COD. 2.66 - 18

TUSCANY, AN ETRUSCAN LAND

The culture and itineraries of an ancient but contemporary people EDITORIAL

AN ANCIENT ncient Etruscan civilisation is truly fascinating. Its love of life, A its deep religious faith, its unu- CIVILISATION sual relationship with the after-life, not to mention the exceptional talent THAT SPEAKS of its artists, goldsmiths and artisans, all meant that it was truly unique. The question of its origins, like the puzzle of TO OUR its language, intrigued the Greeks and the Romans, who absorbed many of HEARTS its customs, symbols and institutions. The discovery of the magnificent Chimera of Arezzo at the time of the Renaissance had a signifi- cant impact on the cultural life of the Medici court in Florence. Indeed to this day Tuscany considers itself the proud heir of Etruscan civilisation. Several centuries after the Medici, when aris- tocrats and intellectu- als came to Italy as part of their Grand Tour, they would acquire large numbers of Etrus- can relics. This helped “spread the word,” inspir- ing writers, artists and poets throughout Europe, and not just in Tuscany. And that explains why, whatever our own origins, this ancient people somehow GAZING TOWARDS seems familiar today. It is so MODERNITY close that, thanks to the works of The bronze head of a young male (from art that have survived, we are able the late 4th century to see its way of interpreting the BC) at the National world, beauty and human nature. Archaeological Museum in Florence. Elena Percivaldi, historian 2 3 WHERE THEY CAME FROM A GENETIC JOURNEY IN THREE STAGES The map shows the route followed by the Etruscans as revealed by the latest genetic research – from THE MYSTERY OF 3 Lydia (in modern-day Turkey) to the Greek island of Lemnos. ETRURIA 2 They then reached Italy and ISLAND settled in Etruria. THEIR ORIGINS OF LEMNOS 1 There are basically three traditional theories about the origins of the Etruscans; that they were indigenous, that they came from the North LYDIA and that they came from the East. Today scholars are largely divided into two schools of thought: either they came from the Aegean/Anatolia MEDITERRANEAN SEA area or else they were the result of a long process of development

here are many problems when it comes region in what is now Southern Turkey. He been due to the regular commercial and like “I son of” or “I am descended from”. to studying Etruscan civilisation, but believed that they moved to Italy after a cultural contacts that the Etruscans had An even less convincing theory is the T one of the most challenging is the terrible famine. According to a legend that with these populations. Nor should we for- one that, in the 18th century, was attribut- question of their origins. This has fasci- was popular among the Celts and other an- get that individuals from the Aegean world ed to the Roman historian Livy, who lived nated historians since ancient times. For cient civilisations, a Lydian king (this was were present in Etruria and this encouraged at the start of the Christian era. Accord- the Greek historian Herodotus (“the father during the 13th century BC) was obliged the adoption of so-called “orientalising” ing to this interpretation of his History of of history”), who lived in the fifth centu- to divide his people in two, ordering one customs, art and tendencies. Rome, the Rhaetian people, who lived in ry BC, the Etruscans came from the East, half of the population to leave and seek sus- Nor was Herodutus the only writer who the Alpine valleys in what is now Trentino while Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who tenance elsewhere. The members of the un- believed that the Etruscans came from and Alto-Adige, were similar to the Etrus- lived in the first century BC, believed they lucky half proceeded to set sail from Smyr- the East. According to his contempo- cans. The theory is that they moved from were indigenous. The Roman historian na (modern Izmir) under the guidance of rary, Hellanicus of Lesbos, and Anticlides the North to the South over the Alps. Livy, on the other hand, was convinced Tyrrhenus. They eventually reached the (who lived not long after them), the first In actual fact the reverse scenario is just that they came from the North. area of Italy which was then occupied by Etruscans were the Pelasgians, a “legend- as plausible: namely that the Etruscans To these three “historical” theories we can the Umbrians, and proceeded to found 12 ary” people who originated in Northern spread from the plains to the mountains, add more recent ones which are based on cities. According to this version of events, Greece prior to spreading out over the colonising the area and introducing the archaeological and linguistic evidence, as the Lydians changed their name, first to Mediterranean basin. alphabet and other things as they did so. well as on studies of DNA. Yet so far nobody the Tyrrhenians and then to the Tuscians, Yet another Greek writer, Dionysius of has managed to come up with a defini- a term that is also found in Roman sourc- Halicarnassus, believed that the Etrus- ORIGIN OR “DEVELOPMENT”? tive answer to the question of their origins, es. The strength of this thesis lies in the cans were indigenous. He used the work Today research into the Etruscans is di- which seems destined to remain unresolved. authority and reliability of its author, but of Etruscan scholars to argue that they had vided into two main theories: “formation” also in the similarities between the culture been known as the “Rasna” (or “Rasenna”). and Aegean-Anatolian origins. The former 3 THEORIES, LITTLE EVIDENCE of the Etruscans and that of the Aegean Yet linguistic evidence would suggest that was presented by the Etruscologist Massi- The first historian to look at the ques- and Anatolia. This is true of their customs, this term didn’t refer to the name of a mo Pallottino, who argues that Etruscan tion of the Etruscans was Herodotus, who languages, art and religion. Yet it must also people so much as to ancestry in general: civilisation shouldn’t be seen in terms of its maintained that they came from Lydia, a be borne in mind that this could also have it could best be translated as something “origins” so much as its “formation”. In oth-

2 3 WHERE THEY CAME FROM er words, as was the case with other ancient ence along the Tyrrhenian coast could lead the East, more specifically from the North- civilisations, that of the Etruscans gradu- one to believe that this was a new sea-go- eastern and Central Eastern Aegean.” RESEARCH INTO THE LANGUAGE ally formed with the passage of time in its ing people, but the phenomenon was large- This is proved by numerous linguistic here is an unhelpful lack of native area (in this case, ancient Etruria): ly caused by economic factors”. In other similarities, in addition to philological re- Tconclusive evidence surrounding other elements, so the argument goes, also words, the formation of a great people and a search on texts that had been conserved the origins of the Etruscan language, contributed to this process. These would great civilisation is completed and enriched by the Greeks and the Romans. Yet it still so the experts have turned to have included both indigenous (particular- by the elements that accompany its devel- needs to be understood why the Etruscans historical linguistics in an attempt ly the Villanovian culture) and non-native opment. Therefore, Pallottino concludes, would have moved westwards. The answer, to decipher the available clues. elements. The latter would have come from “commercial and intellectual contacts with according to De Palma at least, is to be As a result they have examined the North and the East, and not just Lydia the East and with Greece, the arrival of im- found in the crisis caused by the sudden inscriptions with the aim of and Anatolia in general, but from the entire migrants from various social backgrounds, population explosion in Europe and the identifying similarities between Greek or Mediterranean world. According the assimilation of techniques, customs, aridity of the climate at the end of the third the Etruscan language and other, to Pallottino, “archaelogical findings would more familiar ancient tongues. ideas and words played a vital role in the millennium. These were to have dramatic Some maintain that during their suggest that the Villanovian civilisation was formation of the Etruscan world.” repercussions for the successive millenni- long voyage from the East the the expression of an Etruscan ethnicity that Claudio De Palma, on the other hand, um, which saw the collapse of numerous Etruscans stopped in Sardinia, where had not only already been formed, but was has a completely different interpretation. In civilisations and the start of epoch-making they founded the Nuragic civilisation even expanding. It can therefore be asserted his book The Origin of the Etruscans(2004), migrations. “Numerous Mediterranean before crossing the Tyrrhenian Sea and that this Etruscan ethnicity had developed which is based on the Lemnos stele (which populations were obliged to migrate in making landfall in Tuscany. Sardinian, before the 9th century BC”. In his intro- was found in the village Kaminia on the order to escape from wars and massacres. then, would derive from the ancient duction to his book Etruscology (1984), Pal- Aegean island in 1885), he rejects Pallotti- Many of them left Anatolia, the Aege- Lydian language as well as Etruscan. lottino goes on to say that “it undoubtedly no’s theory, and reproposes the Eastern the- an and the Levant.” These included the However, in 2003 Mario Alinei, marked a dramatic change with respect to sis. De Palma argues that “a nucleus that Tyrrhenians who, once they reached Ita- Emeritus Professor at the University previous cultures in Etruria and to other was endowed with a superior material and ly, gave life to Etruscan culture, and were of Utrecht, proposed a revolutionary Iron Age cultures in central Italy. Its pres- theory that Etruscan is an archaic spiritual culture reached Italy by sea from dominant until the advent of Rome. form of Hungarian. His research was based on the extraordinary similarity between the titles given to the THEIR MARK ON THE REGION various ranks of the Etruscan judiciary A breathtaking panorama of Volterra. Nowadays and their Magyar equivalents, as well as other resemblances that we tend to focus on the development of the can be identified between the two Etruscans in the region rather than their origins. languages. Of course, research is ongoing, and the experts are far from unanimous in their opinions.

4 5 WHAT THEY LOOKED LIKE

t is never easy to identify the faces of Chiusdino. They are wrapped in the op- our ancient forebears. We are sepa- ulent folds of their garments, their head I rated by many centuries and different encircled by a diadem to which a light ARISTOCRATIC tastes, but their appearance always seems veil is attached and their neck richly gir- immortalised in actions or situations in a dled by heavy gold necklaces. Both have religious, symbolic and especially funer- delicate features and strikingly empha- PORTRAITS ary context. The Etruscans are no excep- sised red hair. Thanunia lies languidly tion. We have inherited many statues, stretched out on one side, richly adorned and splendid, colourful frescoes painted with precious pendants and studs, her on sumptuous tombs. Their elegant pro- waist clasped by a slender strip knotted files observe us from afar, their gaze lost at the front. While her right hand lifts in time, and seem to be trying to com- her veil to reveal her face, her left holds municate enigmatic emotions to those a finely-engraved mirror. She seems to who venture into the narrow corridors be lost in contemplation of her reflection of their monumental burial places. They and communicates some slight unease often seem to be young, in their physical through an almost imperceptible curl of prime, disporting themselves in games or her lips. What can she see in the mirror combat. Others dance with a flowing, that troubles her? sensual grace, accompanied by the sooth- ing tones of musical instruments. Tawny FIXED IN TIME OR NATURAL? and bright-eyed, they wear sumptuous It is hard to say if these portraits are garments embellished with precious jew- naturalistic or, as seems to be generally ac- els and necklaces. Women in particular cepted, simple idealised effigies with typi- show a fierce pride in their appearance. cal classical features, fulfilling the need to present an attractive appearance (in this TWO SISTERS, ONE POSE case, rich, beautiful and haughty) to the The two large multi-coloured terra- subject’s descendants rather than showing cotta sarcophagi of the Seianti sisters the person as they were in everyday life. A MASTERPIECE OF REALISM are good examples of this - Larthia’s The self-portraits left by the Etruscans A detail from the Urn of the Spouses belongs to the National Archaeological changed a great deal over the centuries, (c. 90 B.C.), one of the key exhibits Museum collection in Florence, while and so their faces changed, too, in the at the Guarnacci Museum in Volterra. that of her sister Thanunia is in the Brit- form we can see today. The ancient ish Museum in London. These refined sculptures display stiff, hard features, works, which date back to a period be- with an intensely formal lack of move- The many sculptures and paintings that have survived tween the late 3rd and early 2nd century ment. One example is the small bronze depict the Etruscans dancing, feasting or celebrating BC, show Larthia in the flower of her of an augur from the island of Fano, religious rites. It has often been asked if they are naturalistic youth and Thanunia at a more mature near Fossombrone (now in the Nation- age, a picture of womanly beauty. Both al Archaeological Museum of Florence). representations or simply symbolic effigies. Their smile show barely-concealed pride in belong- Created in 490 BC, it depicts a priest expresses the mystery that still surrounds them ing to the cream of the aristocracy of holding a lituus, the typical ritual curved

6 7 CHE ASPETTO AVEVANO

THE ENIGMATIC SMILE A RATHER “WELL-PADDED” PEOPLE? any of the most ur image of the Etruscans Mancient Etruscan Ois not only linked to the statues display a fixed, artefacts they have left behind enigmatic smile. It has – it has also been formed by been named “the what the Greeks and Romans archaic smile” by wrote about them. The Romans academics, who link it especially did not approve of with Greek art from the their love for banquets and 6th century to 480 BC. food, and called them “slaves It should not be of their bellies”, often making regarded as the fun of them. The poet Catullus, expression of an in a hearty description of authentic emotion the various Italian peoples, (unlike, for example, mentioned the “fat” Umbrian, the “moti dell’animo” the Lanuvino “dark and with depicted by Leonardo strong teeth” and finally and his followers), the obesus Etruscus. Virgil but as an absence recorded a sacrifice carried out of feeling. in the presence of a pinguis The smile on such Tyrrhenus, a “fat Etruscan”. Etruscan statues These characteristics are is not a sign of clearly visible in the so-called CLEVER DRAPERY tranquil happiness “Obesus” sarcophagus A portrait of Thanunia Seianti, a noblewoman of Chiusi, but a conventional ETRUSCAN FASCINATION in Chiusi, although it is expression with A male head on an Etruscan canopic jar, impossible to know whether showing valuable jewels and a dress with complicated a purely symbolic at the National Archaeological Museum in Florence: the Etruscans really were draping that highlights her matronly figure. Her face role, outside time a magnificent example of the “archaic smile.” so well-rounded or if this is also rounded, showing she was no longer in the bloom and space. was just a cliche. of youth – she was in fact 50 to 55 years old.

staff he would use when carrying out his braids), with a ruddy skin tone. The god A white tunic drapes delicately over her as the Apollo di Veio (which also dates duties. His serious, almost stylised face is shown walking in all his youthful ar- small breasts, and the himation, the back to 6th century BC). The male fig- betrays no emotion, unlike the very dif- rogance and impetuousness. His archaic sumptuous cloak edged with an opulent ure also has long, braided hair - as, in- ferent head of a young man dating back smile, though, has long been interpreted red trim, covers her left shoulder. The deed, does his female companion - and to around 300 BC - an expressive bronze as a sign of awareness of the invincibili- statue embodies the same aesthetic sen- elongated eyes. Apart from the beauty with an unconventional elegance. Etrus- ty enjoyed by divine beings. The statue sibility we admired in the depictions of and harmony of the pair, what is most can figurative art has given us some of Uni, the equivalent of Juno, is a very the Seianti sisters. And on the subject of striking is the way they are presented - genuine masterpieces, like the enig- different, more natural work. The god- funerary art, it is impossible not men- they are serene, happy and content to matic Apollo di Veio (6th century BC). dess is shown with a diadem, earrings tion the famous example of the sarcoph- live in an opulent society whose benefits This life-size depiction (1.80 m tall) is and a large necklace with red spheres. agus of the Sposi. The couple, lying on a they have both enjoyed to the full, on brightly coloured in ochre (the jacket) Her hair is parted in the middle and her triclinium as they share an orange, dis- an equal footing. Could this be the mes- and black (the hair, gathered into long wavy hair is gathered around her head. play the same enigmatic “archaic smile” sage they sought to leave for posterity?

8 9 HOW THEY LIVED ELEGANT, WORLDLY, FEMINIST Games, dancing, sumptuous banquets and sexual freedom: the lifestyle of the Etruscan nobility drew harsh criticism from the Romans and Greeks who were horrified by women’s active role in society

he couple recline serenely side-by-side. She is the epitome of grace and trust, he has an arm stretched around her in a gesture of tender pro- T tectiveness. The scene is typical of how Etruscans depicted the family in the rich funerary iconography that has survived to the present day. The family lay at the very foundation of society. It was a solid, stable unit with women playing an active role and very much on an equal footing with the men rather than being mere handmaid- ens, as happened in Greek and Roman society. In one of the most famous funerary masterpieces of the Etruscan era, the Sarcophagus of the Spouses, the wife is depict- ed reclining on the bier with her husband in an eternal representation of the equality she enjoyed during their life as a couple when she would have reclined beside TOGETHER FOREVER her spouse on banqueting benches, remaining until the A couple on the splendid 5th century feasting was over. Etruscan women joined in the toast- BC sarcophagus lid on display ing with the male guests. This was in stark contrast to at the Chianciano Museum. the ancient Romans who, at the very most, would allow their womenfolk to sit (rather than recline) on the tri- clinium and even then, never after the slaves had begun

10 11 HOW THEY LIVED

serving wine which was for men only. WEALTH AND POWER viving inscriptions we also know the names Although it would be going too far to A pair of gold bracelets featuring filigree and that the Etruscans gave to the members of say the Etruscans had a matriarchal soci- embossed decoration (7th century BC), at the family: clan, for instance, meant son, ety (a theory that academics now deem at the Archaeological Museum in Florence. sec meant daughter while papa was grand- out of date), it has to be said that the high father, atinacna grandmother, brother thu- level of female emancipation was one of va and grandson papacs. the unique features of that civilisa- To raise a family and guarantee the tion and its particular lifestyle, set- survival of the lineage, Etruscans ting it apart from the other great married at a very young age Mediterranean cultures of the indeed (time was of pre-Christian era. Vicious- the essence as life ly criticised by Greek and expectancy was Roman intellectuals who around 40) in could not stomach their ceremonies libertine ways, Etruscan that had both women were sophisticated, a religious fla- elegant and literate. They vour and were promoted Hellenising tastes quite informal, and culture. Wealthier ladies in similar to Roman Etruscan society displayed their weddings. Once power and luxury through their married, the couple lavish jewellery. In fact, the fami- would take over the home ly money was essentially passed down which became the domain of the through the female line using jewellery. King of Rome, the first of Etrus- wife (puia in Etruscan) whose job can lineage to take the throne. Blessed it became to do the weaving, keep COMPANIONS, with prophetic powers, Tanaquil flanked the fires going and anything else involved NOT HANDMAIDENS of women in Etruscan society was also her husband as he rose through to the rank in domestic life. The men’s roles were very Etruscan women did not confine their reflected in their legal status which went of king, creating Rome’s most sophisticat- much outside the realm of hearth and home talents to the home and caring for their far beyond that of their contemporaries: ed salon for his benefit. On her husband’s – they were in the army, involved in com- husbands either. They played an active no matter how rich or powerful they were, death, she handled her son-in-law’s suc- merce or were craftsmen. If they belonged part in the city state’s busy social life and Roman women always remained a Cor- cession with all the nerve and malice of a to the very small circle of noble families, the were not shy about expressing their politi- nelia or a Livia as their name came from seasoned politician. That said, there was newly-weds (tusurthi) could look forward to cal views in public, ensuring they were also their father’s lineage. In Etruscan society, also a pragmatic reason for the great respect a busy social life filled with society events involved in the decision-making process- on the other hand, women had the right to accorded to aristocratic Etruscan women and enlivened by symposia (drinking par- es. Etruscan women were even allowed to a first name as well as a family name, just and the prominent position they enjoyed ties), banquets, dancing and games. become judges, one example being Ram- like their menfolk, and in epigraphs, added in society: the Etruscan nobility was small tha, wife of Larth Spitus of Tarquinia. that of their husband also. and most males were at war for a good part LUST AND LUXURY Husbands treated their wives with great The great emblem of this proactivity of the year so if a woman’s husband was Their Greek and Latin detractors often ac- respect too, listening to their opinions be- was Tanaquil, the shrewd, mysterious wife dead, it was left to her to safeguard both cused the Etruscans of living lives of excess, fore taking any decision. The significance of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth the family unit and its wealth. From sur- lust, greed and immoderate luxury leading to

12 13 HOW THEY LIVED ENTERTAINING PASTIMES SURGEONS AND DENTISTS rom the 6th to the 3rd he Etruscans had a deep knowledge of human anatomy and were Fcenturies BC, kottabos Trenowned as fine doctors. The Greeks and Latins acknowledged their was very popular among special skill in making unguents and extracts from plants that cured the Etruscans. The game, illnesses and kept the body healthy. probably of Sicilian Anatomical studies and an ability to make anaesthetic medications helped origin, was played in all surgery develop, as we know from the many surgical instruments discovered. the areas under Greek Skulls and jaw bones also bear evidence of the excellent standard of dentistry – influence, including the Etruscans were even able to make rudimentary bridges and dentures. Etruria. The players had to throw, using precise, elegant movements, the few drops of wine remaining in the goblet and hit a metal disc precariously balanced on GAMBLING, A PASSION! a bronze pole. Whoever A pair of bone dice, c. 350-300 B.C. succeeded, or caused the disc to fall, was Dice games, too, the ones above have rewarded with a piece of were very popular (one been discovered in fruit or a sweetmeat, or well-known devotee was tombs. Another well- A GILDED SMILE a kiss from the winner’s Lars Tolumnio, king of loved pastime was a Copy of an original beloved, to whom the Veio) as were ball games game similar to chess or gold appliance found attempt had previously (episkyros or harpastum). draughts, also depicted in an Etruscan tomb. been dedicated. Ivory and bone dice like in Greek vase paintings.

a kind of moral decay very far removed from eries have confirmed that unbridled hedon- adorned with the finest of linen and precious players moving pieces on a board (tabula lu- the sobriety of the early centuries. Often- ism was the order of the day, particularly at porcelain, around which swarmed clusters of soria in Latin), What we do know, however, times, however, this was pure envy as Etruria the height of the civilisation’s splendour. The slaves, some stunningly beautiful and dressed is that the players were of a very high social Felix must have seemed like a little corner Etruscans had no qualms about semi nudity with unseemly elegance. status. The end of a banquet might bring a of heaven on earth to its Roman neighbours or full nudity, relished alcohol (ladies includ- But there was more to Etruscan home drinking game of kottabos, which was prob- as it nestled in fertile valleys lush with the ed) and accepted public displays of love and life than carousing and feasting. Board ably Sicilian in origin but later spread right finest corn and surrounded by gently-roll- sexual promiscuity. Catullus and Virgil both games were a popular way of entertaining through Hellenic culture and the area it cov- ing wooded hills teeming with game and make reference to obesus etruscus and pinguis the various family members and, of course, ered, Etruria included. Players had to fling topped with row upon row of vines. A land tyrrhenus, highlighting the Etruscans’ love guests, and involved stretching the intellect the last few drops of the wine in their goblet that guaranteed a luxurious existence to the of pleasure, particularly when it came to as much as titillating the palette. One was at a metal disc balanced precariously on a ruling classes who embraced life with gusto the table. Other writers of the day describe very similar to chess or draughts: the exact bronze stand. It was a game that demand- and a distinct lack of moderation. Malicious the Etruscans sitting down to fabulous ban- rules have been lost, however, because all ed both skill and elegance but players that historical gossip aside, archaeological discov- quets twice a day held at tables sumptuously that survive are effigies of two very focused were successful in either hitting the target

14 15 HOW THEY LIVED or knocking it down altogether, got a piece SOUNDTRACK presence of a flutist during the punishment of of fruit, a sweetmeat or a kiss from a person a servant or when the cooking was going on. they loved (to whom they would have pre- reat lovers of both music Other literary sources, Latin included, agree viously dedicated the throw). Dice-throw- Gand dance, the Etruscans with him and confirm the central nature of had percussion, wind and ing was another popular game and a huge string instruments, the most music in Etruscan society in which almost passion of Lars Tolumnius, King of Veii, popular being a kind of all the instruments that existed at the time as were ball games (episkyros or harpastum). double flute with two separate in the Mediterranean area were used. Music Ivory and bone dice have been discovered in pipes. It was known in Greece accompanied all kinds of areas and times of Etruscan tombs also. as the aulos and as the life: ritual, military, entertainment and even We’ve already seen that there was little tibiae in Rome. Credited as ordinary everyday activities. According to time for boredom in Etruscan homes, but an Etruscan invention by the philosopher Aelianus, even hunting had a busy social calendar also awaited outside all sources was the long bronze a musical accompaniment but with surpris- too. The most popular events included or Tyrrhenian trumpet ing results: animals that had been running chariot and cart races, held in the country- of which there were many way eventually fell under the spell of the mu- side close to the city or in sacred areas. The different iterations, with sic and became so compliant they allowed different shapes and bends. races attracted huge crowds of spectators While the musical themselves to be captured. Etruscans were from all ranks of society (women included) backdrop to Etruscan life equally passionate about dancing which who packed into temporary wooden stands was provided mostly by they did as part of rituals and also staged of which not a trace remains. That said a wind instruments, there were GRACEFUL DANCE STEPS performances to enliven symposia and ban- wealth of iconography from tomb paintings also strings such as the lyre, The grace displayed by Etruscan dancers stands out quets. The steps and gestures of the male has survived which provides an insight into the kithara, as well as on this famous vase (540-520 BC), preserved in the and female dancers can still be seen today in the extraordinary popularity of the games rattles and drums. National Archaeological Museum of Florence. the many surviving paintings and give the with the Etruscan people who watched impression that the choreography was par- them with a passion bordering on the fanat- ticularly complex and would have been both ical. The Etruscans were also skilled horse- other extremely popular form of spectator evolved into gladiator games. Although they spectacular and moving to witness. men and bred fast, nimble horses in what sport was watching men and wild animals were enthusiastic spectators and fans of rac- While ancient sources clearly state that is now the Maremma. The winners of the do battle. Racing and one-on-one gladiator ing and fighting, the Etruscans were not shy Etruscan theatrical literature did exist, no races were bestowed with great honours and fighting were also part of the feasts organised about getting actively involved either: like related pre-Roman buildings or theatrical presented with valuable prizes in the pres- to mark the death of high-ranking individu- the Greeks, they threw themselves into all spaces survive in present-day Etruria. We ence of the leading city authorities. als. If family finances permitted, these could kinds of athletic sports even though gym- do know, however, that there was plenty of continue for an entire week. Many of these nastic games did not have the same impor- theatre and performances with incredibly SPORTY PEOPLE elements of Etruscan culture were brought to tance in the upbringing of young people as ancient roots (the earliest involved mime Another great passion was gladiator games the Urbe, starting with Tarquin Priscus, the in Athens or Sparta. Boxing, wrestling, run- with masked actor-dancers moving to mu- which would either be one-on-one or be- first king from the Etruscan dynasty to rule ning, long jump, discus and javelin were the sic) that were also an integral part of the tween opposing teams who would be armed Rome. It is to the Tarquins that we owe the most popular disciplines as evidenced widely aristocratic funerary rites. Varro, a scholar in different ways and were trained in special design of the Circus Maximus where chariot in Etruscan art, not least the paintings deco- who flourished during the Augustan era, combat schools. The gladiators themselves races were held as well as the introduction rating the walls of certain tombs. mentions the works of a certain Volnius, were almost always prisoners of war and, of the first public games. Also under the in- Aristotle was very struck by the fact that who wrote tragedies in the Etruscan lan- much to the delight of the spectators, some- fluence of the Etruscans, Rome moved away boxing matches in Etruria were accompa- guage which it is assumed were modelled times fought each other to the death. An- from its custom of funerary games which nied by music and equally surprised by the on contemporary Greece theatre.

16 17 HOW THEY BUILT

nfortunately, the list of Etruscan How did Etruscan cities come into cities whose architectural struc- being? In simple terms, we can say that IN THE Uture can still be seen is not very it depends which of two periods they long. The additions and changes car- were founded in. In the ancient peri- ried out by the Romans often erased or od they developed when several villag- ETRUSCAN HOME radically altered their original appear- es coalesced, while in the classical age, ance. However, if we walk through the from the 6th century BC, the motives streets clinging to the hillsides of Vol- behind their growth were more likely to In general, the typical Etruscan city is built on high ground, terra or plunge into the solitary beauty be political. In all cases, the Etruscans and is ringed by a robust protective wall. The dwellings may of Cortona we can still experience some evaluated and selected the site of their vary according to the period, from simple huts to aristocratic of the majesty of these ancient Etruscan settlements with great care. It would settlements and the architectural her- above all have to be near a river, water- residences, but they always display great attention to detail itage the Etruscan people left behind. course, lake or the sea shore, within reach of all the natural resources that could support the economic activities that were most crucial to their pros- perity – sailing and trade. The ideal location for a city, then, was a low-ly- ing plain crossed by numerous water- ways, favouring exploitation of the extensive agricultural lands, sheltered by the gentle slopes of the surround- ing hills. Other centres of habitation, although on the plain, stood on a prom- ontory where they could be more easi- ly defended. Populonia, for example, is protected by a steep cliff and the many hills around it. Building a city at some height also made it possible to spot the approach of enemies from a considera- ble distance, giving its citizens enough time to ready their defences. The more effectively a city controlled its water- courses and coastline, the stronger and SPECTACULAR INTERIORS more prosperous it was. As a result not The Cottabo by the Florentine painter Anatolio all settlements were equally important, Scifoni (1841-1884) recreates the splendour and archaeologists classify Etruscan of a typical Etruscan aristocratic home. settlements as “primary” or “second- ary”. The primary sites enjoyed a long history, but the others, founded around

18 19 HOW THEY BUILT the 6th century BC and abandoned no pattern. As a result the urban space in the facades were decorated with the that although the houses of the period later than the middle of the 4th cen- was divided by three main streets name of the tomb’s occupant as if they were extremely simple, they fulfilled all tury, had a more troubled existence running east-west, and cut vertically were in fact houses. All this made the the requirements of everyday life. An and proved to be less permanent. But by another series of axes that divided cemeteries easy to negotiate, and re- opening in the main wall, vertically notwithstanding their different loca- the city into long, narrow rectangular flected the social divisions that existed in line with the doorway, was created tions and history, Etruscan cities shared blocks. The temples, like the acropo- in the world of the living, perpetuating where the ridge poles crossed, allow- many significant features. lis, were located to the west, while the them in the “city of the dead”. ing smoke from the hearth to escape. extensive commercial area lay to the The tombs provide valuable infor- The doorway, taking up the whole wall CITIES AND CEMETERIES east. The division of the city into lots mation about the structure of family and located on the shortest side, was Above all they share a desire for (similar to modern blocks) resulted in dwellings. It should be remembered attached to the walls with hinges and monumentality, which took the form efficient, well-ordered management of that the Etruscans regarded their tombs could be secured with an upright pole. of constructing entire areas created the urban spaces, a phenomenon later as an eternal dwelling place, so There were no windows, so the only as a setting for the exercise of politi- reproduced in Roman cities. from the most ancient times ventilation was provided by cal power and religious ritual. These The same layout has been identified they had to provide a the opening in the roof. spaces were usually sited in the cen- in Etruscan cemeteries, many of which faithful reproduction of The interior was almost tre of the settlement. As time passed were built on a similar plan. The typi- the house their occu- always in the shade. they became associated with the junc- cal necropolis grave sites were divided pants lived in when In the Villanovian tion of the various main thorough- into lots. The tombs had an opening alive. We know, for period the hous- fares, laid out in a right-angled grid onto the “street” and the architraves example, that the es were construct- oldest Etruscan ed with different houses, dating back shapes and mate- to the Villanovian rials, depending on period (9th-8th cen- location and climate. tury BC) were simple In time, though, their huts built with the help appearance became more of poles fixed in the ground uniform – the ground plan and topped with a sloping roof. became more regular and the The outer walls were made using a sys- rectangular shape became the norm. tem of canes and branches, then clad Construction materials also changed with coarse clay to provide insulation – wood and laths were gradually re- and render them rainproof. They could placed by dry walls and crude bricks, be oval, elliptical or simply rectangu- making the houses more robust and lar. Sometimes the interior was divid- long-lived. The roofs gradually adopt- ed into several spaces by screens made ed a clear pitched construction and of laths, and each space had a precise the branches that once covered the IMPOSING WALLS function. It is possible to obtain an idea beams were replaced by clay tiles. In- The imposing Porta dell’Arco of how these homes really looked by ex- side, the division of the interior be- in Volterra (4th-3rd century BC). amining the funerary urn in the “Isi- came more formalised and the first Opposite page, an Etruscan doro Falchi” Archaeoloigical Museum large reception rooms for welcoming lamp held in Cortona. in Vetulonia (Grosseto). We can see guests appeared. A number of small-

20 21 HOW THEY BUILT er spaces were scattered around the fourteen shields hang on the walls. ceived their friends, as well as their This unmistakeable evidence of the main building, made of wattle and As domestic dwellings evolved we see most valued and illustrious guests. villa’s luxurious nature shows that it daub in the case of the simpler homes the addition of further spaces around belonged to a wealthy, refined family and coarse bricks in the most so- a central courtyard with a well to en- A SUMPTUOUS VILLA whose fortunes eventually took a turn phisticated, complex dwellings. The sure a reliable water supply. During the An example of this is the spectacular for the worse. In the 1st century BC, interiors of the ancient houses were 4th century BC Etruscan architecture villa discovered in Vetulonia (Grosse- in fact, Vetulonia – like other Etruscan rather elaborate – they were accessed (in common with its artistic taste as a to) along the via dei Ciclopi (one of the centres – was set alight and destroyed along a corridor and were made up of whole) came under Greek influence. town’s main thoroughfares), renamed as it had taken the side of the Roman a series of small spaces whose door- The houses, similar to those belonging the ‘Domus dei Dolia’ because of the Gaius Marius when embroiled in a ways, decorated with mouldings give to Rome’s first Republican period, had large number of olive oil jars that civil war with Lucius Cornelius Cilla. onto a large rectangular room. A a central atrium accessed along a corri- have been unearthed there. This huge When Cilla gained the upper hand, tomb reproducing it is furnished with dor. The many small rooms around the building covered an area of almost 400 the city was subject to vicious reprisals. semi-circular high-back chairs used atrium fulfilled different functions, square metres, and was divided into A silver coin found in the villa that can as pedestals for statues. Soft cushions serving as bedrooms or work spaces, ten rooms and several service spaces. be dated to this turbulent period – it are carved on the flat couches whose for example. The most important space Its interiors still host Pompeian-style was probably lost in the general chaos legs display carved decorations, while was the large room where the elite re- frescoes, bronze statuettes and coins. before the house was burnt down.

CORTONA, THE WALLED CITY erched behind its imposing walls, Cortona dominates the Valdichiana Pjust as it did in ancient times. For centuries the fertile Tuscan countryside that surrounds the city provided prosperity and power for the local princes, allowing them to invest some of their wealth in building monuments. The city acquired a majestic wall in the 4th century BC, studded with architectural jewels like the Porta Bifora (or Ghibellina), which has survived untouched. Although recent investigations have dated it to the 2nd century BC, it bears traces of its Etruscan origins. The city provides the opportunity to take an evocative underground journey in search of the true Etruscan spirit. A narrow alley leads to the Palazzo Cerulli-Diligenti, where it’s possible to admire an intact stretch of the Etruscan walls, six metres long and three metres high, and an elegant semi-circular arch. In via Guelfa, near the Porta di S. Agostino, is an entirely barrel-vaulted underground space made from large blocks of pietra serena sandstone. The Museo dell’Accademia Etrusca e della città di Cortona (MAEC) in the Palazzo Casali also has a few surprises in store – during the restoration work that made it possible to create the museum, some substantial remains QUEEN OF THE VALLEY of the city walls, fifteen metres in length, came to light. Experts say that it A view of Cortona. The entire Valdichiana also served as a buttress, making the foundations of the city’s large public region can be seen from the walls. buildings safer and more stable.

22 23 HOW THEY DRESSED

Richly decorated clothing and elaborate hairstyles, clasps, rings and tiaras. The Etruscans devoted A PEOPLE a great deal of time and effort to caring for their body and choosing what clothes to wear, with IN FASHION a passionate love of trends arriving from the East

he tomb art and statues that still top, held in position by fibula (brooch- awkward. The typical, exclusively mas- survive provide many details of es) in various shapes, materials and siz- A TRIUMPH OF COLOURS culine perizoma was a loincloth tied at T Etruscan traditions, customs and, es. Older people and women wore heavy Well-to-do Etruscans loved wearing the waist to cover and protect the more of course, clothing. This type of source, wool garments decorated with check and colourful clothes and a great deal of jewellery. intimate parts of the anatomy. It was though, does not always highlight the lozenge patterns. Sometimes, though, The costumes recreated in this illustration worn above all by athletes. distinction between everyday clothes women preferred lighter apparel in nat- from 1882 may be a little too imaginative, Oriental styles had a stronger influence and those worn for special rituals. It ural shades, far more practical and less but they are still not too distant from during the period 730-580 BC, and out- does, however, seem certain that the authentic Etruscan tastes. erwear began to take on different forms. Etruscans placed great emphasis on their One popular item was the polos, a sort of appearance and were passionate follow- spherical, cylindrical or cubic headscarf or ers of fashion, choosing garments whose crown, which adorned the heads of stat- type and shape often reflected con- ues of gods and priestesses in the Near temporary trends in Greece and the East and Greece. The Greek influence Near East. Although this cloth- was also clear in the long tresses end- ing changed over the centuries the ing in a ring that we see reproduced materials remained unchanged on statues of women from the 7th – wool or linen, depending on century BC. The most popular foot- the season. The wool textiles wear was simple wooden-soled san- were dyed in bright colours and dals with leather straps. embellished with embroidered or applied decorative elements, NEW ARRIVALS FROM while the linen fabric was worn GREECE in its natural light colour. The period around the 6th cen- Increasing contact with the tury BC saw an important change Mediterranean in particular great- in tastes, with the introduction of ly influenced Etruscan fashions, the linen chiton. This was worn shaping their development. Chi- in both long and knee-length ver- ton robes were the fashion towards sions, with a wide variety of cloaks the end of the 7th century BC. These worn over it. Men preferred the pleated tunics, fastened at the waist tebenna, worn cross-wise and leav- with a belt, were very popular in ing one shoulder bare, while women Greece. Large capes were worn on chose a rectangular cape that cloaked

24 25 HOW THEY DRESSED the body and draped over the front, cov- the petaso, going against the traditional – the haruspices, for example, usually recalling their Greek contemporaries, ering the shoulders. Many were still fond male custom of remaining bare-headed, wore a cylindrical wool or leather gar- embellishing their hair with extraordi- of the classic looks, wrapping themselves except when travelling or for other spe- ment while priests and gods donned a nary jewels and tiaras. The sinuous lines in Greek-style cloaks - the generous hi- cial occasions. As a result the hat became distinctive pointed hat. of the body were emphasised by cling- mation or smaller chlaina. This was also a distinctive accessory for the fashion- In the final stages of the Etruscan civili- ing chitons, draped over the “strategic” the time when new types of outerwear able Etruscan gentleman. On his feet he sation fashion, especially for women, ex- areas through the skilful use of a belt. made their appearance, like the restyled would wear shoes or ankle boots with perienced an outburst of ostentation and Men took a more sober approach, aban- and typically feminine cone-shaped, the toe curving upwards (calcei repandi), luxury. With head proudly uncovered, doning the belt in favour of a straight Asian-style garment called the tutulus. also of Oriental origin. Outerwear gar- the ladies of ancient Tuscia began to dis- garment, combined with leather san- Men often wore a broad-brimmed hat, ments sometimes had a ritual function play more refined, elaborate hairstyles dals with laces tied below the knee, or heavy boots. After the Roman conquest Etruscan tastes also influenced the new overlords – they were so struck by local MIRRORS AND RAZORS fashions that the expression “dressing FOR THE CULT FEMALE VANITY Etruscan-style” became a synonym for The sarcophagus depicts the young Larthia elegance and refinement. This eventual- ecent research has shown Seianti as she proudly shows off her beauty ly reached such a point that the Romans Rthat as well as their traditional and the opulence of her jewellery. She is adopted lace-up boots and the tebenna use as a toilet instrument, wearing bracelets, rings, earrings and a wedding gift and a female as their own. The sandals became the precious necklace. Her appearance bears prerogative limited most popular choice for patricians and to the domestic witness to her love of life, luxury the tebenna evolved into the distinctive context, mirrors and beautiful things, typical of garment of the free Roman - the toga. could also the Etruscan civilisation. have a ritual BEARDS AND HAIR function. And while the Etruscans placed great This is emphasis on their wardrobe, they also suggested by devoted a great deal of effort to body the special care. Women paid particular attention nature of to cosmetics and hairstyles, especially the depicted scenes, which when they began to appear bare-headed, refer to the towards the 5th century BC. The new mythological fashion allowed women to wear elabo- universe, often rate hairstyles – their hair was no longer with Greek roots. worn in simple plaits, but allowed to fall Apart from their in flowing ringlets onto the shoulders or everyday purpose, gathered into a crown and fastened with men’s razors, too, nets and bonnets. Men, who once pre- could also have a ritual, ferred long, thick, hair, always held in magical function. tidy curls, and well-tended beards, only began to shave their beards and cut their

26 27 HOW THEY DRESSED

be lightened with a concoction based on beech ash mixed with animal fats. A STRANGE COWBOY HAT Women made up their lips and eyes conographic sources, with vivid colours, using techniques Iespecially the famous learnt from their Eastern counterparts. statue of the Cappellone di This enthusiasm for beauty care can be Murlo (at Poggio Civitate, seen from the cosmetic sets and numer- Siena), demonstrate ous bronze mirrors, often decorated and the use of some bizarre accompanied by short inscriptions, that headwear, whose shape is have been recovered from the tombs. reminiscent of the Mexican Razors, sometimes in cases or pouches, sombrero or the cowboy are a common find. The most frequently Stetson, with a wide seen type comprised a blade with han- turned-up brim and a tall, conical crown. dle. The two parts could be fused or The origin and use of this COMBS AND CLASPS worked separately then fastened togeth- type of hat are not clear. Above, a lovely ivory comb decorated er with studs. The oldest are rectangular Some theorise that they with fantastical beasts, from the cemetery or trapeziform with two edges, but these were worn, at least in the of (mid-7th century BC). Below, the Corsini were eventually superseded by the typi- case of the Murlo example, fibula (6th century BC), a masterpiece cal half-moon shape with only one edge. by eminent individuals, of Etruscan jewellery-making, held perhaps to emphasise A BIZARRE FIGURE in the Archaeology Museum of Florence. JEWELLERY THAT MAKES their power and eminence, Discovered at Poggio Civitate, The precious decoration of two lions A STATEMENT while other experts the statue is held in the and a procession of ducks, was made using Garments were decorated and ren- believe the enigmatic Archaeology Museum figure could be a healer. of Murlo (Siena). the refined granulation technique. dered even more opulent by a wide vari- ety of necklaces, starting with the classic brooches, clasps used to fasten cloaks. The men’s pieces had a linear look, with a hair in the 5th century, again influ- broken, sinuous arc, while the female ac- ing at a purely symbolic function – they bronze, silver, gold and electrum, an al- enced by Greek fashion. This evidence cessories were more elaborate, and their were, in fact, intended only for funerary loy of gold and silver. This jewellery was of the Etruscan hairstyling cult can still ostentatious appearance displayed their use. We know the fibula was an essential an artistic peak of the Etruscan civilisa- be seen in the splendid bone and ivory wearers’ wealth and refinement, trans- element in the costume of the haruspices, tion and some amazing techniques were combs decorated with animal motifs. forming them into status symbols. In respecting an archaic traditional usage used in its manufacture. The Etruscans The Etruscans also boasted some espe- this case, too, they probably also served as protective talismans. These individu- learnt the granulation method from cially refined cosmetics. Women a ritual purpose. Some brooches discov- als could perform their role only when Eastern artisans (and later perfected it). loved enhancing their appear- ered in the tombs were too large dressed in the “old style”, fastening their This enabled the elements to be soldered ance with creams, ointments or too small to be worn, hint- clothing with fibulas, with no laces or together, with a base sheet and almost and perfumes, often imported other modern elements. microscopic gold spheres, giving rise to from the East. Cosmetic oils Alongside these brooches, the Etrus- extraordinary masterpieces. How they were made using herbs like cans loved to display a wide variety of managed to achieve such a result is still a rosemary and sage, and hair could tiaras, bracelets, rings and earrings in subject of research for passionate experts.

28 29 WHAT THEY ATE AND DRANK

ing regular-shaped plots that remained unaltered for over two millennia until the FIRST-RATE dawn of modern mechanisation. These fields were the source of the copious stores of cereals described by Livy and consist- COOKS, ed mainly of wheat and farro with which to make bread, focaccias and polenta-like gruels (puls in Latin). The bakers of Chiusi, Pisa and Arezzo baked prized bread from GOURMAND common wheat, while the farro, which was easy to cultivate, was ground before being turned into porridges and gruels. Further- more, the cultivation of chickpeas, lentils GUESTS and fava beans enabled the Etruscan fam- ers (and, more generally, the Italic peoples Wheat, vines and olives were of that period) to mix the cereal flours with the treasures of Etruria. While the those made from the legumes. Etruscan diet was based mainly on AMPHORAE TO EXPORT soups and gruels, meat and game Wine arrived on Etruscan tables towards were served at the sumptuous the end of the 7th century BC, when the banquets of the aristocracy limited supply of imported wine from Greece coincided with increased local production promoted by the aristocratic classes that had ereals, wine and oil made up the been influenced by the Hellenic ritual of the trio of foodstuffs upon which the Symposium, at which the nectar of Bacchus C Etruscans built their gastronomic was the essential component. Analysis of the and commercial fortunes. On many occa- development of the workshops for making sions, usually coinciding with wars and buccheri (Etruscan ceramic wine jugs in im- famines, even Rome had to rely on the itation of the Greek versions), has attested to “Etruscan granary” that produced a sur- the rapid spread of vine cultivation in Etru- plus destined for export. Such agricultural ria, which was soon producing such quanti- production was made possible by the use ties of wine as to be able to export the surplus. of effective tools, the mineral rich subsoil GOOD FOOD AND PRECIOUS GIFTS The discovery of amphorae in the Mediter- providing the resources from which they For the Etruscans, food was not just a question ranean basin has enabled the reconstruction were able to forge all types of implement. of eating well – it had a profound ritual value, of the trading routes: to the south, wine was The Etruscan’s systematic exploitation as shown by this bronze statuette in the National traded along the Tyrrhenian coast all the way of the land and their specialization in cere- Archaeology Museum in Florence, which depicts to Sicily, while to the north it followed the al farming moulded the landscape into its a woman making an offering to the gods. coast reaching Celtic France and even Spain. characteristic form made up of neighbour- Like almost all food and drink from ancient

30 31 WHAT THEY ATE AND DRANK times, Etruscan wine was very different from its modern version. Dense, strongly aromat- COOK’S TOOLS ic and with a high alcohol content, today it truscan homes did not might not be so well appreciated. General- Ehave a special room for ly, the initial grape must obtained from the preparing and cooking food, 1 harvest was consumed immediately, while so these activities often the remainder was left to rest in containers took place outdoors – only made of terracotta, the sides of which were the homes of the rich had a smeared with resin or tar; the liquid was proper kitchen. The food was 3 allowed to ferment for around six months prepared on stoves of various and then in the spring, it was filtered and shapes and sizes, with a transferred to amphorae for transportation. pierced hot plate for the pans Once served, the wine was not drunk neat and a low opening for adding fuel to the fire within. 4 but mixed with water and honey. Bronze or iron meat skewers The high quality of the Etruscan wine up to a metre long were meant that it was particularly appreciated the most commonly used and even exported to Greece, where the utensils, along with multi- KITCHEN UTENSILS history of the drink had begun. Numerous pronged flesh hooks used to This set of kitchen utensils is now preserved, Greek and Latin sources agree about the high remove meat from a cauldron alongside many other objects, at the Chiusi Museum. quality of Etruscan grapes and vines, and or the stove top. Cooks also 1. Containers for liquids had roast pans, much like the definitive “certification” came from Livy 2. Bronze grater and his story of Arunte of Chiusi. Arunte, modern frying pans, and a grater, surprisingly similar to 2 3. Metal pan a cuckolded husband unable personally to 4. Meat skewer take revenge on his rival, an influential lo- those we use today. cal man, urged the Celts to invade the town, tempting them with an abundant supply of the excellent local wine. This episode, albeit the source of numerous doubts, predates the of the 3rd century BC, olive oil was im- Bread, oil and wine, especially if they are with water, milk and wheat in the case of sacking of Rome by Brennus in 390 BC, a ported from Greece and only at the end of of the highest quality, are a fine starting simple gruels, but also dried and conserved. historic event that is well acknowledged. As the century did the first local cultivations point from which to prepare a lunch. How- The fava beans were sown in alternation part of the the deal agreed with the barbari- appear. According to tradition it was Tar- ever, Etruscan cuisine involved much more with wheat because the fava were able to re- ans, the jealous Arunte is said to have includ- quin the Elder – an Etruscan with a Greek than this winning trio and their meals were store the soils’ nitrogen oxide levels that the ed a quantity of the local olive oil. father and a future King of Rome – who in- enriched with produce from the land. Veg- cultivation of cereals tended to consume. troduced the cultivation of the plant. This etables and legumes, onions, garlic, carrots, The systematic and intensive development TARQUIN THE ELDER’S OIL would indicate that the technical rudi- peas, chickpeas, lupin beans and cabbage of arable farming was certainly not to the This anecdote introduces the third cor- ments necessary for planting the first olive were part of the daily diet, especially that detriment of livestock agriculture, however. nerstone of Etruscan agriculture: the olive. groves arrived from the colonies of Magna of the common classes, together with the Animal products were by no means absent The cultivation of olives was the protago- Graecia, where the plant was already wide- extremely widespread fava beans. The latter from Etruscan dining tables; the most wide- nist of a similar, if not directly parallel, tra- spread and with whose inhabitants the were particularly appreciated for their versa- ly consumed meat was pork (raised in par- jectory to that of the vines. Until the end Etruscans enjoyed trading relationships. tility as they could be prepared raw, or boiled ticular in the Po valley), as well as the meat

32 33 WHAT THEY ATE AND DRANK

THE ART OF EATING IN COMPANY The Etruscans adapted the oriental custom of eating lying down, in special dining rooms. The food was served (along with wine) on trays and placed on small tables, in front of the guests. This convivial habit was then passed onto the Romans (on the opposite page, the reconstruction of a triclinium). Left, an Etruscan chalice (kantharos) from the Tomb of the Duce at Poggio al Bello (Vetulonia, c. 550-525 B.C.). of goats and sheep. A particular recognition which was a source of protein for the poor. garlic and onion, which were considered to guests particular social status) and the copi- was acknowledged to cows, which were af- Woods and heaths were the ideal habitats for have curative and aphrodisiac powers. While ous presence of meat, boiled in enormous forded a kind of sacred protection linked wild boar, roe deer and hares. In the inland servants ate an excessive amount of onions, bronze cauldrons supported on tripods or to the fundamental role of these animals in lagoons fisherman would catch eels, and even consuming them raw, the wealthy roasted on spits. The painting on one of the agricultural work: their meat was consumed along the Tyrrhenian coast they would fish showed greater restraint and preferred them Golini tombs offers a magnificent example only on rare occasions when not for ritual for tuna, swordfish, sea bream and mullet. in their cooked form. Also common were of the Etruscan larder before a banquet: there celebrations. A similar respect was extended Molluscs too were enjoyed by the Etruscans. leeks, which were appreciated for their del- was a whole cow, a roe deer, a hare and vari- to horses, for which The habits of icate flavour. To season meats, in particular ous birds. The menu for a sumptuous feast the Etruscans, a WINE PREPARES THE HEART FOR LOVE AND MAKES the lower classes game, the Etruscans used bay leaves; in fact, would begin with eggs, then move on to warrior people of US APT FOR PASSION: WHERE THERE IS WINE were undoubtedly the laurel tree grew spontaneously and in roasted meat, birds, stuffed porchetta, fish able horsemen, pre- IN ABUNDANCE, SORROW AND WORRY TAKE WING. more frugal and such numbers as to form laurel woodlands. and molluscs, to conclude there would be ferred for military or their daily diet was a selection of deserts and cakes made from sporting activities, OVID based largely on ce- A ROYAL BANQUET cheese, honey and eggs. While the servants like chariot races. reals and legumes. At the homes of the rich, the greater cooked for their masters, the guests con- Some Etruscan Wheat, grain, farro, economic resources were combined with sumed the infinite dishes while languidly delicacies, which have been documented, in- barley and foxtail millet were transformed a refinement in matching flavours and an reclining on triclinium beds alongside the clude roosters and hens but also small mam- into focaccias or dense gruels like vegeta- obsessive attention to service, with plates womenfolk, who were dressed in all their mals such as voles, hedgehogs, porcupines, ble soups and similar to the Romans’ puls, of differing shapes and colours and braziers finery. The dining space was illuminated by dormice, as well as crows, doves, ducks and rich in vitamins and fibre and simmered created to keep food hot. The banquets of the light of candles held in bronze cande- other birds, which were captured in nets in earthenware pots as has been widely the Greeks and Etruscan nobles revolved labras, while diligent semi-naked servants hung between trees. Completing the diet demonstrated by numerous archaeological around wine (a costly ingredient which in waited upon the guests and lyre and flute were farmyard animals and, above all, game, discoveries. Popular cuisine was based on itself was enough to afford the host and his players accompanied the feast.

34 35 WHAT THEY PRODUCED AND TRADED ETRUSCAN EXCELLENCE BROUGHT COMMERCIAL DOMINANCE Not just wheat, olive oil and wine. Skilled artisans and enterprising merchants, the Etruscans dominated the Mediterranean through the superb workmanship of their metal objects and the refined taste of their ceramics

HIGH QUALITY fertile granary on the surface and an IMPORT-EXPORT inexhaustible source of raw materi- The Stamnos of Alberoro krater A als below ground, the land around (Monte S. Savino, Arezzo) from the late their settlements was a springboard for 5th century BC. Greek vases were very Etruscan development, nurtured by the fashionable in Etruria and were the subject availability of natural resources, even- of a flourishing import trade. Other vases, tually reaching its peak in the period of though, were produced in central Italy. greatest splendour. A generous reserve of cereals and wood, olive oil, wine, iron, copper and tin created wealth within its

36 37 WHAT THEY PRODUCED AND TRADED

borders, then generated a surplus of qual- that was a symbol throughout the Medi- Metallifere, rich in pyrites, copper, lead, could not guarantee the same results, so the ity goods that promoted commerce and terranean of luxury and refinement. alum and silver-bearing galena. In Popu- metal-working industry required a high- imposed Etruscan style throughout the The Etruscan iron-making and met- lonia and Vetulonia (now districts of Cas- ly-specialised workforce. The Greek writer markets of the Mediterranean. allurgical industries have left abundant tiglione della Pescaia), after the minerals Diodoro Siculo left an admirable account While the farmers cultivated the most proof of intense activity – in some areas had been extracted they immediately un- of these complex activities. In the 1st centu- remunerative crops, exploiting the region’s millions of tons of slag left over from met- derwent an initial treatment in the furnace ry BC he observed the iron-making process mineral wealth enabled metal workers to al production formed new hills. Populo- to allow the metals to “settle”, but in gen- on the island of Elba, as well as the trans- forge increasingly advanced agricutural nia, for example, now part of the town of eral the work of processing the extracted formation of minerals into weapons, hoes, implements. This virtuous circle saw yields Piombino, was the region’s most impor- materials involved many other centres, each scythes and ploughs. “The workers broke increase dramatically, encouraging trade tant metal working centre in the Bronze specialised in a different type of product, up the stones and burnt the pieces in skil- and exchange with other peoples. Once Age and throughout antiquity, later to be for military or civil use. Perugia worked fully-constructed furnaces. They melted the the trade routes had been established, joined bypresent-day Volterra. mostly with bronze and wrought iron, rock in the intense fire inside the furnaces, Etruscan merchants did not restrict them- while Vulci and Arezzo excelled in mak- then sorted the stone according to the size selves to selling the fruits of nature, they WEAPONS, ARMOUR, PLOUGHS ing weapons, also forging them in precious of the lumps and created pieces similar to also offered finely decorated amphorae and Mineral resources were mostly concen- metals. To separate the slag from the metal a large sponge. Some people would buy pottery, furnishings, brooches, armour trated in north-west Etruria – the island the metals were heated in wood and coal this material and employ a large number of and masterpieces of the goldsmith’s art, of Elba, with its haematite reserves, Cam- burning furnaces creating temperatures of blacksmiths to work and transform it into a creating a distinctive manufacturing style pigliese with copper and tin, the Colline 1,250°C. Temperatures above or below this wide variety of iron instruments”. If, as we have seen, copper was easy to find throughout the region, tin had to THE LUCKY DOLPHIN be imported. Etruscan artisans worked bronze using a repousse technique to deco- xpert sailors, in ancient times the Etruscans rate domestic objects or a lost wax process Ewere known as ruthless pirates. This partly for weapons, tools and art objects. Many well-deserved reputation (the line between priva- examples of these skilfully created objects teers and pirates has always been difficult to draw), have survived, including two wonderful and was attributed to them by the Greeks, one of masterpieces – the Chimera of Arezzo and their most powerful rivals for maritime dominance. “Presently there came swiftly over the wine-dark the statue of the Orator, both in the Ar- sea / Tuscan pirates on a well-benched ship / a chaeological Museum of Florence. One miserable doom led them on”. These lines are special aspect of Etruscan bronze work was from Homer’s Hymn to Dionysus, which goes on the production of mirrors, an activity that to describe how the Tyrrhenian pirates attempt- began in the second half of the 6th centu- ed to capture the god, so were transformed into ry BC. Unlike Greek and Roman mirrors, dolphins. Since that time these creatures became which had a flat surface, Etruscan mirrors sacred to the Etruscan sailors, who regarded it as A PLUNGE INTO THE HEREAFTER had a convex surface – this produced a a good omen when they saw dolphins leaping out Dolphins plunge into the waves smaller but much sharper image. The disc of the water as they rode the ship’s bow wave. In a in the Tomb of Sarteano, symbolising was forged in a single piece (with or with- number of tomb paintings the dolphin symbolises out a handle) and the back was engraved, the deceased’s nautical adventures. the start of a new life beyond death. or a repousse sheet, preferably bearing mythological scenes, was soldered onto it.

38 39 WHAT THEY PRODUCED AND TRADED

THE ELEGANCE OF BLACK and the Greek colonies of eastern Sicily. BRONZE MASTERPIECES Etruscan pottery was also a stunning Archaeological remains bear witness to in- The Chimera of Arezzo testament to the skills of local craftsmen, tense commercial traffic with mineral-rich (now in Florence), the work and the pieces that survived until today Sardinia. Finally, Etruscan merchants fre- of a team of artisans are clear evidence of this civilisation’s com- quented the North African coast, visiting from Arezzo, is a perfect mitment to excellence. Originally made in Carthage and the busy entrepot of Nauc- synthesis of the Greek the home to fulfil the need for domestic ratis, and following the trade routes of the style and Etruscan kitchen implements, such pieces were Greeks they journeyed as far as Asia Minor. techniques. later produced by craft workshops. They The development of such widespread had already reached high levels of quali- commercial activity brought a need for ty by the 7th century BC, when Caere port facilities along the Tyrrhenian Sea (modern-day Cerveteri) was one of the coast, which, apart from Talamone and most famous manufacturing centres. As Populonia, offered no natural harbours. trade developed the demand for contain- The 6th century BC saw the establish- ers for olive oil and wine also grew, and ment of important ports and mercantile workshops sprang up in Veio, Tarquin- markets in Gravisca (port of Tarquinia) ia and Vulci. The industry experienced a and Pyrgi (port of Cerveteri), while the decisive expansion in the late 8th century island of Elba was a hub for the sea routes BC when the first decorated ceramic ob- to Corsica and Sardinia. jects, intended for aristocratic villas or as Trade routes also left the commercial funerary items, made their appearance. centres along the Etrurian coast towards Founded by artisans from Greece, these the interior of mainland Italy, generally workshops attracted Etruscan apprentices, following the paths carved out by river creating local schools. Some of the most valleys. Etruscan goods could sail up the sought-after products were vases imitating Tiber, then navigable, to the Latini, Sabi- the pottery of Corinth and Athens, featur- ni and Umbri. Further north some centres ing first black then red figures. like Marzabotto and Gonfienti grew up as One style produced exclusively by of Etruscan pottery were dictated not only FROM THE NILE TO GAUL outposts of colonial expansion, driven by Etruscan artisans was the burnished by when it was produced but also by the A wealth of mineral assets, flourishing the need to find more land for cultivation black bucchero ware. The first examples region it was made in and even the indi- agriculture and artisanal skills led Etruria but also to maintain control of the inland may have appeared in Cerveteri, and were vidual factory, which could have devel- to carve out a place in the Mediterranean’s trade routes leading to Emilia-Romagna originally intended to imitate metal ban- oped its own distinctive and totally origi- thriving trade network. Skilled, sometimes and from there to central Europe. Etrus- queting ware. Shaped and dried in the nal technique. Plates and tableware, votive rather unscrupulous, sailors (the Greek can cereals and Greek goods unloaded in air, the bucchero pieces developed a deep, vases, oinochoe amphorae (similar to pitch- word Thyrrenoi, Tirreni, was used to de- Adriatic ports like Adria, Spina, Ancona lustrous shiny black colour after being ers), kraters, goblets and strainers are just scribe the Etruscans, but was also another and Numana crossed the Apennines and fired in special kilns with an oxygen-free some of the items found in the necropolis. word for “pirates”) and their ships travelled the Po Valley. Following the same routes, atmosphere, where the ferric oxide in the They have enabled modern researchers to as far north as Liguria and southern France, the Etruscans forged links (not necessarily clay was transformed into ferrous oxide, investigate Etruscan manufacturing tech- via the Tuscan archipelago and Corsica, friendly) with the Celtic peoples, retracing producing the typical colouration. niques and develop a better understanding while to the south they hugged the coast ancient paths along which travelled pre- The manifold types, shapes and colours of how Etruscan society evolved. of Campania to reach the Aeolian islands cious goods like gold and amber.

40 41 HOW THEY COMMUNICATED

THE FALSE MYTH Tuscan gorgia (or throat). is far more recent. There is OF THE ASPIRATE “C” It is an aspirate “c”, which no record of this prior to THE “ENIGMA” sounds like the letter “h”. the 16th century and it is In parts of Tuscany For many years it was entirely absent in certain (particularly between Flor- believed that this was a places, such as Corsica, ence and Siena) there is a throwback to the Etruscan which had been colonised OF WRITING phenomenon known as the language. In actual fact it by the Tuscans in the past.

Etruscan is a perfectly readable rather than to everyday life, which would language: indeed its alphabet be more useful for understanding who is derived from Greek. But even the Etruscans really were. For this rea- son, in many cases we can only get a very if its sounds are known to us, rough idea of the writings and their con- the meaning of many text without being able to obtain a com- words remains a mystery plete and precise translation. NUMEROUS INSCRIPTIONS As previously stated, there is a vast he language that the Etruscans quantity of material: a total of more spoke and used for written com- than 10,000 inscriptions. The longest is T munication is one of the most fas- the Liber Linteus, a piece of linen cloth cinating enigmas of their civilisation. used for wrapping the mummified Over the centuries many philologists corpse of an Egyptian woman in the have tried to understand its secrets, but late Ptolemaic era. It is subdivided into they haven’t always succeeded. There 12 rectangular frames and contains a are many reasons for this uncertainty. ritual calendar, with a total of 1,200 First and foremost, Etruscan appears to words. It isn’t known how it reached have been genealogically isolated from Egypt, although it was probably taken other linguistic families and so, when over by an Etruscan merchant. It was it died out, it left no “heirs”. Even if a discovered in the 19th century by a large number of inscriptions has sur- Croatian collector, who acquired it and vived, we are unable to refer to words in took it to Zaghreb, where it remains other languages, something that would to this day. The second longest surviv- be extremely useful in trying to decipher ing text is the so-called Capua Tile, their meaning. Nor are we helped by the an inscription on a large terracotta tile silence of surviving Roman sources in which contains about 300 words. This this respect, as they have little to say on is also thought to be a calendar ritu- the subject of Etruscan literature. But the al. The third longest surviving text is basic problem is that most of the inscrip- the Cortona Tablet, which was found tions refer to funerals and other rituals, in 1992: it contains a document which

42 43 HOW THEY COMMUNICATED refers to the sale of some pieces of land. THE CORTONA TABLET, Greek name is Herakles, while in Etrus- The other important texts for under- AN AMAZING DISCOVERY can it is Hercle. And often it is the abun- standing the Etruscan language are the dance of names and their recurrence in n 1999 it was announced that a Pyrgi Tablets or Foils. They date back Ibronze tablet measuring 50 cm inscriptions which enable scholars to to 509-508 BC and were found near by 30 cm had been discovered decipher the language. Onomastics has the city of the same name, which lies to in Cortona, a small town in the also led to an important consideration: it the north of Rome. They are of great in- province of Arezzo in Tuscany. would appear that the Etruscans (unlike terest not only because they feature the It consisted of eight fragments, speakers of Greek and Latin) didn’t dis- dedication of the temple to the God- seven of which were found, tinguish between male and female gen- dess Uni by the governor of the city of while an eighth was lost. The ders, at least in their grammatical syn- Caere, but also (and above all) because inscription, which dates back to tax. Little is known about their verbs. they contain the translation of a text in the Second Century BC, con- It is, however, curious to observe that, the Punic language, which can be deci- tains the third longest text in the even if the Etruscan language complete- phered. Mention should also be made Etruscan language to have been ly disappeared not long after the end of found so far. It is only shorter of the Cippus of Perugia, a boundary than the linen cloth wrapping Etruscan civilisation (the Latin author stone that has a long inscription (on used for a mummy (which is now both sides) of some 136 words. housed in a museum in Zagreb) and the Capua Tile. THE ETRUSCAN LANGUAGE WAS TAUGHT IN ROME THE GREEK MODEL This extraordinary find had DURING THE PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC, JUST AS Thanks to the study of this evidence, in fact been made in 1992 by GREEK WAS TAUGHT DURING THE IMPERIAL AGE. it seems clear that Etruscan wasn’t an a carpenter (who was from OTTAVIO MAZZONI TOSELLI Indo-European language, even if it another region of Italy, Calabria) shares features with some of the lan- in the dump of a building site in guages in this group, such as ancient Piagge di Camucia, in the Arez- Aulus Gellius reckoned that it was still Greek and Luwian (a language spoken zo area. After seven long years spoken in parts of Tuscany in the Sec- of research, the content of the in Anatolia in ancient times). Other 206 words (spread over 32 lines) ond Century AD), its alphabet contin- elements are similar to those found in was established: the buying and ued to influence other writing systems in Semitic languages. Etruscan is, in itself, selling of some land involving both Italy and Europe: Rhaetian (which perfectly readable: in actual fact the one Petru Scevas of the Cusu was spoken in the Western Alpine val- Etruscans had a writing system which family and 15 other people. leys until the Roman conquest), Venet- derived from ancient Greek, which was The text in itself does not refer ic (in what is now the Veneto region), in use in the colony on Ischia, not far to a particularly important Camunic (in use in the Val Camonica, from Cuma. It was read from right to event, but its discovery enabled in what is now the province of Brescia), left. In the older inscriptions there is no scholars to reconstruct a series and Lepontic (which featured in Gola- punctuation. This was introduced in the of words that were unknown secca culture and was spoken in what Sixth Century BC, along with spacing A CONTRACT IN BRONZE until then, such as the numbers is now Swiss Italy, Western Lombardy The reassembled front sheet zal (2), sa (4) and sar (10), and to between words. Etruscan and ancient provide other precious informa- and Eastern Piedmont). And because of Greek had the same number of vow- of the Cortona Tablet. the latter, Etruscan also influenced the The missing piece was tion about the “mysterious” els (four) and shared some consonants, Etruscan language. rhunes, which were used in Northern such as the letter H, as in Hercules. The never found. Europe until medieval times.

44 45 WHAT THEY BELIEVED IN

hey were a people who, more than any other, were devoted “Tto religious ceremonies because they excelled in the art of practising them.” That is how Livy described the extraor- dinary pietas of the Etruscans, recognising their ability to consider religion as an inte- gral and essential part of daily life. The Etruscans believed that the individ- ual was in total submission to the will of the gods, something that he or she could only hope to understand and endure. It was the gods who established the destiny of both men and states, and thus fate had to be studied and foreseen in advance, by identifying and interpreting the signs that the gods occasionally deigned to give. The chances of being able to interfere with divine will were decidedly limited, and depended on the fulfillment of acts and rituals that might please the gods. It was therefore necessary to observe rigid rules of behaviour so as not to cause offence.

TEMPLES AND GODS Complex ceremonies were at the basis of every event, from the simplest to the most extraordinary, starting with the foun- dation of cities. The location was cho- RELIGION sen with the utmost care. Initially the priests would use a curved stick known as the lituus to mark out the templum, ABOVE ALL i.e. the part of the sky that was consid- ered sacred. Two axes – North-South and The Etruscans were superstitious and experienced religion as a complex A THREE-HEADED MONSTER East-West – divided the celestial vault daily practice. The rituals, which were described in minute detail The three-headed serpent in the Tomb of the Infer- into four quadrants, which were subse- quently subdivided. Each area was the in sacred books, were performed with obsessive attention to detail. nal Chariot at Sarteano (Siena). It would strike fear into the deceased on the journey to the afterlife. seat of a particular deity and anything Otherwise there was a serious risk of incurring the wrath of the gods… that happened there had significance for the city. The celestial templum reflected

46 47 WHAT THEY BELIEVED IN

THE DIVINE TRINITY DETACHED FROM THE WORLD Left, Uni as Juno Sospita; right, TINIA Tinia or Tin (also, according to a small bronze statue, possibly of some sources, Tunia) is the most Tinia; on the opposite page, Menrva important Etruscan divinity. The (at the National Archaeological husband of Uni, he is the equiva- Museum in Florence). lent of the Greek Zeus and Roman Jupiter. It may also be possible to identify him with Voltumna, god of the Etruscan Federation.

UNI Uni was the highest goddess in the Etruscan pantheon, and patron of Perugia. She and Tinia were the par- ents of Hercle. Her Greek equivalent was Hera, while the Romans assimi- lated her as the goddess Juno.

MENRVA Menrva (or Menerva) was born from the head of Tinia. She was the goddess of strategy, war, art, schools and trade. She corresponds to the Roman Minerva and the Greek Athena. on the earth. At the intersection of the land (or pomerium) was left around the were built with perishable materials: the axes a ditch (or mundus) would be dug wall. This was for the gods and was left tuff walls and columns were covered in to connect the world of the living with uncultivated. The ceremony would be coloured terracotta while the wooden roof that of the dead. Then, a bronze plough completed with a ritual sacrifice. Every was covered in tiles. We know what they which was pulled either by a white ox detail had to be perfect: if there was a looked like, however, thanks to the Ro- or cow, would be used to create a fur- mistake, the whole process had to start man architect Vitruvius and to archaeo- row around the perimeter of the walls. all over again. logical findings. They had a square shape This was interrupted at the point where The place that was designated for most with a column at the entrance which was the doors would be placed. It went from of the rituals was the temple. It was con- divided into three sections. The roof and right to left in order to guarantee pros- secrated to a protective divinity and was the beams were embellished by statues perity and was considered sacrosanct. built on the northern side of the city and figures of animals, gorgons and sa- Indeed anyone who crossed the line with the facade facing south. None of tyrs. The temple itself was built on a base would be sentenced to death. A strip of these temples have survived because they that made it higher than the rest of the

48 49 WHAT THEY BELIEVED IN A HOST OF MONSTROUS DEMONS or the Etruscans the afterlife was entius Varro called him “deus Etruriae Fpopulated by a host of demonic fig- princeps”), the protector of the city of ures, depicted on tomb paintings. They Volsinii and the title holder of the Fanum not only accompanied the deceased Voltumnae (the shrine of Voltumna). on their final journey but also appeared Voltumna had no equivalent in Greek or at crimes and killings, warning those Roman culture, but could be considered about to die of their impending fate. as a manifestation of Tinia. The demons had different characteris- The life of the Etruscans was governed tics, but they shared a livid, monstrous by precise rules which the Romans called appearance. The most well-known are the Etruscan discipline (Tesns Rasnas) Cerberus, the savage three-headed dog, and Charun (Charon, in the picture and which was set out in books that are on the right), the grim, blue-tinged known to us thanks to references by Ro- being who accompanied the dead man authors. Etruscan religious beliefs into the afterworld, beating them with are best summed up by the philosopher hammer blows all the while. Seneca in his Naturales quaestiones: “We Then there are the winged Tuchul- believe that lightning is caused when two cha demons, whose faces were made clouds collide. The Etruscans, on the up of parts of different creatures, and other hand, believe that two clouds col- the Achrumune, armed with axes and lide with the intention of causing light- probably guardians of the river Acheron. ning.” For the Etruscans knowing how Finally, there was Cerun (Geryon), a fear- to interpret celestial phenomena meant some three-headed man. Of all of them only the female winged demon Vanth possessing the key to understanding re- seemed to be benign – she guided spir- ality and one’s own destiny. Obviously its into the hereafter, holding a lit torch. not everyone was capable of doing this. Some Etruscan demons, also mentioned THE INFERNAL CHARIOT Only priests were able to do so, after a by the Romans, crossed the threshold of The demon Charun, here portrayed in a long and complex apprenticeship. time and were recast as guardians of hell detail from the Tomb of the Infernal Chariot in Dante’s Divine Comedy, who knew of at Sarteano as he drove the hellish vehicle. LIFE AND THE LIVER them through the Latin classics. The Etruscans believed that the liver was the symbol of life. It was the seat of affection, courage, intelligence and the reflection of the sacred celestial space. It residential area, and it was necessary to gods became more anthropomorphic. Charon), who accompanied the spirits to was intrepreted by the haruspices, priests climb a staircase in order to enter it. The most important of these gods was their fate, or Tuchulcha, the demon of or soothsayers who removed the still As for the gods that were worshipped, Tinia (the Greek Zeus, the Roman Ju- death, who was similar to a vulture but beating organ of the sacrifical animal and they were very similar to those of the piter), who ruled the heavens with his with a head that was covered in snakes. examined it in detail. Marks, lumps and Greeks and the Romans. If indeed in the wife Uni (Juno-Hera) and their daughter There were also local gods, like Voltumna scars acquired significance depending on ancient era the Etruscans were inclined to Menrva (Minerva-Athena). The afterlife, (who was also known as Veltha or Vel), where they appeared. Every detail was recognise manifestations of the elements, on the other hand, was dominated by the supreme god of the Etruscan pan- vital: in order to teach apprentices the after the influx of Hellenic culture the demonic figures like Charun (the Greek theon (the Roman scholar Marcus Ter- haruspices used models of livers similar

50 51 WHAT THEY BELIEVED IN

IN THE TEMPLE to the bronze example found near Pia- A reconstruction of ments used for sacrifice were similar to cenza which reproduced the organ’s sub- an Etruscan temple as those used by the Romans: a large hatch- divisions and the names of the gods that described by Vitruvius. et (sacena in Latin) and a knife with a tri- exerted an influence on each section. It does not seem very angular blade (secespita), a large base with Lightning, on the other hand, was different from similar a carved cyclindrical handle. The ritual studied by the fulgurales: it was believed buildings constructed by took place on an altar and was accompa- that thunderbolts were thrown down by the Greeks and Romans. nied by the recital of precise formulas to the gods as manifestations of their will. Statues, often very the sound of flute music. There were classified into 11 different large, representing Another widespread Etruscan ritual types, according to their colour, vio- the most important was that of “burying” (condere, in Latin) lence and the area of the sky from which divinities, stood on the lightning. Indeed it was believed that a they came. They could be simple warn- top of the structure. place that had been struck by lightning ings, auspices, indicators of danger, or The tiles were closed was sacred in that it had been chosen by harbingers of destruction. by antefixes, which the god Tinia: and thus no one else could And then there were the augurs, often took the form go there and desecrate it. First and fore- whose job it was to observe the flight of gorgons or other most, it was necessary to hide (in a meta- of birds. The Roman historian Livy monstrous beings. phorical sense) the lightning itself by bur- explains that the principle used for in- ying all the objects that had been struck terpeting it was more or less the same by it, in the same place (this included hu- as that for lightning. Other rules were man victims, who could not be cremated contained in the Libri rituales togeth- of seven years, with 12 cycles (in other which were designed to show men that in this case). The location then had to be er with notions about the subdivision words 84 years) being the longest possi- a cycle had come to an end and that an- fenced off. A sheep with two teeth (i.e. of time and the life cycles of men and ble life expectancy. The life of the aver- other one was about to begin. a two-year-old, seeing as teeth appeared states, and regulations concerning life age Etruscan man consisted of 10 cycles at that age) would then be sacrificed on after death. Many of the rites concerned (70 years): in the last year of each cycle, MAGIC AND SACRIFICES that particular spot. The place would be funeral customs and included lamenta- which was considered the most critical, The attitudes and beliefs of the known as a bidental or a fulguritum. tions, feasts and sacrifices accompanied particular attention had to be paid to the Etruscans were reflected in behaviour Even if the Romans considered Etrus- by music and dance. The cult of death signs sent by the gods: this concept lives throughout the day, particularly during can religion to be too pervasive in every- was usually practised at home. Relatives on to this day in the idea of the “seven ritual sacrifices. As previously stated, the day life, in addition to being fanatical (the were obliged to remember the deceased year itch” in marriage. The duration of innards were interpreted by the haruspic- Christian writer Arnobius, writing in the with offerings and periodic sacrifices to human life, like that of States, was pre-es- es. The Etruscans divided the sacrificial 4th century AD, described Etruria as “the placate the soul and help it find peace. tablished by the gods: for nations, the victims into two categories: the hostiae mother of all superstition”), they were cycles were known as saecula (centuries), consultoriae, with which it was possible to also fascinated by it. Not only did they THE LIFE CYCLE whose duration was not, however, fixed, observe divine will, and hostiae animales, pass onto posterity the vast range of ritu- For the Etruscans, the rules of life but varied according to divine will. The whose killing could placate angry gods. als and beliefs (and this is why most of the were fundamental. They had an “organ- Etruscans believed that a state couldn’t Sheep were the animals that were gener- relative terminology is in Latin), but they ic” conception of all forms of existence: last for more than 10 cycles: in this case ally used for this bloodthirsty ritual. For even adopted some of them. This is a sign not only men in flesh and bone, but also the gods similarly sent a series of signs the omen to be valid, the animal had to that, in spite of everything, the Romans the states that they founded. The life of at the end of each cycle. These included be completely healthy and could not ap- considered themselves the heirs to this every living being was divided into cycles comets, epidemics, floods and droughts pear unwilling to face its fate. The instru- important and profound tradition.

52 53 HOW THEY HONOURED THE DEAD A FEAST FOR THE DECEASED

Funerals were long and complicated. Their purpose was to guarantee peace for the deceased, so that they wouldn’t come back and torment the living. The ritual culminated in a feast: this was seen as a chance to bid farewell to a loved one in a serene manner, but also to show one off’s wealth

he Etruscans attached great impor- tance to rituals surrounding death T and they dedicated a lot of time and resources to honouring the deceased. It was hoped that, once the latter had gone on to GIVING THANKS TO THE GODS the afterlife, they could calmly continue Etruscan statuettes from Fonte their existence, without disturbing the land Veneziana (Arezzo), now in the of the living. Separation from relatives was Archaeology Museum of Florence. traumatic and mourning was expressed openly and even ostentatiously, as was the case with the Greeks and other Mediter- ranean populations. Etruscan rituals did, BURIAL OR CREMATION? the roles of the deceased in society. There was the case if they were indigenous and however, evolve with the passage of time. As for funeral practices, there is weren’t, however, precise rules and this therefore not of pure Etruscan blood. In the earlier period, for example, the dif- plenty of evidence of both burial and is evident if individual necropoleis are Cremation, on the other hand, was par- ferences between social classes weren’t par- cremation. In the early days at least, the examined. At Pontecagnano, for ex- ticularly common in the area around ticularly marked, but contact with Greek Etruscans tended to burn the bodies of ample, it would appear that during the Chiusi (near Siena). During the second culture led the nobility to see funerals as an the dead, while the other populations early period, i.e. the first half of the 9th half of the century, the diversity in the expression of status. They would embellish with which they came into contact in century BC, cremation was the method rituals began to disappear and cremation tombs with grave goods that consisted of Italy prefered burial. This prompted the of choice for male adults and the more was used for both sexes, becoming prev- vases, jewels and other ornaments which Etruscans to follow suit, at least in some visible members of the community, alent at the start of the 8th century BC. were often imported from Greece. cases, perhaps as a way of distinguishing while burial was for women. At least this The ashes were placed in tombs of

54 55 HOW THEY HONOURED THE DEAD various types. But things were to change the name of the person in question was death). This was placed on the wall or again midway through the 8th century called out three times: once the death the door of the house that was in mourn- BC. Burial became an exclusive ritual. had been confirmed, the eyes of the ing, so that people could keep away. The tombs of aristocrats, which were dug corpse were closed and friends and rel- The body of the deceased was washed out under a mound of earth, were mon- atives cried out in pain, and then wept and sprinkled with aromatic oils that were umental and grandiose: the richer and loudly. The Etruscans believed that, un- kept in special receptacles, like the arybal- more important the family, the larger the til the deceased were either cremated or los, a small spherical vase, and the longer le- tomb. It would host many members of the buried, they could carry on interacting kythos, which had a narrow bottleneck. Af- same clan, including lautni (freed slaves). with the land of the living – and not ter the ritual cleansing and the sprinkling As the equivalent of the middle classes necessarily in a benign way. In order to with ointment, the corpse was dressed and grew, monumental tombs were replaced ward off danger for the community, rel- placed on a bed, with the feet towards the by “cities of the dead” (necropoleis) atives were therefore obliged to remain entrance. As the surrounding area was filled which were carefully laid out. Portraits isolated for the time it took to complete with the smell of burning incense and other of the deceased also appeared on the the funeral ceremony. In this way the essences, the floors of the house were care- urns. They often depicted them as they “contamination” wouldn’t spread. This fully swept with a broom. This was thought took part in the feast, lounging on the state of affairs was announced with the to have apotropaic powers (in other words, triclinium (the three-piece sofa used branch of a cypress or another tree that it could ward off evil spirits). Once the in dining rooms at the time – ed). The produced dark fruits (the colours of relatives and friends of the deceased had concept of the afterlife also evolved with the passage of time: initially, the most important thing was for the memory of CANOPIC VASES the deceased to be preserved by their de- AS THEY WERE IN LIFE scendants, and for this reason the tomb anopic vases, which were com- Sarcophagi (like this one in the Santa recreated the earthly home, with orna- C mon at Chiusi in the first half Maria della Scala complex in Siena) ments and furniture. Gradually, another of the 6th century BC, were used often featured a portrait of the deceased concept of death began to take hold, for the ashes of the deceased. The with attributes denoting his her status. namely that the soul would have to live lids often had a human form that with that of the other deceased, in the recalled the features of the person kingdom of the dead, rather than in the in question. Indeed they were so sepulchre. This idea was modelled on the expressive that they can be seen as Greek concept of Avernus, the entrance the prototype for portraits in Italy. to the underworld which was governed Even though they were conside- by the Gods Aita and Phersipnai (Hades red typically Etruscan, they were and Persephone in Hellenic culture). also common in ancient Egypt. In this case their use was, however, THE LAST BREATH slightly different: they contained The Etruscans believed that death the bowels of the deceased which took place when the soul left the body had been removed during the through the lips; in other words, with mummification process. the deceased’s last breath. At that point

56 57 HOW THEY HONOURED THE DEAD

GRAVES HYPOGEA, THOLOS CUBES TYPES OF ETRUSCAN TOMB (8th-5th OR CHAMBERS (THE LATE ORIENTALISING PERIOD) (6th-2nd CENTURY BC) CENTURY BC) (7th-4th CENTURY BC) They were based on the tombs of the Mycenaean kings Tombs featuring rooms were typical A simple grave They were dug out and featured a dome. They were built on the side in the case of necropoleis in rocky WELLS (rectangular for of the tuff and were of a hill where the stones were aligned in overlapping areas. These were either dug out (10th-6th CENTURY BC) burial, square either subterranean concentric circles that ultimately closed the vault. of the tuff or else built separately. A well-like pit was dug either in the for ashes) contained or semi-subterranean, The circular room (which sometimes featured a central This type of tomb reproduces civic ground or in the rock and then covered the remains of the and had various forms. pillar) was then covered in earth so as to recreate architecture and features a large over. The ashes were placed in biconical deceased, together The interiors contained the original shape of the hill. The sarcophagus was door. The sepulchral chamber was urns and positioned at the bottom along with their grave decorations that positioned in a smaller space next to the larger circular located below the facade of the with ritual objects and grave goods. goods. The graves reproduced the room which was covered by a false dome. Access cube which had been dug out at the The ossuary was then closed with a were closed with houses of the living, to the tomb was via a dromos, which was either base of the monument. It also had helmet in the case of male tombs and pebbles, stone with numerous rooms open or covered. These tombs were used an atrium or an antechamber, which with a bowl in the case of female tombs. slabs and shingles. and furnishings. by the same aristocratic clans for generations. could be reached via a corridor.

MOUNDS CHESTS AEDICULES COLOMBARIUM WELLS CAPUCHIN HOOD (8th-6th CENTURY BC) (7th-5th (6th-5th (FROM THE 3rd (II-I SECOLO BC) (IMPERIAL ROMAN ERA) They consisted of a circular structure (the CENTURY BC) CENTURY BC) CENTURY BC) The structure was It shape was similar tambour), made from blocks of stone They consisted of Aedicules are small These consisted of small like that of a well and to that of the hood of a and surmounted by a dome which was heavy trunks (usually rectangular stone cells about 20 to 30 cm was up to 10 metres Capuchin monk. It consisted also made of stone. Inside a corridor made of tuff, a type houses with double for each side, in which the deep. The sepulchral of a cover made of shingles (dromos) led to the funeral chamber, of rock) featuring a roofs, and a single room ashes of the deceased were chamber was at the or stone slabs. These which faced east, where the body of the lid with two layers, that was usually open. placed, either in vases or bottom and could be were placed alongside deceased was placed on a stone bed which contained the They were fairly rare and urns, together with modest reached by notch-like the body and joined at and surrounded by the grave goods, in deceased and their had the appearance grave goods. This type of rungs or steps. the top, and then covered compartments to the side. At the end of grave goods. of small temples (this burial was used by the lower in earth. It was a modest the ritual, the dromos was sealed off with would explain their Latin social classes and dates form of burial, as is evident stones and earth in order to prevent the name, which derives back to the later Etruscan in the grave goods, which tomb from being desecrated. from aedes, “temple”). and Roman period. tended to be simple.

58 59 HOW THEY HONOURED THE DEAD completed their mourning, the body was animal (such as andirons and skewers). The ing and gymnastics. The presentation at fu- taining the ashes of the deceased (or else prepared for the funeral ritual. The cortege, remarkable thing about these objects is the neral feasts was simple and practical. There the body, along with the offerings: cereals, for which all the mourners wore black, fol- material from which they were made: lead. was a single “service” table (kylikeion) upon fruit, milk, wine, cheeses, focaccia bread, lowed the body to the pyre (or to the tomb, It is a pliable metal that melts at low tem- which vases were placed for pouring the vegetable soup) was placed in the sepul- in the case of burial). Cremation occurred peratures and could therefore not be used wine. All the diners had a small, low table chre, which was then sealed. Nine days at night on a resinous wooden pile, upon for the ritual. It is more likely that it was (trapeza) where they could put their food later, the ritual of the animal sacrifice and which incense and fragrances were thrown. specifically designed to accompany the de- and eat in comfort. Usually, the furnish- the feast was repeated. This time it was just A member of the family would light the fire ceased to the afterlife. ings used in the symposia included buc- for the relatives, who brought food that by throwing a torch to the back of the pile, In light of the iconography that has been chero jugs (oinochoe), chalices and goblets was associated with the world of the dead: so as to avoid being cursed by the deceased. found in older burial sites (prior to the 6th of various types, such as the kylikes, which grapes, lentels, beans and salt. At the end Once the fire had burnt out, the remain- century BC), it would seem that women were shallow and broad, and the kantharoi, of the dinner the sepulchre was officially ing bones would be carefully gathered and did not take part in the funeral feasts: they which featured two high vertical handles. declared inviolabile by the living. Anyone washed in either milk or wine. Once they never appear in the illustrative material. Yet Often these ceramics came from Greece who had been involved in the mourning were dried, they would be placed in the they do begin to take part in the ritual of and were finely decorated, and for this rea- process was readmitted to the communi- urn. At this point the remains were taken the symposium from about 500 BC. This son they were considered luxury items. ty at large, thereby ending the isolation to to the burial site, which was outside the involved the drinking of wine, music, danc- Once the banquet was over, the urn con- which they had been forcibly subjected. city walls. When the deceased’s relatives got there, a ritual sacrifice would take place (involving a sheep, goat, or even a pig): it THE SMELL OF INCENSE was believed that the animal’s warm blood would appease the souls of the dead, there- uring funeral rites the Etruscans Dused incense, which they burnt by enabling them to reach the afterlife. in special containers made of bronze, bucchero or pear wood (known as thy- OFF TO THE SYMPOSIUM miateria). Incense was also common in The flesh of the sacrificed animal was rituals in the Far East and Egypt, while then used for the funeral feast, in which there is evidence of libanomancy (the the soul of the deceased was believed to art of telling the future by observing the take part, and which also served the pur- spirals of smoke) in Etruscan civilisation. pose of purifying everyone present. In order to obtain this precious sub- The quality of the food and the number stance the Etruscans were obliged of guests at the feast enabled the deceased’s to import it: the essence, which was family to show off their social status. An extracted from plants which grew in Somalia and the Arabian peninsula, was Etruscan tomb dating back to the 6th cen- probably brought to Italy by Phoenician tury BC offers some interesting evidence. merchants. Incense was also used in FOR WORSHIP AND MORE Not only does it feature classic ceramic other types of feasts, and not just those A censer in bucchero pottery with pierced finds, there are also some of the utensils associated with funerals. That would decoration (7th century BC), from the cemetery used for the preparation of the feast, as well explain why in some cases it formed in Montereggi, near Florence. Used for rituals, as a set of objects including the point of a part of a woman’s grave goods, as it sometimes they also appear in women’s grave lance with its tip (sauroter), not to mention was related to domestic life. goods, being linked to the domestic sphere. items for killing and cooking the sacrifical

60 61 WHERE TO FIND THEM

In Southern Tuscany you can walk along the spectacular “Vie Cave” (Sunken Roads), which were dug out of the earth and are submerged in TRAVELLING WITH woods. Here you can almost hear the echoes of footsteps of over 2,000 years ago. In addition to the archaeological sites of cities that have disappe- ared, and the necropoleis, many of the locations THE ETRUSCANS are old towns and villages of Etruscan origin. It is a millennial stratification of lives and people, as well as historical and cultural events. CORTONA On the coast, on the other hand, further rem- nants of Etruscan life remind us of their commer- cial activity in this part of Tuscany. Thanks to f the 12 Etruscan city states, six of other places throughout the region. By following the mines on Elba and the “Colline Metallifere” them were located in Tuscany: Chiusi, the clues and signs that they left you can explore (Metal-bearing Hills), the Etruscans were able to O Vetulonia, Volterra, Cortona, Arezzo the land of the Etruscans in a fascinating jour- work with iron and bronze. They also exported the- and Fiesole. But, in addition to these important ney back in time. And in so doing you will realise se products, as is evident from the presence of por- urban centres, there is also a vast amount of evi- that this ancient people is in fact more contem- ts and other settlements near the sea. dence of the Etruscans and their culture in many porary than might at first appear to be the case. In addition to the iron and bronze master craft- smen, there were also goldsmiths and ceramic arti- FIESOLE VOLTERRA sts whose creativity, not to mention their eclectic and international nature, means that their work still seems contemporary after 2,000 years. And with FIESOLE this in mind, in many museums in Tuscany you can admire decorative and practical objects and imagine Etruscan women combing their hair and putting on their make-up prior to going out, or attending ban- quets and meeting their friends. You can also see VOLTERRA AREZZO the lamps, tables and other furniture that made the Etruscan home such a warm and welcoming place. CORTONA It was an extraordinarily natural environment, AREZZO with a marked emphasis on beauty, which was both inventive and creative. These were the “secrets” that CHIUSI enabled the Etruscans to create and produce, over the centuries, excellence, under the guidance of the idea of harmony. This started with the coun- tryside, and continued with masterpieces of art, as VETULONIA well as aromas and tastes that have survived the test of time, and which are still attractive to us today. Enjoy your journey, in search of the Etruscans! CHIUSI visittuscany.com VETULONIA

62 63 Progetto editoriale / Editorial project AN ANCIENT Sprea SpA - Cernusco sul Naviglio (Mi) - www.sprea.it Editing CIVILISATION Dumas srl - Milano Coordinamento editoriale / Editorial coordination Anna Lorenzini THAT SPEAKS Testi / Texts Elena Percivaldi e Mario Galloni, con Cristiana Barandoni TO OUR Traduzioni / Translation Mark Worden (English), Klaus Ruch (Deutsch) HEARTS Grafica e impaginazione / Graphics and pagination Madeinhellvetica di Massimo Volpi Crediti fotografici / Photo Credits Cover: © alessandromoggi.com; p. 1: © J. Colburn; pp. 4-5: © Janericloebe - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; p. 6: Creative Commons; p. 7: © Vvoevale - Bigstock.com; p. 8: © Sailko - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; p. 9-10: © Sailko -Wikimedia/Wikipedia; pp. 12-13: Creative Commons; p. 14: © A. Rendoll; p. 15: Wellcome Images; p. 17: © Museo archeologico nazionale di Firenze; p. 18-19: © Hampel Auctions; p. 20: B.J. Ponzone - Creative Commons; p. 21: © alessandromoggi.com; p. 23: © Patrick Denker - Flickr; p. 24-25: Historyca; p. 26: © Sailko - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; p. 26-27: Sailko - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; p. 28 (a): Creative Commons; (b): © Sailko - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; p. 29: G. Fonseca - Creative Commons; pp. 30-31: © Sailko - Wikimedia/ Wikipedia; p. 33: Creative Commons; p. 34: Sailko - Wikimedia/ Wikipedia; p. 35: Arno Wittel - Creative Commons; p. 36: E. Rossoni - Creative Commons; pp. 37-38: © Andy F. Gomez; pp. 40-41: © Carole Raddato; pp. 42-43: BEIC Foundation - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; pp. 44-45: © Nancy de Grummond; pp. 46-47: © Andy F. Gomez; p. 48: Creative Commons; p. 49 (a): Creative Commons; (b): © Sailko - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; pp. 50-51: © Andy F. Gomez; pp. 52-53: S. Monia - Pinterest.com; pp. 54-55: © Sailko - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; p. 56: Creative Commons; p. 57: Jastrow - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; p. 58 (a): © Sailko - Wikimedia/Wikipedia; (b): © Mike Helder; (c): Pinterest.com; (d) Pinterest.com; (e): © Giorgio Compagnone - Wikipedia/Wikimedia; p. 59 (a): Creative Commons; (b): © AlMare - Wikipedia/Wikimedia; (c): © Robin Iversen Rönnlund; (d): F.P. - Pinterest.com; (e) © H. Kohl; (f): © LukeWiller; p. 61: © Soprintendenza per i Beni archeologici della Toscana; p. 62: Geobia - Creative Commons, Wikimedia/Wikipedia; p. 63: Elgaard - Wikimedia/Wikipedia, Carole Raddato - Creative Commons, © Musei Statali di Arezzo, Gabriele Delhey - Creative Commons. © 2018 Toscana Promozione Turistica realizzato nell’ambito del progetto di eccellenza In-Etruria GAZING TOWARDS MODER- NITY The bronze head of a young male (from the late 4th century BC) at the National Archaeological Museum in Florence.

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