Cultural Dynamics in a Globalized World – Budianta et al. (Eds) © 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-62664-5

Votive tablets in Buddhist religious rituals in the archipelago from the 7th–10th centuries AD

A. Indradjaja & W.R. Wahyudi Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, Universitas , Depok, Indonesia

ABSTRACT: This paper discusses the function of votive tablets found in many Buddhist sites in the Nusantara archipelago from 7th–10th AD. As a ceremonial object, a votive tablet’s function is analyzed through specific analysis and context. The result shows that the function of votive tablets in relation to religious rituals, besides having the primary function as a media ceremony (offering), it is also used to “turn on” the sacred building (stupa) and as supplemen- tary Garbhapātra. The function of votive tablets found in the religious ritual is known to be the result of hybridization between the Buddhist faith and the belief of local communities. In addition, the presence of votive tablets in religious ceremonies along with stupika and seal tablets is associated with the view that in any religious ritual, the figure of Buddha should be present along with every object associated with the Buddha such as votive tablet representing rupakaya (physical element) and mantras of the Buddha representing dharmakaya (spiritual element). It is the unification of the two elements (rupakaya and dharmakaya) which will turn on Buddha in the religious rituals.

1 INTRODUCTION

The intensive maritime trade in Southeast Asia brought a “blessing” to the spreading of Buddhism into the Indonesian archipelago (Poesponegoro and Notosusanto, 2009: 21–26). According to Claire Holt, a researcher of Indonesian arts, the period between the 7th–10th centuries AD is an important period for our knowledge of Buddhism and in Indonesia (2000: 35). Besides leaving a trail of monuments and statues of Buddha, some devout Buddhists left numerous relics/artifacts related to the religious activities at that time, including votive tablets. Votive tablets are small-sized Buddhist icons usually made of clay and sometimes mixed with ashes, then printed with press technique, and subsequently burned or simply dried and used as ceremonial objects. According to Robert Redfield, an icon is defined as a sign to the object it represents. Icons are not always in the form of depictions or expressions as known in the Greek Orthodox Church, but they can also be an analogy (1971: 42; Sedyawati, 1985: 44). Icon in Buddhism is a form of visual object representing certain concepts, and to some extent, some icons are adapted from other traditions, for example the statue of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara is influenced by the figure of the Hindu god Siva (Sedyawati, 2009: 85). The finding of votive tablets is often accompanied by stupika and a seal tablet. Stupika is a miniature stupa made of clay and a seal tablet is a short inscription containing Buddhist mantras (verses), which is also made of clay. The findings of votive tablets in Indonesia were first reported in 1896 in the area around Yogyakarta and later published in Oudheidkundige Verslag (OV) around 1931–1935, which mentioned the existence of several votive tablets in Jongke Village, located around 7 km north of Yogyakarta. The interest of researchers on the findings of votive tablet was first demonstrated by W.F. Stutterheim toward the votive tablet found in Pejeng in 1920 (Stutterheim, 1930: 4). Other researchers also wrote about the findings of votive tablets, among others A.A.Gede Oka

545 Astawa, Hariani Santiko, Issatriadi, Endang Sri Hardiati, and Peter Ferdinandus from the National Archaeological Research Center. The research on the votive tablets can contribute to the understanding of the existence of Buddhism in the archipelago. In the context of Buddhism in the Nusantara archipelago, Edi Sedyawati (2009: 87) explained that Buddhism at that time had absorbed the Javanese culture into the universal Buddhism mixed with the local culture (Java). In terms of ceremo- nial objects, one of which is a votive tablet, this study attempts to explain the relationship between the function of votive tablets within Buddhist religious rites and their position in Buddhist religious rites in the Nusantara archipelago.

2 THEORY AND METHOD

According to Christopher Dawson, to understand the cultural influence of a society, one must first understand the religion professed by the community: “Religion is the key to history. We cannot understand the essence of social order without understanding the religion the community embraces. We cannot understand the results of their culture without understanding the religious belief into the back- ground. In every age the main results are based on the culture of religious ideas and immortalized for religious purposes” (Zoetmulder, 1965: 327; Munandar, 1990: 2). In other words, to understand the cultural objects closely tied to the religious aspect, it is essential to first know the prevailing concepts in the religion. The word “religion” in anthropology also has a variety of meanings. Tylor describes the essence of religion as the belief in spiritual beings which can be interpreted as magic and that everything in nature has a soul. The belief in spirits then evolves into a belief in the gods of nature. Furthermore, the belief in the gods of the nature evolves into various ranks of gods from the lowest to the highest (Agus, 2006: 120–121). According to Melford E. Spiro, religion is an institution consisting of culturally patterned interaction with culturally postulated superhuman being (Spiro, 1977: 96–7). Interaction, according to Spiro, has two senses, namely: (1) the activities which are believed to carry out, embody, or be consistent with the will or desire of the superhuman beings of powers and (2) the activities which are believed to influence superhuman beings to satisfy the needs of the actors. The concept of superhuman beings refers to the belief in the entities that own supreme power and can do good or bad things, and have relationships with humans. All institutions consist of (a) belief system, i.e. an enduring organization of cognitions about one or more aspects of the universe, (b) action system, an enduring organization on behavior pattern designed to attain ends for the satisfaction of needs, and (c) value system, an enduring organization of principles by which behavior can be judged on some scale of merit (Spiro, 1997: 97–98). The religious actors not only believe in the truth of propositions about superhuman beings, but also believe in these beings. They not only believe in the truth of religion propositions, but also – and more frequently—to certain practices (Spiro, 1997: 106). According to Spiro, the existence of religion can be explained causally and functionally. Religion persists not only because it has functions, in which it does, or is believed to, satisfy desires; but also because it has causes, namely the expectation of satisfying these desires (1977:117). According to Koentjaraningrat, there are five religious components that can always be found in all denominations. The five components can also be referred to as a religious iden- tity of a religious group because the five components may differ from one particular religious group to other groups. The five components are: religious emotion, belief systems, system of rites and ceremonies, equipment of rites, and communities (Koentjaraningrat, 1980: 80–3). Among the five components that have been outlined by Koentjaraningrat, the equipment of rites component, which in this case is the votive tablet, will be the focus of the discussion. Of course, with the assistance of other data, votive tablet functions in religious rites can also be reinterpreted. 546 The source of research data was obtained through data collection from the Segaran V, Batujaya Temple, Karawang, ; Temple, Magelang; Kalibukbuk Temple, Bali; Gentong Temple, Mojokerto and Gumuk Klinting site, Banyuwangi. The stages of research conducted in this study were adapted from the archaeological research method introduced by K.R. Dark (1995), where each artifact or structure (findings) can be seen as data containing archaeological information. However, the data only inform about their own existence and cannot necessarily be treated as archaeological evidence. The new archaeological data become archaeological evidence after being put into the framework of interpretation (1995: 36).

2.1 Archaeological data The findings of votive tablets in the Nusantara archipelago can be classified into six groups. In the broadest sense, classification can be understood as to enter different units into a certain class or type that has not been previously determined. If a certain number of artifacts are categorized into one type, it means that such artifacts can be described as a group having the same attributes, which are different from other types. The classification or categorization of the findings of votive tablets is based on the opinions of Brew and Rouse, who stressed that the classification of a type was entirely based on the design made by the researchers, but it is not something that is already available in the data (Sedyawati, 1985: 22–8). The classification of the type of votive tablets is based on the depiction of relief. Broadly speaking, the depiction of relief on a votive tablet can be grouped into relief of figures and non-figures. The grouping of relief figures on the votive tablets follows the “divine arrangement” known in Buddhism. There are three divine arrangements namely, Tathagata (Dhyani Buddha), Dhyani Bodhisattva, and Manusi-Buddha. Beyond the three divine arrangements, there are also known other deities such as Tara. Identi- fication of figures was done by analyzing the iconography, such as the postures, the attributes of that subject, and others that may be used for classification. The purpose of the identification and classification of characters in the votive tablet is to identify the characters depicted on the votive tablets and their position in the Buddhist pantheon. The research only found two non- figure depiction relief in the votive tablets, namely on the stupas and kundika, which then fell into their own category of types. Thus, the classification of types of votive relief tablets becomes Tathagata, Dhyani Bodhisattva, Manusi Buddha, Tara, Stupa, and Kundika. In the context of archaeology, votive tablets were found in several places, among oth- ers in the base of the temple such as the one found in the Kalibukbuk Temple, in wells, or “sumuran”, of the temple such as the one found in the Gentong Temple, under the base of the north-western side and the corner of the east wall of the temple such as the one found in the Segaran V, Batujaya Temple, and in the courtyard of the temple such as the one found at Borobudur Temple. In addition, there are votive tablets that were found in the grave in Gumuk Klinting Site.

2.2 Votive tablets as offerings Votive tablets found in the courtyard of Segaran V Temple, Batujaya Temple, and the court- yard of Borobudur Temple are likely to be associated with religious activities conducted at the temples, i.e. the offering brought by the pilgrims to the holy places. This may be analysed by drawing a comparison with the practice of using tablets as a votive offering in Tibet. Votive tablets in Tibet are found around the stupa and always associated with the activity of pilgrims traveling to the holy shrines. They always bring a votive tablet mold and after arriving at the holy places, they will collect clay and then mold it. They always recite a mantra during the making of votive tablets until it is completed. Votive tablets have been created and used in reli- gious activities during their stay around the shrine and then the votive tablets will be placed at the edge of the stupa as an offering and partly taken home as a souvenir (Li, 1995: 2). The cultic practices of giving offerings in the area of the stupa have been performed con- tinuously for a long time, making votive tablets deposit found in considerable numbers when they were rediscovered (Chipravati, 2000: 183). 547 In an archaeological context (the context of making, using, and disposing), their religious rituals to provide some offerings were conducted in the stupa, and the votive tablets were used as part of the offerings. Therefore, many votive tablets were found around the stupa. After the ceremony is completed, the object of this offering is cleared from the altar for worship. As an offering of a sacred object, it certainly must be carefully cleaned. Ethnographic stud- ies conducted by Walker about ritual discard found after ceremonies, the entire ceremonial objects would be cleaned and then dumped or buried outside the ceremonial site (1995: 67–79; Wahyudi 2012: 219) and offerings that are difficult to dispose of will be deposited in one particular place. Thus, the findings of votive tablets in a hole created around the base of the stairs and the walls of the Segaran V, Batujaya Temple and on the west side of the Borobudur temple courtyard could be the result of worshipping around the stupa area using votive tablets as offerings, which were placed not only in front of a stupa but in certain places around the stupa. Another possibility is that the collection of votive tablets is the result of the cleaning activity in front of the stupa after the ceremony is completed. Regarding the sacredness of votive tablets, to clean up the effigies of votive tablets would require specific places around the stupa to keep them.

2.3 Votive tablets as “Peripih” The findings of votive tablets on the base and in the wells of a temple are associated with the founding ceremony of the stupa itself. It is also associated with the position of the votive tablets, stupika, and seal tablets as sacred objects. In India, the practice of establishing a stupa is a tradition that has lasted for thousands of years even before the time of the Buddha and is known as caitya or dhātugarbha (Dorjee, 2001: vii). The stupa was then intended to save physical relics (dhatus), which construction was ordered by the Buddha in the manuscript of Mahaparinibbana Sutta (Dorjee, 2001: viii). The records on the regulations for erecting stupas are the Raśmivimala and Vimalosnīsa manuscripts which original version is drafted in Sanskrit language and then copied into Tibetan language (Dorjee, 2001: 23–4). Raśmivimala states that votive tablets used to appear only after the pre-construction phase has been completed. Before a votive tablet is placed, the foundation hole, which is called singgasana or throne, is first created. In the middle of the throne, votive tablets are prepared together with other holy objects, such as precious stones, seeds, and soil (Dorjee, 2001: 41). After votive tablets are placed in the throne, the hole is closed by a cover called the throne. A staircase is built on the top cover and its center is empty. The empty middle part is then filled with as many other holy objects as possible including votive tablets, stupika, and seal tablets. It is said that the number of votive tablets stored in the domes affect the levels of power and blessings of the stupa (Dorjee, 2001: 42). After the stupa construction is completed, the ritual of purification is performed. The purpose of this purification ceremony is to embrace the wisdom of the Buddha through the power of meditation practice, the power of the ritual, and the loyalty of the followers. The lessons drawn are then consecrated into the Buddhist stupa and tied in the stupa by certain ritual procedures (Dorjee, 2001: 42). The construction process of stupa which positions the stupika and votive tablets under the base of the ancillary Kalibukbuk Temple, could lead to the conclusion that the Kalibukbuk Temple seems to have the same procedure. This is due to the fact that votive tablets, stupika, and a seal tablet were found in certain positions arranged in the base of the Kalibukbuk Temple. The position of the votive tablets at a slightly different base stupa was found in Gentong Temple, Trowulan. In this temple, votive tablets containing Buddhist mantra were discovered in the temple along with the stupika wells. The position of the votive tablets in the wells of the temple seems to have similarities with the tradition of Hindu temple construction in Java in the 8th–10th centuries AD. In the Hindu religion, the temple construction is noted in a number of books of Vastusas- tra, among others, Mayamata, Manasara, Matsya-purana, and Bhuvanapradīpa (Anom 548 1997: 104). The process of pre-construction is followed by the laying of the foundation stone in the central hole (ārdhāsila). After the foundation hole (pitting) has been filled with soil up to ¾ of its depth, the ārdhāsila is topped with nidhikalaśa (container of wealth) made of stone or bronze. Adhārasila is then covered with the building of the temple (Kramrisch I, 1946: 110–12). Apparently, the same approach is applied in Gentong Temple with the temple’s wells/ sumuran at Gentong Temple which is filled with stupika and votive tablets. Other findings in these wells are ash, fragments of gold, and precious rocks. All of these findings may be considered as the content of peripih (pendeman) commonly found in Hindu temples. The similarity between the contents of peripih in Hindu temples with stupika and votive tablets and other findings (ash, fragments of gold, precious rocks) in Gentong Temple is that both are considered sacred objects that required to bring the gods. As sacred objects in the wells of the temple, the purpose of laying stupika and votive tab- lets in a Gentong temple well is likely to be similar with the laying of a peripih at a Hindu temple. Peripih functions to “turn on” the temple building. Without peripih, sacred buildings cannot be used as a place of worship. Through the ceremony, the magical powers of the gods are gathered into one in the peripih seed and completes the establishment of the new temple (Soekmono, 1989: 217–8).

2.4 Votive tablets as supplementary to Garbhapātra In Buddhism, a person’s death is seen as a process to achieve freedom. The manuscript of Maha Parinibbanasutta elaborates how to handle the bodies of the Buddha who passed away, how to handle the fire, and how to put relics in a stupa (Blum, 2004: 205). The common funeral rites before the presence of Hindu-Buddhism in the Nusantara archi- pelago included burying the bodies. In practice, the deceased is buried along with a number of everyday objects, which are called the burial gift. The belief in the survival in the after- life encourages people to send the departed soul with burial gifts (James, 1957: Soejono, 2008: 83). In addition to everyday objects, the burial gifts in certain cases also include sacred objects such as a ceremonial axe. (Soejono, 2008: 104). Upon the arrival of Hindu-Buddhism in the archipelago, were introduced to the funeral ceremonial procession of cremating the corpse (Bernet Kempers, 1970: 213). The burial practice ceremony in Gumuk Klinting Site shows hybridization between Bud- dhism belief and non-Buddhism (local indigenous beliefs). The existence of Buddhist teachings is shown by the ashes found stored in a bronze cupu. The indication of this ash being the ash of a corpse is hinted by other findings such as a small knife, glass beads and hair, which in Bud- dhism are known as paribhoga—the objects owned by the figure of Buddha during his lifetime. The whole paribhoga is then put in a terracotta container called garbhapātra or ritual vessel. In Gumuk Klinting Site, ash and paribhoganya stored in a garbhapātra are not placed in a stupa but buried. Then, garbhapātra containing the ashes and paribhoga are stockpiled by the arrangement of votive tablets, stupika and a seal tablet to a depth of two meters. The prac- tice of burying the ashes with votive tablets, a seal tablet and stupika is totally unknown in Buddhist tradition, considering that votive tablets, stupika and seal tablets are seen as sacred objects. There is a possibility of inclusion of votive tablet, and a seal tablet and stupika in the graves of Buddha figures as a complement of paribhoga. It is hoped that buried figures will get the blessings of the Buddha, so that in the next life they obtain a good position. The burial practices of the Buddha figure in Gumuk Klinting Site that includes paribhoga seem to have similarities with the traditions of the local communities that include objects used in everyday life and in the case of particular figures coming with sacred objects.

2.5 The role of votive tablet in Buddhist religious ritual in Nusantara One role of the votive tablets that is considered important is being a medium to obtain merit easily on an unlimited scale. It appears that the votive tablet as a medium to obtain merit can fulfill the wishes of his/her supporters in order to prepare for a better life after death. 549 The presence of votive tablets became important and mandatory in every stage of the religious rites, including votive tablets that are considered to represent the Buddha himself. In practice, votive tablets are always accompanied by a mantra, and it can be understood that the votive tablets are considered as rūpakaya (physical manifestation) of Buddha and man- tras as Dharmakaya (spiritual beings). The unification between rūpakaya and Dharmakaya is essential to invite “the presence of” Buddha who seems to be present in the religious rites where the rituals are performed. The necessity to invoke the “Buddha” in any religious ceremony prompted the creation of votive tablets to represent the presence of “Buddha” in the ceremony. Thus, it can be said that the role of votive tablets becomes very important in any religious activities.

3 CONCLUSION

In Nusantara, votive tablets are known to have important roles in religious rites. Based on the archaeological findings of votive tablets, it is indicated that the votive tablets are used for religious rituals, where they are utilized as offerings placed within the area of enshrinement, or stupa, in order to gain merit. It can be seen from the findings of votive tablets around Segaran V, Batujaya Temple, and Borobudur Temple. Votive tablets are also used to fill the foundation of the temple as the ones found in the Kalibukbuk Temple, Bali and Gentong Temple, Mojokerto. It is also used to invoke the power and blessing of Buddha. Votive tablets are also used as a complement to garbhapātra for the deceased Buddhist figures. The practice of placing votive tablets in the wells of the temple as “peripih/ pendeman” and the burial practices using votive tablets as a complement to garbhapātra indicate that the Bud- dhism that flourished in the archipelago was the Buddhism that had adapted to the ancient local tradition and intertwined with the local belief adjusted to the community needs.

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