it is on equally evaluating important particular to assess fatty in whichacids from extent specific the familiesinteractions (either between ω-3 or di ωfferent-6 PUFA). PUFA However, affect the production it is equally of COX important and LOX to metabolites. assess in which Unfortunately, extent the interactionssuch studies between are still relativelydifferent scarce, PUFA partly affect due the to theirproduction inherent multifactorialof COX and character LOX metabolites. and their Unfortunately,susceptibility tosuch confounding studies are factors still thatrelatively in turn sc mightarce, unveilpartly correlations due to their between inherent variables multifactorial when characterthere is notand actually their susceptibility a correlation [to20 ].confounding For instance, factors nutritional that studiesin turn on might the e ffunveilect of !correlations-3 PUFA betweengenerally variables use marine when oils there as a sourceis not actually of EPA and a correlation DHA to induce [20]. significantFor instance, beneficial nutritional variations studies on on thedi effectfferent of experimental ω-3 PUFA groups.generally These use variationsmarine oils might as a be source the result of EPA of confounding and DHA factors,to induce considering significant beneficialfor example variations that marine on oilsdifferent are also experimental rich in vitamin groups. D. These variations might be the result of confounding factors, considering for example that marine oils are also rich in vitamin D. Confounding factors may contribute to inconsistent or conflicting results as reported in studies on the production of inflammatory mediators by salmon and cod head kidney cells supplemented with ω-3 PUFA [21,22] or in human plasma from patients exposed to an anti-inflammatory treatment of salmon and vitamin D [23] where it was observed that ω-3 PUFA increases the production of inflammatory eicosanoids rather than decreasing it. This puzzling finding was rationalized as the incorporation of exogenous ω-3 PUFA at the expense of releasing endogenous ω-6 PUFA from the Nutrients 2019, 11, 966 3 of 18 Confounding factors may contribute to inconsistent or conflicting results as reported in studies on the production of inflammatory mediators by salmon and cod head kidney cells supplemented
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