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Federalism and Democratisation in Russia FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page Ii FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page Iii FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page i Federalism and democratisation in Russia FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page ii FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page iii Federalism and democratisation in Russia CAMERON ROSS Manchester University Press Manchester and New York distributed exclusively in the USA by Palgrave FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page iv Copyright © Cameron Ross 2002 The right of Cameron Ross to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Published by Manchester University Press Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9NR, UK and Room 400, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk Distributed exclusively in the USA by Palgrave, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA Distributed exclusively in Canada by UBC Press, University of British Columbia, 2029 West Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z2 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for ISBN 0 7190 5869 4 hardback 0 7190 5870 8 paperback First published 2002 100908070605040302 10987654321 Typeset in 10 on 12 pt Palatino by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong Printed in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd, Guildford and King’s Lynn FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page v Contents List of tables, boxes and appendices page vi Abbreviations viii 1 Introduction 1 2 The Soviet legacy and Russian federalism, 1991–93 17 3 Federalism and constitutional asymmetry 29 4 From ethnic to legal and economic separatism 53 5 Fiscal federalism and socio-economic asymmetry 72 6 Federalism and political asymmetry: regional elections and political parties 92 7 Federalism and political asymmetry: executive versus legislative power 122 8 Federalism under Putin 137 9 From constitutional to political asymmetry: crafting authoritarian regimes in Russia’s regions and republics 157 10 Conclusions 172 Index 178 FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page vi List of tables, boxes and appendices Tables 1.1 Asymmetry of population of fully fledged constituent units in federal systems page 9 2.1 Dates of declarations of sovereignty 21 4.1 Ethnic composition of the republics, 1989 56 4.2 Ethnic composition of the autonomous areas, 1989 57 4.3 Ethnic composition of government elite in Bashkortostan, 1990–97 67 4.4 Ethnic representation of parliamentary elite, 1980–95 68 5.1 Share of the income of federal and territorial (subnational) budgets in total state revenue, 1992–2001 73 5.2 Top ten and bottom ten regions of Russia according to volume of gross regional product (GRP) in 1998 and industrial production (IP) in 1999 77 5.3 Ten largest regions according to their share of total volume of foreign investment in 1995 and 1999 (%) 78 5.4 Concentration of tax contributions to the federal budget, 1996–98 79 5.5 Regional variations in per capita income and expenditure, 1999 79 5.6 Measuring poverty in Russia’s regions, 1996–97 80 5.7 % of local taxes maintained by subjects of the Federation, 1996 82 5.8 Federal transfers as % of total income in twelve selected regions, 1994–96 83 5.9 Typology of regions of Russia according to the share of federal budget transfers as a % of total budget income, 1999 84 5.10 Variations in the financial status of subjects of the Russian Federation with different constitutional status, 1996 86 FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page vii List of tables, boxes and appendices vii 5.11 The portion of taxes credited to the budgets of ‘privileged republics’ in 1992–98 as a % of total taxes collected in each republic’s territory 87 5.12 Economic status of the seven federal districts 89 6.1 Party representation in regional assemblies 98 6.2 Number of seats won by candidates of national parties and number of assemblies in which parties have seats, January 1998 100 6.3 Comparisons of registered candidates with winners, 1995–97 101 6.4 Variations in the level of governors’ support of parties, 1999 106 6.5 Regional distribution of parties in the December 1999 Duma elections 112 7.1 Turovskii’s classification of regional legislatures, 1997 128 9.1 Comparative prima facie evidence of electoral competitiveness and non-competitiveness in elections for the chief executive in the eighty-nine subjects of the Russian Federation 167 Boxes 1.1 Federal structure of the Russian Federation 8 4.1 The inter-regional associations 64 6.1 Political affiliation of Russian governors 102 7.1 Variations in the powers of legislative and executive bodies of power as stipulated in regional and republican charters and constitutions 126 8.1 The seven federal districts 141 Appendices 3.1 Article 71 of the December 1993 Russian Constitution 46 3.2 Article 72 of the December 1993 Russian Constitution 47 6.1 Party membership of regional assemblies, January 1998 114 FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page viii Abbreviations AO autonomous okrug (Avtonomnyi Okrug) AOB autonomous oblast (Avtonomnaya Oblast¢) APR Agrarian Party of Russia (Agrarnaya Partiya Rossii) ASSR autonomous soviet socialist republic (Avtonomnaya Sovet- skaya Sotsialisticheskaya Oblast¢) CDPSP Current Digest of the Post-Soviet Press CDSP Current Digest of the Soviet Press CO Honour and Fatherland (Chesti i Ochestvo) CPSU Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Kommunisticheskaya Partiya Sovetskovo Soyuza) DVR Russia’s Democratic Choice (Demokraticheskii Vybor Rosii) GDP gross domestic product GRP gross regional product IP industrial production KEDR Ecological Party of Russia (Ekologicheskaya Partiya Rossii) KPRF Communist Party of the Russian Federation (Kommunistiche- skaya Partiya Rossiiskoi Federatsiya) KRO Congress of Russian Communities (Kongress Russkikh Obshchin) LDPR Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (Liberal’no Demokratiche- skaya Partiya Rossii) NDR Our Home is Russia (Nash Dom-Rossiya) NPR People’s Party of Russia (Narodnaya Partiya Rossii) NPSR National Patriotic Union of Russia (Narodno Patrioticheskii Soyuz Rossii) OVR Fatherland–All Russia (Otechesvo-Vsya Rossiya) PL party list PST Party of Independent Workers (Partiya Samoupravleniya Trudyashchikhsya) RF Russian Federation FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page ix List of abbreviations ix RKRP Russian Communist Workers’ Party (Rossiiskaya Kommunis- ticheskaya Rabochaya Partiya) RP Republican Party (Respublikanskaya Partiya) RSFSR Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Rossiskaya Sovet- skaya Federativnaya Respublika) RSP Russian Socialist Party (Russkaya Sotsialisticheskaya Partiya) SM Single member SPS Union of Right Forces (Soyuz Pravo Sil¢) USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soyuz Soveticheskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik) TIK Territorial Election Commissions (Territorial’naya Izbiratel- ’naya Komissiya) VTsIOM All-Union Centre for Public Opinion Research (Vserossiiskii Tsentr Izucheniya Obshchestvennovo Mneniya) Zhir Zhirinovsky bloc FADPR 10/17/2002 5:39 PM Page x FAD1 10/17/2002 5:40 PM Page 1 1 Introduction Democracy and democratisation Since the early 1970s a ‘third wave’ of democratisation has swept the world. In the period 1972–94 the number of democratic political systems doubled from 44 to 107. And by the mid-1990s 58 per cent of the world’s states had adopted democratic governments.1 These momentous developments have led political scientists to re-examine the theoretical literature on democratisation, and to compare the current transitions in the post-communist bloc with earlier transitions in Latin America and Southern Europe. From my reading of this literature three major schools can be identified. One school has focused on the preconditions necessary for the emer- gence of stable democracy: 1 modernisation, industrialisation, urbanisation, education, capitalism and wealth;2 2 the nature of classes and the class structure, with a focus on the positive role of the bourgeoisie or the proletariat;3 3 a democratic political culture and civil society;4 4 the importance of institutional factors,5 electoral systems,6 type of regime – parliamentary or presidential,7 the development of strong parties, and a stable party system;8 5 a unified state, agreed borders and the absence of ethnic and religious conflict;9 6 external factors: a peaceful international environment, the impact of globalisation.10 A second school has centred its research on the transition process. Here scholars argue that the very nature of the transition itself largely deter- mines the success or failure of democratisation.11 ‘Revolutions from above’ are contrasted with ‘revolutions from below’. A major focus for this school is the role of elites and the importance of elite unity, settlements and FAD1 10/17/2002 5:40 PM Page 2 2 Federalism and democratisation in Russia pacts.12 From this perspective, democratic transitions and breakdown can best be understood by examining changes in the internal relations of national elites. For Higley and Gunther, ‘what principally distinguishes unconsolidated from consolidated democracies, is in short, the absence of elite consensual unity’.13 For a democratic system to persist and flourish, elites must engage in ‘politics as bargaining’ rather than ‘politics as war’. Democratic transitions are the result of negotiated pacts between actors in the dominant elite leading either to sharing with, or conceding power to, ascendant elites.14 A third school focuses on the period after the collapse of the old regime and the problems associated with the consolidation of democracy, which we discuss further below.15 In contrast to the first school with its stress on socio-economic and other structural preconditions, the second and third schools stress the inde- pendent role of individual actors and human agency and the ability of elites to craft democracy, even where pre-conditions are unfavourable.16 Each of these three approaches has made a positive contribution to the field. However, there are two major omissions in the transition literature. First, the focus of all three schools has largely been on national-level poli- tics.
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