THE USE OF SCRIPTURE IN SWAHILI TRACTS BY MUSLIMS AND CHRISTIANS IN EAST AFRICA by JOHN ANTHONY CHESWORTH A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion School of Historical Studies The University of Birmingham October 2007 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This research assesses the use of scripture in tracts published in Swahili in East Africa. The use of tracts for the propagation of religion is introduced through the work of Tract Societies in Britain and the use of Christian tracts in overseas missions. Printing in Arabic and the propagation of Islam through tracts is surveyed. The historical use of tracts by Christians and Muslims in East Africa, and Swahili as a religious language, are examined. In 2000 and 2001, Christian and Muslim tracts in Swahili were purchased from particular locations in Kenya and Tanzania. Of these, sixteen tracts, eight by Christians and eight by Muslims, were selected. The tracts use passages from the Bible and/or the QurÞÁn mainly for outreach purposes. They are described and analysed and scriptures within them recorded. Eighteen Biblical and QurÞÁnic passages that appeared in more than one tract were chosen. These scriptures, together with the interpretations of them within the tracts, are translated, presented thematically, analysed and compared. The research found differences between Christian and Muslim use of the passages, noting that the approach of most tracts is polemical, thus raising concerns that they may increase misunderstandings between Christians and Muslims in East Africa. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to begin by expressing my appreciation for the advice, encouragement, guidance and support of my supervisor Dr. Sigvard von Sicard over the years that this thesis has taken. Our mutual interest and concern for Christians and Muslims in East Africa has led to many fascinating discussions in and around the topic of the research. Having lived in Kenya for most of the period of study, I gratefully acknowledge the help given me by Professor Mary Getui, Kenyatta University, as my ‘local’ supervisor. My gratitude also goes to colleagues at St. Paul’s United Theological College, now St. Paul’s University, Limuru, Kenya for their support and encouragement. My thanks especially to Professor Esther Mombo and Professor Joseph Galgalo, for their help as we together set up the MA programme in Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations at St. Paul’s, in co-operation with the Programme for Christian-Muslim Relations in Africa (PROCMURA) whose General Adviser Dr. Johnson Mbillah also supported and encouraged me in my research. I thank the tract sellers in Kenya and Tanzania who were happy to show me tracts and to talk with me about them. The assistance of librarians and archivists at the following universities has been invaluable, and my thanks go to them: St. Paul’s United Theological College, Limuru; University of Birmingham, Edgbaston campus and the Orchard Learning Resource Centre, Selly Oak; School of Oriental and African Studies, London University; Rhodes House Library, University of Oxford; Edinburgh University and University of Bayreuth. I thank my former students from St. Paul’s, Limuru and St. Phillip’s, Kongwa, Tanzania as well as the Junior Scholars involved in the ‘Sharia Debates and Their Perception by Christians and Muslims in Selected African Countries Project’ for their help and encouragement. I appreciate the help of the many people who have assisted in confirming details while I have been finalising the thesis. They are acknowledged in a section of the Bibliography. I would like to thank Crosslinks for allowing me study leave for the final twelve months. I am grateful to Colin Chapman who taught me and fostered my interest in Islam and introduced me to the Centre for the Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations and Dr. Sigvard von Sicard. Lastly, I thank my wife, Phyll, for the tremendous support she has given me, spending many hours patiently correcting my English and discussing the Swahili translations with me. John Chesworth Kidderminster October 2007 THE USE OF SCRIPTURE IN SWAHILI TRACTS BY MUSLIMS AND CHRISTIANS IN EAST AFRICA Abstract Acknowledgements Contents List of Figures, Tables & Maps Notes Abbreviations Glossary CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1 1.1.1 Statement of the Problem 3 1.1.2 Justification of the Study 4 1.1.3 Research Objectives 5 1.1.4 Limitations 5 1.2 METHODOLOGY 6 1.2.1 Historical background to tracts 6 1.2.2 Collection of tracts 8 1.2.3 Criteria for selection of the tracts to be examined 9 1.2.3.1 Purpose of composition 9 1.2.3.2 Language of composition 10 1.2.3.3 The use of Scripture 10 1.2.4 Analysis of selected tracts 11 1.2.4.1 The original language of composition 12 1.2.4.2 Title and subject matter 12 1.2.4.3 Authors of tracts 12 1.2.4.4 Use of Scripture 12 1.2.5 Selection of Passages of Scripture 13 1.2.6 Analysis of Selected Passages of Scripture 17 1.3 DEFINITION OF TERMS 19 1.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RESOURCES 21 1.4.1 Tracts 21 1.4.2 Islam and Christianity in East Africa 22 1.4.3 Swahili 24 1.4.3.1 Swahili as a Language 24 1.4.3.2 Swahili as a Religious Language 25 1.4.3.3 Translatability 27 1.4.4 Christian and Muslim Relations 30 1.4.4.1 Interpretation of Scriptures 30 1.4.4.2 Contemporary Christian and Muslim writing 32 1.4.4.3 Apologetics and Polemics 34 1.5 ISLAM AND CHRISTIANITY IN EAST AFRICA 35 1.5.1 Islam 35 1.5.2 Christianity 36 1.5.3 Relations between Christians and Muslims 37 1.6 SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS 38 INTRODUCTION TO PART ONE 41 CHAPTER TWO: TRACTS 42 2.1 INTRODUCTION 42 2.2 EARLY RELIGIOUS TRACTS (CHRISTIAN) 44 2.3 SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE 45 2.4 RELIGIOUS TRACTS USED FOR EVANGELISM 46 2.5 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY 47 2.6 TRACTS PUBLISHED BY SPCK 49 2.7 EXPANSION OF WORK AND NEW SOCIETIES 50 2.8 PREPARATION, PRODUCTION AND PROMULGATION OF TRACTS 51 2.8.1 Preparation of Tracts 51 2.8.2 Printing of Tracts 52 2.8.3 Distribution of Tracts (Colporteurs) 53 2.9 FINANCING TRACTS 55 CHAPTER THREE: CHRISTIAN TRACTS FOR OVERSEAS MISSIONS 56 3.1 INTRODUCTION 56 3.2 HALLE INSTITUTE 56 3.3 THREE TRACTS BY HENRY MARTYN 58 3.4 PRINTING AND PUBLISHING OVERSEAS 59 3.5 KARL PFANDER 60 3.6 A WEST AFRICAN TRACT 62 3.7 PUBLISHING IN THE MID NINETEENTH CENTURY 63 3.8 THE CENTRAL LITERATURE COMMITTEE FOR MOSLEMS 64 CHAPTER FOUR: PRINTING IN ARABIC AND PROPAGATION OF TRACTS BY MUSLIMS 70 4.1 INTRODUCTION 70 4.2 MUSLIM ARABIC PRESSES IN THE MIDDLE EAST 71 4.3 MUSLIM TRACTS 73 4.4 CONTEMPORARY MUSLIM LITERATURE 75 INTRODUCTION TO PART TWO 78 CHAPTER FIVE: TRACTS IN EAST AFRICA 79 5.1 EARLY CHRISTIAN TRACTS IN EAST AFRICA 79 5.2 SUPPORT FROM SPCK AND RTS FOR WORK IN EAST AFRICA 82 5.2.1 SPCK 82 5.2.2 RTS and MSAFIRI 85 5.3 UMCA 87 5.4 W.E. TAYLOR AND RAHA ISIYO KARAHA 89 5.5 TRACTS FROM LUTHERAN MISSIONARY SOCIETIES IN DEUTSCH OSTAFRIKA 98 5.6 MUSLIM TRACTS 101 5.7 CHRISTIAN OUTREACH AT THE END OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD 105 5.8 PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE 108 5.8.1 UMCA 108 5.8.2 Islam in Africa Project (IAP) 109 5.8.3 Bookshops 110 5.9 MUSLIM OUTREACH AT THE TIME OF INDEPENDENCE 111 5.10 NEW METHODS OF MUSLIM OUTREACH 114 5.11 CHRISTIAN OUTREACH POST-INDEPENDENCE 116 CHAPTER SIX: SWAHILI 119 6.1 INTRODUCTION 119 6.2 STANDARDISING SWAHILI 122 6.3 PROBLEMS FACING CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES WHEN TRANSLATING INTO SWAHILI 126 6.3.1 Miss Barton’s understanding of Swahili 126 6.3.2 Isa Masiya or Yesu Kristo? 127 6.3.3 What word can be used for ‘Holy’? 130 6.4 TRANSLATING THE WORD 132 6.5 THE BIBLE IN SWAHILI 137 6.6 THE QURÞÀN IN SWAHILI 144 INTRODUCTION TO PART THREE 152 CHAPTER SEVEN: TRACTS IN CURRENT CIRCULATION IN EAST AFRICA 153 7.1 INTRODUCTION 153 7.2 CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF TRACTS TO BE EXAMINED 155 7.2.1 Purpose of composition 155 7.2.2 Language of composition 155 7.2.3 The use of Scripture 156 7.3 THE SELECTED TRACTS 156 7.3.1 The original language of composition 157 7.3.2 Title and subject matter 157 7.3.3 Author 157 7.3.4 Use of Scripture 158 7.4 SELECTION OF PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE 159 7.5 DETAILS OF THE SELECTED TRACTS 166 7.5.1 Muslim Tracts 168 [1] Mafundisho ya Yesu kwa Nuru ya Qur’ani 168 [2] Kwa Nini Niliacha Ukristo na Nikawa Muislamu 171 [3] Sikumkana Yesu Bali Mtume Paulo 174 [4] Maisha ya Nabii Isa (Alahais Salam) 177 [5] Uislamu Katika Biblia 179 [6] Injili ya Barnaba 183 [7] Uungu na Umoja Wake 187 [8] Uislamu ni Njia Sahihi ya Maisha 189 7.5.2 Christian Tracts 192 [9] Kutafuta Uhakika 192 [10] Hapana! Dini ya Kristo Haijabatalishwa 194 [11] Kurani na Biblia: Jinsi nilivyotafuta kuupata wokovu 196 [12] Nuru Ing’aayo Gizani 198 [13] Ushahidi wa Kiislamu kuhusu uthabiti wa Torati na Injil 200 [14] Tuzungumze No.1 Somo la Dini 202 [15] Isa (Yesu Kristo) Ndani ya Kurani na Biblia 205 [16] Neno la Mungu Ndani ya Torati, Injili na Kurani 207 CHAPTER EIGHT: THE USE OF SCRIPTURE IN TRACTS INTRODUCTION AND FIRST THEME: TAWÍÏD 209 8.1 INTRODUCTION