VOL. 101 | NO. 11 Did Ancient Mayan NOV–DEC 2020 Foresee Meteor Showers?

ReimaginingLegacy of thethe 1992 Nicaragua Tsunami

GeosciencesA Grand Tour How? Adaptableof Ocean models Basins can light our way

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FROM THE EDITOR

Editor in Chief Heather Goss, AGU, Washington, D.C., USA; [email protected] AGU Staff Shaping the Future of Science Vice President, Communications, Amy Storey Marketing,and Media Relations

very community around the world has weathered Editorial Manager, News and Features Editor Caryl-Sue Micalizio extreme changes this year. The geosciences are no Science Editor Timothy Oleson different. As the AGU community gathers for its first News and Features Writer Kimberly M. S. Cartier E Jenessa Duncombe ­all-online​­ Fall Meeting (#AGU20) this December, we offer News and Features Writer you this special double issue of Eos as an introduction and, Production & Design we hope, inspiration. Eos science advisers Lisa White Manager, Production and Operations Faith A. Ishii (Diversity and Inclusion) and Eric Riggs (Education) worked Production and Analytics Specialist Anaise Aristide with us to design an issue that embraced the #AGU20 Assistant Director, Design & Branding Beth Bagley theme: Shaping the Future of Science. Senior Graphic Designer Valerie Friedman Graphic Designer J. Henry Pereira “This issue highlights novel diversity, equity, and inclu- sion practices, direct recommendations from underrepre- Marketing sented scholars, and creative strategies—many rooted in Communications Specialist Maria Muekalia Assistant Director, Marketing & Advertising Liz Zipse activism—that have the potential to shift long-held, his- torically exclusive traditions in Earth science,” said White, director of education at the Advertising University of California Museum of Paleontology in Berkeley. Display Advertising Steve West, steve Our slate of expert Opinions are primers for implementing this kind of progress. You’ll @mediawestinc.com Recruitment Advertising recruitmentsales find incisive recommendations for adapting fieldwork to draw in—and keep safe—Black, @wiley.com Indigenous, and People of Color (page 30) and LGBTQ+ scholars (page 22); stories from Science Advisers scientists juggling parenthood and careers and a global pandemic (page 27); and how to Geomagnetism, Paleomagnetism, Julie Bowles develop resourceful STEM learning ecosystems in your own community (page 24). and Electromagnetism In our feature articles, we look at institutions that are already accelerating ahead. Who Space Physics and Aeronomy Christina M. S. Cohen Cryosphere Ellyn Enderlin better to show us how to mentor students from a distance than a seafaring organization? Study of the Earth’s Deep Interior Edward J. Garnero Learn from STEMSEAS’ experience on page 32. Then read about a community ­college–​ Geodesy Brian C. Gunter ­university partnership that is drawing students to the geosciences—and retaining them— History of Geophysics Kristine C. Harper on page 51. It’s not a model that can be airlifted onto every institution, but it offers import- Planetary Sciences Sarah M. Hörst Natural Hazards Michelle Hummel ant lessons on intentional design that many educators are focused on right now. Volcanology, Geochemistry, and Petrology Emily R. Johnson “I have seen the geoscience community look inward to see how systemic racism and Societal Impacts and Policy Sciences Christine Kirchhoff gendered behavior may be embedded in our current practices as educators,” said Riggs, a Seismology Keith D. Koper Tectonophysics Jian Lin professor of geoscience education at Texas A&M University. “Department leaders need to Near-Surface Geophysics Juan Lorenzo meet with students at all levels, as well as with faculty, to find out where people are thriv- Earth and Space Science Informatics Kirk Martinez ing, and where they are not. Without sincere information gathering and introspection, we Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology Figen Mekik Mineral and Rock Physics Sébastien Merkel risk changing everything too fast or, worse, changing the things that are working.” Ocean Sciences Jerry L. Miller We also report on what the practice of science should look like in a world where respect Global Environmental Change Hansi Singh and empathy for one another are paramount. Julie Maldonado and colleagues reframe the Education Eric M. Riggs Hydrology Kerstin Stahl issue of managed retreat so that communities can retain agency when they are forced to Tectonophysics Carol A. Stein relocate due to climate change (page 38). We also look at where geoscientists aren’t. More Atmospheric Sciences Mika Tosca than 2 million people are incarcerated in the United States in facilities that are often delib- Nonlinear Geophysics Adrian Tuck Biogeosciences Merritt Turetsky erately placed in polluted areas or are ­ill-equipped​­ to deal with climate change. On page 56, Hydrology Adam S. Ward read about this environmental justice movement and how geoscientists can be a part of it. Diversity and Inclusion Lisa D. White “This special issue offers a road map of where we might go from here,” said White. The Earth and Planetary Surface Processes Andrew C. Wilcox scientists and institutional models featured in this issue are remarkable examples for those Atmospheric and Space Electricity Yoav Yair GeoHealth Ben Zaitchik who support AGU’s vision of a thriving, sustainable, and equitable future supported by scientific discovery, innovation, and action. We should remember, said Riggs, “that efforts ©2020. AGU. All Rights Reserved. Material in this issue may be photocopied by to help lower barriers and enhance the access and success for communities facing the individual scientists for research or classroom use. Permission is also granted to use short quotes, figures, and tables for publication in scientific books and greatest challenges will improve the environment for all communities.” journals. For permission for any other uses, contact the AGU Publications Office. Illustrator Carlos Basabe was thinking about the future—in particular, his daughters’ Eos (ISSN 0096-3941) is published monthly by AGU, 2000 Florida Ave., NW, future—when he designed our wonderful cover. We hope his artwork and the reporting in Washington, DC 20009, USA. Periodical Class postage paid at Washington, D.C., and at additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Member this special issue offer you motivation for the unique role you’ll play in creating the best Service Center, 2000 Florida Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20009, USA possible future. As White reminds us, “The responsibility to advance diversity, equity, and Member Service Center: 8:00 a.m.–6:00 p.m. Eastern time; Tel: +1-202-462-6900; Fax: +1-202-328-0566; Tel. orders in U.S.: 1-800-966-2481; [email protected]. inclusion in the geosciences truly lies in all of us.” Submit your article proposal or suggest a news story to Eos at bit.ly/Eos-proposal. Read the rest of our special issue on Shaping the Future of Science at eos​.­org/​­special​ Views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect official positions -­topics​#­future. of AGU unless expressly stated. Randy Fiser, Executive Director/CEO

Heather Goss, Editor in Chief

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 1 CONTENT

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Features

32 Mentorship at a Distance By Richard J. Sima On the Cover How to build close professional relationships when a “Working on this cover forced me to be mindful of the rays pandemic forces you apart. of light peeking through the darkness. Seeing the energy of young people, using every civic tool at their disposal to fight for their future, has given me hope that our kids will have the 38 Reframing the Language strength to rise to the challenges of the world they inherit of Retreat from us,” said Carlos Basabe, who created the cover of this special issue of Eos. Basabe, born and raised in Cuba, is an By Julie Maldonado et al. editorial and portrait illustrator currently living in Maryland. As waters rise, who gets a say in relocation planning See his work at foursixsix.com. is crucial.

44 A Lost Haven for Early Modern Humans By Kerstin Braun

Archaeology and geology reveal a 200,000-year-old story in South Africa.

2 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 CONTENT

Columns

1 From the Editor 4 News 22 Opinion Surveying the Challenges of Fieldwork for LGBTQ+ Geoscientists 51 STEM Learning Ecosystems Engage Communities in the Geosciences Perspectives on Parenting While Researching (During a Pandemic) Ten Steps to Protect BIPOC Scholars in the Field 70 Research Spotlight 76 Editors’ Highlights 78 Positions Available Current job openings in the Earth and space 56 sciences Features 79 Crossword Puzzle 51 The Two-Year On-ramp 80 Postcards from the Field By Jenessa Duncombe At the annual Girls’ Science Day camp in Malawi, participants learn how to overcome a lack of piped Tapping into the overlooked pipeline water with a low-cost hand-washing station. of community colleges.

56 An Unfought Geoscience Battle in U.S. Prisons By Kimberly M. S. Cartier

Environmental justice is the next frontier for geoscientists.

64 Exploring by Boring By Teresa Jordan et al.

A university digs down for heat.

AmericanGeophysicalUnion @AGU_Eos company/american-geophysical-union AGUvideos americangeophysicalunion americangeophysicalunion

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Have We Got Dust All Wrong?

unraveling the great dust particle alignment mystery. “Our first measurements point to a ver- tical alignment of dust particles,” said Alex- andra Tsekeri, an environmental engineer and member of the ReACT team. Tsekeri, along with scientists from Raymetrics (a Greek company specializing in systems used in atmospheric, meteorological, and air pol- lution applications) and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, has designed and con- structed lidar systems to monitor particle orientation in the atmosphere. “We will have definitive results in about a year from now, when our systems will be put to test in Cape Verde in an experiment that would have taken place this summer had COVID not shut down everything,” said Tsekeri. Meanwhile, she and the rest of the team are putting the final touches on their lidar systems, which they call ­WALL-E and EVE after the robotic couple in the 2008 movie ­WALL·E.

This 3-meter­ astronomical dome with ­Sun-​­tracking capabilities hosts the solar polarimeter (SolPol) instrument The Devil in the Details of the Panhellenic Geophysical Observatory of Antikythera (PANGEA). Credit: Stav Dimitropoulos But what’s all the fuss about the orientation of dust particles? “Probably everything we’ve so far hypothesized about the impact of dust on he “Godzilla” Saharan dust plume dom and Macquarie University in Australia the atmosphere might be misplaced,” said that clouded over parts of the United used optical polarimetry observations Ami­ridis. TStates in June generated a lot of talk during a Saharan dust episode and found For a start, dust may be accelerating the and a lot of magnificent sunsets. Dust is an evidence of vertically aligned dust particles greenhouse effect instead of cooling the intriguing type of matter, vital for the for- in the atmosphere. planet. A vertical particle orientation may mation of clouds and precipitation. We also Amiridis recently received a European create a type of “Venetian blind” effect, know that if enough dust gathers in the Research Council consolidator grant to allowing more radiation to sneak through atmosphere, it can block solar radiation. But the atmosphere—as much as 10%–​­20% what if some of these ­dust-related​­ assump- more radiation in dust episodes like God­ tions were slightly dusty—or completely zilla, said Amiridis. wrong? In addition, whether dust particles are Members of the Remote Sensing of Aero- “Probably everything randomly or vertically aligned might be of sols, Clouds and Trace Gases (ReACT) team we’ve so far hypothesized paramount importance for satellite obser- are trying to find out. The team, a group of vations: “Remote sensing retrievals are atmospheric and climate scientists operat- about the impact of dust affected by the assumption of particle shape ing under the umbrella of the National on the atmosphere might and orientation,” said Amiridis. Some of the Observatory of Athens (NOA), said the main satellite observations we get over a given reason for this “dust misconstruction” may be misplaced.” area during dust storms may not be entirely be that we have failed to grasp the correct accurate. dust particle orientation in the first place. “A vertical dust orientation is certainly a “Dust particles might be vertically possibility,” said Stephen Holler, a physicist aligned,” said Vassilis Amiridis, a climate at Fordham University who is not a part of scientist and team leader of ReACT, as well spearhead the development of the Panhel- the ReACT project. He said there are many as director of research at NOA. Amiridis lenic Geophysical Observatory of Anti­ uncertainties in terms of the effect of aero- is resuming what a research project in kythera (PANGEA). As part of the project, sols on climate. La Palma, Canary Islands, proposed in 2007. Antikythera, a tiny island situated between Holler explained that most of his col- In that instance, researchers from the Uni- the Peloponnese and Crete, will be outfit- leagues do calculations on the basis of ori- versity of Hertfordshire in the United King- ted with ­avant-​­garde equipment to start entational averaging: “Because we don’t

4 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 NEWS

Kabuki Actor’s Manuscript Yields Clues About 1855 Quake in Japan

n 1855, a powerful earthquake struck the woodblock prints of the day that depict a Japanese city of Edo (today’s Tokyo), kill- giant underground catfish (Namazu) that Iing thousands. The region sits atop mul- was believed to have caused earthquakes tiple tectonic plates that have caused innu- when it thrashed about. merable quakes over the centuries, and because the greater metropolitan area is The Forgotten Manuscript now home to more than 30 million people, ­Fast-forward​­ to 2020, and researchers at the it’s critical to mitigate the threat. Japanese University of Tokyo have found another way scientists have been examining historical to use art to scientifically evaluate the 1855 records to better understand past quakes calamity. Scientists analyzed a manuscript and have found that the autobiography of a written by Kabuki actor Nakamura Nakazo III Kabuki actor can shed light on the 1855 tem- to infer the depth of the earthquake. In a blor. poster presented at a joint conference of the Japan Geoscience Union and AGU ( ­JpGU-​ A Time of Turmoil ­AGU Joint Meeting 2020) in July, they noted PANGEA scientists stand with EVE, one of their The 1855 Ansei Edo quake, named for the that later editions of the manuscript had lidar instruments in Antikythera, Greece. Credit: Ansei imperial era of 1854–1860, came at a already been the basis for varying estimates NOA and Raymetrics time of upheaval in Japan, both literally and of the quake’s hypocenter from relatively figuratively. There were three great Ansei shallow in the crust to deep in the Philippine earthquakes: the Tokai and Nankai quakes, Sea plate (­bit​.­ly/​­earthquake​-­poster). How- both in 1854 and both magnitude 8.4, and ever, when the team analyzed Nakamura’s know the orientation of particles in space, the Edo quake the following year, magni- original handwritten manuscript of the we’ll just average over all orientations.” tude 7.0. Meanwhile, Japanese society was autobiographical work Temae Miso (­Self-​ Most also think particles in the atmosphere facing its greatest challenge in centuries. ­Praise), recently acquired by Tokyo’s behave much in the same way particles in Having been under the hegemony of the National Diet Library, it found a significant liquids behave. “Much as particles in liquids Tokugawa shogunate, which implemented a difference compared with later editions (bit­ ​ tumble around and move all over the place, policy of national seclusion for over 230 .­ly/​­quake­-­hypocenter). we expect particles in the atmosphere to years, Japan was finally forced to open its “A strong rumble occurred,” Nakamura tumble all over the place likewise.” doors to ships and trade by American gun- wrote. “The women and children were sur- boat diplomacy in 1854. prised and screamed. I said, ‘Calm down, it’s When Edo was hit on 11 November 1855, a big earthquake.’ Omitu Bando said to me, as many as 10,000 people lost their lives, ‘You should stand up rather than sit.’ I stood and over 50,000 structures were destroyed up. Then the strong shaking started, and I “We have had a clear big by the temblor and in subsequent fires. could not walk normally.” Instead of the picture on climate change Some of the devastation can be seen in first sentence, one later edition read, “a for years, but as they say, the devil is in the details.”

Holler is optimistic that the Greek scien- tists will help the scientific community bet- ter understand aerosol dynamics and its influence on radiative forcing. “The work of the ReACT team will reduce some of the uncertainties that are associated with the effects of airborne particles,” Holler said. “We have had a clear big picture on climate change for years, but as they say, the devil is in the details.”

As many as 10,000 people lost their lives in the 1855 Edo earthquake, depicted here in the Edo Oojishin no zu By Stav Dimitropoulos, Science Writer picture scroll. Credit: Historiographical Institute, University of Tokyo

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 5 NEWS

involved in the research, believes the poster conclusions agree with other find- ings. “Seismologists have debated [the quake’s depth] for more than a century,” said Ells- worth. “The plates colliding beneath Tokyo provide a wide range of possibilities, both deep and shallow. The recent paper by Nakamura et al.…makes clever use of reports of the shaking to argue for a rela- tively shallow depth. Their work supports the conclusion of William Bakun, who used other historical accounts of the earthquake shaking to determine its magnitude, loca- tion, and depth.” The poster is part of a greater interdisci- plinary effort at the University of Tokyo. Seismologists teamed up with historians from the Historiographical Institute in an effort called the Collaborative Research Organization for Historical Materials on Courtesans from Edo’s Yoshiwara pleasure district attack a mythical giant catfish, which was believed to have Earthquakes and Volcanoes. Inaugurated caused earthquakes, in this 1855 woodblock print. Credit: Earthquake Research Institute Library of the Univer- years after the catastrophic magnitude 9 sity of Tokyo Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011, its aim is to improve seismic understanding by compiling a long-­ ​­term database of events based on historical materials. That means strong upward movement came from the alties, according to poster coauthor Kenji analyzing obscure records like Nakamura’s ground,” and where the writer describes Satake, director of the University of Tokyo’s manuscript, written in a highly cursive hand standing, the later edition reads, “I stood Earthquake Research Institute. “Since the that only experts can decipher. up and walked. Then the strong shaking typical recurrence interval of large earth- “Different kinds of materials provide started….” quakes is several decades to centuries,” ­different kinds of information on earth- Researchers concluded that because the Satake added, “we have to use other meth- quakes,” said poster coauthor Reiko Sugi- shaking began when Nakamura stood up ods and data to study such large earth- mori, an associate professor in the His­ instead of after he began walking, there was quakes in the past and the potential for the toriographical Institute and the only team a relatively short period between the arrival future.” member who was able to read the Kabuki of different seismic waves from the quake— actor’s manuscript. “Earthquake casualties in this case, the rumble and the shaking. or damage in each village were summarized Longitudinal, or P, waves are fastest and as reports, which are useful to estimate the correspond to the rumble described by “Seismologists have distribution of seismic intensity, from Nakamura. Transverse, or S, waves travel at which earthquake location and size can be about half the speed and correspond to the debated [the quake’s estimated. On the other hand, daily records shaking. Just as the distance to a thunder- or personal diaries, written by the same storm can be estimated by the lag between depth] for more than person in the same location, can provide a lightning flash and the sound of thunder, a century. homogeneous daily records of seismicity, the ­S–P interval can suggest the distance to including foreshocks or aftershocks. Pic- an earthquake’s epicenter. tures are also useful because they provide The team concluded that the 1855 quake visual records of earthquake damage.” had an ­S–P time of ­5–10 seconds and, Researchers plan to continue adding because of the thick sedimentary layers of “Ground shaking and earthquake damage details from historical materials to their the Kanto region surrounding Tokyo, a rel- are larger for shorter hypocentral distances,” historical seismic event database, and their atively shallow depth of about 20 kilome- said coauthor Ryoichi Nakamura, another work highlights the importance of ­long-​ ters, which would place the rupture in the member of the institute. “Because the 1855 ­term seismic knowledge. Seismological subducting Philippine Sea plate. Many earthquake occurred right beneath Tokyo, Research Letters also published a focus sec- researchers have estimated the depth at the depth strongly affects ground shaking tion coauthored by Satake on historical over 30 kilometers. and damage.” seismology in September (­bit​.­ly/​­focus​ Such details are critical because the Jap- -­section). anese government believes there’s a 70% Interdisciplinary Teamwork chance of another ­1855-​­type quake in the William Ellsworth, a professor of geophys- next 30 years with as many as 23,000 casu- ics at Stanford University who was not By Tim Hornyak (@robotopia), Science Writer

6 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 NEWS

Scientists Support Local Activities to Rescue the Mesoamerican Reef

arlier this year, Healthy Reefs for Healthy People published its sixth Ereport card on the status of the Meso- american Reef system (bit­ .​ ­ly/healthy​­ -reefs).​ After an analysis of 286 sites in Belize, Gua- temala, Honduras, and Mexico, the report concluded that the health of the system is poor, with an index of 2.5 out of 5. This con- clusion was based on the status of the reef’s coral and fleshy macroalgal cover, as well as the biomass of herbivorous fish and com- mercial fisheries in the region. “There is poor fishing regulation in all four countries,” said Ian Drysdale, coordi- nator of Healthy Reefs for Healthy People in Honduras. “The decline in coral health that we experience is due to fishing, both indus- trial and artisanal.” On top of overfishing, the Mesoamerican Reef suffers from coral bleaching events, in which corals expel the algae that provide most of their food and characteristic color. Cayos Cochinos, Honduras, is part of the Mesoamerican Reef, which was recently given a poor score in eco- Stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD), also system health. Credit: Ian Drysdale known as white syndrome, also plagues the reef. White syndrome is a condition that weakens the coral tissues, causing their death. which is enhanced by poor water quality. parrotfish to its national registry of pro- In the region of the Mesoamerican Reef “Some banks, south of [the Mexican state tected species. In February, Guatemala did near the Yucatan Peninsula, SCTLD has of] Quintana Roo, still did not show signs of the same and also included the butterflyfish, caused the death of up to 98% of some coral disease, perhaps because of their remote- angelfish, and surgeonfish. These herbivo- species. “When we approach the loss of 90% ness from the coast. This reinforces the rous fish consume macroalgae, which com- to 98% of the individuals of a particular spe- hypothesis of the relationship of wastewater pete with corals for the reefs. Protecting the cies, we could well speak of the definitive and pollution from the coast to the sea with fish encourages corals to thrive. disappearance of this species,” said Nallely the disease,” Hernandez added. Hernandez supports ­community-​ Hernandez, regional deputy director of the ­oriented approaches and reduced consump- National Commission of Natural Protected tion. “The solutions rest in the way we all Areas (CONANP) and cocreator of the “White behave in our everyday routines,” he said. Syndrome Action Plan in the Caribbean In the region of the “We need to make adjustments throughout Reefs of Mexico.” the system, in order to understand the pos- In 2019, the National Autonomous Uni­ Mesoamerican Reef, itive impact that we can generate with versity of Mexico and Florida State Univer- changes in our consumption habits.” sity partnered with CONANP to carry out an stony coral tissue loss Drysdale, however, said that overfishing experiment to understand the behavior of disease has caused limits the efficacy of both federal protec- SCTLD. Although coral bleaching spreads tions and individual consumption habits. systematically because of warming waters, the death of up to 98% “We are not just fishing efficiently, but we white syndrome spreads without a specific of some coral species. are also destroying critical habitats, such as pattern. “At first, [the disease] behaved radi- mangroves and seagrasses,” he said. ally, on the edges of the colony. But later, “Unfortunately, the fishing industry has we realized that it could appear in isolated a lot of political and economic power, and its points, without warning, or, in some cases, interference makes it difficult for us to work everywhere in the colony,” Hernandez said. Water Treatment and Community to protect our marine ecosystems,” Drysdale Besides documenting this erratic behav- Involvement said. ior, the results of the experiment have been Local and federal government agencies are inconclusive. Scientists suspect that the taking action to protect the Mesoamerican cause of SCTLD may be a virus or bacteria, Reef. In 2018, Mexico added 10 species of By Jorge Rodriguez, Science Writer

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 7 NEWS

Decrease in Lightning Recorded over the Continental United States

ightning research is a burgeoning field why this down- that spans not only meteorology and turn occurred and Latmospheric science but also public whether it’s a rare policy and personal safety. As in all scientific phenomenon, he fields, however, mysteries sometimes arise: said. “What we’re In May and June of this year, a network of lacking right now lightning detectors recorded distinctly lower is some context.” than average lightning counts across the continental United States. The cause of this A Ridge downturn isn’t well understood, but a ridge of High Pressure of high pressure in the atmosphere might Vagasky and his have played a role, researchers suggest. It’s colleagues have also possible that the decline is linked to some ideas. Using decreased levels of pollution associated with data from the Na- the ongoing COVID-19­ pandemic, other sci- tional Centers for entists propose. Environmental Prediction, they A Midyear Checkup measured a ridge Meteorologist Chris Vagasky and his col- of high pressure Lightning flashes over El Paso, Texas. Credit: ­iStock​.­com/​­mdesigner125 leagues mined data from the National Light- over the Southern ning Detection Network (NLDN), which uses Plains, eastern roughly 120 sensors to monitor lightning Colorado, and the over the continental United States. (Vagas- Gulf Coast region in May and June. Vagasky’s findings, Holzworth acknowl- ky’s employer, Vaisala, runs the NLDN.) The “We saw that there was an anomalously edged. researchers compiled data from January strong area of high pressure over the main through July 2020 to take a midyear look at region where you’d get severe weather,” A Potential Virus Link lightning statistics. said Vagasky. This high pressure would have The idea that a localized region might have “We’ve passed the peak of lightning sig- prevented air from rising, a necessary ingre- experienced a decrease in lightning in the nals in the United States, so we wanted to dient for a thunderstorm. (Upward move- spring of 2020 isn’t completely out of the see where we were at this year compared to ment allows air to cool and condense into blue, said Holzworth. Researchers have previous years,” said Vagasky. clouds, which is where supercooled water, speculated that the COVID-19­ pandemic The scientists found significantly lower ice crystals, and graupel collide and transfer might have inadvertently triggered a down- than average lightning counts in May and electrons. That sets up the charge separation turn in lightning, he said. That’s because June. During those months, the NLDN necessary for lightning.) with the economy on hold, there’s less air recorded just over 51 million instances of So far, other lightning networks haven’t pollution and therefore likely fewer aero- in-cloud and cloud-to-ground lightning. reported similar results. Robert Holzworth, sols. The presence of aerosols has been That’s a 32% decrease compared with the an atmospheric and space physicist at the linked to enhanced lightning activity, at roughly 76 million lightning events recorded University of Washington and the director least over the ocean. on average for May and June from 2015 to of the World Wide Lightning Location Net- Vagasky and his colleagues are continu- 2019. That difference is far more than the work (WWLLN), analyzed unpublished ing to collect data, and they’ve seen that the expected interannual variability, which is on WWLLN data and found a statistically insig- lightning counts for July and August have the order of 5%–10%, said Vagasky. “We nificant decrease in lightning counts world- been closer to average. They hope to have were kind of surprised.” wide in 2020 compared with the year prior more answers by the end of the year. “We’ll These results appeared in a blog post that (see ­bit​.­ly/​­world​-­wide​-­lightning). prepare our annual lightning report in Vagasky published last month (­bit​.ly/­ ​ “The overall decrease in 2020 compared December,” said Vagasky. “We’ll be able to ­Vagasky​-­lightning). “It’s an intriguing to 2019 is just 0.4%, or an order of magnitude compare to a much broader data set in the finding,” said Joel Thornton, an atmo- smaller than the expected daily variation,” coming months.” spheric scientist at the University of Wash- he said. However, it’d be worth analyzing ington who was not involved in the WWLLN data just over the continental United research. But it’s still not well understood States to make a direct comparison with By Katherine Kornei (@KatherineKornei), Science­ Writer

Eos thanks Robert Holzworth, who generously u Read our May 2020 special issue on lightning: ­bit.ly/​­Eos​-­lightning provided the analysis of unpublished WWLLN data.

8 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 NEWS

Leaded Soil Endangers Residents of New York City Neighborhoods

“Condemned to Being Lead Poisoned” Lead in soil comes mostly from legacy uses in paint, industry, or transportation. Between 1926 and 1985, motorists burned 7 million tons of tetraethyl lead in gasoline. Although leaded gasoline has been nearly phased out, the lead persists today, having stuck to vertical surfaces such as build- ings and trees and then been washed into the soil. During dry summer months, wind and construction activity resuspend ­­lead-​­​­​ ­containing soil in the air as dust. Lead levels in the blood of children living nearby rise during these months and fall again each winter. “People think if there is lead in the soil, the kid has to go to the park and ingest it somehow, but you don’t even have to use Long Island City, above, has seen a population growth of more than 20% over the past decade, and soil sam- that park or outdoor space—that lead gets ples from local parks range from 26 to 6,300 milligrams of lead per kilogram of soil. Credit: iStock.com/​ ­ into the air and then it’s inhaled,” Pavilonis Auseklis said. “Lead paint has certainly been a horren- dous problem,” said Howard Mielke of Tulane University, who was not involved in ity parks can be a haven for home- of soil. “We confirmed our initial hypothe- the new study. “But the immediate lead in bound residents looking to escape sis, that [lead] levels in these areas would be the atmosphere has been the source that has Cthe quarantine blues this year, but very, very high,” Pavilonis said, “but I was really just condemned us to being lead poi- these play areas offer another kind of haz- surprised to see samples in the thousands of soned.” ard. A new study describes dangerously high milligrams, especially in a park.” The median lead concentration in soil, levels of lead in the soil of several parks in The study was published in the Interna- according to a 2013 U.S. Geological Survey New York City. Researchers found that lead tional Journal of Hygiene and Environmental report describing 4,841 soil samples from levels are highest in areas undergoing rapid Health (bit​.ly/­NY​-­lead). nonurban locations in the United States, was growth and redevelopment. “We have over 36,000 people moving into these areas—and lead contamination in the soil,” said study coauthor Brian Pavilonis, a professor at the Graduate School of Public Health and Health Policy at the City Univer- sity of New York (CUNY). “That’s a lot of people who could all be exposed.” Pavilonis and his colleagues at CUNY and Brooklyn College analyzed hundreds of samples from 34 parks in six different geo- graphic areas throughout the city. Many of the results far exceeded the Environmental Protection Agency’s soil cleanup value of 400 milligrams of lead per kilogram of soil. In Long Island City, for example, aban- doned factories and parking lots have given way to glittering apartment towers with waterfront views and short commutes to Manhattan. The population has grown by This map shows the approximate locations of the six geographic areas examined by the study, along with the more than 20% in the past 10 years. Soil median lead level observed (red numbers indicate a concentration above the EPA’s soil cleanup value of 400 samples from parks in the area ranged from milligrams of lead per kilogram of soil), recent population growth, and the proportion of new construction. 26 to 6,300 milligrams of lead per kilogram Credit: Matthew Stonecash, adapted from Copernicus ­Sentinel​-­2, ESA; CC ­­BY​-­SA 3.0 I­GO (­bit​.­ly/​­ccbysaigo3-0)

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 9 NEWS

only 18 milligrams of lead per kilogram of soil. This figure led some experts to suggest Severe Cyclones​ May Have Played that the EPA cleanup value (400) is far too high. Among them is Mielke, who said that a Role in the Maya Collapse in areas where children have low levels of lead in their blood, lead levels in the soil are below 40 milligrams of lead per kilogram of soil. According to the Centers for Disease Con- trol and Prevention (CDC), there is no safe level of lead in the bloodstream. The disas- trous effects of lead on brain development in children are the most alarming and well known, but the CDC’s toxicological profile for lead describes health effects on every organ system. Research by Mielke and others suggests that combating these effects may be as sim- ple as covering contaminated soil with clean soil and grass. Toward this aim, New York City’s Office of Environmental Remediation established the PUREsoil NYC program in 2018. Using soil excavated from deep under- ground at construction sites, the program Sediments recovered from the Great Blue Hole (seen here), off the coast of Belize, hint at extremely severe distributes free, clean soil to community storms during the late Classic period in Maya history. Credit: iStock​.com/­Mlenny organizations for use in gardens and other open spaces. Meanwhile, Pavilonis plans to continue exploring how soils differ from neighbor- hy the once great Maya civiliza- Historical or instrumental records of hur- hood to neighborhood. Researchers are now tion withered away is still a mat- ricanes and tropical storms go back only a collecting samples from all of the parks in W ter of debate among historians, little more than a century. To peer further Brooklyn for use in an ecological study of the archaeologists, and geoscientists. The lead- back in time, scientists often decipher tell- relationship between lead in the soil and ing theory is that the Maya suffered a series tale signatures left in sand and mud depos- of severe droughts around ­800–​­1100. New ited by ancient storms. evidence suggests there may have been One source for finding undisturbed sedi- another reason: severe tropical storms. ments is blue holes, marine sinkholes into Researchers studying climate records in which sediments are continually deposited. According to the Centers the Caribbean found that storm activity was Generally, the sediments in deposition for Disease Control and weak and predictable up to about 900. At ­layers are smooth. But when a large storm that point, storms became more intense and passes by, it rakes up and deposits coarse Prevention (CDC), there is unpredictable. The stress of dealing with the particles. Because of the structure of a blue no safe level of lead in the highly variable and intense storms, in addi- hole, material can be deposited but cannot tion to battling drought, may have pushed get out, allowing the feature to act as a ­near-​ bloodstream. the Maya over the edge, according to ­perfect record of ancient storms. research published in Scientific Reports( ­bit​ Sediment cores from blue holes like those .­ly/­Maya​-­storms). near Great Abaco Island and Thatch Point (both in the Bahamas) have already provided blood lead levels of children living in the Reconstructing ​ Past Climate records of hurricanes in the Caribbean going area. “We’re much more concerned with the Atlantic hurricane activity, which includes back about 1,500 years. effects on children,” Pavilonis said. “The the Caribbean, and how it varies over the Now Dominik Schmitt of Goethe Univer- problem with lead is, once it impacts the long term are often attributed to the behav- sity in Frankfurt, Germany, and colleagues developing brain, that’s permanent.” ior of ocean and atmospheric systems like have reconstructed past storms in the region the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) going back 2,000 years. The researchers and the El ­Niño–​­Southern Oscillation recovered and studied an 8.­5-​­meter-​­long By Matthew Stonecash (@mattstonecash), (ENSO). “But without ­long-​­term observa- sediment core from the Great Blue Hole on Science Writer tions of storm behavior, it’s hard to speak to Lighthouse Reef off the coast of Belize. these relationships conclusively,” said Rich- Upon analyzing the results, Schmitt’s This piece was produced with support from the ard Sullivan, who studies paleoclimatology team found evidence of the AMO going back National Association of Science Writers’ David at Texas A&M University at Galveston and to 300. According to Schmitt, this provides Perlman Virtual Mentoring Program. was not part of the new study. statistical proof that the AMO, along with

10 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 NEWS

ENSO, modulates hurricane activity in the predictable Carib- structure, caused coastal flooding and crop southwestern Caribbean. bean cyclones. The failures, and added to the environmen- Great Blue Hole tal stress of the intensive drought phases. When the Weather Changed sediment core The increased storm activity around 900 The sediments also revealed something else. showed five ex­ is similar to what Sullivan found in his study “The tropical cyclone activity of the south- ceptionally thick of sediment cores from a sinkhole south western Caribbean generally shifted from layers— 15–30 of Tulum, Mexico, near the Maya site of a less active to a more active state,” said centimeters—de- Muyil (bit­ ​.ly/­ ​­Yucatan​-hurricanes).­ Still, Schmitt. The shift, around 900 CE, occurred posited between he is cautious in interpreting the results, right around the time when the Maya civili- 700 and 1150. saying they do not necessarily mean that zation was in decline. These layers sug- an increase in storm frequency defi- The Classic Maya civilization, which once gest extremely in- nitely contributed to the Classic Maya col- occupied most of the Yucatán Peninsula, tense cyclones; for lapse. began to wane starting in the late 800s. comparison, the However, “it’s not hard to imagine that During the next century, great Maya cities deposition layer Deposits line the 8.­5-​ a culture contending with severe drought like Copán (in what is now Honduras) and left by Hurricane ­meter-​­long sediment and already in decline would have been Tikal (in what is now Guatemala) were aban- Hattie, a Category 5 core recovered by stressed further by persistent, devastating doned. hur­ricane that researchers from the storms,” Sullivan added. “It is certainly Climate change is thought to have been a passed over the Great Blue Hole off possible that increasing hurricane frequency primary driver of this collapse. The leading same area in 1961, Belize. Credit: factored in to the collapse of the Mayan theory suggests that a series of severe and was just 4 centi- Dominik Schmitt empire, but the extent of that contribution prolonged droughts plagued the Yucatán meters thick. is something we may never know conclu- Peninsula, which may have reduced the Two of the an- sively.” availability of fresh water and decreased cient cyclones struck during drought peri- agricultural productivity. ods, and the others­ struck just before and In addition to drought, the Maya may have after severe droughts. It’s likely these By Lakshmi Supriya (rlsupriya@­ ​­gmail​.com),­ had to contend with increased and more un- ­cyclone landfalls­ destroyed Maya infra­ Science Writer Read it first on Articles are published on Eos.org before they appear in the magazine. Visit Eos.org daily for the latest news and perspectives.

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SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 11 NEWS

Using Dirt to Clean Up Construction

oncrete ranks as the most popular That idea came from both nature and his- construction material in the world. tory. In nature, termites make impressive CBut its key ingredient, cement, is use of soil, building intricate and durable responsible for 8% of global carbon dioxide mounds. “That was one of our motivations, emissions each year. Scientists want to and the second one was ancient times,” said replace concrete with a more environmen- Bajpayee. “In ancient Rome and India, there tally friendly material, and one candidate is are a lot of places [where people used] soil.” soil. In one of the most recent iterations of The difference between ancient earthen these efforts, the Banerjee Research Group structures and a ­soil-​­based concrete alter- at Texas A&M University has created a tool native is that in ancient times, the main kit for using local soil to make construction instinct for such construction was survival, materials. said Bajpayee. “Now our main instinct is Concrete production, especially of its sustainability.” binding agent, cement, releases massive Banerjee and Bajpayee used clay soil from Scientists and engineers are developing ­soil-​­based amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2). “If a colleague’s backyard in College Station, concrete replacements like this prototype struc- [cement production] were a country, it Texas. They combined the clay, a ­water-​ ture. Credit: Aayushi Bajpayee would be the ­third-​­largest emitter in the ­repelling additive derived from beets, and world,” said Gaurav Sant, a professor of civil sodium silicate to bind everything together. and environmental engineering and mate- rials science and engineering at the Univer- areas, on the basis of the current work, Sant sity of California, Los Angeles. doesn’t think these materials are viable for “We need to go carbon neutral by 2050 larger structures. and carbon negative thereafter,” Sant said. They hope that their To do that, the construction industry needs method can serve as a Expanding Possibilities to drastically change or replace concrete. Gnanli Landrou, cofounder of Oxara, a sus- “We’re talking about disrupting and trans- chemical tool kit to be tainable construction material start-up, said forming our entire basis of society as a used at any construction his group uses a process similar to Baner- whole in the next 30 years.” jee’s to make a soil-­ based​­ building material. The modern form of concrete, a mixture site, particularly in remote “The goal is not to replace concrete but to of sand and gravel bonded by cement and or hostile environments. efficiently use concrete where needed,” he water, has been used for only the past 150 wrote in an email. He and his group want to or so years. The development of modern use their product, Cleancrete, for housing concrete reinforced with steel has allowed or nonstructural pieces of larger buildings. builders to erect massive structures, giving “Overall, we want to enable access to sus- us city skylines dominated by skyscrapers. A 3D printer then extruded this material tainable and affordable building materials With the growth of additive manufacturing, according to the desired design, forming a and homes.” a process in which layers of concrete are 3D model a few inches tall. More robust replacements for concrete printed one on top of the other in a prede- They hope that their method, presented are in the works. Sant, for example, has termined design, more complex building at the meeting and published in Frontiers in developed CO2Concrete, a cementless con- parts can be created more efficiently. Materials, can serve as a chemical tool kit to crete in which CO2 from industrial waste gas “A lot of emerging economies are going be used at any construction site, particularly reacts with calcium hydroxide to bind every- through a massive construction boom, and in remote or hostile environments (­bit​.­ly/​ thing together. “You get structural cemen- if we do this all in concrete, the conse- ­frontiers). Once a construction team ana- tation with limestone in a seashell,” said quences for the environment are going to lyzes the local soil, it can tweak the ingredi- Sant, which is exactly how CO2Concrete be catastrophic,” said Sarbajit Banerjee, a ents in the tool kit, mix the material, and forms. It’s similar in cost and function to chemistry professor at Texas A&M Univer- start printing. concrete, he said, but with half the carbon sity, at the 2020 meeting of the American By cutting out the ­energy-​­intensive pro- footprint. Chemical Society in August. duction steps, using local resources, and “Concrete is still the gorilla in the room eliminating transport concerns, Banerjee because it’s been the norm for many years,” Building with Backyard Soil predicts that their material will have a much said Banerjee. “There are costs involved that Banerjee and Aayushi Bajpayee, a Ph.D. lower emissions profile than concrete, but are not cheap, rising CO2 emissions that are ­candidate in Banerjee’s group, wanted to they’re still running simulations to nail tremendously large. We can do better than develop a sustainable material that could down the figures. “I think the numbers are that.” work with existing building codes and going to be significant,” he said. ­concrete-​­based construction methods. For But soil-­ based​­ replacements have limited their source material, the team settled on applications. Although they could prove By Jackie Rocheleau (@JackieRocheleau), soil. valuable for building housing in remote Science Writer

12 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 agu.org/Give-to-AGU/Giving

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SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 13 Groundwater Crisis in Zimbabwe

Lovemore Muradzikwa, a farmer in Mafuke, a farming community on the out- skirts of Mutare, said water shortages in his area have now reached critical levels. “We are now strictly rationing the little water still available. Each household is get- ting only 20 liters of water per day for cook- ing and other household uses regardless of the size of a family,” Muradzikwa said. Across Zimbabwe, more than 38% of the population depends on groundwater for household, agricultural, and industrial use.

Use Water Resources Sustainably Washington Zhakata, director of climate change management in Zimbabwe’s Minis- try of Lands, Agriculture, Water, Climate and Rural Resettlement, explained that under- ground water is recharged by normal sea- sonal rains, and Zimbabwe is getting less seasonal rainfall. The country has suffered severe recurrent droughts since 1992. “In long periods of droughts, there is a Kudzai Mungazi (far right), a traditional leader of a small village in Manicaland Province, Zimbabwe, closely higher risk of depletion of aquifers, espe- monitors a ­water-​­rationing exercise at a local borehole during a severe drought in 2016. Credit: Andrew Mam- cially in cases of small and shallow aquifers. bondiyani People in ­water-​­scarce areas will increas- ingly depend on groundwater because of its buffer capacity,” said Zhakata. “And when it rains these days, it’s so intense [as] not to n parched Zimbabwe, farmers—along report identified groundwater as an allow gradual seepage of the water to lower with water experts and policy makers— important and ­climate-​­resilient source of depths. Water is then lost as runoff into the Iare apprehensive because groundwater freshwater (bit­ ​.ly/­ ​­groundwater​-report).­ streams and straight to the nearby ocean.” is being depleted rapidly by ­drawn-​­out Depletion of groundwater is especially rel- Seasonal rainfall has also not been con- droughts. evant for tropical countries like Zimbabwe. sistent across the country, Zhakata said. The Many ­hand-pumped​­ boreholes and wells “As the world warms, amplification of provinces of Manicaland, Masvingo, Mata- have dried up this year, forcing thousands rainfall extremes and its consequences will beleland North, and Matabeleland South of people in rural areas to crowd for drink- be most pronounced in the tropics where, have been hardest hit by shortages of intra- ing water at the few sources where water is by 2050, over half of the world’s population seasonal rainfall. “Some other areas experi- still available. Annual rainfall in Zimbabwe is projected to live. Yet it is here where sub- encing this problem [of groundwater short- is no longer sufficient to replenish the stantial increases in freshwater withdraw- ages] are those areas close to urban areas aquifers that nourish these boreholes. als are required to achieve United Nations where consumption of water is very high and Anna Brazier, an independent climate Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of a lot of boreholes have been sunk,” he added. change researcher and consultant based in enhancing food security through irriga- Intensification of human activity (includ- Zimbabwe, said that although drought tion,” Taylor wrote in the report. ing agriculture and industry) and land use years are part of the normal climate cycle Amid the current prolonged drought in changes (including industrial agriculture in this part of Africa—often associated with Zimbabwe, which started in 2018, fears and urbanization) increase the demand for the ­well-known​­ El ­Niño–Southern​­ Oscilla- abound that the boreholes that still have groundwater. tion—global warming is causing droughts water will dry up before the start of the next “Strategic use of groundwater for food to become more frequent, more intense, rainy season in November or December. security in a changing climate is becoming and less predictable. “Models predict an “Water shortages are getting worse with more and more important. It is important average rainfall decline across Zimbabwe each passing day,” said Danai Mutoro, a for farmers to utilize water resources sus- of between 5% and 18% by the end of the farmer in Chitora, a small farming village tainably to allow water seepage to greater century. The range is large because differ- about 50 kilometers south of Zimbabwe’s depths,” Zhakata said. ent models give different results,” Brazier eastern border city of Mutare. “We were said. expecting better rainfall during the ­2019–​ Richard Taylor, a professor of hydroge- ­2020 summer season; instead, the season By Andrew Mambondiyani (@mambondiyani), ology at University College London, in a was even worse than before.” Science Writer

14 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 NEWS

Typhoons Getting Stronger, Making Landfall More Often

yphoons and hurricanes are two driv- results show that the warming ocean, espe- at seven, with nine in 2015, second only to ers of intensifying natural disasters, cially the warming northern South China 11 in both 1965 and 1997. Twhich in 2019 caused some $150 bil- Sea, benefits typhoon enhancement before “The increasing strength of typhoons in lion in damages around the world, accord- landfall.” the Northwest Pacific Basin in recent years ing to the insurer Munich Re. Typhoon Hagi­ Because of the complexity of the various is in response to global warming,” study bis, 2019’s costliest event, cost $17 billion in interacting systems at play, Xiao said that coauthors ­Yuei-An Liou, a professor at the Japan alone. it’s very difficult to make predictions that Center for Space and Remote Sensing The growing threat from typhoons as the could result in better policy making to mit- Research at Taiwan’s National Central Uni- planet heats up, a topic of critical impor- igate storm impact and suggested that com- versity, and Ravi Shankar Pandey, a Ph.D. tance to East Asia, was discussed at a joint puter simulations using deep learning student, said in an email. “This issue needs conference of the Japan Geoscience Union ­techniques could be more effective than tra- proper attention to mitigate the risk involv- and AGU ( JpGU-​AGU Joint Meeting 2020). ditional prediction methods. ing them in the region.”

More Storms Landing in China Rising Super Typhoons Autumn Threat In a ­long-​­term study that was the basis for Researchers in Taiwan, meanwhile, looked Scientists in South Korea also called for fur- a poster submitted to the conference, sci- at how super typhoons, which have average ther research to cushion typhoon blows, entists found that severe typhoons making maximum wind speeds of over 209 kilome- particularly for storms that come relatively landfall have increased abruptly in China ters per hour, or 113 knots, are increasing in late in the season. In a conference poster since 2004 (­bit​.­ly/​­severe​-­typhoons). The the northwestern Pacific. In a study sub­ based on 65 years’ worth of data, research- mitted to the conference as a poster, the ers at Inje University in South Korea researchers used satellite infrared imagery reported finding that the frequency and and wind vector plots for each typhoon and intensity of typhoons affecting the Korean considered environmental factors that can Peninsula in September and October, known “The warming ocean, strengthen such storms (­bit​.­ly/​­poster​ as autumn typhoons, have been increasing especially the warming -­typhoon). (bit­ .​ ly/­ korea​­ -​ typhoon).­ A study of typhoons They found that southwest airflows and from 1954 to 2019 using statistical analysis northern South China Sea, northwest cold air masses play crucial roles and numerical modeling showed that five of benefits typhoon in strengthening super typhoons in sum- the eight October typhoons to affect the mer and winter, respectively; southwest air peninsula since 1954 occurred from 2011 to enhancement before flows boost most winter super typhoons as 2019; three of Korea’s seven typhoons in landfall.” well, making them more intense than their 2019 occurred in September and caused sig- summer counterparts. The scientists noted nificant damage. that the period ­2013–​­2016 had the highest Typhoons’ maximum instantaneous wind average number of super typhoons per year, speeds, a driver of wind damage, were also researchers analyzed tropical cyclone data from the China Meteorological Administra- tion’s Shanghai Typhoon Institute for the ­July–​­September period from 1973 to 2017. They showed that about 9.7% of landfall typhoons in southern China underwent a rapid intensification in the 24 hours before coming ashore during the ­2004–​ ­2017 period, more than double the 1.6% and 3.1% intensification over the previous peri- ods. Citing previous research exploring the relationship between more intense typhoons and global warming (­bit​.­ly/​ ­climate​-typhoons),­ the scientists noted that overall, warmer oceans are driving such storms, whereas warmer land sur- faces in southern China are helping attract them. “The intensifying typhoons are controlled by several factors,” said study coauthor Zhixiang Xiao of the Guangxi Institute of Typhoon Hagibis, above, tore through Japan in 2019, causing nearly 100 deaths and more than $15 billion in Meteorological Sciences. “However, our damage. Credit: NASA Worldview, Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS)

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 15 NEWS

up. The researchers attribute this increase to rising sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in Chicago Wetlands Shrank by 40% the northwestern Pacific, noting that regional SSTs are increasing faster than the During the 20th Century global average and that SSTs remain high around Korea in September and October. s Chicago’s industries and popu­ and environmental sciences at the Univer- But≈they also said a hypothetical storm lation boomed in the late 1800s, city sity of Illinois at Chicago (UIC). Overall, the approaching the peninsula in October will A officials decided to reverse the region lost 85% of its swamp and marsh not weaken, which was the case in the past, course of the Chicago River so that it flowed area during the 20th century, the team because while the land begins to cool, the away from Lake Michigan. The river’s found. sea remains warmer longer. reversal in 1900 carried industrial pollution “The thing that struck me the most was “This will develop into a powerful away from population centers and increased how clear the connection was between what typhoon due to the greater temperature dif- shipping opportunities from the Great Lakes was wetland and what now is lake,” Paster- ference around the Korean Peninsula, which to the Mississippi River. It also began drain- ski said. When walking or biking around lies on the border between the cold conti- ing the extensive network of wetlands that the city, he added, it’s easy to notice a small nent and the hot sea,” said study coauthor had covered most of the Chicago area after isolated lake here and there, but the ­Woo-​­Sik Jung of Inje University’s Depart- the last ice age. Industrial and residential research revealed how widespread the phe- developments further altered the wetlands’ nomenon is across Cook County. “When reach. you look at the map, it’s unmistakable.” All told, Cook County, Illinois, which “This whole area was wetlands” that have “The increasing strength encompasses Chicago, has lost 40% of its since been transformed by human develop- wetland area from the time of the reversal to ment, Pasterski said. “Now every time it of typhoons in the today, according to research published in rains and the park outside my house floods, Northwest Pacific Basin in Urban Ecosystems (bit​.ly/urban­ ​-eco).­ Wet- I reflect on the idea that, yeah, it should lands such as rivers, streams, marshes, flood. It should always be flooded.” recent years is in response swamps, and lakes remove pollutants, man- “We’ve changed the hydrology of the to global warming.” age groundwater, cycle nutrients, and sup- entire area, and that’s going to be true of any port biodiversity comparable to tropical for- city,” especially in the ­wetland-​­rich Mid- ests and coral reefs. west, said coauthor and UIC paleontologist “Wetlands are not only the kidneys of the region, absorbing and cleaning a whole lot ment of Atmospheric Environment Infor- of water, but they are vital habitats for many mation Engineering. “In other words, the birds and insects,” said Iza Redlinski, a larger the temperature difference, the ­conservation ecologist at Chicago’s Field stronger the wind, the more powerful the Museum of Natural History who was not autumn typhoon around the Korean Pen­ involved with the research. “Monitoring insula can be compared to the summer wetlands and other habitats is important to typhoon.” knowing how we’re progressing and what One scientist based in Japan who was not actions can be undertaken to preserve them involved in these studies said there are con- on both the large and small scale.” flicting findings from research about whether the number of typhoons is increas- Draining Swamps ing or decreasing amid climate change. to Make Lakes Instead “However, most studies have shown that The researchers analyzed historic and mod- the typhoon intensities in terms of wind and ern maps of Cook County. They counted the rainfall would increase under global warm- numbers and types of distinct wetland fea- ing,” said Sridhara Nayak of the Disaster tures and measured the individual and total Prevention Research Institute at Kyoto Uni- area covered by wetlands. versity, who participated as a convener of a They found that from the historic period session on extreme weather events at JpGU-­ ​ (1890–1910) to the modern period (1997​ ­AGU Joint Meeting 2020. “So the super or –2017), the total area of Cook County wet- The Lake Calumet area of Cook County was the severe typhoons are expected to occur in the lands shrank from 73 to 44 square kilome- center of extensive wetlands until the late 1800s. future warming climate, which would bring ters (–40%). The number of wetland loca- Calumet lost significant wetland area between the much stronger winds compared to present tions increased roughly tenfold over that early 20th century (blue) and the present day (pink typhoons and heavy rains to the landfall time, but the average size of each location and red) as it was developed into a hub for the region and would be a more severe threat to is about 10 times smaller today than it was shipping, rail, and steel industries. The original human life and property.” in 1900. This shrinkage was led by the con- footprint of the Calumet wetlands now encom- version of sprawling marshes to small passes both an Important Bird Area of Illinois for lakes and retention ponds, said lead author three bird species and also a Superfund site. By Tim Hornyak (@robotopia), Science Writer Joey Pasterski, a graduate student in Earth Credit: Wesley Tucker

16 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 NEWS

Roy Plotnick. “The connectivity of the land- scape has changed significantly as a result of [metropolitan expansion], and that’s something that needs to be thought about going forward as we think about conserva- tion and restoration of the land.” “Intact wetlands are of critical impor- tance for native wildlife in general,” said Field Museum conservation ecologist Mark Johnston, who was not involved with the project. “When protected in urban areas, they can also serve as connective corridors, which are super important in fragmented landscapes, particularly with the increased pressures of climate change.”

Native Biodiversity Lost Both the loss of total wetland area and the transition from swamps to lakes affected Cook County’s ­wetland-reliant​­ species. The team gathered information on historic and modern species of mollusks, fishes, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals by scouring publicly available resources like museum collections, online databases and catalogs, and even apps used by wildlife spotting communities. The researchers found that ­wetland-​ ­reliant reptiles, amphibians, and mammals experienced little to no biodiversity loss during the 20th century. Mollusk species, however, changed significantly: Of the 107 native mollusk species present 100 years ago, 53 remain today, and 26 nonnative mol- lusk species were introduced into wetland habitats intentionally or accidentally. And although the numbers of fish and bird spe- cies have increased over time, the increased biodiversity is largely due to nonnative spe- cies replacing native ones. Some of the non- native species, like silver carp, have been The Calumet Quadrangle boasted extensive wetland areas in 1902 as Chicago faced rapid industrial expan- deemed invasive and injurious to local eco- sion. Credit: USGS/W. C. Alden systems. This research will aid conservationists, Redlinski said, and can also help developers plan projects that will have minimal impact available public resources. The graduate areas as well using similar resources,” he on the remaining wetland ecology. “Know- researchers have moved on to other projects said. “Anywhere you have a museum collec- ing what species have disappeared or which since the course ended last spring, but Pas- tion over a ­100-​­year time span or more you ones are on the decline can allow managers terski hoped similar projects would spring can do a similar study in the classroom in either to prepare sites for reintroductions, if up in other metropolitan areas. the span of a year.” that is possible, or to adjust the site in such “The fact that we were able to do this as a way to allow for that organism’s life cycle a class project using just resources from the to be completed,” for example, keeping city that were free…to me reflects the abil- By Kimberly M. S. Cartier (@AstroKimCartier), the land wet long enough for native frogs ity for this study to be repeated in other Staff Writer to complete all the stages of their develop- ment. This research was conducted by graduate students enrolled in a course on species u Read the latest news at Eos.org extinction taught by Plotnick, developed out of a class project, and relied solely on freely

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 17 NEWS

Will COVID’s Cleaner Skies Muddy Climate Models?

A climate simulation showing possible temperature forecasts by 2100. Simulations like these will remain accurate despite a sudden drop in carbon dioxide emissions associated with the ­COVID-​­19 pandemic. ­Short-term​­ models, however, might be affected. Credit: NASA

he year 2020 is an anomaly for many stratosphere to the deepest reaches of the but now a new timeline has emerged: emis- reasons, but the ­COVID-19 pandemic ocean. These data include air temperatures, sions during a pandemic. Tthat has slowed normal ­day-​­to-​­day wind speed and direction, cloud proper- For ­long-​­term models, like those fore- activities to nearly a halt stands out. ties, concentrations of aerosols and green- casting the outcomes over the next century Earth’s atmosphere has noticed. house gases (like carbon dioxide and meth- of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse In May, a team of international research- ane), sea ice cover, glacier extent, sea surface gases and aerosols, the reduction this year ers published a paper showing that carbon temperatures and salinity, current, nutrient probably won’t make a difference, said dioxide emissions had dropped nearly 8% in cycling, and more. Qiang Fu, a professor of atmospheric sci- March and April (bit​.ly/­ ​­COVID​-CO2).­ And But what happens to the models if one ence at the University of Washington in even as the world began to relax ­stay-​­at-​ year is thrown off by an event that causes an Seattle who is not involved in the UCAR ­home measures and emissions rose once unprecedented drop in a major var­iable like project. more, the team suggested that the cumula- carbon emissions? If the difference in carbon emissions tive emissions for this year would remain A team at the University Corporation for between this year and last year—due to the 4%–7% lower than usual. Atmospheric Research (UCAR) in Boulder, pandemic—is statistically significant, In terms of slowing the effects of climate Colo., is trying to answer that question. Lamarque said, then that might affect how change itself, this year won’t make much Although the drop in emissions has been scientists forecast ­shorter-​­term phenom- of a difference, scientists say. The effects relatively small, it is still significant, ­Jean-​ ena, like a hurricane season. of climate change, like higher sea surface ­François Lamarque, director of the Climate But the UCAR team doesn’t have the ­temperatures, more intense rainfall, and and Global Dynamics (CGD) Laboratory at answer yet. The team has only just begun retreating glaciers, have more to do with the UCAR, said. Over the next year or so, “how asking the questions and designing experi- amount of carbon dioxide that has accumu- will it translate into a climate signal that ments. lated in the atmosphere over decades, and we can observe? That’s a real question [the One thing is for certain. “Maybe this very one anomalous year won’t affect that. answer to which] we just don’t know.” unfortunate event is giving us the opportu- But will this anomalous year affect the nity to gain an understanding of how the sophisticated models that scientists use to Diverging Timelines [climate] system responds” to sudden study potential future outcomes of our cur- Basically, the team wants to know how dif- changes in carbon dioxide emissions, rent levels of greenhouse gas emissions? ferent climate projections will be as a result La­marque said. of the pandemic. It’s like seeing a timeline How We Model Climate suddenly split, said Gokhan Danabasoglu, Scientists feed climate models an enormous a senior scientist in the CGD Laboratory. By JoAnna Wendel (@JoAnnaScience), amount of data from the very top of the There exists a set of emissions “as usual,” Science­ Writer

18 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 NEWS

Wildfires Trigger ­Long-​­Term Permafrost Thawing

When that insulating layer is lost, the ground heats up more readily, causing per- mafrost to thaw. Using microwave data collected by two satellites—­Sentinel-1 and the Japanese Advanced Land Observing ­Satellite-2—the team traced how the ground subsided in the burned region between October 2015 and June 2019 to ­centimeter-​­level precision. This ­time-​­resolved look at how permafrost thawing proceeds after a fire is novel, said Yanagiya. “The detailed time series of defor- mation is very new.”

A Bulkier Layer to the Rescue Subsidence proceeded the fastest in 2015 and 2016, Yanagiya and Furuya found. That’s probably because of a negative feedback loop, the authors propose: Initial permafrost thawing bulked up the active layer—the layer above permafrost that freezes and thaws seasonally—which in turn provided additional thermal insulation against fur- ther thawing. Wildfires ­kick-start​­ permafrost thawing, observations of eastern Siberia reveal. Credit: Kazuki Yanagiya The researchers also found that east fac- ing slopes tended to experience the most subsidence. That’s consistent with previous research and makes sense because these ermafrost underlies much of the far there’s no sign of the fires abating. “With areas receive less intense sunlight, Yana­ north, but this amalgam of ice and climate change, wildfire frequency and giya and Furuya suggested. Their active lay- Pfrozen soil is far from stable—it’s severity are expected to increase.” ers are therefore thinner to begin with and thawing as temperatures rise worldwide. accordingly provide less insulation, the sci- That’s bad news, because permafrost is a entists proposed. significant repository of carbon that can be readily converted into carbon dioxide, The team traced how A New Megaslump? a major greenhouse gas. Now researchers In total, the ­fire-scarred​­ region lost roughly have used satellite remote sensing to mon- the ground subsided 3.5 million cubic meters of permafrost, the itor one signature of permafrost thawing— scientists calculated. For comparison, that’s ground subsidence—after a wildfire in east- in the burned region to about an order of magnitude less than ern Siberia. The team found that parts of centimeter-­ level​­ precision. the thawed volume of the nearby Batagaika Earth’s surface subsided more than others megaslump, an enormous craterlike depres- despite the relative homogeneity of the fire. sion formed by thawing permafrost. In Sep- This variation is likely due to differences in tember 2019, Yanagiya and Furuya did field- the thickness of the insulating active layer work in Siberia and flew a drone over the directly above the permafrost, the scientists Maps of Sinking Ground Batagaika megaslump. “It’s huge,” said suggested. The researchers used a remote sensing Furuya. Kazuki Yanagiya and Masato Furuya, both technique called interferometric synthetic It’s possible that the burned area they geophysicists at Hokkaido University in aperture radar to generate maps of ground studied might one day come to look like Japan, focused on a 3,­600-​­hectare swath of subsidence following the fire. Subsidence Batagaika, the researchers hypothesized. permafrost in eastern Siberia, Russia. The is a common outcome of thawing perma- “We are kind of expecting it,” said Furuya. region, composed of low shrubs dotted with frost and can wreak havoc on built struc- These results were published in the Jour- ­3- to ­5-meter-tall​­ larch trees, burned in July tures. nal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface (bit­ ​ 2014 in a wildfire of unknown cause. Wildfire triggered the measured subsid- .­ly/​­wildfire​-­permafrost). Siberia has been plagued by many blazes ence but only in an indirect way, said Furuya. recently, said Roger Michaelides, a geo­ “The fire itself doesn’t melt permafrost physicist at the Colorado School of Mines in directly.” Rather, a blaze eradicates vegeta- By Katherine Kornei (@KatherineKornei), Golden not involved in the research, and tion, which reflects and absorbs sunlight. Science­ Writer

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 19 NEWS

Restored Tropical Forests Recover Faster Than Those Left Alone

University of Québec, Canada, explained that “tropical forest management can be an effective way to mitigate climate change considering that they are the most produc- tive forests on Earth.” Study authors noted that protection of existing forests, even those that have been degraded or previously exploited, is para- mount for retaining aboveground carbon density, as well as for maintaining biodi- versity and other critical ecosystem ser- vices. Researchers used a restoration approach called “assisted natural regeneration” at Malaysia’s Ulu Segama Forest Reserve and Danum Valley Conservation Area. In this case, assisted natural regeneration involved planting tree seedlings and cutting climbing Researchers found that actively restored tropical forests, like Malaysia’s Danum Valley Conservation Area, plants that compete with young trees for above, recovered 50% faster than those left to regenerate naturally. Credit: Gido, CC BY 2.0 (bit­ ​.­ly/​­ccby2-0) access to light and nutrients. The open areas created for the tree seedlings were main- tained free of competing plants by cutting them back for several years after the seed- ctively restored forests recover cial sustainability, thus enabling much lings were planted. This process gave the aboveground­ biomass faster than larger areas of forest to be restored.” seedlings a head start in the race to form a A areas left to regenerate naturally “The paper raises an important issue new forest canopy. These restoration treat- after being logged. According to a new study regarding the effectiveness of carbon pric- ments were applied annually to different on tropical forests in Sabah, Malaysia, areas ing if it is to serve as a financial incentive places in the study areas. that have undergone active restoration for restoring logged forests,” said Robin Chazdon noted that this study is an excel- recovered 50% faster, increasing from 2.9 to Chazdon, a professor emerita at the Univer- lent application of assisted natural regener- 4.4 metric tons of aboveground carbon per sity of Connecticut and a research professor ation measures to hasten the recovery of hectare per year (bit­ ​.ly/­ ​­Malaysia​-forests).­ at the University of the Sunshine Coast in heavily logged forests, but it considers only The findings suggest that the reduction Queensland, Australia. Chazdon was not one dimension of forest recovery: above­ in carbon associated with a single logging involved in the study. “Several other papers ground carbon density. This dimension can event would be recovered to the same level have also noted that high potential for car- be assessed through making routine mea- as unlogged forest after 40 years with active bon storage during forest restoration is not surements of tree diameter and height on restoration, as opposed to about 60 years if being matched by an adequate price on the the ground as well as through remote sens- the forest is left to regenerate naturally. voluntary carbon market.” ing and airborne approaches. In addition to demonstrating the value in Researchers estimated the current cost to “Further experiments are needed to guide protecting previously logged forests, the offset 1 metric ton of carbon dioxide equiva- ­cost-​­effective practices,” she explained. study engages with the efficacy of carbon lent (CO2e) in voluntary carbon offsetting “Collecting seed and growing seedlings in pricing, said coauthor Mark Cutler, profes- schemes to be around $2–$10.­ Carbon prices nurseries and planting them out is much sor of geography and environmental science required to fulfill the 2016 Paris Agreement more expensive than merely cutting climb- at the University of Dundee in Scotland. ($40–$80­ per metric ton CO2e) would pro- ers.” Cutler explained that “the costs associ- vide an economic justification for tropical Moreover, Chazdon said, it is “important ated with the most intensive forms of active forest restoration, according to the paper. to note that these results cannot be gener- restoration, if to be recovered through the alized outside of the Sabah, Malaysia, con- voluntary carbon market, require a higher Restoring the “Most Productive text, as the scale and intensity of logging in carbon price than has been seen in recent Forests on Earth” forests there are much greater than in other times.” Tropical forests contain 55% of global stores tropical regions based on selective logging “However,” he added, “varying the type of aboveground forest carbon, but stocks are with less timber removed.” and intensity of restoration treatments declining because of forest loss and degra- according to the residual amount of carbon dation. in the forest stand has the potential to Pierre Taillardat, a postdoctoral researcher By Mohammed ­El-Said​­ (­@­MOHAMMED2SAID), reduce net costs and bridge the gap to finan- on coastal and terrestrial wetlands at the Science Writer

20 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 agu.org/Give-to-AGU/Giving

Underrepresented students and women: Apply for the AGU Bridge Program

The AGU Bridge Program provides underrepresented students and women a free common geosciences graduate school application that is shared with our partner institutions across the U.S.

Students accepted to the program are provided additional resources, from career development to peer support to faculty mentoring.

By providing additional support, we aim to help more students from underrepresented populations successfully obtain advanced degrees in the geo sciences.

Hurry to apply by 1 April! agu.org/bridge-program

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 21 OPINION

Surveying the Challenges of Fieldwork for LGBTQ+ Geoscientists

ieldwork is often framed as central to approach. For instance, in the seminal study community. Individual geologists have geoscience research. What fieldwork on harassment in the field [Clancy et al., shared their stories in places like 500 Queer Fcomprises varies across geoscience dis- 2014], the authors noted that “our results Scientists or in the media, which is a crucial ciplines and can encompass everything from cannot adequately speak to the experiences way of increasing visibility, but storytelling wilderness treks, oceanographic cruises, and of people of color or [LGBTQ+] individuals does not help assess the needs and chal- class field trips to museum and laboratory because they are ­under-​­represented in our lenges of the community as a whole. visits, trips to research centers, and attend- fields and therefore our dataset, but the This lack of information is not limited to ing conferences around the world. What var- experiences reported by our respondents are the geosciences. Every 2 years the National ies just as widely, unfortunately, is how safe Science Foundation publishes reports on the field research and ­work-​­related travel are to state of “women, minorities and persons the geoscientists who must perform it. with disabilities” in science and engineering There is increasing awareness of the haz- but has not yet collected information on ards of sexual harassment and assault in the There has not been a LGBTQ+ scientists. There have been some ­field-​­based sciences and a growing under- deliberate focus on efforts to collect data about LGBTQ+ scien- standing that fieldwork is not always acces- tists in physics and chemistry, as well as sible for geoscientists with varying physical challenges faced by the across all science, technology, engineering, abilities or young families. However, there LGBTQ+ community in the and mathematics (STEM) fields. One 2016 has not been a deliberate focus on chal- study surveyed 1,603 LGBTQA STEM profes- lenges faced by the lesbian, gay, bisexual, geosciences with respect sionals, including 108 geoscientists, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) commu- to fieldwork. although the data were published only in nity in the geosciences with respect to field- aggregate [Yoder and Mattheis, 2016]. work. This is not to say that interventions for First, Quantify the Community other discrete groups cannot help members To better understand the needs and strug- of the LGBTQ+ community. People are com- likely reflective of a broader climate for gles of LGBTQ+ geoscientists, we launched a plex, and their identities intersect many members of various minority groups.” survey in fall 2019 that grew out of one realms—there are, of course, LGBTQ+ geo- But without data, this widely held author’s (M.R.D.) attempt earlier that year scientists with disabilities and those with assumption cannot be assessed. One of the to connect with his own community. As part young children. However, it is often biggest barriers to supporting the LGBTQ+ of a presentation to an on-­ ​­campus branch assumed that interventions intended to help geoscientist community is that to date, of the organization Out in STEM, he tweeted one minoritized group will help all such there have not been many systematic an informal survey trying to understand the groups—an “a rising tide lifts all boats” attempts to describe and understand this concerns of other LGBTQ+ paleontologists. The results revealed that many of these sci- entists felt unseen, unheard, and unsup- ported in their field. The responses to the informal survey prompted us to conduct an official survey of geoscientists, modeling ours on that of Yoder and Mattheis [2016]. Once we were granted permission from the human subjects board at our university, we conducted the survey online, as studies have shown that this is the best way to collect information related to identity [McInroy, 2016]. On the basis of 261 responses, we found that the geosciences contain a diverse LGBTQ+ community. Most participants identified as cisgender women (47%) or as transgender (an umbrella term that includes transgender man, transgender woman, nonbinary, genderqueer/genderfluid, agen- der, and other identifiers for people whose gender does not strictly match the gender they were assigned at birth; 31%), with 22% identifying as cisgender men. Diverse sex-

22 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 OPINION

ualities are also represented, dominated by bisexual/pansexual/queer identities (52%), followed by gay/lesbian identities (34%), and then asexual/demisexual/­romantic-​ ­spectrum identities (14%). These results also revealed that the com- position of the LGBTQ+ community in the geosciences is different from that found in STEM in aggregate, as well as in physics in the United States and the United Kingdom. By comparison, there are fewer gay men and a higher proportion of women and nonbi- nary/genderqueer and bisexual people in the geosciences. The racial demographics of LGBTQ+ participants in our survey were similar to those of the geosciences as a whole, as 83% of the respondents were Fig. 1. This map shows areas in the world where lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, plus (LGBTQ+) sta- white, 8% were Asian, and 7% were His- tus is criminalized or not legally protected, as well as countries in which residents do not believe the country panic/Latinx, while the remaining 3% were is a hospitable place for LGBTQ+ people. (Individuals in Antarctica are each covered by the laws of their own Black, Native American, or Pacific Islander. country.) Credit: Alison N. Olcott

Then Quantify the Problem Although the survey asked about many experiences in the geosciences track, we group that reported feeling more unsafe was It’s clear that existing were particularly struck by the data we col- cisgender women of color (75%). Cisgender lected on fieldwork and remote research. women of all races and transgender people interventions to make the When asked about experiences with field- of color reported the highest rates of refus- geosciences more work or remote research, almost 55% of ing to do fieldwork because of safety issues respondents indicated that they had been in (50% and 46%, respectively). inclusive are not sufficient an area where they did not feel safe because for LGBTQ+ geoscientists. of their identity, expression, or presentation. Support Is Lacking Furthermore, about a third of the respon- for Graduate Students dents indicated that they have refused to do Another troubling finding of our survey is fieldwork because of concerns for personal that LGBTQ+ graduate students (29%) are safety related to their identity. The need for significantly less likely than professors Compounding the lack of available sup- these concerns becomes clear when looking (57%) to have opted out of fieldwork in a port, the overwhelming majority (85%) of at a world map highlighting where LGBTQ+ specific locality because of safety fears. This respondents felt that other LGBTQ+ people identities are not protected or are even crim- is not surprising given the power imbalances in geology were not visible during their time inalized (Figure 1). Even in places where present in graduate programs; a graduate as a student, presenting a challenge to them these identities are not categorized as student’s research is often done in consul- to even seek out and solicit mentorship. An unlawful, the dominant culture may not be tation with faculty advisers as part of a even greater majority (91%) expressed that LGBTQ+ friendly. larger research agenda, which means that greater visibility and representation of These findings are striking, both in their relative to faculty, students typically have LGBTQ+ people in geology would have been scale and in how widespread they are. For far less control over their field site selection. helpful during their time as a student, both instance, Clancy et al. [2017] conducted a This power imbalance speaks to the need in the field and at their home institution. methodologically similar study of astrono- for graduate programs to develop adequate mers and planetary scientists identifying support and mentorship for LGBTQ+ grad- Using Data to Support those likely to feel unsafe in their work- uate students, a need that is echoed in the LGBTQ+ Geoscientists places because of gender (women, 35%; survey responses. Most respondents (87%) Given that almost all respondents wished for men, 1%) and race (women of color, 28%; reported that increased LGBTQ+ mentorship visible representation and that individuals men of color, 1.5%; white men and would have been helpful during their time in all demographic groups have felt unsafe women, <1%). Our data show that a majority as a student. Responses indicated that fac- doing fieldwork or remote research, it’s clear of individuals in all demographic groups ulty support for the LGBTQ+ community was that existing interventions to make the geo- identified by Clancy et al. who also identify low both inside and outside the classroom, sciences more inclusive are not sufficient for as LGBTQ+ have felt unsafe with fieldwork with 85% and 69% of respondents, respec- LGBTQ+ geoscientists. These findings are key or remote research experiences, and 34% tively, reporting rarely or never experienc- for developing solutions for challenges faced refuse to do fieldwork over fears related to ing such support. These two metrics are cor- by the LGBTQ+ geoscientist community. their identity. In fact, 62% of cisgender related: A student who experiences in-class Advisers, employers, and institutions need white men reported feeling unsafe in the support is likely also to have experienced to be aware of safety issues associated with

Opposite: iStock.com/helovi field due to their LGBTQ+ identity; the only out-of-class support. fieldwork and to educate themselves about

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 23 OPINION

potential dangers to LGBTQ+ geoscientists at field sites. However, the need for support STEM Learning Ecosystems Engage and mentorship goes beyond the field [Mulcahy et al., 2016]. In the classroom, sup- Communities in the Geosciences port for LGBTQ+ students starts with pro- fessors confronting homophobia, using inclusive language, and using students’ preferred pronouns. Out of the classroom, faculty and staff can engage in supportive academic advising, visible allyship, and diversity training. Such gestures may seem small but are, in fact, tremendously mean- ingful. LGBTQ+ students report that a cru- cial part of their overall success is having a mentor to whom they are comfortable dis- closing their identity. Over the past few years, the geosciences community has been trying to broaden par- ticipation by making fieldwork and confer- ences more accessible and welcoming. Our survey makes clear that we need to reach out further to explicitly support the LGBTQ+ community. An important place to start is with education and awareness that allow our LGBTQ+ colleagues to be safe and feel supported in the field.

Acknowledgments Students participate in an outdoor geoscience class. Credit: Donna Charlevoix (UNAVCO), CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 The authors thank Patrick Getty, T. K. Mor- (­bit​.­ly/​­ccbyncsa3-0) ton, Khye Blue, and Colleen Wynn for feed- back on the initial survey and A. Bradley for providing additional data. We received approval from the Human Research Protec- eoscience expertise is required to unique to the local people, cultures, land- tion Program at the University of Kansas solve societal problems like seismic scapes, and ecology [Apple et al., 2014]. (IRB ID: STUDY00144586) for human subject Ghazards, coastal erosion, and ensur- One way to achieve sustainable local solu- testing for the survey. ing adequate clean water supplies. These tions is to invest in community geoscience problems, which are often local in scale and education that integrates science, technol- References impact, are most likely to be solved when the ogy, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Clancy, K. B. H., et al. (2014), Survey of academic field experiences sources of geoscience expertise consulted Collaborations that adopt this approach, (SAFE): Trainees report harassment and assault, PloS One, 9(7), e102172, https://​­doi​.­org/​­10.1371/​­journal​.­pone​.­0102172. are also local (and thus highly invested in known as Geo-STEM learning ecosystems, Clancy, K. B. H., et al. (2017), Double jeopardy in astronomy and finding solutions) and when they work involve partnerships among diverse organi- planetary science: Women of color face greater risks of gen- ­collaboratively with the community. An zations throughout a community—from dered and racial harassment, J. Geophys. Res. Planets, 122(7), 1,610–1,623, https://doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1002/​­ 2017JE005256.​­ ­example of ­science-​­community collabora- ­K–12 schools and higher education institu- McInroy, L. B. (2016), Pitfalls, potentials, and ethics of online tion was demonstrated in September 2013, tions to museums, local businesses, and gov- survey research: LGBTQ and other marginalized and hard-to- access youths, Social Work Res., 40(2), 83–94, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ ​ when Denver, Colo.–area geoscientists ernment organizations—that join together 10.1093/­ swr/​­ svw005.​­ responded quickly to community concerns to address a local issue and to engage more Mulcahy, M., et al. (2016), Informal mentoring for lesbian, gay, about nearby flash flooding. The scientists young people in the geosciences. Any com- bisexual, and transgender students, J. Educ. Res., 109(4), 405–412, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1080/​­ 00220671​­ .​ 2014­ .​ 979907.­ assessed flood effects on the landscape, munity can create Geo-STEM learning eco- Yoder, J. B., and A. Mattheis (2016), Queer in STEM: Workplace soils, and water and air quality and commu- systems to cultivate community literacy and experiences reported in a national survey of LGBTQA individ- uals in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics nicated critical information to the public. motivate sustainable and transformative careers, J. Homosexuality, 63(1), 1–27, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1080/​­ ​ Geoscientists tend to be concentrated in solutions. More such programs are certainly 00918369­ .​ 2015­ .​ 1078632.­ regions rich in natural resources and geo- needed. Maybe your community can build logic hazards. However, areas outside these the next one. regions are still faced with numerous envi- By Alison N. Olcott ([email protected]) and ronmental and natural ­resource–​­related A History of STEM Learning Ecosystems Matthew R.­ Downen, University of Kansas, challenges, which will likely persist without In a seminal 2014 report, Kathleen Trapha- Lawrence local geoscience expertise and community gen and Saskia Traill defined STEM learning awareness. As communities work to become ecosystems (Figure 1) and emphasized that u Read the article at bit­ .​ ly/­ Eos​­ ​ more resilient and sustainable, they need developing these systemic collaborations -LGBTQ­ access to place-based education that’s requires buy-in from a variety of community

24 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 OPINION

organizations [Traphagen and Traill, 2014]. globally, with approximately 20 new proj- (Inclusion across the Nation of Communities That same year, the National Academies ects beginning soon. In these collaborations, of Learners of Underrepresented Discoverers held a convocation on building learning scientists, community leaders, and sponsors in Engineering and Science) program. Earth- ­ecosystems at which participants explored work together—typically without the same Connections, a 2016 INCLUDES pilot project, challenges and developed recommenda- explicit focus on students that ­STEMCoP created 11 alliances that supported the devel- tions. In December 2018, the National Sci- has—to solve local challenges related to cli- opment of pathways by which precollege ence and Technology Council’s Committee mate change, water quality and availability, students can access geoscience learning on STEM Education issued a 5-year­ strategic natural hazards, natural resources, ecolog- opportunities. Each alliance engaged multi- plan that charged government agencies with ical systems, and healthy communities. To ple parts of a community and helped partic- fostering STEM learning ecosystems to unite date, 10 of the existing and many of the new ipants explore career tracks by addressing communities around STEM education. collaborations have specific educational local geoscience-­ related​­ challenges. Earth­ Several examples of STEM learning eco- components that either created materials Connections is currently seeking support to systems have demonstrated success by for local schools or engaged ­K–12 students sustain ongoing activities. engaging and educating people of all ages in ­geoscience-​­related investigations and The SEAS Islands Alliance establishes about new innovations and garnering sus- problem solving. community networks focused on coastal tained community support. The most recog- Another program, Educational Partner- geosciences in U.S. and affiliated island nized of these are the Burroughs Wellcome’s ships for Innovation in ­Communities–​ jurisdictions, including in the U.S. Virgin STEM Learning Ecosystems Communities ­Network (EPIC-N),­ connects undergraduate Islands, where the SEAS Your Tomorrow of Practice (­STEMCoP), which consist of and graduate students with local community ­program “fosters curiosity, instills steward- 89 ongoing and sustainable projects around leaders to investigate and develop sustain- ship, and forges and strengthens educational the world that teach young people STEM-­ ​ able solutions and to improve community pathways for Virgin Island youth to explore ­related ways of thinking, content, and skills. ­well-​­being through urban planning. Proj- and secure careers in marine science” ­STEMCoP encourages ­K–12 students’ inter- ects address traffic and mass transit, home- through culturally relevant, place-based est in STEM fields, especially within the lessness, waste management, and gentrifi- learning opportunities, according to the health sciences, computer technology, and cation. Students engage in service learning ­program’s website. Funding from various robotics. Few of the ­STEMCoP efforts involve and conduct research through place-based NSF programs—INCLUDES, EPSCoR (Estab- students in place-based investigations of projects that elevate geoscience concepts lished Program to Stimulate Competitive local ecosystems, however, and none related to water quality, erosion, and land Research), and HBCU-UP­ (Historically Black emphasizes the geosciences. use. Of the 29 ­EPIC-N programs to date, only Colleges and ­Universities–​­Undergraduate two addressed community education explic- Program)—enables professional societies, Geo-STEM Takes Off itly, and these have concluded. formal and informal education entities, local More recently, three programs that foster EarthConnections and the Supporting governmental and nongovernmental orga- ­geoscience-​­focused STEM learning ecosys- Emerging Aquatic Scientists (SEAS) Islands nizations, and universities and colleges on tems have emerged. As of the time of this Alliance are two STEM learning ecosystems the islands and in the mainland United writing, AGU’s Thriving Earth Exchange has that have been supported by the National States to collaborate to achieve social change facilitated 153 place-based collaborations Science Foundation’s (NSF) INCLUDES around geoscience problems.

Fig. 1. This conceptual model of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) learning ecosystems shows how community organizations develop systemic collaborations that engage learners from all walks of life, facilitate enduring and effective STEM learning opportunities, elevate community literacy and innovation, improve networks, and activate sustainable and transformative solutions for the broader community.

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 25 OPINION

Of the projects noted above, 112 function options.) Once you have narrowed the list of ecosystems focus young people on solving as STEM learning ecosystems; 73% of these collaborators, work with them to identify local geoscience issues related to water encourage and facilitate STEM learning in goals that maximize learning opportunities quality, pollution, soil erosion, natural urban communities, with 69% engaging for the target audience—such as engaging resource management, and hazard mitiga- youth from urban communities that have learners to understand local seismicity, tion—all issues that pose significant ongo- been traditionally underrepresented. The coastal erosion, or pollution—and to create ing challenges for many communities and concentration of learning ecosystems in accessible, robust, and connected learning can engage young people with their local urban communities is to be expected, as the experiences for the audience. Examples of natural landscapes and with their neighbors. ecosystems are often associated with urban such learning experiences include multi- For geoscientists, these programs are colleges, universities, and organizations like stage bridge programs that help middle and both ­self-serving​­ and altruistic. To diversify museums that provide out-of-school learn- high school students see themselves as geo- the geoscience community and expand our ing opportunities. Of the urban STEM learn- scientists, encourage undergraduates to scientific capabilities, we can attract young ing ecosystems that engage precollege participate in research, and facilitate post- people who might not otherwise have seri- learners, however, only eight programs cur- graduate professional opportunities. ously considered geoscience careers. Giving rently address any geoscience concepts. Then you’ll need to secure funding to students intriguing and relevant local geo- Thirty-four percent of the 112 STEM learn- meet your goals—it is likely you will need science problems to solve is an effective way ing ecosystems address the needs of rural start-up funding and sustained long-term to cultivate their interest and create a sense communities, with a handful of these eco- funding. In addition to the INCLUDES pro- of belonging. Ultimately, however, these systems having a specific objective to address gram, another potential route to secure programs educate and serve local commu- the needs of Indigenous learners. Within this start-up funding is through NSF’s Improving nities by addressing local problems. 34%, only Thriving Earth Exchange, Earth- Undergraduate STEM Education ­GEOPAths Connections, and SEAS learning ecosystems (Pathways into the Earth, Ocean, Polar and Creating New Pathways ​ have addressed geoscience content areas to Geoscience specifically. Learners in rural and remote Geo-STEM learning ecosystems offer communities would benefit from stronger researchers, professionals, and educators connections to Geo-STEM learning ecosys- opportunities to broaden geoscience partic- tems because these communities are heavily Giving students intriguing ipation by activating local formal and infor- affected by issues of water quality and avail- and relevant local mal education networks, supporting K–12­ ability, soil health and erosion, climate Earth system science learning, and building change, natural resource extraction, and food geoscience problems to a strongly skilled local workforce. Geoscien- security. solve is an effective way tists in all domains can work together to help frame community needs, to collaborate Opportunities for New Geo-STEM to cultivate their interest with educational providers to reach ­K–12 Learning Ecosystems and create a sense of audiences directly, and to host professional Creating Geo-STEM learning ecosystems learning opportunities for teachers. that address the needs of different commu- belonging. The greatest opportunities lie in develop- nities presents both challenges and oppor- ing these ecosystems to include ­K–12 edu- tunities. There is no one right way to set up cation in urban, rural, and Indigenous com- a Geo-STEM learning ecosystem because munities. Successful existing STEM learning each one is unique to its location, engaged ecosystems suggest that Geo-STEM learn- partners, and target audience. Sustainable Atmospheric & Geospace Sciences) program. ing ecosystems are worth serious invest- programs will require strong and flexible The goal of ­GEOPAths is to increase the num- ment and have considerable potential to organizations, sound infrastructure, dedi- ber of students pursuing undergraduate and capture students’ imaginations and moti- cated personnel, and long-term funding. postgraduate geoscience degrees by pro- vate them to develop the skills needed to Should individuals or organizations wish to moting the design and testing of novel identify and solve a host of geoscience-­ ​ cultivate a Geo-STEM learning ecosystem, approaches that engage students in authen- ­related problems affecting communities here are some suggested steps. tic, ­career-​­relevant experiences. Multiple around the world. First, find a credible and engaged lead ­GEOPAths funding tracks support geosci- organization, such as a museum or outreach ence learning for broad audiences in infor- References center, that is committed to collaborating mal settings (e.g., museums, nature centers) Apple, J., J. Lemus, and S. Semken (2014), Teaching geoscience in the context of culture and place, J. Geosci. Educ., 62(1), 1–4, with schools, educational organizations, and for undergraduates and graduate stu- https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10​­ .​ 5408/­ 1089​­ -​ 9995­ -​ 62.1.1.­ academic institutions, industry, utilities, dents in academic settings. Traphagen, K., and S. Traill (2014), How cross-­ sector​­ collabora- local governments, and other nontraditional Each Geo-STEM learning ecosystem will tions are advancing STEM learning, Noyce Found., Los Altos, Calif., informalscience­ .​ org/­ working​­ -​ paper­ -​ how­ -​ cross­ -​ sector­ ​ partners. These diverse partnering organi- have its own unique goals, but the overar- -collaborations­ -​ are­ -​ advancing­ -​ stem­ -​ learning.­ zations should reflect community demo- ching goal should be to engage more young graphics and demonstrate respect for each people in the geosciences and promote geo- other’s expertise. science literacy for generations to come. By Cheryl L. B. Manning (­cmanning4@​­niu​ Next, identify and reach out to potential Unlike more general STEM learning ecosys- .­edu), Northern Illinois University, DeKalb partners. (Don’t worry if the list is long to tems in which students build robots or do start; that just means you have a lot of cool science experiments, these Geo-STEM u Read the article at ­bit​.­ly/​­Eos​-­STEM

26 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 OPINION

Perspectives on Parenting While Researching (During a Pandemic)

scientific professionals in the United States. The novel coronavirus has brought the chal- lenging realities of balancing work and per- sonal life to the fore in households and workplaces where such issues were not even topics of conversation a few months earlier. But the challenges of parenting and working simultaneously have always existed. When I asked my female colleagues for their thoughts on the topic prior to the Fall Meeting panel discussion, they uni- formly rolled their eyes and sadly shook their heads. We know. The reality is that if we want our children to be advocates for learning and to be empathic, curious, and joyful, it takes time and effort from us—a lot of time and a lot of effort that would oth- erwise be spent on career. Roughly 20 years ago, a pregnant col- league was reassured by her department An attendee at AGU’s Fall Meeting 2015 spends time with his son at an interactive exhibit during the confer- head that he could secure her the requested ence. Credit: Karna Kurata extra year for her tenure clock from their university: “I’ll say you got a slow start on your research. We won’t even need to men- tion the baby!” he Centennial gathering of AGU last sonal lives—which has been catastrophic for Fortunately, most academic institutional year was significant in the milestone some and highly challenging for nearly all— policies have evolved since the times when Tit represented for the organization has clarified how inescapable these issues an academic’s family was generally dis- and members and because it was the first are. We do not know when or how these missed as, at best, a weekend activity and, Fall Meeting at which the challenges of par- conditions will end, and we cannot yet know at worst, an impediment to career growth. enthood within academia were formally the lasting impacts this extraordinary time For example, family leave and tenure pro- raised. At a moderated session, four invited will have on our lives. cess extensions are becoming standard ben- panelists shared stories of obstacles they Below, the panelists from the Fall Meet- efits, and these policies are percolating had confronted and how their experiences ing discussion reflect on how our present down into training and early-­ ​­career posi- shaped their career paths and their families. era emphasizes the need for open and hon- tions. However, cultural change—in aca- Relative to other professional societies, est conversations within AGU and the aca- demia as in society—usually occurs slowly, AGU has been an early advocate and adopter demic community. Through open discus- and undercurrents of disbelief, resentment, of family-­ ​­friendly accommodations at its sion, we join in the cathartic exercise of and unrealistic expectations remain perva- meetings, including offering subsidized sharing experiences and learning from our sive. childcare. The ­parental–​­professional tra- respective journeys, and by combining such It is time to bust the myth that maternity peze act does not start on the Monday dialogue with purposeful action and empa- leave (or other family caregiving) is a secret morning of Fall Meeting, however, nor does thy, we can effect meaningful structural and opportunity to conduct research free of the it end after the Friday evening poster ses- cultural change. demands of teaching and to recognize it for sion. For decades, what academics could talk what it is: selfless emotional work that ben- about in the workplace did not include the We’ve Had This Conversation Before efits personal, family, and societal ­well-​ substantial personal challenges associated ­being. Likewise, it is important to recognize Tanya Furman, Professor of geosciences, with balancing a demanding career in aca- that working full-time at home while caring Pennsylvania State University, University Park; demia and research with parenthood. full-time for small children is just not pos- and ­president-​­elect, Education section, AGU Thankfully, that’s changing, and conversa- sible. Something has to give. And there’s the Children: age 25 tions about managing parenthood and aca- rub: Someone—indeed, many someones— Current situation: Working full-time at home demic research careers have never been so must raise the next generation. That is our indefinitely vigorous. job and our joy as parents, but we still don’t The ­COVID-19 pandemic has made these This is a particularly interesting time for talk about it openly. The AGU session was conversations only more urgent. The nec- dialogue about structural and cultural influ- an attempt to start this conversation; sus- essary fusion of our professional and per- ences on the timing of ­child-rearing​­ among taining it is our collective responsibility.

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 27 OPINION

The Balancing—and Rebalancing—Act you achieve at one time will necessarily have tion defense. My experience having children to be rebalanced in the future as both during my academic training was similar, I Amy Clement, Professor of atmospheric sci- domains of your life evolve. imagine, to having children anytime during ence at Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmo- an academic career. It involved bringing my spheric Science, University of Miami, Miami, infant to conferences across the country, Fla. pumping between classes and seminars, and Children: ages 16 and 12 squeezing work into the margins: during Current situation: Worked full-time at home My experience having naps and after bedtime. from March through July; began teaching in per- children during my Prior to ­COVID-19, David and I worked son in August; spouse working full-time at full-time outside our home and paid for home; children are largely ­self-​­sufficient academic training involved ­full-time preschool. Six months into the When I first read ­Anne-Marie​­ Slaughter’s bringing my infant to ­COVID-19 era, we are still trying to find a 2012 Atlantic article “Why women still can’t conferences across the rhythm amid so many uncertainties. Early in have it all,” my boys were 5 and 9 years old the pandemic, we took childcare shifts—and and more or less independent (i.e., the country, pumping between were lucky if we each were able to work half- probability of spontaneous home combus- classes and seminars, and time. We could write emails and address tion was decreasing). As they grew and administrative tasks, but focused writing was matured, I felt more energy to put back squeezing work into the nearly impossible. As we quickly found this into work. But Slaughter’s article reminded margins. unsustainable, we sought help from grand- me that the ­career–​­parenting arc is not a parents for a few months, which allowed us linear progression toward freedom (Halle- to increase our productivity to 75%, though lujah! ), in which time spent on family it came at the expense of substantial physical during the burning-­ down-​­ the-​­ house​­ years strain on our aging parents. In July, our des- is miraculously returned when toddlers A Need for Knowledge peration for childcare outweighed our become teenagers, and becomes available “infection guilt” over opening our home to Ni Sun-Suslow, Postdoctoral fellow in clinical for new professional challenges and someone else, and we were fortunate to be neuropsychology, Department of Psychiatry, opportunities. able to hire a nanny. University of California, San Diego I have since realized that the more com- Now that the school year has begun, we Children: ages 4, 2, and pregnant with third plex needs of a teenager require my hus- are faced with a host of new challenges— Current situation: Working full-time at home band’s and my attention in new ways, and attempting virtual transitional kindergarten (90% clinical research, 10% seeing patients vir- things like sitting down together around with a ­4-year-​­old and assessing the risks tually); spouse also working full-time at home; the dinner table are even more critical now. and benefits of possible ­in-​­person instruc- attempting to balance childcare and virtual Career opportunities that would take me tion, for example—all the while attempting school with husband and nanny out of the house on weeknights or on the impossible task of being 100% produc- extensive travel just have to wait—these When I was a graduate student, I googled: tive with our own careers. are choices every parent must make at “When is the best time to have children in In November 2019, David and I received times. academia?” The search results were full of support from AGU to release a survey ­COVID-19 has changed the conversation. opinion articles and advice columns. assessing AGU members’ perspectives on As I write this, I am quarantining at home Although it was reassuring to see I was not parenthood during academic training. About with my family, watching the parenting arc alone in pondering the topic, there were few 1.4% of AGU’s membership (726 individu- playing out within my living room. Early in empirical data sets, especially within the als) participated in our study, with respon- the COVID-19­ era, I was struck with a feel- science, technology, engineering, and dents equally distributed between those in ing familiar from my early days of parent- mathematics (STEM) fields, to shed light on training and those who had completed ing: exhaustion and inadequacy on all fronts the subject. I was left wondering, At what training. About half (48%) reported having (teaching, research, and family). As we have age do most academics have children? Do at least one child, revealing that this topic settled into our new routine, in which we people even want to have children? How is important to many AGU members, with are each tucked away in four corners of the many people leave or stay in academia after or without children, throughout their career house and rejoin each other at the end of the having children? trajectories. These data will help academic day for bike rides or jogs or walks, my hus- After seeking advice from a number of and research institutions make informed band and I are faced with the challenge of women faculty-­ ​­parents, I learned that and ­evidence-​­based policy decisions and dealing with problems for which none of us women who had children early in their will also help transition conversations about has answers. training often did not regret their decision, parenting and research out of the margins There is more than one correct way to and some of those who had children later and into open forums. raise a child; and I believe that the roles of felt they could have had them earlier. This Motherhood and my career are both at parents in shaping children for success can was all anecdotal, but because being a mom the top of my priority list; at times, each be overstated. With that in mind, I think we was a high life priority for me, David and I must give ground to make space for the can all put less pressure on ourselves to find got pregnant in my third year of graduate other. Although this can seem impossible a perfect equilibrium between our personal school. I worked on my degree through two at times, I am grateful I pursued both and professional lives. Just like a career, pregnancies and was very pregnant during simultaneously and that I started early. parenthood is a marathon, and the balance both my qualifying exam and my disserta- Now that I am finishing my training, I am

28 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 OPINION

finding that the flexibility I enjoyed during Early evidence suggests that ­COVID-​ parenting and research balance into a my training years, which was so helpful ­related disruptions, especially to pre-­ ​­K–12 new—and harsher—light. Although some when I was a new parent, has been gradually school programs, will have substantial have found a semblance of equilibrium, the dissipating as I accumulate more critical impacts on the career trajectories of aca- persistent strain caused by the impossible professional responsibilities. But my expe- demics with children as compared with col- duality of being a full-time worker and a rience has shown me that it is possible both leagues who are not parents. These impacts full-time child caregiver is taking a heavy to raise ­well-​­adjusted children during aca- are already being felt disproportionately by toll on others. Donning ­rose-​­colored demic training and to train successfully. Of women [Staniscuaski et al., 2020], and time glasses in an attempt to obscure our dis- course, this was my own experience, which will reveal the lasting effects of the COVID comfort with this COVID era is not helpful reemphasizes the need to collect empirical era on the demographics of academia for or adaptable. For now, it is completely data. years, or possibly decades, to come. acceptable to hold on to hope and to Although academics willingly accept acknowledge that this era of COVID-19­ is Stress on a System Reveals Tension added responsibilities when becoming par- fundamentally, and negatively, affecting ents, the strain is no less significant when many of us, including ­parent-​­academics; Henry Potter, Assistant professor of oceanog- individuals silently navigate these chal- and it may continue for a long time. The raphy, Texas A&M University, College Station lenges. Perhaps the shared challenges and full ramifications on our lives and the aca- Children: ages 3 and 1 experiences of the pandemic can motivate demic community are yet unknown. Current situation: Working full-time at academics to unmute this topic. We are in Enduring the present and mitigating long- home; spouse also working full-time at home; a narrow window of time in which the dif- term impacts of this pandemic will require no childcare ficult balance between careers and caregiv- empathy and our communal effort to With two young children and being one of ing, and unavoidable professional hiccups maintain open and meaningful dialogue, two full-time working parents at home and productivity declines, are on the minds even after the “new normal” returns to the during the pandemic, I find about 25 hours of many people and are affecting every “old normal.” per week for my job as an assistant profes- professional sector. And yet we know that sor. I squeeze in a few hours of work after tensions between parenthood and profes- Acknowledgments my children’s bedtime or sacrifice a few sional domains will not be inoculated by a We thank AGU for its support of the Fall hours of sleep to stay afloat, yet papers and ­SARS-​­CoV-2 vaccine. For now, though, I’d Meeting 2019 session and for encouraging proposals remain unwritten. In the latter like to have the time and mental energy to this dialogue. D.O.-S. and N.S.-S. specifi- half of the semester this past spring, when work on submitting my NASA proposal for cally thank AGU for its support of the Par- classes were in session remotely, I barely the fast approaching deadline, and like enthood in Academic Research Environ- had enough time to finish my daily duties everyone else, I hope to just “get through ments during Training (PARENT) survey in teaching, grading, emails, and meet- this.” project. We are all deeply thankful and ings—much of which does not advantage appreciative of our families’ love and sup- my tenure review. port throughout our respective careers and, Over the summer, I didn’t teach, but my most important, for their patience. productivity remained disappointing. I still Early evidence suggests sacrifice my evenings and weekends, split- References ting the workweek with my spouse, and that COVID-related Staniscuaski, F., et al. (2020), Impact of COVID-19­ on academic mothers, Science, 368(6492), 724, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1126/​­ ​ being frequently interrupted means papers disruptions will have science­ .​ abc2740.­ and proposals stay on the to-do pile. I am fortunate that my university allowed me to substantial impacts on David G. ­Ortiz-​­Suslow contributed to the pause my tenure clock this year, but I still the career trajectories authoring of this article in his personal capacity. feel I am lagging my nonparent peers. Rou- The opinions and views expressed herein are the tinely stuffing work into the margins just to of zacademics with authors’ own and do not necessarily represent keep up is the norm of parenting as an aca- the views of the Naval Postgraduate School, the demic, an already difficult scenario that has children as compared with Department of the Navy, the Department of been significantly exacerbated by the pan- colleagues who are not Defense, or the U.S. government. demic. The ­COVID-19 era has uncovered the stark parents. contrasts between the realities of nonpar- By David G. Ortiz-­ ​­Suslow (dortizsu@­ ​­nps​ ents and parents in academic research envi- .edu),­ Naval Postgraduate School, Monte- ronments (and elsewhere). When a parent rey, Calif.; ­Tanya Furman,­ Pennsylvania State misses work to care for a dependent, career-­ ​ Looking Forward University, University Park; ­Amy Clement,­ ­building activities are inevitably sacrificed With the tumult and anxiety of 2020, con- University of Miami, Miami, Fla.; Henry­ ­Potter, for insistent daily responsibilities. This sit- versations of how to manage parenthood Texas A&M University, College Station; and uation engenders perceptions of a lack of simultaneously with academic or research Ni Sun-­ Suslow,​­ University of California, San productivity that have a detrimental impact careers are moving closer to the profes- Diego on long-term career growth and success by sional and cultural zeitgeist. Yes, this con- affecting competitiveness for advancement, versation is not new, but the disruptions u Read the article at bit­ .​ ly/­ Eos​­ ​ job opportunities, and funding. wrought by the pandemic have thrown the -parenting­

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 29 OPINION

Ten Steps to Protect BIPOC Scholars in the Field

at least the same diligence carried out to pro- tect students from ticks, falls, or snake­bites. Many institutions already have good ­on-​ ­campus policies but often do not extend or enforce those policies during activities tak- ing place off campus. Risk assessment is an integral part of geoscience fieldwork. It is imperative that these assessments include ­race-​­related risks associated with field trips. The racism and other forms of discrimination experi- enced by BIPOC students in the field are exacerbated because these spaces are out- side of the campus environment, sometimes in a community of people who may or may not have had prior interactions with minori- tized students. The only experience that white people in these communities may sometimes have had with BIPOC students is through the media, where, often, a negative Mammoth Hot Springs at Yellowstone National Park. Credit: Hendratta Ali story of the BIPOC community is presented. For inclusion to take root in the geosci- ences, institutions must actively listen and

he geosciences are not diverse. Dis- by the time they join their white peers to cussions attempting to address this study geoscience in undergraduate pro- Tlack of diversity often center around grams, BIPOC students lack equivalent We, as Black geoscientists, voyeuristic accounts of traumatic experi- exposure to the types of environments in want to equip the ences, which, although accurate, have which fieldwork takes place. These factors clearly not caused the needed institutional make it hard for BIPOC scholars new to the community with change for diversity to take root. Rather geosciences to fully participate in and enjoy actionable steps to create than relive our trauma, we, as Black geosci- field camp or other field-based research and entists, want to equip the community with educational outings. accepting and supportive actionable steps to create accepting and Once they do begin to participate in field- supportive spaces for BIPOC (Black, Indige- work, BIPOC students often face racism and spaces for BIPOC nous, and People of Color) students. Specif- prejudice in these outdoor spaces. Field- students. ically, we’ll address one area in which work usually happens in remote, nonurban, ­geoscience institutions have failed under- racially homogeneous places—places that represented students: fieldwork safety. can be dangerous to minoritized students, Fieldwork has long been core to the iden- who may face hostility, distrust, and disre- take substantive steps to protect BIPOC tity of the geoscience community. That spect. scholars from harm in the field. On our cam- impression reigns despite the fact that most puses, white faculty and staff can use their geoscience work happens away from the The Need for a Culture Shift privilege to minimize the chances of racist field, in laboratories and offices. Yet field- Negative field experiences are common for and other discriminatory actions toward the work still underpins geoscience curricula at BIPOC scholars. One might argue that it is BIPOC students on their teams. Here are our undergraduate and graduate levels; it is fre- not the job of institutions to protect students recommendations: quently viewed not only as a necessary rite of from the world, but this mindset can result 1. Institutions that run field programs passage but also as a prerequisite for employ- in the inadvertent exclusion of BIPOC stu- should have a mandatory racial risk assessment ment. Geoscientists who lack field experi- dents who feel they must remove them- requirement as part of pretravel protocols. ence may be at a competitive disadvantage selves from potentially dangerous situations. This assessment requires faculty to consider when applying for jobs or promotions. An attitude that BIPOC students’ prob- the experiences of their BIPOC students. For BIPOC students, fieldwork continues lems are not the research team’s problems 2. To perform those assessments appro- to be a barrier. Studies on this topic have also discourages the types of planning that priately, faculty should take antidiscrimina- shown that some BIPOC students are born can foster a safe environment for everyone tion training to help them identify and learn and raised in urban areas and may come when practicing fieldwork. A proactive strat- ways to address potential discriminatory from families that lack the financial ability egy would consider protection from racial attitudes (nonverbal, verbal, and physical to take extended outdoor trips. Therefore, discrimination and racialized violence with threats) that BIPOC students experience in

30 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 OPINION

field locations. For example, faculty can cre- accounting is particularly important to This article centers the ate and have plans in place to de-escalate­ address microaggressions faced by BIPOC racial tension and protect students from individuals. Microaggressions, which rou- experiences of BIPOC violence. tinely go unacknowledged or are minimized, students in outdoor field 3. Before traveling, faculty should lead wear down morale over time and have collaborative discussions to identify dis- adverse impacts on mental health. For stu- spaces, but we must criminatory or ­race-​­related incidents with dents, this impact can lead to their eventual acknowledge that the lack team members that could occur in the field exit from the geosciences. and then encourage bystander interventions. 10. Team leaders should address incidents of equity in field access is 4. Before field trips, team leaders should of discrimination when they happen. Team a much bigger issue in the reach out to local authorities, businesses, members should practice and use the 5D and community leaders, especially in white strategy for bystander interventions: direct, geosciences. communities, to provide early notice of the distract, delegate, delay, document (see ­bit​ diverse nature of their teams. .­ly/​­5D​-­strategy). The team should have a 5. Institutions should identify and share plan to exit dangerous scenes or to relocate cultural norms, expectations, jargon, poli- the field party to a place of safety if other lack of equity in field access is a much bigger cies, and rules practiced in field communi- strategies fail. issue in the geosciences. Access to fieldwork ties that may be unfamiliar to the fieldwork and field trips has traditionally been designed team. A Field for All for able-bodied, cisgender individuals within 6. Institutions should provide allyship When students and scholars feel that their the geosciences who have, in Western com- training to educate and empower non-BIPOC experiences and concerns are considered munities, historically been white men. And members of the team. BIPOC students could valid, they are more likely to speak with fac- globally, able-bodied cisgender men are still be paired with white field allies. These part- ulty or team leaders as issues arise. This dis- the primary group for whom field access is nerships would help build trust within field course, in turn, fosters a sense of belonging. planned. We need the geoscience community parties, as well as help interactions with Without this sense of belonging, BIPOC stu- to create outdoor experiences that are wel- local communities. dents and scholars internalize negative coming to everyone, including people with 7. Team leaders should interrogate and experiences and risk further traumas that disabilities, LGBTQ+ people, and women. identify blind spots in team members from the drive them from the geosciences and STEM majority racial group. ­Self-​­awareness of (science, technology, engineering, and one’s own privilege can be a good impetus mathematics) fields in general. By Joshua Anadu (­josh​.­anadu@​­okstate​ to becoming a strong ally. There has been a growing recognition of .­edu), Oklahoma State University, Stillwater; 8. Team leaders should be present in the the unacceptable state of inequity, lack of ­Hendratta Ali, Fort Hays State University, field to introduce all of their team members to diversity, and challenges with the inclusion Hays, Kans.; and Christopher Jackson, Impe- the host community and other stakeholders. of people from minoritized groups in the rial College London. 9. Team leaders should document hostile geosciences. This article centers the experi- encounters that team members face during ences of BIPOC students in outdoor field u Read the article at bit­ .​ ly/­ Eos​­ ​ field visits regardless of severity. This spaces, but we must acknowledge that the -­BIPOC​-­scholars

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SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 31 MENTORSHIP AT A DISTANCE Three geoscience programs offer case studies on how to form meaningful connections during a time of social distancing.

By Richard J. Sima

With the COVID pandemic limiting academic opportunities at sea and in the field, mentors and mentees are getting onboard with virtual strategies. Credit: Ocean Networks Canada; IconFlat/Depositphotos.com (laptop graphic)

32 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020

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33 he summer of 2020 was supposed to be one of exploration, [such] a one-of-a-kind, transformative experience that you virtu- discovery, and mentorship for students in the geosci- ally can’t do it virtually.” ences. Though the onboard experience cannot be replicated, Lewis and But then the pandemic happened. Cooper are building out the mentorship aspect of ­STEMSEAS and Laboratories shuttered their doors; research vessels working to connect their students to resources, opportunities, and stayed docked. mentors virtually. TMany of the mentorship programs to which students applied are Other programs are in a similar boat. now navigating the ­still-​­uncharted waters of the “new normal” The Nautilus Live science and engineering internship program and working to provide quality, albeit remote, mentorship. of the Ocean Exploration Trust also did not go to sea. Program STEMSEAS—short for Science, Technology, Engineering and leaders decided to defer all ­would-​­be participants for the ­ship-​ Math Student Experiences Aboard Ships—is one such program. ­based program to next year and instead provide opportunities to Run out of the ­Lamont-​­Doherty Earth Observa- participate virtually from shore. tory at Columbia University, the National Sci- “It’s such a hard decision because we know ence ­Foundation–​­funded initiative has been a how important and how timely these experi- gateway for more than 125 students to experi- ences can be in the career track of students,” ence ocean science up close every summer “It took us actually said Megan Cook, manager of Education since 2016. In a normal year, ­STEMSEAS gives Partnerships and Programs at the Ocean undergraduates the opportunity to spend ­6–10 until a couple of Exploration Trust. “That’s the thing really in days aboard a U.S. Academic Research Fleet our hearts and minds.” research vessel with experienced faculty men- weeks ago to finally Many of the GEO Research Experiences for tors as the ship makes transits between expe- Undergraduates (REU) programs, usually ditions. admit defeat, that hosted by laboratories at different research “Going to sea is really quite life changing the institutes throughout the United States, first time one goes, I think regardless of your we weren’t going to were either canceled or moved to virtual stage in life,” said Jon Lewis, a professor of research internships and professional devel- geoscience at Indiana University of Pennsylva- be able to do this.” opment workshops in 2020. This pivot, nia and ­co–​­principal investigator of ­STEMSEAS. forced by social distancing concerns, “It is very powerful.” affected student engagement in geoscience Of course, 2020 has not been a normal year. education and career preparation. Regardless, “It took us actually until a couple of weeks ago to it was apparent that “the students were very hungry for some- finally admit defeat, that we weren’t going to be able thing,” said Valerie Sloan, director of the GEO REU network and to do this,” said Sharon Cooper, a senior staff associate at Lamont an internship specialist at the National Center for Atmospheric and ­STEMSEAS Research. ­co–​­principal These three programs—­STEMSEAS, Nautilus, and GEO REU— investigator, in may serve as case studies for creating remote mentoring networks July. “We want to that can still develop meaningful connections and professional go to sea! We’re development for students in a time of social distancing. kicking and screaming.” Serendipity and Intentional Mentoring “These are As an undergraduate student at Iowa State University, Chanel Vidal unique times, and took part in the 2018 STEMSEAS cruise on the R/V Endeavor as it we really should sailed from Rhode Island to Barbados. just step up and With Vidal hailing from landlocked Iowa, the program was life try to keep main- changing in more ways than one. “It was the best experience I had taining engage- in college. The idea of being able to just go to sea for a week and ment and get only see ocean was ­mind-​­blowing,” she said. “It’s not something people excited,” that I ever thought that I would be able to do.” said Lewis, who, Interacting with professors, graduate students, and other men- with Cooper, tees while working on her research project shifted Vidal’s aca- originally demic trajectory by showing her how interdisciplinary ocean sci- sketched out the ences research worked and that it was something she herself could concept of do. ­STEMSEAS over “[STEMSEAS] definitely formed what I want to study for the rest coffee. “The irony of my life,” Vidal said. “I had interest in it [before], but they is, the entire helped me prove to myself that it’s realistic and I can do it and it’s project is based possible.” Ashley Smith, a biology major from Rensselaer on something The relationships she formed are still strong and influential Polytechnic Institute, pipettes dye for gel electro- that is truly a sui years later; she still keeps in touch with her cohort and mentors. phoresis during the 2019 BIOS REU program. generis experi- “The teamwork and the relationships and just the beauty of it all Credit: BIOS ence. It’s really were so memorable and have resonated with me even though I’ve

34 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) programs, such as this one at the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS), provide opportunities for stu- dents to physically experience what it’s like to conduct research. Credit: Michael Hubenthal of IRIS

been in landlocked Iowa for 2 more years,” said Vidal. “I still think enough that I felt like I was connecting with them, and I hope they about it every day.” felt that as well,” she said. One of her project mentors, Joseph Montoya, a professor of bio- logical sciences at the Georgia Institute of Technology, recently Pivoting and Finding the Silver Linings helped with Vidal’s application to the Nautilus internship pro- There are physical limits to the number of people who can fit on a gram. ship or in a research lab. But mentorship and programming this Montoya is an example of a chance mentor brought on board by year are not subject to such physical constraints, which may be an the program: He was on the ship in preparation for a ­follow-​­on opportunity: Though the virtual programs may have less depth of expedition and not originally part of ­STEMSEAS. Today he has impact, they could have considerably more reach. become one the program’s biggest contributors. That happenstance is the beauty of the program, said Cooper. “We like to work with anybody else who might be on the transit.” These kinds of serendipitous connections may be one of the more challenging aspects to emulate in a remote program. “The difference between mentoring and just supervision is that you’re helping [students] to talk about their professional goals,” said GEO REU’s Sloan. The goal of the GEO REU program is to give students experience doing geosciences research for ­6–10 weeks during the summer so they understand how science works and whether it appeals to them, said Sloan. “And the things that distinguish REU programs from, let’s just say, being a student assistant in a lab would be that in an REU program, you have intentional mentoring” and profes- sional development, both of which are particularly important for students from historically underrepresented backgrounds. This means, in part, nurturing an environment for informal mentoring stemming from spontaneous interactions in the cafete- ria to introductions to faculty or invitations to lab meetings. In a typical year, approximately 65 GEO REU sites would provide 800 students with ­hands-​­on research experiences and mentor- ship. Moving programs online this year made introducing students to people more difficult by far, Sloan said. To help bridge the gap this past summer, Sloan developed the 2020 National Science Foundation Ocean Sciences REU, a virtual professional development workshop series, to bring together 45 undergraduates hosted by different REU programs around the United States in weekly Zoom meetings with faculty facilitators on a variety of topics ranging from career exploration to research eth- ics to resumé building. Before the workshops began, Sloan held more intimate sessions As part of an REU program, Chanel Vidal (left) helps build a flex cam aboard the with four students at a time to get to know them. “It was small R/V Endeavor. Credit: Chanel Vidal

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 35 Rebecca Ju, an environmental studies major from Yale University, participates in the 2018 Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences (BIOS) REU program. Credit: BIOS

“A major challenge was the frameshift for us when you haven’t sailed on a ship yet, you to recognize that if you can’t go to sea, you think of the ship captain as some very intim- shouldn’t just assume we can’t do anything,” “We’re going to reach idating, grizzled old guy, right? But most of said Lewis of ­STEMSEAS. “And I think once we the ship captains we’ve sailed with have got over that, [we] said what we really need to more people in a very been super hip and fun and crazy people with do is meet the moment and pivot and figure out interesting stories. If we can have a captain a way to connect.” different way than talk to the students, I think that’s really Normally, ­STEMSEAS receives several hun- cool.” dred applicants each year, and only 40 students we would have Similarly, the Nautilus internship pro- can sail. This year, those applicants who would gram is taking advantage of the resources it not have had an opportunity to participate normally, so it’s a has already built to offer students opportu- could stay engaged, Lewis said. “So that’s kind nities to stay engaged. The program was of a plus. We’re going to reach more people in a little bit of a silver designed to train undergraduate and gradu- very different way than we would have nor- ate stu​­dents working aboard the E/V Nautilus, mally, so it’s a little bit of a silver lining.” lining.” which explores the deep sea with ­remote-​ In charting out its new remote programming, ­controlled vehicles. For ­2–5 weeks, interns ­STEMSEAS called upon its ­built-in network of would get ­hands-​­on experience working as ­30-odd instructors and even more alumni who seafloor mappers, data loggers, pilots of were eager to pitch in by connecting with a student or remotely operated vehicles, or video engineers. giving a lecture or webinar, things that could have “We try to target students who we really think will benefit from happened almost as easily on a ship as on a computer. The the opportunity of getting to sea,” said Nicole Raineault, the chief ­STEMSEAS Facebook alumni page has fostered continued interac- scientist and vice president of exploration and science operations tion and conversations, and alumni have made conscious efforts to at Ocean Exploration Trust. connect their students with upcoming opportunities and intern- The entire internship program cohort has been deferred this ships. year because of limitations on how many can safely crew the ship. STEMSEAS online programming also tried to bring some of the As an alternative, the students are encouraged to participate in the ship experiences to their students by connecting them to the ship Scientists Ashore Program, another Nautilus initiative that allows operators, who may have more time now that there is not much scientists to participate in expeditions via live video and data feeds sailing, Cooper said. with text dialogues with shipboard scientists. “We can arrange for them to talk to the students in a way that “For 10 years, we’ve pioneered telepresence and pushed that probably wouldn’t have been available,” she said. “You know, technology forward, and now we’re kind of being asked to put our

36 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 money where our mouth is and flex that tele­ But remote programs come with their own, presence at a new level,” Cook said. “We’ve often technical, challenges. “Every week, always said you can come to the seafloor using “This is such a wild something would go wrong in a pretty big, technology—now let’s actually take you to the frustrating way,” so some trial and error was seafloor.” year. I think it’s necessary, Sloan said. During its delayed expedition season “Keep things simple until you’re more com- from October to December, Nautilus also forcing us all to be fortable,” she advised. plans to host career panels and student back- GEO REU also provided resources to mentors ground talks about their experiences in ocean really willing to be and program directors for moving REUs online science, drawing from some of the program’s with tips on engaging virtually to help ease the almost 140 intern alumni. “We really look on our toes. And I transition. to position everyone as role models,” Cook As with any successful mentorship program, said. think that’s a good communication and time were key. In the GEO These events, available on the Nautilus Live REU mailing listserv, program directors and website, will be open to students as well as the lesson for students.” mentors from around the country shared their general public. experiences and emphasized the importance of “This is such a wild year,” Cook said. “And I using different means of communication like think it’s forcing us all to be really willing to be texting, videoconferencing (e.g., Zoom), and on our toes. And I think that’s a good lesson for stu- online chatting (e.g., Slack) to maintain contact dents.” between students and mentors. However, Sloan noted, giving time to students was doubly Lessons Learned for an Uncertain Future important when mentoring remotely. “We knew we don’t want to This past summer may not be the last time these virtual programs have them on Zoom all the time,” she said. “Because that’s death.” are needed. Despite the challenges inherent in building connections in a new “Incidentally, two students that I know of got COVID,” Sloan remote format, the experiment seems to have worked. In surveys said. “They are recovering okay. If they had been on campus, it she sent out after her virtual professional development workshop would have been complicated for everyone involved—the cohort, series ended, Sloan found that most of the students had had a posi- the lab staff, and so on. We had questions at the summer’s outset tive experience and found the program valuable for their develop- about how we would deal with a sick student—who would provide ment. care? How would they get home, if they had one to go to?” “I think the takeaway for me was that it was successful, and I “I bet you’ll see a kind of mishmash next year” between ­in-​ didn’t know if it would be,” Sloan said. “It was more successful ­person and virtual mentorship programs, Sloan continued. “It’s than I expected.” wait and see [and] play by ear, but I would not be surprised to see a continuation of it.” Author Information Even after the pandemic, remote mentorship networks can be Richard J. Sima (@richardsima), Science Writer valuable for their wide reach, especially to underrepresented groups that might otherwise not find these programs accessible. u Read the article at bit.ly/­Eos​-­mentorship

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SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 37 Reuters/Infobae.com/Handout

38 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020

EOS_ND2020.indd 38 10/21/20 3:35 PM EOS_ND2020.indd 39

Opposite Page: XXXXXX; This Page: Top Right: XXXX reframing the discussion reframing the on managed retreat can coasts amid rising seas, give them real agency. SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU BY JULIE MALDONADO, communitiesfacing relocation from the ELIZABETH MARINO, AND LESLEY IAUKEA With so many many so With

// E os.org 10/21/20 3:35 PM

39

hen faced with the looming effects of cli- used largely to describe the physical move- mate change along coasts—larger storms, ment of built infrastructure, and it only rising seas, flooding, and eroding shore- subsequently has included the physical lines—arguing to promote linguistic fram- movement of people. Also encompassed in ing of climate ­change–​­driven migration the term are the policies that facilitate may seem like a fool’s errand. Does anyone these movements. Recent scientific and care what it’s called if hundreds of millions policy research has tried to reconceptualize W of people globally—up to 13.1 million peo- the idea of managed retreat so that it is ple in the United States alone [Hauer et al., more inclusive of social consequences— 2016]—relocate from coastlines en masse such as the cultural and psychological risks before 2100? Should anyone spend time that accompany retreat—or has suggested considering how to title the newest report actions such as reparations to address risk about ­climate-​­driven migrations when that has accumulated over time for specific what are needed are data, analysis, policy disenfranchised populations [Siders et al., changes, and cultural shifts that will safe- 2019]. guard the lives, livelihoods, infrastructure, However, within the managed retreat and economies forced to deal with that framework—with its focus on buildings, migration? Does it really matter whether property, city infrastructure, zoning, prop- people are “retreating” or “relocating” erty rights, and the strategic planning and when it’s still unclear how to deal realisti- political will necessary to coordinate all of cally with the ocean rising up to 1.8 meters these—scientists use data to help govern- above the ground on which our homes are ing authorities and businesses make plans sitting? and policies to entice municipalities, prop- We think it does matter. erty owners, and developers away from

How and, especially, by whom relocation plans are developed will have substantial impacts on affected people’s lives.

Implicit in terms like managed retreat, coasts. Those making the plans and poli- forced migration, community relocation, cies often suggest that such a mechanism and others are assumptions about who is saves people from both sea level rise and deciding what is appropriate adaptation “their own bad decisions.” At first blush, and how those decisions influence, sug- this is an enticing way to think about cli- gest, or require compliance. How and, mate change adaptation, offering a “best especially, by whom these plans are devel- solution”—and it is accurately titled as oped will have substantial impacts on managing retreat. But the emerging use of affected or relocated people’s lives. These eminent domain to remove people from impacts are particularly critical for indi- coastal locations, such as along the U.S. viduals in marginalized communities in East and Gulf Coasts, is an example of how the United States, who will likely endure managed retreat sometimes leads to plans disproportionate hardship from climate of action that are enacted upon a citizenry and environmental risks and who have instead of in partnership with a citizenry. historically suffered under decisions made There are three critical flaws in this by people outside their communities. framework. We want to start a discussion about the First, affected people are often missing assumptions and implications conveyed by altogether from policy and planning dis- the various terms used to describe the cussions about managed retreat, and when anticipated ­large-​­scale movements of they are present, they are abstracted and people and communities away from coasts. homogenized. It is as though they do not have unique lives or histories, differences MANAGED RETREAT in bank balances, varying access to child- The most common term used to describe care, valid opinions, ancestral knowledge the movement of people away from coasts of place, or varying perspectives about is managed retreat, a concept that emerged what success looks like in their own lives from coastal engineers. The term has been and relocations. In some cases, people

40 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 have been described as being part of the problem—obstacles to achieving the goals of managed retreat. As social scientists who study ­community-​­led relocation, we can attest to the number of researchers, disaster response professionals, and journalists who have asked us about communities’ “unwillingness to move,” about the “stub- bornness of some people,” and about the onus of financing relocations “being on the individual.” If managed retreat works against people’s own assessments of risk, desires, and decision-­ ​­making, it is not an inclusive adaptation plan, and it can fur- ther marginalize the very communities it is The Isle de Jean Charles ­Biloxi-​­Chitimacha-​­Choctaw Tribe, whose community in supposedly designed to support. What the Mississippi Delta is shown here, has experienced land loss resulting from ris- people think of their own lives, place, and ing seas; increased hurricane intensity and frequency (and being cut out of culture matters. ­state-​­led hurricane protection plans); extractive industries; river mismanage- For example, Indigenous Peoples, whose ment; and hydrological, meteorological, and environmental disasters. The tribe lands settlers stole and now inhabit—and has been working on ­community-​­led relocation for nearly 2 decades. Credit: who are on the front lines of climate dis- Babs Bagwell, 2012 placement—are connected to the land through Indigenous worldviews that hold the land to be their ancestor. When dis- placed from the land, people become health devastation and injustices. Consider ­displaced from their culture. Indigenous how the damming of the Amazon dis- Peoples understand this dynamic and can placed more than a dozen Indigenous be resistant to moving for this very reason. groups and how Andrew Jackson’s pur- Second, the normative assumptions chase of Georgia led to the Trail of Tears about “the best solution for the greatest death march for an estimated 60,000 number of people” wrapped up in the Native Americans from east of the Missis- managed retreat language often leave out sippi River to what is now Oklahoma.

Affected people are often missing altogether from policy and planning discussions about managed retreat, and when they are present, they are abstracted and homogenized.

the very people who bear the most extreme Today a number of tribal communities burdens of the climate crisis. In a process and Indigenous Peoples live on the Missis- managed by outside entities—especially sippi Delta lowlands, which are sinking as powerful ones such as scientific institu- seas are rising. There are also Indigenous tions, governments, and corporations— communities on ­low-​­lying islands all speaking and acting for the people who are across the South Pacific. With a new era of actually moving run the risk of continuing relocation linked to climate change, we can and expanding the historical oppression of anticipate these and similar communities rural, minoritized, Indigenous, and undoc- bearing the burden of picking up their cul- umented communities. tures and moving again. It is critical to Consider the sacrifices of Indigenous allow these communities to create, invent, communities on Bikini Atoll, who were and decide their own futures. moved repeatedly by the U.S. government Third, by not focusing on the lived expe- for nuclear testing on the island and who riences of people being relocated and on today continue to experience effects of dis- the differences among communities who

Opposite Page: XXXXXX; This Page: Top Right: XXXX Top XXXXXX; This Page: Opposite Page: placement and severe environmental and need to move, there is a greater likelihood

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 41 Residents of Shishmaref on Sarichef Island in Alaska, as seen above, have been working for years on relocation plans because of growing threats to the community from storm surge, shoreline erosion, and thawing permafrost. Credit: Bering Land Bridge National Preserve, CC BY 2.0 (bit​.ly/­ccby2-0)

that resources will be disproportionately “Community led” also highlights the allocated away from politically marginal- importance of community engagement, ized and economically poor communities input, and leadership in decision-­ ​­making, [Siders et al., 2019; Marino, 2018] or that the visioning, planning, and implementation provision of resources will stop once peo- [Marino et al., 2019]. ple are relocated. Unlike with “managed retreat,” When scientists, policy makers, and “­community-​­led relocation” encourages planners say managed retreat, their sights us to see that success means helping peo- are trained on putting physical space ple to stay safe and healthy and feel satis- between encroaching waters and commu- fied in a new location. The term also nities—on retreating. To the point that encourages us to foster plans of action that people and infrastructure do leave, such emphasize the logistics of perpetuating efforts succeed. But there is so much that culture after resettlement, such as consid- can be done better. ering how houses are constructed and how people physically dwell in relation to one MORE INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE another, as well as establishing community Shifting from “managed retreat” to lan- gathering spaces for cultural and ceremo- guage that is more inclusive of who and nial practices and ways to maintain food what is included in “community” and that sovereignty and access to traditional foods, upholds the varying voices, opinions, medicines, and subsistence practices. knowledges, and lived experiences of those Social scientists know that simply using physically moving is more than a seman- the word community does not mean every- tics issue; it also involves logistic and pol- one within that designation agrees to a icy elements that can incite changes in single or simple solution [Faas and Marino, practices related to people moving from 2020]. But framing sea level ­rise–​­driven coastal regions. migration as taking place within a com- The term ­community-​­led relocation, munity instead of as involving retreat from for example, includes consideration of the a territory allows space for dialogue to complex tapestry of people who leave a address solutions that make sense to the place they have inhabited to settle in people moving as opposed to focusing on another, as well as the fact that these com- terminology originally meant to describe munity tapestries are bound not by geog- infrastructures and assets. If the people raphy but by relationships and practice. most affected by relocation are not

42 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 involved in the planning process, their preventive actions. It is also critical to build needs—physical and cultural—are unlikely flexibility into the relocation process to to be met. Their communities will be moved allow a community to decide for itself how to places that are not set up for or prepared best to enable its own physical and cultural to accommodate their cultures, which is continuity. In addition, as part of reloca- how cultural affirmations like Native lan- tion planning, there needs to be an evalua- guages, traditions, foundations, and ties to tive process to determine whether and how land and sustainability can be erased. a community group was involved in ­decision-​­making at every step, from initial AN OPEN CONVERSATION visions to planning to implementation. A critical question to consider is, How do The risks and challenges borne by com- people relocate with their cultures intact? munities at risk of displacement often are If intact means immutable and unchanged, founded on centuries of injustices. The least then it is impossible. However, Indigenous that planners, engineers, scientists, and

Dignity and ­self-​­governance in movement as a response to changing coasts are certainly possible—but only if local authority is central to the conversation.

Alaskans and many communities through- others involved in researching and imple- out the Pacific, for example, have long tra- menting community relocation plans can ditions of migration. These communities do, collectively, is to create inclusive lan- show that dignity and ­self-​­governance in guage and frameworks that promote just movement as a response to changing coasts community relocations and resettlements. are certainly possible—but only if local authority is central to the conversation. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Our intent here is not to prescriptively We express deep gratitude to our friends determine the language to associate with and relatives who have provided wisdom ­climate-​­driven relocation. Even with and guidance over the years on the pro- “community” attached to them, words like cesses discussed in this article and so relocation can have ­deep-​­rooted negative much more. connotations. Rather, we want to invite an open conversation to shift the framing REFERENCES from one of managed retreat to one that is Faas, A. J., and E. K. Marino (2020), Mythopolitics of “com- munity”: An unstable but necessary category, Disaster Prev. more inclusive of people, cultures, and Manage., https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1108/​­ DPM-04-2020-0101.​ lifeways. If people do not see themselves Hauer, M. E., J. M. Evans, and D. R. Mishra (2016), Millions in the framing, if it is being done for them projected to be at risk from sea-­ level​­ rise in the continental United States, Nat. Clim. Change, 6, 691–695, https://​ doi​­ .​ org/­ ​ as opposed to with them, the process 10.1038/­ nclimate2961.​­ reverts to adopting the historically prob- Marino, E. (2018), Adaptation privilege and voluntary buyouts: Perspectives on ethnocentrism in sea level rise relocation and lematic best solution. retreat policies in the US, Global Environ. Change, 49, 10–13,­ As we’ve described, the best solution in https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1016/​­ j.gloenvcha​­ .​ 2018.01.002.­ the current framing of managed retreat is Marino, E., A. Jerolleman, and J. Maldonado (2019), Law and Policy for Adaptation and Relocation Meeting, meeting sum- based predominantly on economic mea- mary report, Natl. Cent. for Atmos. Res., Boulder, Colo. sures while discounting nonmaterial con- Siders, A. R., M. Hino, and K. J. Mach (2019), The case for stra- tegic and managed climate retreat, Science, 365, 761–763, siderations like histories, practices, affec- https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1126/​­ science​­ .​ aax8346­ . tive experiences, and ways of life that are essential in thriving communities. AUTHOR INFORMATION We recognize that no single framing will Julie Maldonado (jmaldonado@­ ​ work for everyone. In determining how likenknowledge­ .​ org),­ Livelihoods Knowledge such framing can be more inclusive, it is Exchange Network, Lexington, Ky.; ­Elizabeth critical for planners, engineers, scientists, Marino,­ Oregon State University–­ Cascades,​­ policy and decision makers, and other pro- Bend; and Lesley­ Iaukea,­ University of fessionals involved to engage in open and Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Honolulu ongoing dialogue with community leaders and organizers who have long been work- u Read the article at bit­ .​ ly/­ Eos​­ ​

Opposite Page: XXXXXX; This Page: Top Right: XXXX Top XXXXXX; This Page: Opposite Page: ing on and advocating for ­community-​­led, -­relocation

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 43 Researchers gather in a cave entrance at one of the archaeological sites they studied near Mossel Bay on the central southern coast of South Africa. When sea levels were lower, this cave would have looked out over a wide grassland. Credit: Kerstin Braun

44 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 Sea level changes have repeatedly reshaped the Paleo-Agulhas Plain, a now submerged region off the coast of South Africa that once teemed with plants, animals, and human hunter-gatherers. A LOST HAVEN FOR E ARLY

MODERN HUMANS BY KERSTIN BRAUN

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 45 outhern South Africa is well These sites sit along the northern edge coastline advanced and retreated over known for its scenic coast- of the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain, a piece of many millennia. line of rugged cliffs and continental shelf the size of Ireland that long, sandy beaches and for was repeatedly exposed and submerged Revealing Ancient Vistas its fynbos, an extraordinarily as sea levels changed through the Pleisto- The highest sea levels were about 6 meters diverse, ­Mediterranean-type​­ cene and that today lies beneath the above the present level during the last assemblage of shrubs and other vegeta- waves south of Africa. Scientists have long interglacial phase, about 125,000 years Stion, most of which are endemic to the recognized that the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain ago, whereas the lowest were 129 meters area. The region is also known for its long was an important part of the glacial land- below present levels during the penulti- legacy of human inhabitation. Today it is scapes—and one that shaped human pop- mate glacial period, roughly 137,000 years home to numerous coastal communities ulations—in southern Africa, but the ago. For much of the past 200,000 years, interspersed among large population environment and ecology of the plain the ocean was substantially lower than it ­centers like Cape Town and Port Eliza- have been largely unknown. That’s is today, and the view from the caves and beth, but the ­present-​­day coastline is changing, however, as researchers apply rock shelters that once hosted humans also dotted with archaeological sites doc- advanced methods and reveal archaeolog- would have been quite different. umenting 200,000 years of human activ- ical and geological records that tell tales Near the caves, inhabitants would have ity. of feast, famine, and migration as the looked out over a wide, mostly flat plain resembling the grasslands of modern eastern Africa more than the fynbos shrublands of the current coastal low- lands. The ancient grasslands were dis- For much of the past 200,000 years, sected by rivers that flowed south from the mountains of the Cape Fold Belt and the ocean was substantially lower than it had wide floodplains covered in wood- lands and lush wetland vegetation [Cowl- is today, and the view from the caves and ing et al., 2020]. Diverse herbivores roamed the grass- rock shelters that once hosted humans lands, woodlands, and wetlands in large herds [Marean et al., 2020]. Large grazers, would have been quite different. like the now extinct giant buffalo, whose curving horns protruded a meter from either side of its head, remained in the open grasslands, whereas zebra, wilde- beest, blue antelope, and hartebeest took advantage of the open grasslands and tall wetland grasses. Browsers like giraffe, black rhino, bushbuck, and kudu, as well as mixed browser–­ ​­grazers like springbok and eland, preferred the more closed habitats of the floodplains. The wetlands and rivers provided a home for reedbucks, hippos, and Nile crocodiles. On the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain, fynbos shrublands were found mostly on the outer shelf at the height of glacial periods when sea levels were more than 100 meters below where they are today. These plant communities were specifically adapted to the limestone substrate of what’s now the deeper continental shelf. The repeated flooding and exposure of the ­Paleo-​ ­Agulhas Plain left a legacy of coastal dune deposits scattered across the landscape. Outcrops of these dunes cemented by car- bonates were interspersed with the grass- lands on the plain and covered by mosaics of fynbos and subtropical thicket vegeta- tion. These vegetation types supported the A community of early modern humans living amid the grasslands of the Paleo-­ ​­Agulhas Plain, off the coast of less diverse and less numerous large mam- ­present-​­day South Africa, is shown in this artist’s depiction. Credit: Maggie Newman mal communities that are also present on

46 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 The giant buffaloPelorovis antiquus had a ­2-meter horn span. This fossil skull is on display at Kenya’s Nairobi National Museum. Credit: Bjørn Christian Tørrissen, CC BY-SA 3.0 (­bit​.­ly/​­ccbysa3-0)

the current coastal lowlands, namely, ronment of this region: its geology, soils, coastal habitat type [De Vynck et al., 2016]. grysbok­ and bush duiker [Marean et al., and climate and the dynamic effects of sea Plant foraging experiments showed that 2020]. Elephants moved between the dif- level changes. Collaborators then mapped food resources were unevenly distributed ferent habitats on the plain and farther vegetation distributions and large mam- and that ­hunter–​­gatherers would have inland, where today’s coast is. mal habitats on the basis of the physical profited from detailed knowledge of the Revealing the environments of the environment. locations of ­calorie-​­dense resource “hot ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain is part of an ongoing Local scientists recruited descendants of spots” [Botha et al., 2020]. transdisciplinary collaboration including ancestral coastal Khoisan tribes for mod- We integrated these results with knowl- researchers from South Africa, the United ern foraging experiments because of their edge about the distributions of vegetation States, and Australia [Cleghorn et al., 2020]. experience in marine foraging for personal and other resources, such as raw materials The effort began with scientists, including consumption. In these experiments, the for stone tools, to produce a resource land- myself, reconstructing the physical envi- tribespeople harvested shellfish and plant scape that informs computational model- foods in previ- ing efforts to simulate the behaviors of ously defined people on the landscape. coastal marine habitats and fyn- Modeling Climate bos plant com- and Mapping Vegetation munities. By Environmental changes during and recording the between glacial and interglacial periods amount of food had profound impacts on the ­Paleo-​ harvested by each ­Agulhas Plain and its surroundings. The person in a most significant were from sea level varia- defined amount tions, which exposed and submerged the of time, each plain twice in the past 200,000 years shellfish habitat [Fisher et al., 2010]. and plant com- The climate, on the other hand, seems munity could be to have remained stable along the ­present-​ assigned an aver- ­day southern coast compared with cli- age “return rate.” mates in the southern African interior. For marine forag- Paleoclimate modeling of conditions at ing, the main the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), roughly Phytoliths extracted from elephant grass are seen in this electron micrograph. driving factors of 21,000 years ago, suggests only mild tem- Similar phytoliths were found in archaeological sites studied as part of an inter- return rates were perature decreases over the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas national collaboration to understand the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain. Credit: Benjamin tides, weather Plain and along the ­present-​­day southern Gadet, CC BY-SA 3.0 (­bit​.­ly/​­ccbysa3-0) conditions, and coast [Engelbrecht et al., 2019].

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 47 Fynbos vegetation grows on South Africa’s central southern coast near the city of George. Fynbos plant communities on the present-­ ​­day coastal lowlands have not changed much since the Last Glacial Maximum. Credit: Kerstin Braun

This modeling also showed only small considerably since the LGM. The grass- served over millennia in stalactites and changes in annual rainfall amounts along lands and floodplain vegetation on the stalagmites from coastal caves to track the southern coast, although the seasonal- exposed ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain, however, changes of rainfall seasonality from ity of rainfall has varied considerably. Most comprised a set of habitats that are now 113,000 to 19,000 years ago [Braun et al., of South Africa and the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas almost completely absent from the region 2020]. Plain received more winter rainfall during [Marean et al., 2020]. Carbon stable isotope ratios (12C and 13C ) the last glacial period than they do today from the same stalactites and stalagmites, because of a northward shift of the westerly Reconstruction by Proxy as well as in fossil mammal teeth and wind belt [Engelbrecht et al., 2019]. The pre- A range of proxy methods provides inde- ostrich eggshells, can yield information vailing westerly and northwesterly winds pendent reconstructions of past climate about the abundance of tropical grasses brought about by this shift led to down- and vegetation in the region, with results (which use the C4, or Hatch-Slack, carbon wind effects along the southern flanks of that can be compared with model outputs dioxide fixation cycle) versus shrubs, trees, the Cape Fold Mountains and the ­present-​ and map projections. For example, col- and ­temperate-​­region herbs and grasses ­day central southern coast that reduced leagues and I determined ratios of the sta- (which use the C3, or Calvin, cycle) growing winter rainfall [Engelbrecht et al., 2019]. ble isotopes of oxygen (16O and 18O) pre- in the soil above the coastal caves and in Researchers mapped the vegetation from 26,000–19,000 years ago, around the time of the LGM, using field data on the distributions of geological and soil sub- The grasslands and floodplain vegetation strates combined with paleoclimate mod- eling [Cowling et al., 2020]. Because the on the exposed Paleo-Agulhas Plain vegetation that grows in an area depends strongly on the underlying bedrock and comprised a set of habitats that are now soil, which typically remain stable over long periods of time, the vegetation on the almost completely absent from the region. present coastal lowlands has not changed

48 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 the animals’ diets. Phytoliths, microscopic silica particles produced in different char- acteristic shapes and sizes in plant cells, are also useful as a proxy for the abun- dance of tropical C4 grasses compared with C3 trees, shrubs, and ­temperate-​­region grasses [Esteban et al., 2017]. They are com- monly found in the sedimentary sequences of archaeological sites. Stable carbon isotope analyses of large mammal teeth from the LGM indicate that at Nelson Bay Cave, near Plettenberg Bay on the current southeastern coast, grazers mainly ate C3 grasses that grew there when winter rainfall was prevalent [Sealy et al., 2020]. This observation is supported by the paleoclimate model, which predicts that winter rainfall domi- nated the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain near Nel- son Bay Cave at this time [Engelbrecht et al., 2019]. Several proxy records gathered along the central southern coast in the area sur- rounding Pinnacle Point near Mossel Bay offer information about an earlier cool phase known as marine isotope stage (MIS) 4, which lasted from about 72,000 to 59,000 years ago. Oxygen and carbon sta- ble isotopic ratios measured in stalactites and stalagmites suggest that summer rainfall increased and more C4 grasses grew during this cool phase than during warmer periods [Braun et al., 2020]. Carbon isotopic ratios in large grazer teeth and ostrich eggshells, as well as phytolith A path wends through Fynbos vegetation near the Nelson Bay Cave archaeological site on the Robberg assemblages, support the hypothesis that ­Peninsula. This vegetation tends to be rich in plants that produce bulbs and tubers, some of which are edible. C4 grasses were more common during Credit: Kerstin Braun MIS 4, although ratios detected in small mammals (mostly vlei rats) suggest that C3 plants were also still abundant in the vicinity of Pinnacle Point. groundwater seeps [Marean et al., 2020]. Fynbos plant communities near the The proxy results suggest that condi- Locating food resources in the region ­present-​day coast have not changed much tions downwind of the Cape Fold Belt were would have mainly involved foraging for since the LGM, but the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas similar during MIS 4 to those indicated by plant foods, gathering shellfish, and Plain, when it was exposed, offered sub- paleoclimate modeling for the LGM. This hunting large mammals, but the avail- stantial areas with mosaics of fynbos and work thus highlights that the archaeologi- ability of each of these changed through thicket vegetation [Cowling et al., 2020], cal sites where humans dwelt long ago time. which can be especially productive for for- were positioned in a transition zone Fynbos vegetation is very rich in plants aging, in part because of the softer soil, between two ecological realms: the fynbos that produce bulbs and tubers, but not all which makes it easier to dig up bulbs farther onshore, which was dominated by of them are palatable, and some are even [Botha et al., 2020]. Although fynbos vege- C3 plants, and the grasslands of the ­Paleo-​ poisonous. Food resources amid the fynbos tation was widespread during the LGM, the ­Agulhas Plain, with their high abundances are clustered in specific vegetation types efficiency of plant foraging may have been of C4 grasses. and in areas recently affected by wildfires limited compared with foraging during [Botha et al., 2020], which trigger seed interglacials because individual bulbs Changes to the Menu sprouting in some plants. Skilled gatherers would have been smaller with the lower Finding food and water would have occu- with knowledge of edible plants and where concentrations of carbon dioxide in the air pied much of the time for ­hunter-​ and when they cluster would have been (a minimum of about 180 parts per million, ­gatherers. Water was readily available on able to gather plenty of food, and they may compared with about 290 before the the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain in the closely even have set wildfires to increase supplies Industrial Revolution and 400 today) [Fal- spaced rivers and wetlands and from [Botha et al., 2020]. tein et al., 2020].

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 49 Archaeological assemblages suggest that habitat loss did not cause local extinctions of grassland species; rather, they survived as refugee species in decreased numbers.

Hunting expeditions likely would have A Picture of the Past sustain them for tens of thousands of been more productive on the ­Paleo-​ The resource landscape developed for years. ­Agulhas Plain than on the present coastal ­hunter-​­gatherers provides the natural lowlands because populations of large boundary conditions for an ­agent-​­based References mammal faunas were denser amid grass- computational model that simulates the Botha, M. S., et al. (2020), Return rates from plant foraging on the Cape south coast: Understanding early human economies, lands and floodplains of the plain than in movement of people on the landscape. Quat. Sci. Rev., 235, 106129, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1016/​­ j.quascirev​­ ​ the fynbos. Sea level changes, however, An initial model representing interglacial .2019.106129.­ considerably affected the size of ­large-​ conditions suggests that in the absence of Braun, K., et al. (2020), Comparison of climate and environment on the edge of the Palaeo-­ Agulhas​­ Plain to the Little Karoo ­mammal habitats, with only small rem- the abundant ­large-​­mammal fauna on the (South Africa) in marine isotope stages 5–3 as indicated by nants of grasslands remaining during full ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain, people were heavily speleothems, Quat. Sci. Rev., 235, 105803, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ ​ 10.1016/­ j.quascirev​­ .​ 2019.06.025.­ interglacials when sea levels were high. dependent on plant foraging and exploited Cleghorn, N., A. J. Potts, and H. C. Cawthra (2020), The Palaeo-­ ​ Archaeological records from the Holo- marine resources when possible. Overall, ­Agulhas Plain: A lost world and extinct ecosystem, Quat. Sci. Rev., 235, 106308, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1016/​­ j.quascirev​­ ​ cene—an interglacial beginning about the viable population density was only two .2020.106308.­ 12,000 years ago—across the region sug- people per 100 square kilometers, similar Cowling, R. M., et al. (2020), Describing a drowned ecosystem: gest that people did, in fact, hunt fewer of to that of today’s Montana or Wyoming Last Glacial Maximum vegetation reconstruction of the Palaeo-­ ​ Agulhas­ Plain, Quat. Sci. Rev., 235, 105866, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ ​ the animals associated with the habitats [Wren et al., 2020]. 10.1016/­ j.quascirev​­ .​ 2019.105866.­ on the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain, probably During intermediate conditions and De Vynck, J. C., et al. (2016), Return rates from intertidal forag- ing from Blombos Cave to Pinnacle Point: Understanding early because these species were less abundant glacials, the resource landscape would human economies, J. Hum. Evol., 92, 101–115, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ ​ or went extinct. Archaeological assem- have looked quite different. At intermedi- 10.1016/­ j.jhevol​­ .​ 2016.01.008.­ blages from interglacial MIS 5 (~128,000– ate sea levels, people were still able to Engelbrecht, F. A., et al. (2019), Downscaling Last Gla- cial Maximum climate over southern Africa, Quat. Sci. 72,000 years ago), however, suggest that access coastal resources and forage for Rev., 226, 105879, ­https://​­doi​.­org/​­10.1016/​­j.quascirev​ habitat loss did not cause local extinctions fynbos plants, while the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas .­2019.105879. of grassland species; rather, they survived Plain provided more game for hunting. In Esteban, I., et al. (2017), Phytoliths in plants from the south coast of the Greater Cape Floristic Region (South Africa), Rev. Palae- as refugee species in decreased numbers. glacial phases, marine resources would obot. Palynol., 245, 69–84, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1016/​­ j.revpalbo​­ ​ These assemblages also show that shell- have been out of reach for people living on .2017.05.001.­ Faltein, Z., et al. (2020), Atmospheric CO2 concentrations fish like mussels and snails were a reliable the ­present-​­day coast. During these peri- restrict the growth of Oxalis pes-­ caprae​­ bulbs used by human and productive source of protein for ods, fynbos plant communities, although inhabitants of the Paleo-­ Agulhas​­ Plain during the Pleistocene glacials, Quat. Sci. Rev., 235, 105731, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1016/​­ ​ ­hunter–​­gatherer diets at times. Shellfish still abundant, may have provided less j.quascirev­ .​ 2019.04.017.­ are more perishable than larger animals, food. It is thus likely that during these Fisher, E. C., et al. (2010), Middle and late Pleistocene paleo­ so early humans probably gathered only times, people relied heavily on hunting scape modeling along the southern coast of South Africa, Quat. Sci. Rev., 29, 1,382–1,398, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1016/​­ ​ what they could eat the same day. The large mammals of the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas j.quascirev­ .​ 2010.01.015.­ coast was within the ­10-kilometer daily Plain. Marean, C. W., R. M. Cowling, and J. Franklin (2020), The foraging radius from the cave dwellings on As a result of the collection of research ­Palaeo-Agulhas​­ Plain: Temporal and spatial variation in an extraordinary extinct ecosystem of the Pleistocene of the what is now the central southern coast described here—and of the large, trans- Cape Floristic Region, Quat. Sci. Rev., 235, 106161, https://­ doi​­ ​ when the sea level was less than 60 meters disciplinary collaboration, which has .org/­ 10.1016/​­ j.quascirev​­ .​ 2019.106161.­ Sealy, J. C., et al. (2020), Climate and ecology of the Palaeo-­ ​ below the present level [Fisher et al., 2010]. allowed us to resolve ­far-​­reaching and ­Agulhas Plain from stable carbon and oxygen isotopes in ­Lower-​­than-​­present sea levels meant comprehensive questions—we now know bovid tooth enamel from Nelson Bay Cave, South Africa, Quat. Sci. Rev., 235, 105974, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1016/​­ j.quascirev​­ ​ that rocky shores were absent and sandy that the ­Paleo-​­Agulhas Plain was far more .2019.105974.­ beaches, interspersed with reefs of than an extension of the coastal lowlands Wren, C. D., et al. (2020), The foraging potential of the Holo- cemented dunes, were much more com- of today’s southern African coast. Rather, cene Cape south coast of South Africa without the Palaeo-­ ​ Agulhas­ Plain, Quat. Sci. Rev., 235, 105789, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ ​ mon. In the present-­ ​­day foraging experi- the plain was its own unique ecosystem, 10.1016/­ j.quascirev​­ .​ 2019.06.012.­ ments, these reefs yielded high returns of affected by exceptional dynamic changes shellfish when tides and weather were of climate and exposure on ­glacial–​ Author Information favorable, but returns were very low on ­interglacial timescales. These dynamics, Kerstin Braun (kbraun2@­ asu​­ .​ edu),­ Institute beaches [De Vynck et al., 2016]. The common in turn, shaped habitats for vegetation, of Human Origins, Arizona State University, occurrence of sand mussels in archaeolog- animals, and our human ­hunter–​­gatherer Tempe ical shell middens, however, suggests that ancestors, for whom the plain represented Pleistocene ­hunter-​­gatherers foraged the most productive foraging environ- uRead the article at ­bit​.­ly/­Eos-​ Paleo­ ​ effectively on beaches nonetheless. ment in the region—and one that helped -­Agulhas

50 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 This community THE college in Texas TWO-YEAR has figured out how to guide ON-RAMP its students into By Jenessa Duncombe geoscience careers.­ Fernie Garcia

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 51 arissa E. Cameron was according to the American Geosciences lights. Lectures on mineralogy ended with always fascinated by Institute’s (AGI) 2018 workforce report— information on mineralogists, sediment science and dreamed yet students have a growing interest in the lectures concluded with sedimentologists, of becoming an astro- discipline, and the workforce needs new and so on. Students were even tested on naut, but after her first personnel. By 2026, AGI estimates a sur- scientific career paths. Learning about year studying at the plus of 118,000 geoscience jobs due to professions “really opened up the possi- University of Texas at El Paso, nothing felt retirements. bility” that geoscience could be a real Mright. She left school to try the workforce Villalobos also realized that community career, said Cameron. for a few years, landing in a job in retail. college students could be a critical popula- Villalobos also disseminated career and “There were people that told me that I tion to recruit into the geosciences, partic- salary information to student advisers and made a big mistake,” Cameron said. ularly given that the discipline is the least displayed it prominently at the top of the Now Cameron works as a planetary sci- racially and ethnically diverse STEM field. school’s online degree plan. entist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Hispanic, Black, and Native American stu- Advice on careers in physical sciences performing landing site reconnaissance for dents are overrepresented at community can be key to students’ desire to earn a future mission concepts for Jupiter’s moon colleges compared with ­4-year institutions. baccalaureate. In a survey of 708 commu- Europa. What made the difference? Com- “As the United States’ population nity college geoscience students in the munity college. begins to change, we need to have a geo- The geosciences recruit far fewer com- science community that’s reflective of that munity college students into ­4-year population,” said Villalobos. In each lecture, degrees than other science, technology, Villalobos, along with a team of faculty, engineering, and math (STEM) fields. But deans, and advisers, built a new pipeline Villalobos dedicated some schools are changing that. for community college students in El Paso. El Paso Community College (EPCC) is Could their model be a template for others? the final slide to one such school and has emerged as a model for other ­2-year institutions looking Getting a (Booted) Foot in the Door career spotlights. to recruit and prepare the next generation Cameron took her first geology class with of geoscientists. At its peak 2 years ago, Villalobos on a whim to fulfill her general the El Paso program produced 8% of geo- science requirement. She’d started taking Journal of Geoscience Education, career dis- science associate’s degrees awarded annu- ­early-​­morning and night classes at EPCC cussions with students positively cor- ally nationwide. Cameron credits her time while working full-time and wasn’t sure related with higher intent to transfer to at EPCC with her career success. what she wanted to do but knew that she a ­4-year school in the geosciences. One of the champions of the program is needed a change. In addition to a lack of career informa- Joshua Villalobos, a dean of instructional She had always liked the Earth and space tion, Villalobos said that community col- programs and the campus dean of EPCC’s sciences: Her father took her rock collect- lege students can face another hurdle: cul- Mission del Paso campus. Villalobos grew ing as a child and would set up a telescope tural perceptions of a “successful” career. up in El Paso and attended both EPCC and to peer at the stars. But she didn’t know “For most minority families, if you have the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP). what career options, if any, existed in the the opportunity to send one of your chil- When Villalobos first joined the EPCC fac- discipline. She’d never met a geologist. dren to college, you’re going to want them ulty, the geology program was defunct Often, learning about careers takes place to be a doctor or a lawyer, things that are because of a lack of students. outside of the classroom, which can leave within the cultural mental framework of Villalobos knew that students wanted a students with a hazy picture of their future what success is,” Villalobos said. Three in chance to be geoscientists. They simply careers. To counter that, Villalobos dedi- 10 community college students are the first needed a path. Only a few community col- cated the final slide of each lecture in his in their families to pursue higher educa- leges have dedicated geoscience majors, introductory geology class to career spot- tion.

52 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 Geology and geophysics students from El Paso Community College gather around a ground-penetrating radar to survey a dried reservoir in El Paso, Texas. Credit: Joshua Villalobos

Language can be another barrier and can “That proper gear is like your uniform,” save money if they want to transfer to a lead to misconceptions about geoscience. Villalobos said. “It’s your symbol of being a ­4-year institution. Researchers use the term fieldwork to geologist.” Villalobos knew that coursework was describe research conducted in an outdoor only the first step, however, and that a vital environment, for instance, but in Hispanic Pointing the Arrow part of learning happened in the labora- cultures, “the term ‘doing fieldwork’ At community colleges, students can fall tory. Villalobos recalls washing beakers as means that you are…getting a job literally prey to “­cafeteria-​­style learning,” said an undergraduate in a geochemistry lab at in the field, like picking crops or digging Nikki Edgecombe, a senior research UTEP and how much of a joy it was. Over- ditches,” Villalobos said. scholar at the Community College hearing conversations between professors The majority of students at EPCC and Research Center at Teachers College, and graduate students introduced Villalobos UTEP are Hispanic, and the campus Vil- Columbia University. to a new language and scientific world. Even lalobos calls home is in an agricultural Students take a random mix of classes though the work was menial to start, soon area. Parents of students started showing that don’t necessarily lead to a degree, Villalobos was learning to operate scientific up at Villalobos’s office asking whether often basing their decisions on peers or instruments and flying to Stanford Univer- their child could even get a job in geology. scheduling, as opposed to the end result of sity to run high-­ powered​­ equipment. And why were their children working in graduation. The experience “cemented my desire to the field? EPCC’s program uses a different be a geologist,” said Villalobos, and there Villalobos quelled parents’ fears by lis- approach: The college offers a degree plan was no reason EPCC students shouldn’t tening to their concerns and explaining with seven geology and environmental have that chance too. that studying the geosciences does lead to courses and labs, as well as ­freshman- and “­High-​­impact learning experiences” career opportunities. When doing outdoor ­sophomore-​­level math and science can have a powerful effect on students, but work, Villalobos requires that students classes. This guided pathway harnesses community colleges generally don’t have “dress like a scientist,” with a notebook, students’ excitement after their first geol- the resources to supply them. Grants are

Opposite: Fernie García hiking boots, and protective clothing. ogy class into a focused track and lets them scarce, and faculty are up to their eyeballs

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 53 grams in 2008, enrollment in UTEP’s geol- ogy degree program quadrupled over 7 years, and the number in the environ- mental science degree program nearly doubled as EPCC students transferred to UTEP.

Building the Bridge As an EPCC student, Cameron wanted to transfer to UTEP but wasn’t sure she could afford it. She would be the first in her fam- ily to get a bachelor’s degree. She’d done everything right: finished her geology classes, completed research, and checked off her prerequisites. But when she thought about the higher tuition cost, “I was like, man, I got all this way, and I’m not going to be able to continue on.” The average annual ­4-year public in-state college tuition was nearly 3 times as expensive as that of community college in 2019. And the cost is going up: Between 2008 and 2018, the price for undergraduate EPCC geology major Joshua Peterson studies his Brunton compass for a strike and dip measurement in the education rose 31%. Franklin Mountains, Texas. Credit: Joshua Villalobos Fortunately, UTEP had a program called Pathways that paid undergraduates to con- duct research. The money would just barely cover tuition. Because Cameron had teaching classes, sometimes six per land each week, taking soil and water sam- already done research at UTEP through semester. ples, and developed a hypothesis that the SOLARIS, she decided to take the leap into Villalobos knew it was time to ask for wetlands are partly fed by previously a bachelor’s program. help. The first step was applying for out- unidentified springs. Other than navigating costs, community of-state funding from the University of Using the small grants as a proof of con- college students eyeing a bachelor’s degree Arizona for $2,000–$3,000 grants to cept, Villalobos secured a $200,000 grant must transfer their credits. increase the number of minoritized stu- from the National Science Foundation to Transferring credit in the U.S. educa- dents in STEM. Villalobos used the money build a research program. In the Student tion system can be a headache. The Gov- to pay two students to study a nearby wet- Opportunities for Learning Advanced ernment Accountability Office investi- land using simple field kits. The students Research in the Geosciences (­SOLARIS) gated college transferring in 2017 and enthusiastically trudged through the wet- program, EPCC students completed one- concluded that the process is a mess. or ­two-​­semester Between 2004 and 2009, students lost an research projects, estimated 43% of their credits when they sometimes at the transferred, the report found, which college and other wasted students’ money, time, and finan- times at UTEP. cial aid. During the heyday Part of the issue is that schools fail to of SOLARIS in disclose transfer agreements, called artic- 2017, EPCC had ulation agreements, online. The Depart- 70 students in its ment of Education does not require them geology major, a to do so. Some schools don’t have articula- large number tion agreements at all. even compared EPCC and UTEP have such an agree- with ­4-year insti- ment. The geoscience associate’s degree at tutions. EPCC counts directly for 2 years at UTEP. The connection This two-plus-two program makes a _ between EPCC bachelor’s degree that much faster and and UTEP turned cheaper, said Villalobos. out to be key. Even better, by working together proac- After the start of tively, road bumps can be avoided. The geology classroom at EPCC has more than a few maps. Credit: Joshua Villalobos’s pilot For example, transfer students could ­Villalobos research pro- lose a whole year if they start at UTEP

54 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 without having taken chemistry. Geosci- ence students must enroll in a course that requires chemistry (mineralogy) in the fall of their junior year, and spring classes build on that knowledge. Therefore, EPCC students must take chemistry before transferring. To avoid pitfalls, advisers from both schools meet to coordinate their curricula, and they give each other a heads-up when changes occur, said UTEP geology professor Diane Doser.

One Model Among Many The success at El Paso inspired faculty at Texas A&M University to invest in their own program for transfer students. About 5 years ago, the university eased its coursework requirements for transfer students. The changes increased admis- sions of community college transfer stu- EPCC geology professor Joshua Villalobos (bottom left) and students explore paleo-karsts on a sunny day in dents to Texas A&M by 107% in the first the Franklin Mountains. Credit: Joshua Villalobos year. “We saw that we were missing a large demographic,” said former Texas A&M associate dean Chris Houser. But there is no one-size-fits-all Second, Texas has streamlined the ble,” said Doser, because “you don’t approach. transfer process by regulating which always get funding to do the same thing For one, El Paso is a bit of an anomaly. courses can be offered by community col- over and over again.” It’s isolated from the rest of the state’s leges. That isn’t the case nationwide; some “We’re continuously searching for sup- education system in an “education desert,” states allow community colleges to set port,” she added. with EPCC and UTEP being the only public their own course offerings. That doesn’t mean that change is institutions of higher education in that cor- Community college faculty member impossible. It takes time, said Villalobos. ner of the state. By contrast, there are Eric Baer said that he would love to “A lot of people just want to jump right in 32 community colleges near Texas A&M. ­re-create the El Paso model, but his home and solve it within a semester or two. But the issue wasn’t insurmountable: institution of Highline College near Seat- That’s just not going to happen.” Texas A&M accepts introductory courses tle exists in a completely different educa- Start by understanding your students from surrounding community colleges and your institution, learn how to collect without an articulation agreement, said data, and identify your community part- Texas A&M dean Christian Brannstrom. Texas A&M increased ners, Villalobos advised. “Once you get a Instead, the university offers a handout grasp on all of those, then you can start with recommended courses that commu- admissions of laying down the groundwork for some- nity college students can take over a ­2-year thing truly spectacular.” span to prepare them for university. The transfer community For Cameron, the bridge from EPCC and sheet declares “your degree at A&M starts UTEP came at exactly the right time. After at your community college.” This year the college students dropping out of premed, she wasn’t sure incoming class has 40% community col- by 107% in the what she’d do. Now she dreams up space lege students, said Brannstrom. mission concepts for a faraway icy world. Still, could this approach work outside of first year. “Even now, thinking back on it, Joshua Texas? There are three big challenges. [Villalobos] and EPCC were the things that For one, Texas is a ­minority-​­majority really set that path in motion.” state, and both EPCC and UTEP are tional ecosystem, with unique course Community college also taught her that ­Hispanic-​­serving institutions; the major- offerings and countless ­4-year options a second chance is always possible. “It ity of El Paso’s population is Hispanic or nearby. He said that while standardizing doesn’t matter what’s happened to you,” Latino. As research has shown, equitable course offerings makes for a clearer path, Cameron said. “If you want to make things and inclusive workplaces require more educators risk creating ­cookie-​­cutter stu- happen now, you still can.” than simply increasing the representation dents. of racially minoritized groups. People Third, the El Paso model relied heavily Author Information working in predominantly ­non-​­Hispanic on one-time grants. The SOLARIS program Jenessa Duncombe (@jrdscience), Staff Writer white institutions must actively change that led Cameron into space science is no the culture in those spaces to be inclusive longer around, although spinoffs are. u Read the article at bit­ .​ ly/­ Eos​­ ​ and equitable. “We’re trying to be as creative as possi- -­community​-­college

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 55 An Unfought ­Geoscience Battle in U.S. Prisons By Kimberly M. S. Cartier

56 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 Opposite Page: XXXXXX; This Page: Top Right: XXXX in thefighttoo. of ­ ­incarcerated people from pollutionandthedangers are activists,andlawyers Prisoners, fightingtoprotect climate change. There’s aplacefor geoscientists Floods intheaftermathofHurricaneHarvey submerge a guardtoweratTexas stateprisoninRosharon, Texas, in2017. Credit:APPhoto/CharlieRiedel SCIENCE NEWSBY AGU

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57 he health and safety of incarcer- research, argued ­Fushcia-​­Ann Hoover. ated people in the United States “Those relationships exist whether we are one front of the environmen- acknowledge them or not. All of these tal justice movement, which rec- things are always connected. And some of ognizes that the structural it is hidden, and some of it is not.” Hoover inequalities built into society, is an urban hydrologist whose research is Tparticularly those based on race and socio- informed by environmental justice. She is economic status, are statistically con- a postdoctoral researcher at the National nected to a person’s access to a clean and ­Socio-​­Environmental Synthesis Center in healthful environment. Environmental Annapolis, Md. justice affirms that all people have the Although much of the current work right to clean land, water, air, and food. It related to prison ecology and health is demands environmental policy free of dis- done by people who work outside tradi- crimination and bias and is based on tional geoscience channels—in sociology, mutual respect and justice for all people. criminology, environmental health, and Incarcerated people have long spoken law—their work shows that there is out and fought against unsafe and, at “absolutely” a place for geoscientists in times, inhumane environmental condi- establishing safe and humane conditions tions they’ve experienced inside detention for incarcerated people, Mosley said. facilities. They and those who advocate for For example, he said, SCI Fayette and them from outside lead that front of the many other prisons lack systematic moni- environmental justice movement. Richard toring of water, air, and soil quality. Such Mosley, for example, started experiencing monitoring practices are familiar to geo- health problems almost immediately after scientists across many specialties. Any and starting his sentence at State Correctional all quantitative data can help support a Institution (SCI) Fayette, located in legal case for prisoners’ rights, Mosley LaBelle, Pa., south of Pittsburgh. added. “Maybe the first or second day, my nose Beyond the need for data, scientists can just closed up,” Mosley said. “While I was also testify as expert witnesses in lawsuits there, I was noticing everybody was on challenging existing conditions, said Paul ­allergy-​­type medicine. But I could barely Wright, executive director of the Human breathe.” Soon, respiratory problems Rights Defense Center in Lake Worth, Fla., started affecting his sleep, and he devel- and editor of Prison Legal News. So far, he oped digestive issues. “My situation pro- added, they’ve been reluctant to do so: gressively just got worse.… It was just a “Scientists have been largely absent from There is nightmare.” any discussions on criminal justice issues Many other people incarcerated at Fay- in general.” ette have reported similar and more severe “As researchers within the geoscience “absolutely” health problems that developed after they community,” Hoover said, “especially now arrived on site: headaches, severe conges- we really need to be asking ourselves, tion, nosebleeds, rashes, hives, gastroin- ‘What are the other connections within our a place for testinal problems. Cancer. After he got out, work and within our research? And how is Mosley started fighting to close SCI Fay- what I am doing affecting disenfranchised ette. As a lead organizer for Put People communities?’” geoscientists First! Pennsylvania, he works with groups like the Abolitionist Law Center, the Prison Nationwide Problem Ecology Project, and the Campaign to Fight The United States incarcerates more peo- in establishing Toxic Prisons to bring this widespread ple, and more people per capita, than any environmental and racial justice issue into other country. The country has 7,147 pris- the public eye. ons, jails, detention centers, and correc- safe and humane This recognition is needed, Mosley tional facilities that incarcerate 2.3 million explained, because having deplorable con- people [Sawyer and Wagner, 2020]. ditions inside detention facilities is an Black, Latino, and Native and Indige- conditions for environmental justice issue that isn’t nous people are overrepresented in this unique to just one prison or one state. carceral system, a legacy of slavery and “We’re finding that this is what is going on structural racism. After 1865, when the incarcerated around the country. It’s not just limited to 13th Amendment banned slavery except Fayette,” he said. for people convicted of crimes, southern Geoscientists should think about envi- governments created laws targeting Black people. ronmental justice in connection with their people, incarcerated them en masse, and

58 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 then sold their labor for profit. The south- environmental studies at the University of ern Black Codes evolved into various California, Santa Barbara and director of vagrancy laws and then Jim Crow laws. the Global Environmental Justice Project. Modern policing carried echoes of this “It’s rare to find a prison with healthy structural racism into the post–civil rights water…but it is exceedingly routine and era, for example, in “tough on crime” pol- normal to find prisons where the water is icies and the domestic “war on drugs.” visibly, I mean to the human eye, visibly The effect of these policies is that people contaminated.” of color are arrested and incarcerated at “In Fayette they call it tea water ’cause significantly higher rates than white peo- it’s brown,” said Mosley. “The water is ple despite committing crimes at the same bad, the air is bad, and the ground is bad. or a lower rate [The Sentencing Project, The soil is just sitting on top of…an excess 2020­]. One in every three Black boys and of 50 million tons of toxic waste.” one in six Latino boys born today can Fayette’s inmates, including Morgen- expect to go to jail in his lifetime, com- stern, were getting sick from the contami- pared with one in 17 white boys. Black, nation, while the staff, the guards, and the Native American, and poor women are guard dogs were given bottled water to overrepresented in incarcerated popula- drink [McDaniel et al., 2014]. tions compared with U.S. demographics. Monitoring contaminant levels in and The population of people incarcerated in around SCI Fayette would help the activ- the United States also includes asylum ists’ case against the prison: “Our goal is to seekers and people who enter the United get the prison shut down and get every- States without documentation. body out,” Mosley said. “Not just the pris- The environmental conditions inside oners. We want the guards out of harm’s U.S. correctional facilities, therefore, have way, the staff out of harm’s way, the guard a significant health impact on already dis- dogs out of harm’s way, because the site is enfranchised communities. This is an issue toxic.” “that I know many, many men and women face throughout this country each and Something in the Water every day,” said Matthew Morgenstern. The U.S. EPA collects and publicly releases “But because they’re incarcerated, most data on many invisible contaminants voices or opinions aren’t heard or people found in water nationwide. It wasn’t until feel [they] don’t matter.” Morgenstern detailed some of his expe- riences while serving time at SCI Fayette. He described being out in the yard and watching dump trucks carrying coal ash up a large hill across from the compound. When the vehicles weren’t covered, “you’d be able to see dust coming off the backs of these dump trucks. Eventually, this dust would end up in the compound at Fayette. It was a daily occurrence to see a light film of a gray dust, especially in our cells.” At Fayette, many of the health issues inmates experience stem from that large hill. It’s been a ­2-square kilometer (500- acre) coal ash dump site since 1998 and was a coal processing waste site before that. The prison, built in 2003, lies 152 meters (500 feet) away. Fly ash—the gray dust inside Fayette’s cells—carries toxins into the air and is associated with heart and lung problems. The coal waste leeches toxic metals like lead, arsenic, mercury, and nickel into the ground and water. State Correctional Institution Fayette was built next to an existing coal ash and waste dump in LaBelle, Pa. “Water quality in prison, I think, is LaBelle residents are pursuing a lawsuit against the owners of the dump site, and prisoners’ rights groups probably the leading environmental are doing the same on behalf of those incarcerated. Credit: Robin Rombach/Copyright ©, Pittsburgh ­Post-​ issue,” said David N. Pellow, a professor of ­Gazette, 2020, all rights reserved. Reprinted with permission.

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 59 2017, however, that EPA included prisons “Water systems that exclusively serve as a category in its Environmental Justice correctional facilities in the southwestern Screening and Mapping Tool. U.S. had average ­6-year arsenic concen­ “One of our greatest accomplishments trations that were twice as high as those was a data victory with the EPA’s Office of reported for other community water sys- Environmental Justice,” said Panagioti tems” in the region, she said. The ground- Tsolkas, cofounder of the Prison Ecology water that supplies most water systems in Project and the Campaign to Fight Toxic the region has naturally occurring elevated Prisons, two of the groups that fought for arsenic levels because of the geochemical the EPA change. “Our hope is that scien- conditions in the aquifers. That’s the lead- tists will take data tools like this and run ing source of arsenic contamination in the with them, to better document conditions region, Nigra said, and it’s relatively easy surrounding prisons.” to filter out. However, despite data being available, Despite this, “the odds of exceeding “the health of U.S. incarcerated popula- 10 micrograms per liter, [EPA’s] maxi- tions has been really largely ignored,” said mum contaminant level, were also signifi- Anne Nigra, a postdoctoral researcher in cantly higher for the correctional facili- environmental health sciences at Colum- ties, versus water systems that did not bia University in New York. Nigra is lead exclusively serve correctional facilities,” author on the first nationwide research she added. study of arsenic levels in community water systems [Nigra and ­Navas-​­Acien, 2020]. Aging, Crumbling Infrastructure There are few “systematic, ­peer-​ The age of a detention facility can deter- ­reviewed studies about environmental mine the type of pollution to which pris- injustice and environmental health oners are exposed. Roughly two thirds of impacts on incarcerated communities at federal and state prison facilities were built all,” she said, “whether it’s drinking less than 40 years ago, which reflects the water, whether it’s air quality, whether it’s start of modern mass incarceration poli- potential for allergens, or nutritional qual- cies. The remaining facilities were built at ity of the food.” a roughly steady rate over the past 120 For their study, the researchers gathered years, and there are nearly 100 currently EPA data for about 37,000 community operating facilities more than 100 years old water systems serving the same popula- (see ­bit​.­ly/​­prison​-ages). Many compounds tion year-round. They compared arsenic have old and failing structures with mold, concentrations of systems that supply only asbestos, lead pipes, and other environ- correctional facilities with those of sys- mental issues common to older buildings tems that also supply residential commu- [Tsolkas, 2019]. nities. “With drinking water, one of the big- gest concerns is always lead,” Hoover explained. Lead pipes can be eroded by water sources that contain acidic or car- cinogenic material. Unlined or untreated pipes can then bleed lead into the water supply, which is what happened at Gene- see County Jail and in residential areas in Flint, Mich., she said. In addition, aging facilities are being pushed past their capacity: The number of people incarcerated in the United States grew 500% in the past 4 decades, driven by mass incarceration at state and local levels of people of color [The Sentencing Project, 2020­]. “The old prisons and jails keep getting older, with inadequate and overburdened Arsenic that enters drinking water is more likely to come from a natural groundwater source than contamina- water and sewage systems that appear to tion from pipes. Groundwater in the United States is most likely (warm colors) to exceed the Environmental be failing much faster than they are Protection Agency maximum safe limit of 10 micrograms per liter in the southwestern states and in Maine. In repaired,” Tsolkas said. And just as climate those areas, water systems that serve only detention facilities report significantly higher arsenic levels than change magnifies other preexisting prob- do nearby residential water systems. Credit: Ayotte et al., 2017, Fig. 2, ­https://​­doi​.­org/​­10.1021/​­acs​.­est​.­7b02881 lems in communities around the world,

60 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 ­climate-​­induced extreme weather events Center for Climate Change Law. He cur- will likely overwhelm many prisons’ water rently teaches history and law at a New “Particularly management systems. York City high school. “And the notion of “Particularly with climate change and the climate change, particularly as a public increase in intense storms, it becomes more health issue for both inmates and staff, with climate difficult for the system to handle [stormwa- was pretty much just not on the radar of ter] and process it,” Hoover said. Stormwa- people working in corrections, either from ter “can back up into basements of old a prisoners’ rights standpoint or from a homes or basements of buildings like pris- correctional administration standpoint.” change and ons, perhaps, depending on what their In addition to more intense storms, infrastructure looks like, whether or not carceral facilities will have to reckon with they have sump pumps or some type of more extreme temperatures in summer the increase in containment system to keep the water out.” and winter. Those in coastal areas must “With flooding, where there are people, prepare for rising sea levels, and those in there is always a serious health hazard,” as floodplains must prepare for flooding intense storms, floodwaters can sweep up toxic chemicals, events. “The very first step is acknowledg- she added. “And in some cases, if you’re ing that we have a problem,” Holt said. operating under a combined sewer system, “And the second step is to do a careful and it becomes more you have the addition of sewage that is comprehensive assessment of the problem mixed with the rainwater.” in a detailed and localized way.” For example, at Parchman Farm (for- difficult for the mally Mississippi State Penitentiary) the Preexisting Pollution water “runs dark brown, dark red, has a lot On-site pollution predates many detention of heavy particulate matter in it,” said facilities. Colocation of prisons and preex- system to handle Paloma Wu, deputy director of Impact Liti- isting pollution—including landfills and gation at the Mississippi Center for Justice, waste sites—“is almost so commonplace, a nonprofit focused on civil rights advocacy and usually in rural areas with limited [stormwater] and litigation that represents Mississippi media attention, that it often goes unno- prisoners in civil rights cases. “People will ticed,” Tsolkas said. say, very consistently, that it smells like “Environmental justice historically has and process it.” sewage. And that’s been going on for a focused on residential location and resi- really long time.” dential exposure,” said graduate student Maggie ­León-​­Corwin. “Incarcerated popu- Inmates, Too, Face Climate Change Although the U.S. carceral system costs at least $182 billion per year, funding gener- ally isn’t going toward preparing facilities for climate change. In recent years, local, Recommended Resources state, and federal correctional systems Environmental justice advocates have gathered personal stories, case studies, and legal have spent a combined annual average of cases that demonstrate how environmental injustice, mass incarceration, and systemic $3.3 billion (1.8%) on ­construction-​­related racism are connected in the United States. Here are a few resources we recommend to learn expenditures, including new facilities as more about America’s toxic prisons. well as renovations and repairs to existing ones [Holt, 2015]. Bernd, C., Z. Loftus-Farren, and M. N. Mitra (2017), Santa Barbara, gejp­ .​ es­ .​ ucsb­ .​ edu/­ sites/​­ secure​­ .​ lsit­ ​ Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) policy America’s toxic prisons: The environmental injustices .ucsb­ .​ edu­ .​ envs­ .​ d7_gejp-2/­ files/​­ sitefiles/​­ publication/​­ does encourage its facility managers to of mass incarceration, Earth Island J., earthisland­ ​ (PEJP­ %​ 20Annual­ %​ 20Report­ %​ 202018­ .pdf.​ .org/­ journal/​­ americas​­ -​ toxic­ -​ prisons/.­ maximize water and energy conservation Put People First! Pennsylvania (2019), The Key- Bogado, A., Andrews, E., and D. Penner (2016), stone: Fayette Health Justice Issue, winter, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Environmental justice, explained, Grist, 26 January, putpeoplefirstpa­ .​ org/­ wp​­ -​ content/­ uploads/​­ 2019/​­ 03/​­ ​ However, policies regulating state and youtu.be/­ dREtXUij6_c.​­ PPF­ -​ Keystone­ _-​ Fayette­ -​ Justice­ -​ Issue­ -​ Winter­ -​ 2019-1­ ​ local detention facilities vary as widely as Opsal, T., and S. A. Malin (2019), Prisons as LULUs: .pdf­ ?​ x92736.­ the politics of each state and municipality, Understanding the parallels between prison prolif- Vazin, J., and D. Pellow (2019), Toxic detention: The explained Dustin McDaniel, the Abolition- eration and environmental injustices, Sociol. Inquiry, trend of contamination in the American immigration 90(3), 579–602, https://­ doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1111/​­ soin.12290.​­ ist Law Center’s director of operations. system, special report, Global Environ. Justice Proj., Pellow, D. (2019), The disturbing link between environ- Univ. of Calif., Santa Barbara, gejp­ .​ es­ .​ ucsb­ .​ edu/­ sites/​­ ​ While studying the intersection of cli- mental racism and criminalization, Environ. Health default/­ files/​­ sitefiles/​­ publication/​­ GEJP​­ %​ 20Special­ ​ mate law and criminal law, “it became very News, 9 December, ehn­ .​ org/­ environmental​­ -​ racism­ ​ %20Report­ %​ 202019­ _​ 0­ .​ pdf.­ quickly clear the folks working on climate -and­ -​ the­ -​ criminal­ -​ justice­ -​ system­ -​ 2641465977­ .​ html.­ Waters, M. (2018), How prisons are poisoning their change weren’t thinking about corrections Pellow, D., et al. (2018), Environmental injustice behind inmates, Outline, 23 July, theoutline­ .​ com/­ post/​­ 5410/​­ ​ at all,” said Daniel Holt, who studied heat bars: Toxic imprisonment in America, annual report, toxic­ -​ prisons­ -​ fayette­ -​ tacoma­ -​ contaminated­ ?​ zd­ ​ Global Environ. Justice Proj., Univ. of California, =NaN&zi­ =​ xdu2agrm.­ in U.S. prisons and jails as a visiting scholar at Columbia University’s Sabin

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 61 of TRI emissions than zip codes without prisons [­Leon-Corwin​­ et al., 2020]. Not by chance, areas of high emissions were also poorer and more rural. Wealthier communities reject having a prison or pol- luter built in their neighborhoods. And poorer communities sometimes welcome the facility for the jobs it provides, or they simply lack the political clout to stop it. “It’s simultaneously ‘not in my backyard’ but also ‘please, in my backyard,’ both of which are tailored to placing prisons and facilities that release TRI emissions in eco- nomically disadvantaged communities,” said Jericho McElroy, a graduate student in sociology and criminal justice at OSU and a coauthor of the study. “There are still certainly issues of rele- gating those who are disenfranchised in our communities into similar spaces,” Hoover said. Letcher County, Kentucky, is a prime example. Its economy plummeted after the end of mountaintop removal mining. The practice is associated with locally elevated rates of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and pulmonary disease. Letcher would have been the site of the most expensive federal prison in U.S. history, built atop a former coal mine and next to an active mine and coal sludge pond. The location was no coincidence: “This is a business model across the country,” Mosley said. “After the land has been depleted and resources have been removed, they sell it to the Department of Correc- tions or a landfill.” The site’s approval prompted an exten- sive ­3-year environmental impact review that led to a lawsuit filed by 21 federal pris- Water quality and water management are two of the most pressing problems in old and aging detention facili- oners from across the country, with support ties, including ­119-year-​­old Parchman Farm in Mississippi. Insufficient, unmaintained, or damaged drainage from groups like the Abolitionist Law Center pipes cause water to pool in and around the buildings (top, left and right). Pipes leading indoors or that bring and the Campaign to Fight Toxic Prisons. water in (bottom, left and right) can get backed up, which leads to contamination. Credit: Mississippi State In 2019, the prisoners won their case, and Department of Health the Federal Bureau of Prisons withdrew its intent to build a penitentiary at Letcher. Prisoners and prisoners’ rights activists won a major victory there, according to Pel- lations are easy to overlook” but still feel low. “Prisoners could have been subjected the effects of pollution. to exposure to a whole host of hazards had ­León-​­Corwin is lead author of a study this facility been built.… It’s not just people examining colocation of prisons in Okla- living in residential communities who are homa with ­EPA-​­reported Toxics Release fighting for environmental justice. Prison- Inventory (TRI) emissions. She is a Ph.D. ers are really leading an important new student studying environmental sociology front in the struggle for environmental jus- and social inequality at Oklahoma State tice. Seeing them as leaders in that cause is University (OSU) in Stillwater. really important.” Oklahoma incarcerates more people per capita than any other U.S. state. The team Ongoing Fight found that Oklahoma zip codes encompass- Prisons, jails, and other government deten- ing prisons have statistically higher levels tion facilities are regulated by the Safe

62 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 Drinking Water Act, the Clean Air Act, and “Fighting structural racism at every other federal environmental regulations, level is the tide that raises all boats,” said “We can all do but case studies demonstrate that compli- Wu. “No institution is immune from per- ance and enforcement are lacking at facili- petuating structural racism, and that’s not ties spanning the country. In a statement something to make us feel bad about our- better in our own provided to Eos, the BOP refuted allegations selves. It means that every one of us can of a lack of enforcement of environmental improve the situation by fighting for the and health regulations: “BOP takes seri- world we want to live in, in our own work- institutions to ously our duty to protect staff and inmates places.… We can all do better in our own in our facilities as well as surrounding institutions to help dismantle structural communities. The BOP coordinates with racism. Including scientists.” help dismantle federal, state and local environmental reg- ulatory agencies with respect to environ- References mental compliance, environmental studies, Holt, D. W. E. (2015), Heat in U.S. Prisons and Jails: Corrections and the Challenge of Climate Change, Sabin Cent. for Clim. structural and water quality for our facility operations Change Law, Columbia Law Sch., New York, ­https://​­doi​.­org/​ and inmate population.” The agency stated ­10.2139/​­ssrn.2667260. that BOP policy “discusses temperature set Leon-Corwin, L., et al. (2020), Polluting our prisons? An exam- ination of Oklahoma prison locations and toxic releases, racism. Including points, ventilation, and cooling and heat- 2011–2017, Punishment Soc., 22(4), 413–438, ­https://​­doi​.­org/​ ing systems. Additionally, BOP regularly ­10.1177/​­1462474519899949. McDaniel, D. S., et al. (2014), No escape: Exposure to toxic reviews and takes steps to address envi- coal waste at State Correctional Institution Fayette, Aboli- tionist Law Cent., Pittsburgh, Pa., ­abolitionistlawcenter​.­org/​ scientists.” ronmental, health, and safety concerns in ­wp​-­content/​­uploads/​­2014/​­09/​­no​-­escape​-­3-3mb​.­pdf. all of the BOP’s correctional institutions.” Nigra, A. E., and A. Navas-Acien (2020), Arsenic in US correc- What complicates matters, Tsolkas said, tional facility drinking water, 2006–2011, Environ. Res., 188, is that a large fraction of incarcerated peo- 109768, ­https://​­doi​.­org/​­10.1016/​­j.envres​.­2020​.­109768. Sawyer, W., and P. Wagner (2020), Mass incarceration: The ple are held in county facilities that are whole pie 2020, Prison Policy Initiative, Northampton, Mass., controlled at local levels, not state or fed- ­prisonpolicy​.­org/​­reports/​­pie2020​._html. eral. That makes their conditions hard to The Sentencing Project (2020), Fact sheet: Trends in U.S. cor- rections, 8 pp., August, Washington, D.C., ­sentencingproject​ track and target with litigation. .­org/​­wp​-­content/​­uploads/​­2020/​­08/​­Trends​-­in​-­US​-­Corrections​ “If I would have told you this story a .­pdf. couple years ago,” Mosley said, “you might Tsolkas, P. (2019), “It Smelled Like Death”: Reports of Mold Contamination in Prisons and Jails, Prison Legal News, have gone, ‘Hmm, wow, wild story.’ But 2 April, ­prisonlegalnews​.­org/​­news/​­2019/​­apr/​­2/​­it​-­smelled​ nowadays, when you can turn on the news -­death​-­reports​-­mold​-­contamination​-­prisons​-­and​-­jails/. and see how people are being treated every day by government, by police, it’s not a Author Information ­far-​­fetched story.” Incarcerated popula- Kimberly M. S. Cartier (@AstroKimCartier), tions have been disproportionately Staff Writer affected by racial injustice and the corona- virus pandemic. u Read the article at ­bit​.­ly/​­Eos​-­prisons

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SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 63 Exploring byBoring

Geothermally heated water may someday help warm buildings on the Ithaca, N.Y., campus of Cornell University, seen here. Credit: Cornell University

64 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020

EOS_ND2020.indd 64 10/21/20 3:36 PM As part of an effort to develop a geothermal energy source beneath its campus, Cornell University is planning to probe the “boring” old continental crust upon which many people live.

By Teresa Jordan, Patrick Fulton, Jefferson Tester, Boring Hiroshi Asanuma, and David Bruhn Opposite Page: XXXXXX; This Page: Top Right: XXXX Top XXXXXX; This Page: Opposite Page:

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 65

EOS_ND2020.indd 65 10/21/20 3:37 PM n 2013, Cornell University adopted a target to maximize extraction of heat from the geothermal for its Ithaca, N.Y., campus operations to resource, and returning the water to below ground become ­carbon-​­neutral by 2035. New York through another set of wells (Figure 1). State followed suit in 2019, pledging to zero At a scientific borehole planning workshop spon- out net carbon emissions by 2050. How- sored by the International Continental Scientific Drill- ever, when they adopted these targets, nei- ing Program (ICDP) convened at Cornell University last ther Cornell nor New York had a plan for January, attendees considered a plan to drill a pair of removing ­carbon-​­based energy sources test wells to evaluate the potential of heating Cornell’s from what they used to heat residential and campus buildings with geothermal heat extracted from commercial buildings (which accounts for 31% of total a depth exceeding 2 kilometers. That pragmatic test energy consumption in the state). plan also offers the opportunity to piggyback basic One possible approach, tapping geothermal energy, research studying the workings of continental crust could help replace fossil fuels for direct use (as distinct onto the drilling operation. The ­ICDP-​­sponsored work- Ifrom electrical power generation) for heating not only shop allowed Earth scientists to explore how to turn the Cornell campus but also the northern United this opportunity into an experiment of ­wide-​­ranging States, Canada, and much of northern Europe and Asia. value. Such increased deployment of geothermal district We anticipate finding Paleozoic sedimentary and heating—for example, providing a centralized supply Precambrian metamorphic basement rocks that lie of geothermal heat to multiple buildings via insulated below Cornell. These rocks, like those at numerous pipes—could significantly lower global carbon emis- other locations, are complex, heterogeneous, and sions. anisotropic (Figure 1). Counterintuitively, the lack of At Cornell, the Earth Source Heat (ESH) approach anything geologically “special” about central New evolved to meet the need for ­carbon-​­fuel alternatives. York—where levels of natural seismicity are also low— ESH involves extracting water from hot rock using one is a compelling attribute of this borehole project. To set of wells, transferring the heat into an existing cam- date, continental scientific drilling sites have been pus district heating loop, using industrial heat pumps selected to investigate active tectonic or volcanic fea-

Fig. 1. Developmental stages of the Earth Source Heat (ESH) project are depicted here. In July, the U.S. Department of Energy announced funding for Cornell to drill a narrow test hole about 100 meters into the basement rock (bottom layer in the illustrations) (left). That hole will provide access to sample rocks and fluids and to study properties such as temperature. Tests to be conducted in the borehole (center) will permit analyses of geo-mechanical, hydrogeologic, and thermal properties and conditions. The goal for the ESH project is to extract geo- thermal heat (right) by pumping high-temperature fluids (red) from one borehole, transferring the heat into a campus heating loop, and returning cooler fluids (blue) to the subsurface via an injection borehole. Credit: Cornell University

66 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 tures, rare events like meteorite impacts, or climate borehole design considerations rather than on individ- history. Hence, there is uncommon value in investigat- ual presentations. ing a “boring” (i.e., ordinary) location, whose results will be widely applicable. A New Generation of Geological Investigation Five broad research themes that an Ithaca borehole Practical Problems with Geothermal Energy would facilitate emerged from the workshop discus- Depth itself is not a major technical problem for the sions: ESH project—across most stable North American con- fluids and elemental cycling tinental crust, subsurface temperatures in the range of • poromechanical behavior across a range of length 50°C–100°C occur less than 3 kilometers below the sur- • scales face, shallow enough to be reached economically with controlling subsurface fractures and fluid flow conventional drilling technology. However, geother- • deep life mally heated water is used for district heating at only a • subsurface evolution of the Appalachian basin and its few locations currently. Boise, Idaho, on the Snake • basement. River Plain, and some locations in Iceland are geologi- cally unusual, with hot water situated near the surface. The first three themes are A few more thermally mundane places, like the Paris tightly coupled, and because sedimentary basin in France, have rock structures at improved knowledge is suitable depths through which fluid flows easily [Lopez needed for societally critical et al., 2010]. activities including energy Even though the rocks at suitable depths beneath production and seismic risk Cornell is positioned most of New York are sedimentary (and thus relatively assessment, they are likely to porous), low permeability is unfortunately still an be at the core of successful to advance an initial obstacle to implementing geothermal technology for efforts to raise funds for district heating [Camp et al., 2018]. In theory, the rocks multimillion-­ dollar​­ drilling demonstration can be stimulated to transmit fluids by interconnecting projects. Exploration of the pores along natural networks of preexisting microfrac- latter two themes would be project for extracting tures, through the use of fluid pressure to slightly dis- enabled by accessing subsur- turb those fractures. However, such engineering face fluid and rock samples 100 gigawatt hours approaches involve high financial risks because they from a borehole, and findings may fail to produce adequate permeability to achieve in these themes might influ- of geothermal heat energy extraction targets. Furthermore, drilling, artifi- ence the other topics. cial permeability construction, and fluid cycling all The common root of the per year. cause perturbations in the subsurface that may be first three themes is complex associated with seismic risk. Overall, the lack of funda- hydrologic, thermal, chemical, mental scientific and engineering understanding of the and mechanical relationships and processes—natural rocks and the coupled risks result in high costs and and ­human-​­induced—acting over timescales ranging slow progress. from very short (days) to geological. Workshop partici- Following years of economic and technical feasibil- pants focused on describing the experiments, mea- ity analysis of its ESH approach, Cornell is positioned surements, and samples needed to underpin scientific to advance an initial demonstration project for extract- advances in understanding the hydrogeology of old, ing 100 gigawatt hours of geothermal heat per year, tectonically inactive crust and of the physical controls enough to satisfy about 20% of campus needs. How- affecting seismic hazard within continental plate inte- ever, until deep boreholes can access the subsurface, riors. we lack key data needed to design a geothermal sys- One hypothesis posits that the continental crust is tem and to assess financial, technical, and seismic at critical failure condition everywhere [e.g., Townend risks. and Zoback, 2000]—that rocks underground are always As a ­research-​­focused land grant university, Cor- close to failure by fracturing. This scenario can keep nell has three integrated motivations for drilling test certain fractures open as permeable pathways, but it boreholes: to achieve its carbon neutrality goal, to also means that the rocks are highly susceptible to demonstrate and lower the risks of a technology with small stress perturbations. Having a ­kilometers-​­deep potential for wide deployment, and to foster basic borehole that provides vertically continuous data about research. stress magnitudes and orientations, pore fluid pres- The ICDP workshop assembled 35 visitors and sures, and temperatures in the context of lithologic 26 Cornell faculty, technical staff, and students from and fracture properties would allow scientists to probe diverse specialties (but with little shared background this hypothesis. knowledge), including borehole engineering, regional Workshop attendees were very interested in the pos- geology, induced earthquakes, geothermal engineer- sibility of gaining a better understanding of porome- ing, and hydrology. About 90% of the workshop was chanical behavior and the processes affecting stress spent in group discussions of key science questions and and strain near the interface between the Paleozoic

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 67 Current and envisioned future energy sources to help Cornell University meet its goal to become carbon neutral by 2035, including geo- thermal heat from the ESH project, are illustrated in this campus diagram. Credit: Cornell University

sedimentary rocks and the Precambrian crystalline or greater depth will cost several million dollars. basement. ­Fiber-​­optic sensing along the length of the Because a ­wide-​­diameter borehole down to an explor- borehole, along with measurements of the physical atory target depth of ­4–5 kilometers could serve later as properties of rock samples, could provide insights into an operational well accommodating a higher flow than the mechanical behavior of the subsurface at multiple a narrow hole, a case can be made for such a hole, scales. These insights are important for understanding which could also facilitate extensive testing and sam- induced seismicity and mitigating hazards. pling. An alternative strategy is to drill an initial nar- Attendees were also enthusiastic about the opportu- row borehole that would allow studies of geologic con- nity to retrieve core samples that could spur a new gen- text and in situ characterization. Later, this borehole eration of geological investigation into the thermal could serve as an observatory for downhole monitoring history of the rocks beneath upstate New York. This of such things as temperature, pressure, seismic activ- investigation could fill knowledge gaps about what ity, and fluid chemistry. happened to the rocks from the end of deposition in The risks of these two alternatives are markedly dif- the Devonian (420–360 million years ago); through the ferent. A ­wide-​­diameter borehole intended to be used burial, fluid flow, diagenesis, and fracturing of the later for energy production would require much of its Alleghanian orogeny; to the ­mid-​­Mesozoic emplace- length to be cased with cement. However, some critical ment of kimberlites and the topographic readjust- rock properties and conditions should be measured or ments and denudation of the Cenozoic (66 million sampled in an uncased borehole, and much of the years ago to present). equipment for permanent monitoring would need to be Although no geobiologists participated, the work- installed prior to casing. Moreover, several borehole shop participants agreed that sampling could enable experts foresaw this scenario leading to high costs and study of life-forms found amid the lithologies and con- the high technical risk of losing the operational well if ditions that a borehole would traverse. Discussions at wall rock collapsed and refilled the hole. the workshop revealed that the Cornell site offers even Drilling a narrow hole to ­4–5 kilometers also comes higher research value if the vertical profile of the ther- with significant practical, costly challenges. One such mal, hydrological, mechanical, and chemical properties challenge is the limited availability of companies and of the subsurface could be determined at a pristine equipment capable of drilling and coring such a hole at location not yet subjected to subsurface manipulation, a ­cost-​­effective rate. Discussions about the back and and then monitored through time as the geothermal forth between science goals and borehole operational project progresses. goals revealed scenarios that may translate to signifi- cantly higher borehole costs and to compromised plans Where Science and Engineering Challenges that reduce the scientific scope. Intersect Another alternative emerged from these discussions: A major question about a Cornell borehole, one where A narrow borehole that reaches only 100 meters into the science and engineering considerations intersect, is basement would have lower costs and risks than a deep whether it should have a narrow or wide diameter. hole. This ­narrow-​­hole design would still allow seismo- Regardless of diameter, each borehole to 3 kilometers logical and hydrological experiments to document sub-

68 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 surface conditions before and after artificial permeabil- broad and rapid public dissemination of all data ity construction in a neighboring well, and after a extracted from the borehole. geothermal field begins production. With this The ­ICDP-​­supported borehole planning workshop, approach, the reduced risk to the integrity of a ­wide-​ which assembled interested parties with diverse back- ­diameter borehole, which could then be cased immedi- grounds and broad expertise, has helped ­jump-​­start ately to protect against collapse, could plausibly lower progress toward using geothermal energy to meet the expenses enough to enable a ­three-​­borehole setup. This university’s carbon neutrality goals. The initial idea setup, incorporating one narrow, ­intermediate-​­depth was to use a geothermal energy borehole as a chance hole and two wide (and cased) ­full-depth​­ boreholes, to piggyback some fascinating scientific research onto might not cost much more than two wide boreholes dug a practical project. The ICDP workshop revealed that it with numerous workarounds and compromises. is also an opportunity to increase the probability that the ESH project itself will be successful because of the A Promising Start to the Work Ahead “boring” companion science. Following the ICDP workshop, Cornell University sought funds from the U.S. Department of Energy References (DOE) to drill a narrow borehole through the sedimen- Camp, E. R., et al. (2018), A probabilistic application of oil and gas data for explora- tion stage geothermal reservoir assessment in the Appalachian Basin, Geother- tary rocks and about 100 meters into the crystalline mics, 71, 187–199, https://doi­ .​ org/­ 10​­ .​ 1016/­ j.geothermics­ .​ 2017­ .09​ .001​ .​​ basement. And at the end of July, DOE announced Lopez, S., et al. (2010), 40 years of Dogger aquifer management in Ile-de- selection of Cornell’s project for funding. The funds France, Paris Basin, France, Geothermics, 39, 339–356, https://doi­ .​ org/10.1016/­ ​ j.geothermics­ .​ 2010­ .09​ .005​ .​​ awarded should be sufficient to bore the hole; to obtain Smith, J. D. (2019), Exploratory spatial data analysis and uncertainty propaga- several hundred meters of continuous core and spot tion for geothermal resource assessment and reservoir models, Ph.D. thesis, cores; to analyze pressure, stress, strain, and hydrolog- 255 pp., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N.Y. ical and rock properties; and to install permanent Townend, J., and M. D. Zoback (2000), How faulting keeps the crust strong, Geol- ogy, 28(5), 399–402, https://doi­ .​ org/­ 10​­ 1130/​ 0091​­ -​ 7613­ (2000)​­ 28​­ <​ 399­ :​ HFKTCS­ ​ monitoring systems. >2.0.CO;2.­ With this foundation, Cornell and experts like those who participated in the workshop can address many of Author Information the scientific and engineering challenges laid out Teresa Jordan (tej1@cornell​.edu) and Patrick­ Fulton,­ above. Yet some of the fascinating questions articu- Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Cornell lated at the workshop will require companion proj- University, Ithaca, N.Y.; ­Jefferson Tester, Smith School of ects. We will need to obtain additional samples, install Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell Univer- other types of sensors, extract and analyze data sity, Ithaca, N.Y.; ­Hiroshi Asanuma,­ Fukushima Renewable shortly after drilling and during years of observation, Energy Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial and conduct complementary experiments and geo- Science and Technology, Koriyama, Japan; and ­David physical surveys. Those ­added-​­value projects will Bruhn, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft require that experts lead efforts to seek, in collabora- University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands tion with Cornell, funds for the worthy, complemen- tary projects. The university is also committed to u Read the article at bit.​ ly/­ Eos​­ -​ boring­

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SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 69 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

How Forest Degradation Affects Carbon and Water Cycles

Forest degradation, including the kind of logging pictured here on Pirititi Indigenous land in the Brazilian Amazon, can significantly affect energy, water, and carbon fluxes in forests. Credit: Felipe Werneck/IBAMA, CC BY 2.0 (bit​.ly/­ccby2​-­0)

ropical rain forests provide ecosystem services well beyond regions in the eastern Amazon (one in French Guiana and the rest in their bounds. The Amazon, for example, acts as both a sink for Brazil), each with different precipitation patterns and histories of land Tcarbon dioxide and a fountain of water vapor into the atmo- use change, to capture the diversity of degraded forests. sphere that later falls as rain or snow, sometimes thousands of kilo- The model indicated that during a typical dry season, evapotrans- meters away. But human activities and climate change are major piration and gross primary production were 34% and 35% lower, threats to these services. respectively, in degraded forests than in intact forests, whereas day- Many studies have sought to understand how deforestation, which time surface temperatures were 6.5°C higher on average. However, has soared again in many parts of the Amazon, affects carbon seques- during extreme droughts, the effect of degradation on these fluxes tration and evapotranspiration. Meanwhile, forest degradation, which was much less apparent. In other words, intact and degraded forests includes logging, understory fires, and forest fragmentation, may behaved similarly when facing extreme water and heat stress. affect as large an area as deforestation does, yet its effects on water, The same pattern held true for fire risk: In a typical year, degraded energy, and carbon cycles in tropical forests are less well understood. forests were drier, warmer, and more susceptible to fire, but during That’s at least in part because forest degradation is heterogeneous droughts, intact forests were just as prone to fire, highlighting the and because many degraded plots are in remote regions and on pri- critical role of climate variability in flammability. vately owned land, making field data difficult to gather. But in a new Although the model had limitations—for example, it didn’t consider study, Longo et al. used high-­ resolution​­ lidar data collected by aircraft variations in soil depth and composition, which can markedly affect to overcome some of these accessibility challenges. these fluxes—the study advances the use of remote sensing technology The researchers fed both lidar data and ground observations into for tracking structural change in degraded forests as well as our under- an ecosystem demography model to compare water, energy, and car- standing of how human disturbances beyond deforestation impact bon fluxes between the forest and the atmosphere in both degraded energy and carbon balances in the Amazon. ( Journal of Geophysical and intact regions of the Amazon forest spanning precipitation gra- Research: Biogeosciences, https://­ ​­doi​.org/­ ​­10.1029/­ ​­2020JG005677, 2020) dients. The lidar data revealed forest structure variability across five —Kate Wheeling, Science Writer

70 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

Interpreting Neural Networks’ Reasoning

eural networks are everywhere in vance propagation (LRP). Both methods help sonal temperatures. They trained the network modern science, providing insights researchers identify which inputs are most on data from 1950 to 2000, tested it on data Ninto such complex topics as facial influential in a neural network’s decision-­ ​ from 2000 to 2018, and found that the neural recognition, cancer research, and risk man- ­making process, which could make the tech- network approaches were more accurate than agement, among others. The machine nique more applicable to the geosciences, a traditional, regression-­ based​­ approach. learning technique uses networks of com- where understanding a network’s reasoning Machine learning studies are becoming putational nodes working together to find may be critical for validating its predictions. more common in the geosciences, but this patterns in massive data sets and make pre- The team first applied both methods to a one was the first to apply an LRP technique dictions on the basis of those data. simple task: identifying whether a specific to the field. The authors show that the Neural networks may be useful in iden­ sea surface temperature (SST) pattern was machine learning techniques can provide tifying meaningful relationships in the indicative of a positive or negative phase of valid predictions, confirming that their out- increasingly large and high-­ quality​­ data sets the ­well-​­studied El ­Niño–​­Southern Oscilla- put matches our understanding of the phys- available in the geosciences. But their appli- tion (ENSO). Team members trained the neu- ical processes driving Earth systems and cation in those fields has been limited so far ral network on SST data from 1880 to 1990 setting the stage for future studies that by the fact that the internal reasoning the and tested it using data from 1990 to 2017. could use these techniques to identify as yet networks use to make decisions and predic- The network identified the ENSO phase accu- unknown relationships hiding in geoscience tions is not always apparent. rately 100% of the time. data. ( Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth In a new study, Toms et al. apply two new Next the team applied the methods to a Systems (JAMES), https://doi­ ​.org/­ ​­10.1029/​ methods for interpreting neural networks: more complex task: predicting how sea sur- ­2019MS002002, 2020) —Kate Wheeling, Sci- backward optimization and layerwise rele- face temperature anomalies will impact sea- ence Writer

A GOLDen Way to Study Space Weather

ne of NASA’s newest missions, called ­Global-​­scale Observa- tions of the Limb and Disk (GOLD), is revealing how the upper Ofringes of Earth’s atmosphere affect space weather by observ- ing atmospheric airglow in unprecedented detail. In a new study, Eastes et al. report early data from the mission, including observations of how neutral gases in the thermosphere interact with charged par- ticles in Earth’s ionosphere and how these interactions respond to disturbances in Earth’s magnetic field caused by solar storms. GOLD was launched into geostationary orbit in 2018 aboard a com- munications satellite and began making routine observations in Octo- ber of that year. The instrument measures wavelengths of ultraviolet light emitted by excited atoms and molecules at altitudes of 100 kilo- meters or higher when they relax to lower energy levels. These emis- sions phenomena include aurorae as well as much fainter yet steady airglow across the night sky. From its vantage over the western Atlantic, GOLD observes airglow across the full disk of Earth every 30 minutes, as well as in the thin ribbon of atmosphere, called the limb, surrounding it. Occasionally, when a star passes behind Earth, the instrument takes advantage of The ­Global-​­scale Observations of the Limb and Disk instrument (circled) appears the starlight passing through the atmosphere to measure the density at the bottom of the ­SES-14 communications satellite in this artist’s illustration. of oxygen in the air at different altitudes based on the light it absorbs. Credit: NASA/CIL/Chris Meaney GOLD also collects valuable temperature readings and observations of the ratio of oxygen to molecular nitrogen, as well as of how these characteristics change during geomagnetic storms. Early observations of Earth’s nightside from the mission have The authors suggest that all told, GOLD’s observations should yielded surprising discoveries about airglow over the equatorial help scientists develop better models of the thermosphere-­ ​ region, where large, continent-­ spanning​­ stripes of emissions tend to ­ionosphere system and advance our understanding of space weather form. This “equatorial anomaly” is far more dynamic than expected, effects on Earth. ( Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, with its brightness and appearance changing rapidly even during quiet https://doi​­ .​ ­org/10.1029/​­ 2020JA027823,​­ 2020) —Mark Zastrow, Science periods between geomagnetic storms. Writer

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 71 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

Steadying ­Mid-​­Ocean Ridge Spreading Rates

very so often, Earth’s geomagnetic field reverses, with magnetic over time, sometimes erratically, creating uncertainty in the GPTS. north and south swapping places over the course of a few millen- Here the researchers used up-­ to-​­ date​­ magnetic anomaly data collected Enia. Researchers have tracked these reversals, which occur every during 154 ship tracks across the North and South Pacific, South Atlan- few tens of thousands to millions of years, at ­mid-​­ocean ridges, where tic, and Indian Oceans, as well as Monte Carlo computational methods, tectonic plates are pulling apart. As lava erupts at these ridges and solid- to smooth out spreading rates across all the ocean basins, thereby min- ifies to form new ocean crust, it records the orientation of the planet’s imizing spreading rate variations and reducing uncertainty in the GPTS. magnetic field, creating alternating blocks of rock that are magnetized The findings contribute to researchers’ understanding of the history in opposite directions and that generate magnetic anomalies that can of ocean spreading. In particular, the study revealed a major global be measured by ship surveys. Combining these magnetic signatures change in spreading rates between 50 million and 45 million years ago. with radioisotopic dating of the magnetized rocks has provided time- Around that time, the Indian subcontinent slammed into the Eurasian lines for past reversals called geomagnetic polarity timescales (GPTSs). plate, slowing tectonic spreading in the Indian Ocean. At the same time, Malinverno et al. update the GPTS for a period stretching from late in spreading rates roughly doubled in the South Atlantic and North Pacific, the Cretaceous, roughly 84 million years ago, until the end of the coinciding with the timing of a bend in the ­Hawaii-Emperor​­ seamount Eocene, 33 million years ago. chain. The results could also help resolve timescale inconsistencies in Previous GPTSs assumed that ocean spreading rates in the South astrochronology studies, the authors note. ( Journal of Geophysical Atlantic were constant or smoothly varying over time. But in data col- Research: Solid Earth, https://­doi​.­org/​­10.1029/­2020JB020034, 2020) lected at other ­mid-​­ocean ridges, spreading rates appeared to change —Kate Wheeling, Science Writer

Ancient Sea Levels in South Africa May Offer Modern Analogues

he concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere as of June 2020 exceeded 416 parts per million, a level not seen since Tthe ­mid-​­Pliocene warm period approximately 3 million years ago. Indeed, the entire Pliocene (5.­33–​­2.58 million years ago) serves as a potential analogue for our present and future climate. Scientists often turn to the stratigraphic record to understand Earth’s history. Geological proxies like fossilized flora and fauna indi- cate that temperatures during the Pliocene were about 2.7°C–4.0°C hotter than those in the preindustrial era. Coastal rocks and sedi- ments can also help identify the Pliocene’s elevated sea levels from a time when polar ice extents were drastically smaller than today. In a new study, Hearty et al. delved into the stratigraphic record to determine how high the ocean rose the last time carbon dioxide levels eclipsed 400 parts per million, investigating ancient coastal This location near the Olifants River on the Atlantic coast of South Africa exhibits deposits along the western and southern coastlines of the Republic some of the most detailed stratigraphy of a Pliocene sea level stand from of South Africa. The South African coast was comparatively stable roughly 4.5 million years ago that was more than 25 meters above modern sea during the Pliocene and subsequent Pleistocene, so the unjostled level. The water at that time rose above the white rocks seen in the foreground rocks there offer optimal marine exposures and clear indicators of and in the haze farther down the coast. Credit: Paul Hearty past sea levels. However, elevations measured in the field must be corrected to account for past vertical land motion. The team scoured the coastlines for sites where geologic records of past sea levels have been preserved and analyzed marine shells col- imately 4.5 million to 3 million years ago. The second zone is ­15–20 lected from these deposits using strontium dating. Once the authors meters above modern sea level and represents sea level about 1 mil- identified optimal exposures, they collected ­high-accuracy​­ GPS data lion years ago, during the Pleistocene. to measure the 3D coordinates of key geological features to within a The authors note that ice sheets are highly vulnerable during warm- few centimeters. ing climates. Their findings suggest that global sea levels are likely to Three of the 17 surveyed sites provided reliable age data, establish- undergo dynamic changes in the future because of rising carbon diox- ing that average sea levels during the Pliocene were between 15 and ide concentrations. The researchers also point out that their data set 30 meters higher than the present waterline. The results revealed two can serve as a baseline against which to compare future studies of prominent topographic zones. The first zone is about ­25–35 meters global mean sea level. (Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology, ­https://​ above current sea level and corresponds to conditions from approx- ­doi​.­org/​­10.1029/​­2019PA003835, 2020) —Aaron Sidder, Science Writer

72 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

Air Temperatures More Warming Means Worse Ideal for Impacts from Runoff and Drought Carbon Uptake by Subtropical Plants

ore green on Earth means less car- bon in the atmosphere. A photo- Msynthesizing plant captures carbon in the air, in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2), and converts it into plant matter. As CO2 levels rise, ecosystems generally grow more efficient at capturing carbon. However, as temperatures rise, that efficiency wanes. This feedback between the efficiency of plant carbon sequestration and air tempera- ture has been demonstrated in the tropics, in A campground floods at Christina Lake in British Columbia, Canada. Credit: Thomas_H_foto, CC BY-ND 2.0­ models, and in studies at leaf level. McGowan (bit​.ly/­ccbynd2​-­0) et al. investigated this relationship on Bribie Island, a barrier island off the east coast of Australia near Brisbane, setting up sensors in three subtropical ecosystem types: a wet- cientists have shown that warming glo­ Plain as likely candidates to experience land, a swamp, and a pine plantation. The bal temperatures can lead to increases increased droughts with the added warming. researchers recorded an array of environ- Sin extreme precipitation events—and Meanwhile, Alaska, northern Canada, and mental data, from weather and radiation lev- therefore to increased surface runoff from much of Asia are expected to experience els to soil temperature and water content. soils unable to absorb heavy rainfall and increased flooding hazards. From these data, the scientists calculated snowmelt—as well as to aggravated droughts The researchers extended their analysis that the optimum temperature range for resulting from decreased precipitation­ and to determine how many more people would photosynthesis, and thus for CO2 uptake, in increased evapotranspiration. Under­stand­ be affected under 2°C versus 1.5°C warming, these environments is 24.1°C–27.4°C. And ing the likely timing and locations of future as well as the added burden on gross domes- they found that when temperatures exceed floods and droughts will be imperative in tic product (GDP). They calculated that glob- this optimum window, which they often did protecting people and managing risk. ally, droughts would affect an additional during the study, an ecosystem’s ability to In a new study, Zhai et al. use an estab- 0.5% of the population; floods, an additional capture CO2 drops sharply. This trend was lished surface runoff model, called variable 4.9%; and droughts and floods, an additional especially visible during dry periods. The infiltration capacity, in combination with the 4.9% under 2°C warming relative to under monoculture of the pine plantation did not latest climate projections from global circu- 1.5°C warming. The scientists also found that handle hot or dry conditions well. The natural lation models to forecast global surface run- the changes in runoff with 2°C warming ver- wetland ecosystem, in contrast, was the most off and droughts and to compare differences sus 1.5°C warming would have widespread productive of the three sites and responded in these forecasts between 1.5°C and 2°C impacts on the affected economies, with best to changing conditions, likely because of warming scenarios, the targets for maximum droughts affecting an additional 4.6% of its natural diversity and dense vegetation, the warming established in the Paris Agreement. GDP globally, floods affecting an additional authors note. The team reports that outcomes in their 2.4%, and both droughts and floods affecting Earth’s temperature continues to climb, modeling are worse across the board for the an additional 5.7%. and experts predict that the subtropics will 2°C scenario: Annual runoff is expected to be Considering the severity of these pro- experience less rain as the climate warms. higher, water retention in terrestrial ecosys- jected human and economic impacts, the In the face of these changes, the ability of tems is expected to be lower, and droughts researchers point out the importance of try- plants in subtropical ecosystems to scrub and floods are expected to increase in fre- ing to limit further warming of Earth’s cli- carbon from the air will decline, the authors quency. The scientists identify Mexico, the mate. (Earth’s Future, https://­ ​­doi​.org/­ ​­10​ say. They suggest that similar research is western United States, western Europe, .­1029/​­2019EF001398, 2020) —David Shultz, needed in other climate zones and ecosys- southeastern China, and the West Siberian Science Writer tems to develop a more complete picture of plant-climate​­ feedbacks. ( Journal of Geophys- ical Research: Biogeosciences, https://​­doi​​.­org/​ 10.1029/­ ​­2020JG005678, 2020) —­Elizabeth u Read the latest news at Eos.org Thompson,­ Science Writer

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 73 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

Tracking Air Pollution from Ghana’s ­E-Waste Site

People burn wires, cables, circuit boards, and other discarded items to recover copper at the Agbogbloshie electronic waste site in Ghana. Credit: Muntaka Chasant, CC ­BY-SA 4.0 (bit​.ly/­ccbysa4​-­0)

3 lumes of black smoke are often seen (PM10) in diameter for the waste site’s thou- 57 µg/m higher than the average back- rising from the Agbogbloshie elec- sands of employees and the densely popu- ground level of 31 µg/m3; the authors note Ptronic waste (­e-waste) site in Accra, lated communities nearby. The team mea- that background levels were largely attribut- Ghana. The acrid clouds contain particulate sured upwind, ­on-​­site, and downwind PM able to biomass burning and traffic emis- matter and other pollutants that pour into concentrations using gravimetric and opti- sions. Downwind of the ­e-waste site, PM2.5 the air above the capital city from two ­waste-​ cal instrumentation to sample both upwind levels were 57 µg/m3 (or 26 µg/m3 higher ­burning areas at the site. But air pollution background levels of air pollution and con- than background). World Health Organiza- data to track these plumes and their effects tributions of the waste site while also tion and Ghanaian EPA exposure guidelines 3 are limited in Ghana and throughout Africa; accounting for local meteorological condi- for 24-hour­ PM2.5 are 25 and 30 µg/m , only six of the continent’s 47 ­sub-​­Saharan tions. respectively. countries report levels of airborne particulate PM2.5 and PM10 levels were both signifi- According to the authors, the study dem­ matter—the inhalable pieces of pollution cantly higher at the waste site than back- onstrates that an approach combining grav- that can wreak havoc on the human body. ground levels, and ­24-hour PM2.5 levels con- imetric and optical measurements can pro- Kwarteng et al. look to augment Ghana’s siderably exceeded both World Health vide a relatively low cost way for countries limited air pollution data by using ­moderate-​ Organization and Ghanaian EPA exposure to monitor pollution levels in complex ­cost sampling methods to quantify exposure guidelines. The team found that ­24-hour urban environments. (GeoHealth, https://­ doi​­ ​ to particulate matter less than 2.5 microm- PM2.5 levels at the e-­ ​waste site averaged .org/­ ​­10.1029/​­2020GH000247, 2020) —Kate 3 eters (PM2.5 ) and less than 10 micrometers 88 micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m ), or Wheeling,­ Science Writer

74 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 RESEARCH SPOTLIGHT

Sudden Oak Death Taking a Toll on U.S. West Coast

early half of forest ecosystems around the world face “­stand-​ species: California bay laurel, tanoak, coast live oak, and California ­replacing disturbances”—hazards that threaten to kill all of black oak. Nthe trees in a localized region, such as fires, extreme weather, The team monitored more than 10,000 stems across several hun- and disease. The spread of nonnative insects and pathogens has also dred plots in California and Oregon, tracking infections, climate, and reshaped North American forests, and today a disease outbreak is topography to determine how various factors influenced disease pro- sweeping along the U.S. West Coast. gression in all four species. As of 2012, some 166.2 million stems Sudden oak death, caused by the plant pathogen Phytophthora within the study plots were infected. The majority (95.2 million) were ramorum, has reached epidemic proportions in California and Ore- bay laurel stems, which can typically survive P. ramorum infections, gon since it first arrived in the San Francisco Bay Area in about 1990. making the species a major source of infection for other trees. But the regional extent of both the disease and related tree mortal- Given the mortality rates for the other three species, the authors ity is not clear, hampering forest managers’ responses to the epi- estimate that the disease has killed nearly 48 million stems in the past demic and to other threats, as die-­ ​­offs can increase fuel loads and 20 years, including nearly 39 million tanoak stems alone. That’s a mor- fire severity, reduce forest productivity, and convert forests from tality rate on par with other mass tree ­die-​­offs in the western United carbon sinks to carbon sources. States due to drought and insect outbreaks, the authors note. Invasive Cobb et al. modeled the infection and mortality rate in forests fac- pathogens tend to grow exponentially, meaning that these problems ing P. ramorum invasions by combining observations from plot net- are likely to compound in the coming decades. But prevention and treat- works on the ground, geospatial data, and existing data sets describ- ment programs in Oregon involving culling infected trees could serve ing tree cover and pathogen distribution. The pathogen can infect the as an inexpensive and effective model for the region to keep the plant leaves and stems of more than 130 species of trees, shrubs, and ferns, pathogen in check, according to the authors. (Earth’s Future, https://doi​­ ​ but in the new study, the authors focus on the four most affected tree .org/10­ .1029/​ 2020EF001500,​­ 2020) —Kate Wheeling, Science Writer

The Lasting Legacy of Phosphorus Buried in Lakes

hosphorus is one of the most biolog- as well as the elements with which it had ically important elements for life on formed complexes. PEarth and is thus ubiquitous in many Prior to eutrophication of Lake 227, most crop fertilizers. Following heavy rain, par- of the phosphorus existed in an organic ticulate phosphorus often runs off field form in the lake sediment. As the lake tran- crops into nearby bodies of water, where it sitioned to eutrophic conditions, the rate of can dramatically alter the health of aquatic phosphorus burial increased overall, with ecosystems over time. much of the increase attributable to phos- Environmental regulations have reduced phorus bound to humus, the ­dark-​­colored phosphorus discharges to some aquatic soil fraction that’s rich in organic matter. ­ecosystems to improve water quality, but The researchers found that the humic phos- despite the reductions, many systems have phorus was usually bound in ­iron-​­humic not experienced water quality improvement. complexes, especially with ferric iron (Fe3+). This may be because of the internal release They note that the large quantity of Fe3+ of accumulated, or legacy, phosphorus in Lake 227 at the International Institute for Sustain- found in the sediment suggests that the sediments, which can drive eutrophic con- able Development (IISD) Experimental Lakes Area organic ­carbon–rich​­ sediment stabilizes this ditions—with low oxygen levels and excess in Ontario, Canada, seen here, is the site of a ­long-​ oxidation state of iron, preventing it from nutrients—which are often hazardous to ­running controlled eutrophication experiment. being reduced to other forms even in highly native aquatic animals. Credit: IISD Experimental Lakes Area reducing conditions. To better understand how and in what The researchers also observed that much forms phosphorus accumulates in lakes, sci- of the phosphorus added to Lake 227 is entists have conducted studies in which they stored in reactive forms, meaning that the artificially add the nutrient to a controlled In new research, O’Connell et al. used a lake could remain eutrophic for years even experimental lake. In one such lake in Ontario, combination of sediment cores and labora- without external phosphorus loading. They Canada, known as Lake 227, in the Interna- tory analyses to track changes in sedimentary conclude that eutrophication may thus have tional Institute for Sustainable Development phosphorus forms during and after the tran- ­far-​­reaching consequences in the future Experimental Lakes Area, researchers have sition. The sediment cores represented a nat- because of legacy phosphorus. ( Journal of used phosphorus to transition the aquatic ural history of the lake’s relationship with Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, https:/­/­ environment from oligotrophic, or relatively phosphorus, showing the rates at which the doi.org/​ ­10.1029/​ ­2020JG005713, 2020) —David­ oxygen rich and low in nutrients, to eutrophic. element had been buried in the sediment Shultz, Science Writer

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 75 EDITORS' HIGHLIGHTS // AGU ADVANCES EDITORS PRESENT THE LATEST RESEARCH

The Perils of Computing Too Much and Thinking Too Little

manuel, one of the most recognized and accomplished scientists ingly broad spectrum of activities—also in the educational sphere— in the field, reflects on the importance of theory for atmo- there is danger that inattention to theory will produce researchers who E spheric, oceanic, and climate science. In so doing, he sounds an use these vast resources ineffectively and that the opportunity for true alarm about the perils the neglect of theory pose for the advancement breakthroughs, which come from new ideas, will be diminished. of our science. As high-­ performance​­ computing dominates an increas- (https://doi­ .​ org/­ 10.1029/​­ 2019AV000129,​­ 2020) —Bjorn Stevens

What the Upper Ocean Can We Observe How Looks Like During Cloud Clustering Affects a Hurricane and Why the Radiation Budget?

It Matters nderstanding what controls the tropical radiation budget is of great importance, as it offers guidance on estimating climate Usensitivity to greenhouse gas increases. Both observations and climate models have well established that the tropical radiation bud- get is significantly influenced by lower-­ ​­atmospheric stability. More recently, modeling studies have suggested that the degree of cloud clustering could also influence the radiation budget. Bony et al. pres- ent the first observational study that confirms the influence of con- vective clustering on the radiation budget at the scale of the tropics. More clustered deep convection is associated with enhanced radiative cooling, as the free troposphere is drier and more heat is emitted to space. The observations reveal that ­lower-​­atmospheric stability and convective clustering are complementary and equally important for modulating the tropical radiation budget. This emphasizes the impor- tance of determining how the stability and cloud clustering will change with future warming. (https://doi​­ .​ org/­ 10.1029/​­ 2019AV000155,​­ 2020) —Sarah Kang

Locations of Air Launched Autonomous Micro Observer (ALAMO) floats relative to the tracks of Hurricanes Irma (2017, black circles) and Florence (2018, black triangles) and prestorm ­satellite-​­derived sea surface temperatures ( °C, shaded) below and above white line, respectively. Locations of inset satellite infrared brightness temperatures (K) are indicated (black squares), as are the ALAMO positions when Irma (red circles) and Florence (blue triangles) crossed the float array. TC = tropical cyclone; kt = knots. Credit: Sanabia and Jayne, 2020

ropical cyclones leave cooler surface ocean temperatures in their wake, as a result of intense mixing of the upper ocean. TDetails of this upper ocean structure under two hurricanes are revealed in high-resolution measurements presented by Sanabia and Jayne. These unique measurements, derived from a variety of sensors deployed on floats, capture the space and time variability in the ­across-path​­ asymmetry in ocean mixed layer properties and show the importance of salinity in controlling this structure. The view of the upper ocean provided by these measurements allows improved Variations in (a) ­midtropospheric relative humidity (in %) and (b) clear-­ ​­sky net under­standing of that layer’s influence on the intensity of the hurri- radiation (in watts per square meter) congruent with the degree of cloud cluster- cane, which in turn contributes to better forecasts of hurricane inten- ing. Enhanced organization of convection is associated with drying and radiative sity. (https://​­doi​.org/​­10.1029/​­2019AV000161, 2020) —Eileen­ Hofmann­ cooling over most of the tropics. Credit: Bony et al., 2020

76 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 AGU ADVANCES EDITORS PRESENT THE LATEST RESEARCH // EDITORS’ HIGHLIGHTS

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SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 77 POSITIONS AVAILABLE

Interdisciplinary The Career Center Harvard University PLACE YOUR AD HERE (findajob.agu.org) Bullard Fellowships in Forest Visit agu.org/advertise to learn more about employment advertising with AGU. Research is AGU’s main resource Harvard University awards a lim- for recruitment ited number of Bullard Fellowships annually to individuals in the biologi- advertising. cal, social, physical and political ­sciences and the arts to promote advanced study or integration of sub- AGU offers online and jects pertaining to forested ecosys- tems. These full-­ time​­ residential fel- printed recruitment lowships allow ­mid-​­career individuals advertising in Eos to to foster their scientific and profes- sional growth and to contribute to reinforce your online research on forests at Harvard. A major goal of the Bullard Fellow- job visibility and your ship program is to enhance research brand. Visit employers. activities at Harvard Forest and build long-­ term​­ collaborations that con- agu.org for more nect Harvard Forest with other parts information. of the University. Fellows can be based at the Harvard Forest or asso- ciated with other departments and centers at Harvard, such as the Eos is published monthly. Department of Organismic and Evo- lutionary Biology, the Harvard Uni- Deadlines for ads in each issue versity Center for the Environment, are published at sites . agu.org/ and the Arnold Arboretum. Fellowships are for ­6–12 months, media-kits/eos-advertising- with a maximum stipend of $60,000 deadlines/. for a full-­ year​­ Fellowship. Awards are not intended for graduate students or Eos accepts employment and recent postdoctoral candidates; Fel- open position advertisements lows are expected to be in residence from governments, individuals, throughout their fellowship. Harvard organizations, and academic Forest is committed to establishing and maintaining a diverse and inclu- institutions. We reserve the right sive community that collectively sup- to accept or reject ads at our ports and implements our mission. discretion. Additional information is available on the Harvard Forest website Eos is not responsible for (https://­ harvardforest​­ .​ fas­ .​ harvard­ ​ typographical errors. .edu/­ mid​­ -​ career­ -​ fellowships).­ The deadline for applications is December 15th.

78 Eos // NOVEMBER–DECEMBER 2020 CROSSWORD

Geology Wordplay By Russ Colson, Minnesota State University Moorhead

Find the answers at ­bit​.­ly/​­Eos​-­answers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

ACROSS 12 13 14 1 Sandy deposits in bends of rivers 5 They might be apple or cherry 15 16 17 9 A way of handling coordinates in GIS

12 Includes the Himalayan, Ural, and Altai 18 19 20 mountains 13 Of Green Gables, e.g. 21 22 14 What’s left after an oxygen-starved prairie fire, perhaps 23 24 25 26 27 15 A volcano from the deep—or a device for draining diamonds? 18 Rain, but not the sea, chemical-wise 28 29 19 You may fail, but you ______21 Another option, for short 30 31 32 33 34 35 22 Sallied forth 23 Something unusual 36 37 27 Just old dirt—or an ancient planetary system star? 38 39 40 41 42 28 What rivers do to a mountain or valley 29 What good intentions did to the road 43 44 to hell? 30 With 32 across, a rock that doesn’t 45 46 47 48 49 50 belong 31 Sharpened 51 52 32 With 30 across, a rock that doesn’t

belong 53 54 55 36 Members of a Pueblo tribe

37 Fla. dino relative 56 57 58 38 All wet underground—or an upper room for no extra charge? 42 ______and forever 43 A dinosaur (formerly) or lizard 44 Prefix for -active or -ton 7 Oklahoma hometown of former astro- 32 An observable and predictable pat- 45 Objects like the Ring Nebula and tree naut Owen Garriott tern of behavior in nature rings 8 A collection of data 33 You might fail, but give ______go 46 Mineral luster typical of opaque oxides 9 Enter 34 A mouse to a cat? 51 They start out on top—or places with 10 Using the letters from elems. 16, 35 Units of time (abbr.) heroic powers? 27, 53, and 78, the genus of gold- 36 Shout-out for Earth Science (abbr.) 53 Chooses thread 37 Exhibit smug pleasure 54 Complement to sciences 11 Sound system term from Greek for 38 Public service announcement (abbr.) 55 Surface feature typical of divergent “three-dimensional” 39 Inventor of a two-wheeled horse- plate boundaries 14 Did not destroy drawn carriage of the same name 56 Unpubl. novels, e.g. 16 Delight 40 Sharp escalations, as of prices 57 A place for oviraptor eggs, e.g. 17 Motivated by a spirit of conscientious 41 Something a volcano does 58 Elems. 68 and 76, or sensual love environmentalism? 42 Writer, architect, or musician, e.g. 20 Alpine music form, without vowels 44 Like mosquitos and roaches DOWN 22 The wise computer user does this 46 A greater amount 1 Caspian Sea port important for oil frequently 47 Elem. 3 and 75, or pre-euro money production 23 Tyrannosaurus or Oedipus in Italy 2 An inverse trig. function 24 Were, but in the present 48 Yazoo tributary to a better known river 3 Edges of impact craters 25 Actor/director Howard with nearly the same name in western 4 Dutch island and stratovolcano of the 26 A promise of fidelity France West Indies 27 Don’t do it when the storm hits 49 Facts and such, briefly 5 Not completely 29 “If I need your help, I may just _____” 50 Complement to bnfts 6 A narrow embayment along a shoreline 31 It rises 52 Do it for gold

SCIENCE NEWS BY AGU // Eos.org 79 POSTCARDS FROM THE FIELD

Monile from Malawi!

That greeting means “hello” in Chitumbuka, the local language spo- ­2-liter bottle and sprinkle the water over hands; and (3) soap on a rope ken here in northern Malawi. Since 2012, I have worked with Mzuzu surrounded by the top portion of a 500-­ ​­milliliter plastic bottle so the University as the manager of the Centre of Excellence in Water and goats don’t eat our soap! Sanitation. We use our yearly camp at Mzuzu University to focus on local science Where do we wash our hands? Many areas of Malawi are still lacking a that affects the communities the girls live in and to encourage these piped water supply, which makes hand washing much more difficult. girls to develop new and better science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) solutions, for hand washing and beyond. The photo shows our awesome Girls’ Science Day camp with area high school girls sponsored by an AGU Celebrate 100 grant for the 2020 Rochelle H. Holm, Mzuzu University, Mzuzu, Malawi International Day of Women and Girls in Science. We learned how to overcome this hurdle by making a three-part, low-cost hand-­ washing​­ station. It consists of (1) the bottom portion of a ­2-liter plastic bottle holding water; (2) the bottom portion of a ­500-​­milliliter plastic bot- View more postcards at bit.ly/Eos-postcard tle with holes punched into the bottom, used to “dip” water from the

80 Eos // NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2020 See you at AGU

Fall13–17 December Meeting 2021 2021! New Orleans, La., and online everywhere