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BYU Law Review

Volume 1998 | Issue 2 Article 5

5-1-1998 Christianity and : Lessons from J. Paul Martin

Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview Part of the Christianity Commons, Human Rights Law Commons, Other Religion Commons, and the Religion Law Commons

Recommended Citation J. Paul Martin, Christianity and Islam: Lessons from Africa, 1998 BYU L. Rev. 401 (1998). Available at: https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/lawreview/vol1998/iss2/5

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Ch ristia nit y a nd I slam: Less ons fr om Africa

J. Paul Martin *

I. INTRODUCTION As we end the twentieth cen tury t her e is a resurgen ce of interest in religion an d the r ole it plays in our lives.1 Religion and, un fortu na tely conflicts tha t a re religiously defined ha ve returned to center stage in world polit ics.2 After years of ne- glect, more a cademics are exa min in g r eligiou s beliefs and p rac- tices. They recognize, perhaps, the de facto role r eligion plays in the lives of large segment s of the ear th ’s populat ion and in the decisions of many world leaders. Certain works and the popular press have suggested an inherently conflicting relationship between Islam and Chris- tianity.3 The potent ial for conflict between Chr istian ity a nd Islam is augm ent ed by modern commu nications and increasing populat ion movem ents th at bring a bou t an unprecedented in- ter min gling of religions, elimina tin g religiou sly h omogen eou s communities virtually everywhere.4

* Execut ive Dir ect or of th e Ce nt er for the Study of Hum an Right s, Colum bia Un iversit y. The Essay draws on the author’s re se ar ch o n t he eva ng eli za ti on of th e Sotho in n inet eent h cent ur y Sout her n Africa a nd on an ar ticle on re ligiou s pr osel yti zat ion co-authored with Father Harry Winter, O.M.I., who is a dir ect or of th e Oblate Center for Mission Studies in Wa shingt on D.C. 1. See David M. Smolin , Cra cks in th e Mi rror ed Prison: An Evangelical Critique of Secularist Academic and Ju dicial Myths Regarding the Relationship of Religion and American Poli tics , 29 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 1487, 1512 (1996) (discussing worldwide “resurgence of con se rv at ive , a nd eve n fu nd am en ta lis t, re ligi on”). 2. See A. Pet er Mut ha rik a, The Role of the United Nations Secur ity Cou ncil in African Peace Management: Som e Proposals, 17 MICH. J. INT’L L. 537, 538 (1996) (stating th at coun tr ies ar e in cre as ing ly faced w ith th re at s fr om int er na l re ligiou s con flict s). 3. S ee, e.g., Johnathan K. Stubbs, Persuading Thy Neighbor to Be as Th yself: Constitutional Lim its on Evan gelism in th e United S tates and India, 12 UCLA PAC. BASIN L.J. 360, 366 (1994) (stat ing tha t wh en Ch rist ian miss ionar ies moved int o Islam ic ar ea s t he re wa s a na tu ra l con flict wit h e xis ti ng la ws ). 4. See SAMUEL P. HUNTINGTON, THE CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS AND THE REMAKING OF WORLD ORDER 198-200 (1996) (discussing the r ise in immigrat ion due to improved tr an spor ta tion and communication).

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402 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1998

However, Is la m and Christia nit y h ave m uch in common.5 They come from r elat ed theological tr aditions, and both believe in a single omnipotent God who is concern ed wit h h um an his- tory and who has sent messengers to guide human beings to salvation.6 Proselyt iza tion 7 ha s cha ra cter ized t he history of bot h Chr istian ity and Islam , although its intensity ha s varied from group to group, and historical period to historical period, with in each tr adition. Toda y, and Christians are in- creasingly in ter min gled. Th ey n ow live more often in the same spaces, which increases the danger of competing for the same souls.8 Decision s on the per missibilit y of Mu slim cust oms a re finding their way int o western lega l syst ems, wh ich, though secular in form, still reflect their Christian origins. In some part s of the world, Christian-Muslim antagonisms exhibit , and in others could regain, the polit ica l for ce t hey p os- sessed during the period of the crusades in the lat e Middle Ages.9 Some people in the West identify political Islam as the major en em y of West er n Civiliza tion .10 On the other hand, ot h- ers seek to improve relations between the two faith s. Christia n groups are reformulating their theologies of mission to reject pejora tive concepts like pr oselytism to talk about witn ess, dia- logue and cooperation.11 Th e in crea sing r eligiou s p lu ralis m of modern society h as brought these segments of the Christian church to appr eciate th e importance, and indeed the necessity, of institut ionalized tolerance in the civic sphere.

5. See S.I. St ron g, Ch ris tia n C ons tit ut ion s: Do T hey Prot ect Internationally R ecogn ized Hum an Righ ts and Minim ize the Potential for Violence Within a Society?, 29 CASE W. RES. J. INT’L L. 1, 6 2 (19 97). 6. See Leila P. Sa yeh & Adr iaen M. Mors e, J r., Islam and the Treatm ent of Women: An In complete Understand ing of Gradualism, 30 TEX. INT’L L.J . 311, 313-14 (199 5). 7. Pr osel yti zat ion and religious missionary work are used interchan geably in th is Essay in th eir m ost gen eric form, n am ely, as witn essin g an d seek ing to recru it new me mb er s t o th e be liefs an d pr act ices of a par ticu lar re ligiou s t ra dit ion. 8. See JOHN L. ESPOSITO, THE ISLAMIC THR EAT : MYTH OR REALITY? 46 (199 2). 9. See John S. Pobee, R eligi ous Hu m an R igh ts in Af rica , 10 EMORY INT’L L. REV. 163, 165 (1996 ); Lisa L. S chm an dt, Com men t, Peace with Justice: Is it Possible for the Former Yugoslavia?, 30 TEX. INT’L L.J . 335 , 33 7 (19 95). 10. See Ann E lizabet h Ma yer, Universal Versus Islam ic Hum an Righ ts: A Clash of Cultures or a Clash with a Construct?, 15 MICH. J. INT’L L. 307, 320 (199 4). 11. See DAVID J. BOSCH, TRANSFORMING MISSION: PARADIGM SHIFTS IN THEOLOGY OF MISSION 368 (199 6). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 403

This Ess ay u ses h istorica l a nd t heologica l reflect ion s on Chr istian missionary work in Africa to rea ch beyon d the stereo- typical view that religions are necessa rily in conflict wit h one another an d tha t t he West is fight ing Islam for souls. It seeks to develop a vis ion of a path toward a pea ceable social order based on contemporary concepts of human rights. Religion and society are obviou sly m ult ifa cet ed. My resea rch on missionary work in Africa shows that religious missions in volve much more than competition for souls. Their net results are pervasive and it is important to take into account the resulting big picture. My basic thesis and the lessons we can lear n from Christia nit y and Islam in Africa are: (a ) the r ela tion sh ip between religion an d “civilization” as a whole is complex a nd descriptions should not be undu ly s im plified, let alon e r educed to stereotypes; (b) social equilibr iu m depends on the continuing, gradual int erpenetr at ion of differ en t cult ural, economic a nd p olit ica l traits an d tra ditions; th ese processes are im peded when public policies try to separate out, socially or physically, the different traditions; an d (c) while still t o be improved, hu ma n r ight s represent the best set of common standards to assur e a peaceable social order.

II. IMPACT OF RELIGION ON SOCIETY In the moder n wor ld, in crea sing plu ralis m is bot h an em pirica l fact and a process that requires astute public policy to ensure a peaceable social order.12 Wor ld views and n ation al policies that juxtapose or, worse still, separate or demonize as in im ica l traditions, ideas and practices that have significant numbers of adherents, inevita bly lead to social tension, and may lead to violent social conflagr at ions, a s we have seen most recen tly in the former Yugoslavia and Northern Ireland.13

12. See Pet er A. Sa mu elson, Pluralism B etrayed: The Battle Between Secularism and Isl am in Al geri a’s Qu est for D em ocracy , 20 YALE J. INT’L L. 309, 328 n.137 (1995) (discussing th e hist orical roots of religious plur al ism an d e nco ur ag in g pe ace ful interacti on); Joseph P. Vite rit ti, Choosing Equality: Religious Freedom and Educational Opportunity un der Constitutional Federalism, 15 YALE L. & POL’Y REV. 113, 189 -90 (1 996 ) (exp la in in g t he im por ta nt role r eli giou s p lu ra lis m h as pla yed ). 13. See Peter Wallenste en, Global Patterns of Conflict and the Role of Third Par ties , 67 NOTRE DAME L. REV. 1409, 1414-15 (1992) (describing violen ce in Yugoslavia an d Nor th ern Ire lan d); Gera rd Wh yte, Religi on a nd the Iri sh Con sti tu tion , 30 J. MARSHALL L. REV. 725 , 72 7 (19 97) (d es cri bin g con flict s in Nor th er n I re la nd ). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

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Preempting potential conflicts and resolving actual conflicts, even at an early stage, must be seen as a major challenge requir ing multiple institutional and individual input s, cert ain ly much more than a military presence and the assistance of a few Non-Governmental Orga nizations (NGOs) and United Nations (UN) agencies. With in both Islam and Christianity there are many groupings, th eological tr aditions, and religious and secula r authorities.14 Both religion s view the tolerance of other religion s wit h difficulty. Both religions are universalist, appealing to and welcom in g a ll h uman bein gs. Th ey b oth decry all forms of discrimination on grounds such as gender, nationality, and ethnic origin.15 Within each system there are conser vat ive an d radicalizing movements. In addition, Christianity an d Islam ha ve adapted to man y varied cult ur al situations and both maintain their commitment to recruiting new members throughout the world.16 Overall, Christia nit y has placed a greater emphasis than Isla m on admin istra tive stru ctures as mecha nisms of unit y. From time t o time, both faiths ha ve been closely allied wit h polit ica l power,17 if not also with its sword.18 For the past four hundred years, the major difference between the t wo t radition s has been the enormous industrial, technological and commercial interests tha t h ave a ccompan ied Christia nit y. This is beginn ing to change in industria lizing Muslim countries, such as Malaysia and Indonesia.19 As the relative economic

14. S ee, e.g., Gar y R. Govert, Something There Is That Doesn’t Love a Wall: R eflect ion s on the History of North Carolina’s Religious Test for P ub lic O ffi ce, 64 N.C. L. REV. 1071, 1078 (1986) (explain ing the differ en t p ra cti ces of Ch ri st ia n g roup s); Denis E. Owe n, Disbelieving the Culture Wars, 6 U. FLA. J.L. & PUB. POL’Y 253, 254- 55 (1994) (explainin g th e differen t politica l appr oaches of Chr istia n denominations); S.I. Str ong, Law and Religion in Israel and Iran: How the Integration of Secular and Spiritual La ws Af fects Hu m an R igh ts an d t he P oten tia l for Vi olen ce, 19 MICH. J. INT’L L. 109, 125 (199 7) (di scu ss in g t he diffe re nt div isi ons w it hi n I sla m). 15. See HUNTINGTON, supra note 4, at 211. 16. See id. 17. See Oma r Sa leem , Be Fruitful, and Multiply, and Replenish the Earth, and Subdue It: Third World Population Growth and the Environment, 8 GEO. INT’L ENVTL. L. REV. 1, 14-15 (1995) (describing t he close r elat ionship between the state and re ligion in th e I sla mi c wor ld). 18. See Pobee , supra note 9, at 164-65 (describing the union between government s an d r eli gion s in Ni ger ia an d S ud an ). 19. See Thomas M. Franck, Com m un ity Ba sed on A ut onom y, 36 COLUM. J. TRANS NAT ’L L. 41, 56-5 7 (19 97). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 405 power of the “Christian West” diminishes the r elat ionship between the two religions will likely be affected. The critical elements t o consider in ass essing t he im pa ct of these religions on society are: (a) the evolving social and economic context in wh ich the r eligion s a re act ive, (b) th e major actors, (c) th e missionary methods and goals, (d) the patterns of adaptation, (e) t he even tual outcomes, and (f ) the normative systems and actions taken by the civil powers to assure social order. Th ese will be discussed successively.

A. The Evolvi ng S ocial and Econom ic E nvi ron m ent Religiou s missionaries in Africa were a lways pa rt of more genera l cult ural a nd economic flows. Islam moved with traders alon g the east coast, across and the Sahara, and down, inland, into the west.20 Christianity moved wit h t he expansion of Eu rope, down the west coast an d into the m iddle of sub-Sahara Africa. As a result, there is now a broad band across Africa where Islam and Christian ity interface and intermingle.21 The int eresting aspect of this in ter action is that in som e cou ntries it is amica ble , wh ile in other s it is ten sion- provoking.22 Day-to-day local community activities in towns and villages refle ct traditional African character rather than European. Loca l factors, rather than nat ional, generally determine how a given community respon ds to religion . Africa ns h ave long recognized the benefit s offered by r eligiou s or ga niza tion s, su ch as in crea sed a ccess t o education and other social services, and have adjust ed their beliefs accordin gly.23 There are many stories of Africa ns m oving from one Christian faith t o another

20. See Sur ya P ra ka sh S inh a, Th e Axiology of the International Bill of Human Rights, 1 PACE Y.B. INT’L L. 21, 25 (1 989 ) (de scr ibi ng exp an sion of the Is lam ic world to northern Africa); Derege Demissie, Note, Self-Determination Including S ecession vs. The Territorial Integrity of Nation-States: A Prim a Fa cie Cas e for S ecession , 20 SUFFOLK TRANS NAT ’L L. REV. 165, 177-78 (1996) (describing sp re ad of Islam across the coast of ea st er n Afr ica ). 21. See Pobee , supra note 9, at 163. 22. See generally FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND BELIEF: A WORLD REPORT (Kevin Boyle & J uli et Sh een eds ., 199 7) (pr ovidin g exa mp les of ind ividua l coun tr ies including an d E gyp t). 23. See Donna E. Arzt , Heroes or Heretics: Religious Dissidents Under Islam ic Law, 14 WIS. INT’L L.J . 349, 421 n .190 (1996 ) (des crib ing nom ina l conversion s in order to re ceiv e be ne fit s). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

406 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1998 in order to advance their education. Both Islam and Christianity, albeit in different ways, have opened up the world to Africans, bringing in outsiders and also linking Africans to their respective network and communication systems.

B. The Major Actors In assessing the im pact of religions on society, t he most sign ifica nt actors are the religious leaders and th eir communities, but public officia ls and n onreligiou s s pon sor s a re also important. Religious innovators and missionaries are religious activists seeking chan ge and seeking to convert members of a communit y. The h istory of m issions in Africa shows that individual human qualities, the chemistry of the interaction, and lea dersh ip im pinge s ign ifica ntly on the development of religious groups. They must always be taken into consideration. African commu nit ies responded t o the first Chr istian missionaries in different ways. Some communities sought to exclude all extern al missionaries, others welcomed missionaries, but most were somewhere in between. Some, like the Sotho in , welcomed the missionaries as a way to h elp th em un derst and an d a dju st to the encroaching western forces.24 Ot her s, lik e t he Zu lu in southern Africa, preferred to resist missionaries and r elied on their own resources and traditions.25 Typically, strong groups resisted and weak ones accommodated.26 Once th ey accepted missionar ies, these societies—fir st the small African and later the colonial units—had to mediate conflict s among religious groups and their followers as well as between religious groups and traditional political authorities. These processes, which were a d h oc in tradition al Afr ica n societies, were formalized by the colonial powers through laws governing not so much religion as certain function s of r eligion , notably education and family laws.27

24. See ADRIAN HASTINGS, THE CHURCH IN AFRICA: 1450-1950, at 311-12 (1994). As a h ig h ly or ga n iz ed m on a r ch y, t h e Z u lu we r e “h ighly suspiciou s of any su gges tion of dua l loyalty.” Id. at 311. 25. See id. at 3 11-12. Rat her th an being su spicious of Chr istia nit y, kings in the Sotho kin gdoms actu ally conve rt ed t o Chr istia nit y. See id. 26. See id. 27. See Laura Nader & Mar ian e Fe rm e, Transplants Inn ovation and Legal D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 407

In gener al, the a vailable political spa ce and the quit e differ en t pa tter ns of r eligiou s practice on the part of traditional Africa n religion s, meant that a considerable amount of symbiosis was possible in sub-Sahara Africa for Islam and Christianity. Th e colon ia l powers a nd t heir im media te Afr ica n successors, with t he exception of Sudan, have systematically refrained from sponsoring a particular religious persuasion as the state r eligion .28 From the point of view of African govern ment s today, t he net result is a low level of religious (as opposed to ethnic) conflict . Even along the Islam-Christianity divide, in stat es like and Burkina Faso, public and private entities manifest a high degree of religious integra tion. Tensions ar e greatest in countries, such as ia29 and Sudan,30 where the former colonial powers enforced separation ,31 and restricted interpenetration, such as that of Christian missionaries into Muslim regions. Today, religious tension in and Sudan is the most significant in Africa. This supports the argumen t that, left to themselves, people ca n fin d bet ter wa ys of symbiosis. Religiou s and other activists make allies and link up with other social forces, choosing individuals an d groups with goals other than their own with whom they are willing to collaborate. These alliances can often be more implicit an d informa l th an explicit and formal. While most alliances are with persons in positions of local authority, in any given social environment

Tr ad iti on in th e Hor n of Af rica , 45 AM. J. COMP. L. 209, 210 (1997) (reviewing MODELLI AUTOCTONI E MODELLI D’IMPORTAZIONE NEI SISTEMI GIURIDICI DEL CORNO D’AFRICA (El iza bet ta Gr an de ed ., (19 95)). 28. Cf. Pobee , supra note 9, at 163-67 (menti oni ng govern me nt deci sion s wh ich show pr efe re nce tow ar ds a r eli gion ). 29. Cf. Robert G. Gosselin k, Minority Rights and E thnic Conflict in Assam, India, B.C. THIRD WORLD L.J . 83, 86 (1 994 ) (dis cus sin g t he con flict in Ni ger ia ). 30. See Aust in Metu ma ra Ahan otu, Muslims and Christians in N igeria: A Contemporary Political Discourse, in RELIGION, STATE AND SOCIETY IN CONTEMPORARY AFRICA: NIGERIA, SUDAN , SOUTH AFRICA, ZAIRE, AND (Austin Metumara Ahanotu ed ., 1992 ). 31. See NOEL Q. KING, CHRISTIAN AND MUSLIM IN AFRICA, 81 (197 1); see also ELIZAB ETH ISICHEI, A HISTORY OF : FROM ANTIQUITY TO THE PRESENT 235-37 (1995) (explaining th at even C hr ist ian coloni al a dm ini st ra tor s “consciously fostere d Isla m” by prefer rin g th em over Chr istia ns in the military and for dom es ti c jobs ). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

408 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1998 there are other persons with whom the missionaries feel cultural bonds or allegiances.32 The rela tively s im ple for ms of collabora tion exercised by t he first colonial administrators, local shopkeepers, and religious missionaries in the la st cen tury h ave b een su pp lem en ted or replaced by a very wide range of change-oriented forces. These forces include governmental and inter governmental aid agencies,33 development and humanitarian organizations,34 corporations ranging from extractive industr ies to export item producers in search of chea p labor ,35 and other nongovernmental agencies of all sizes wit h a myr iad of goals and int erests.36 Hu ma n r ights rhet oric pervades the work of all the foreign development groups, often combinin g it wit h t he promotion of dem ocracy, rule of law, and good governance. They extend their in flu en ce t hrough consultant relationships, contracts, loa ns, and grants to local NGOs, private businesses, and government agencies. A Coca-Cola executive, committed to a profit margin for the corporation in Atlanta, could have a social impact comparable to that of a missionary who teaches science in a h igh school in Nigeria or Armenia . Muslim m issionar y activit y in Africa and in the south of the former Soviet Union is said to en joy exter nal supp ort from governments as varied as Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Iran. Similar ly, it can be said tha t Ch ristia n m issionar y activit y frequ ent ly benefits from the support of western governments such as t hrough the U nit ed St ates governmen t’s use of Christian aid organizations to distribute food through PL-480. The mainstream established churches from th e Chr istian west are seen as natural allies in the work of western development agencies. International businesses concerns

32. See generally MAX GLUC KMAN , ANALYS IS O F A SOCIAL SITUATION IN MODERN ZULULAND (195 8). 33. See Anth ony V. Raft opol, Note, Russian Roulette: A Theoret ical A na lys is of Voucher Privatization in Ru ssia, 11 B.U. INT’L L.J . 435 , 44 6 (19 93). 34. See THO MAS CAROTHERS, ASSESSING DEM OCR ACY ASSISTANCE, THE CASE OF ROMANIA (1996); Maka u Wa Mut ua , Hope and Despair for a New South Africa: The Limits of Rights Discourse, 10 HARV. HUM. RTS. J. 63, 65-66 (1997). 35. See Detlev Vagt s & Willia m R. Cotter, The S outh African Quagmire: In S earch of a Peaceful Path to Democratic Pluralism, 82 AM. J. INT’L L. 684 (1988) (reviewing THE SOUTH AFRICAN QUAGMIRE: IN SEARC H O F A PEACEFU L PATH TO DEMOCRATIC PLURALISM (S. Pr ak esh Set hi ed ., 198 7)). 36. See Wa Mu tu a, supra note 34. D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 409 attempting to set themselves up in the newly independent countries also appeal to the churches, as do many of the governments in th e newly independent states of the former Socialist world. Cultural, political and economic globalizat ion brin g both openings and resistance. Th e r espon ses of t he va riou s branches of Islam and Christia nit y are extr emely varied. The topography of the responses has yet to mapped.

C. Missionary Methods and Goals Mis sionary methods and goals suffer most from the stereotypic images of missionaries deceiving and manipulating loca l pop ula tion s. By d efin it ion , m issionaries are committed to change and thereby threaten to disturb the local populations’ prior equilibrium and thus evoke hostility. Today, the older churches in Eastern Europe complain abou t the resources at the disp osa l of t he n ew religion s, pointin g, for example, to the monopoly of the television chann els on Sunday by foreign evangelists. As history reveals, forms of promu lgat ing religious faith range from indirect action in the form of simple witness and lifestyle without any attempt to preach or harangue, to providing hea lt h, ed ucation and ot her services. Today, for example, the Hari Krishna group runs a food kitchen in an especially neglected area of Chechnya. Education an d healt h services have always been a m ajor component of Chr istian missions around the world.37 More recent ly, Islamic gr oups have increased their humanitarian work both within Islamic countries and by sending workers to countr ies wit h Mu slim populations undergoing civil war.38 Other groups focus on direct eva ngeliza tion , the “I-am-here-to-convert-you” message. The most serious problems, however, occur when eith er method is endorsed and enforced by civil force. The human rights issue, as far as methods ar e concerned, arises from the fear that these initiatives ar e coercive,

37. See En id Tr ucios-Ha ynes , Religion and the Im m igra tion and Nationality Act: Using Old S aw s on N ew B ones , 9 GEO. IMMIGR. L.J . 1, 19 n.101 (1995) (giving a defin iti on of missionaries wh ich i nclu des ma ny ser vices oth er th an re ligiou s pr ose lyt izin g). 38. This information is based on persona l communications to the a uthor from human righ ts s pecialist s work ing in Alba nia an d Bosnia . D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

410 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1998 deceptive, manipulative, disrespectful, fraudulent, or invasive of privacy. Missionaries have been and still are accused of being abusive to and even destr oying local culture and customs, and as capitalizing on the misfortunes of disadvantaged people who are ill-prepared t o resist or understan d wh at is happen ing.39 How does on e decid e which are legit im ate a nd which are illegitimat e methods of persuasion? Who is to be the judge? Inevita bly it falls to the government a uthority, which has its own interests, but ha s no criter ion by which to judge the in na te tr ut h of any religion. It m ust t ur n t o more secular criter ia. At the same time, missionaries can be, and are, used to br in g be nefit s t o the loca l popu la tion . H istory r epea tedly s hows how education services brought by the missionaries were used by local people to obtain jobs and advance within the society at large.40 There are many stories of young people adjustin g their religiou s beliefs successively to obta in schooling. The ea rly missionaries’ work on the orthography of a language was often critical, not only to assure the survival of a language, but also for later literary contribution s. Th ese a re ju st two exa mples of the many social forces and interests at work. Neith er the missionaries nor the loca l people a re fu lly in control. E ach must learn to work with those forces and inter ests. My ow n resea rch on missionary wor k in Africa has con vin ced me t hat bot h the missionaries an d the local people ar e ra tional a ctors, enjoying sophisticated insights into the risks and benefits involved.41

D. The Resulting Processes of Accommodation and Adaptation When the cultures of the external and internal for ces are very differen t, ever y element of a society ma y be put in question: values, mores, world views, economic st ru ctures, and levels of political and economic independence. This is as true in

39. See Rebecca T sosie, N egoti at in g E conom ic S ur viv al: T he C ons ent Pri nci ple and Tribal-St ate Compacts Un der the Ind ian Gam ing Regul at ory A ct, 29 ARIZ. ST. L.J . 25, 30 (1997) (discussing the plight of Native Americans wh en Ch ristian m issionaries criminalized tr ad it ion al cus tom s a nd re ligi on). 40. See ISICHEI, supra note 31, at 235-37. 41. See generally Abdulla hi Ahm ed a n-Na ’im, Sudanese Identities, in THE SEARCH FOR PEACE AND UNITY IN THE SUDAN (Francis Deng & Prosser Gifford eds., 1987). This text illustr ates lengt hy and sophisticated conversations between Protestant miss ionar ies an d th e local chief on topics r an ging from politics to theology. There is a lso t he wide r p roce ss of s ocial cha nge a nd th e r ole of r eligi ous thou ght . See id. D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 411 an African village in t he n inet eenth centur y as it is in a Russian one today, as the Orthodox Church seeks to regain the moral au th ority and influence it had before commun ism, while competing with m issionaries and other agents from Europe and . Groups an d individuals reflectin g the great est dissat isfaction with their immediate social en vir onmen t or prospects respond most dr amatically. For example, within five years of the first nuns arriving in Lesotho, celibacy as a nun proved an attractive option for young Sotho women unhappy with the marriage pat tern s and practices of their society, offering them at the same time higher social status. Proselyt iza tion in Africa and Eastern Europe takes place in a wider process of social change and also sets off its own processes of social change. The acceptance of new beliefs includes a social statement about a person’s and a group’s social loyalties, needs and interests. In bot h ninet eenth and t wentiet h cen tury Africa and former socialist countries, ma ssive social transformations are coinciding with heigh tened religious activity.42

E. The Eventual Outcomes The lon g-term outcomes of religiou s t oler ance involve assimila tion and eventually more stable patterns of accommodation between the new and old traditions. One radical effect in Africa has been the la rge n umbers of independent churches.43 Man y of them h ave m emberships in the millions,44 and their th eologies and practices represen t an amalgam of Christia nit y an d traditional components.45 The adapta tion of mainstream Christianity to Africa is still a work in progress. Th e structure a nd for ms of worsh ip of th e

42. S ee, e.g., HUNTINGTON, supra note 4, at 95 (at tr ibu tin g th e r evival of r eligi on in Asia an d I sla mi c cou nt ri es to cha ng in g econ om ics a nd de mo gr ap hi cs). 43. Cf. S. Ta lcott Ca mp, Why H av e You Been Silent? The Church and the Abor tion Ba n i n S out h A fri ca, 4 COLUM. J. GENDER & L. 143, 166 (1994) (discussin g the Cou nci l of Afr ica n I nd ep en de nt Ch ur che s). 44. S ee, e.g., ISICHEI, supra note 31, at 335 (discussing the newly founded Church of God Mis sion I nt er na ti onal , wh ich ha s over 100 0 br an che s). 45. See KWAME BEDIAKO, CHRISTIANITY IN AFRICA: THE RENEWAL OF NON- WESTERN RELIGION 63 (199 5). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

412 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1998 mainstream churches h ave evolved st eadily wit h in crea sing use of African forms of music and worship. Among Mu slim s, r et ain s a place of pride for those capable of reading or at least reciting texts from the Koran, yet community activities and religiou s celeb ration s r efle ct traditional domestic concerns such as family relations and trade, eve n if in formed by t he basic ten et s of I slam. Th e m ost important outcome com mon to both Chr istian ity and Islam is th eir global a nd u niversa lis t character istics. Bot h gr oups assure their mem bers incorporation into a transnational global community based on a belief in a single omnipoten t God and a single human race where all are equal. To an oppressed minority, this is an especially appea ling messa ge.

F. The N orm at iv e S ystem s Governments have at their disposal many instruments to control religiou s or ga niza tion s a nd t heir mem bers: t axa tion ; property an d inherit an ce laws; allowing or restricting use of public pr operty a nd inst it ution s; a ccess t o press, print and other media; control of public and pr ivate assemblies and associations; an d oth er powers th at ena ble th e civil aut hority to act in a less than neutral fashion .46 Public policies have been the major determinant of Christian-Islamic relations. While setting overarching legal systems based on their own traditions, colonial governments made use of Islamic and traditional laws and instit ut ions to govern subun its with in th eir jurisdictions.47 Islamic family laws were genera lly enforced by colonial aut horities an d, in t he in ter est of social peace, the a ctivities of European Ch ristia n missionaries were rest ricted by colonial administrators in such heavily Muslim

46. See FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND BELIEF: A WORLD REPORT, supra note 22; Abdullahi A. An-Na’im et al., Cultural Transformations and Human Rights in Africa: A Preliminary Report, 11 EMORY INT’L L. REV. 287 , 29 9-30 0 (19 97). 47. See KEVIN SHILLINGTON, HISTORY OF AFRI CA 355-58 (199 5). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 413 areas as the northern parts of the Sudan48 and Nigeria.49 Laws were used by the colonists to assur e social order. Until recent ly, neither administr ators nor religious leaders gave an y considerat ion or similar protection to the rights of Africa n communities and th eir r eligions. Christia n a nd Muslim missionaries simply believed th at th ey should do all in their power to conver t n onbelievers, pa gan s, an d kaffirs, as they were routin ely called. St rategies were ch osen on the basis of th eir effectiveness rather than in r ecognition of the right s of th e people.50 Recently, a few West African countries ha ve int roduced legisla tion to protect traditional religion. Today, most sub- Saharan countries can boa st a high degr ee of religiou s freedom without sophisticated legal systems. Inst ead popular a ttitudes exist that are generally tolerant of other r eligions, including areas where Islam and Christianity are heavily intermingled.51 Social tensions in Africa refle ct et hnic r ather than religiou s concerns,52 however , r eligiou s t en sions a re evid en t at a nation al level in Sudan53 and Nigeria.54 In Sudan, ther e h as been a lon g civil war, with the Islamic governments from seeking to assert th eir admin istra tive and religious control over

48. Cf. Guenther Auth, Book Note, 22 YALE J. INT’L L. 447, 448 (1997) (reviewin g HURST HANNUM, AUTONOMY, SOVEREIGNTY, AND SELF DETERMINATION (199 6), an d n oti ng re ligi ous in tol er an ce in Su da n). 49. Cf. Akin I bidapo-Obe, Th e Dilem m a of Afr ican Crim in al L aw : Tra di tion Versus Modernity, 19 S.U. L. REV. 327, 334-35 (1992) (stating tha t Islam ic law is correlated wit h Afr ica n l aw —es pe cia lly i n N ige ri a a nd Su da n). 50. In the classic work by David J. Bosch, there is n o discussion on th e righ ts of th ose to be “missionized.” S ee generally BOSCH, supra not e 11 . Th e evolut ion t he book traces reflects th e desir e on th e par t of the Chr istia n chu rches to im prove interfaith relations. 51. Cf. Pobee , supra note 9, at 163-67 (discussin g leg al sys te ms of Africa n cou nt ri es ). 52. S ee, e.g., Chine du Regina ld Eze ta h, In tern ati ona l L aw of S elf-Det erm in ati on and th e Ogon i Qu esti on: M irr orin g Af rica ’s Post-Colon ial Dilemma, 19 LOY. L.A. INT’L & COMP. L.J . 811, 856 n.217 (1997) (describing et hn ic conflict between the Hutu and Tu ts i); Chr istoph er A. F ord, Watching th e Watchdog: Security Oversight Law in the New S out h A fri ca, 3 MICH. J. RACE & L. 59, 86 (1997) (dealing with eth nic conflict in South Africa); Gwendolyn Mik ell, Eth nic Particularism and the Creation of State Leg iti m acy in Wes t A fri ca, 4 TULSA J. COMP. & INT’L L. 99, 104 (1996) (discussin g eth nic con flict in Wes t Afr ica ). 53. See Lino J . Lau ro & P ete r A. Sa mu elson, Toward Pluralism in Sudan: A Traditionalist Ap proa ch, 37 HARV. INT’L L.J . 65, 65 (1996); Auth, supra note 48, at 447 (me nt ion in g t he re ligi ous in tol er an ce in Su da n). 54. See Mikell, supra note 52, at 103-04. D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

414 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1998 southern Sudan, an almost completely non-Muslim population.55 In Nigeria, religious tensions fester beneath a complicated political situ at ion that again pits an Islamic north against a n on-Muslim south.56 In bot h countries polit ica l fa ctors int erplay with religious ones, m aking it hard to define it as a pr edomin antly r eligiou s t en sion.

III. NEW THE OLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Many forces have come together in the last few decades to change the wa y Ch ristia ns t hin k abou t missionary wor k and th eir relationship with other chur ches an d religions. A theologica l distinction is now made between “proselytism” and “witness.” It star ted at th e beginning of the twentieth century, with Chr istian missionaries seek in g wa ys to avoid competit ion among them selves a nd esp ecially with Ort hodox Christia nit y. Religiou s toleran ce was furthered by Article 18 of the 1948 Universal Decla ration on Human Rights,57 which recommen ded that freedom of though t, conscien ce a nd r eligion be incorporated into national legal systems.58 Words like proselytism, im plyin g coer -cion , m anipula tion or deception , gave way to words such as dialogue and witness. The idea that faith and belief require free choice and should not be coerced also emerged. This approach was based both on th e growing acceptance of the dignity of the human individual and the desir e to reduce conflict with other religion s. Most of th e Chr istian churches have now produced documents that underline these perspectives and accept religious pluralism.59

55. See id. at 112-13. 56. See id. 57. G.A. Res . 21 7, U .N . Doc A/8 10, at 71 (1 948 ). 58. Art icle 18 s ta te s t ha t, “[e]ve ryone ha s t he rig ht to fr eed om of t hou ght, conscien ce and r eligion; this right includes freed om to change his religion or belief, and freedom , eith er a lone or in commu nit y with others and in pub lic or pr ivat e, to manifest hi s r elig ion or b elie f in te ach in g, pr act ice, w ors hi p a nd obse rv an ce.” Id. at 74; see also Lawr ence Ros enn , The R igh t t o be Di ffer ent: Indigenous Peoples and the Quest for a Unified Theory, 107 YALE L.J . 227 , 25 9 n .20 (199 7). 59. See Developm ent s in t he L aw—Religion an d th e St at e, Th e Complex In tera ction Bet ween R eligi on a nd Govern m ent , 100 HARV. L. REV. 1612, 1615 (1987) (citing H. COWARD, PLURALISM: CHALLENGE TO WORLD RELIGIONS (1985) (giving doctrin al stat ement s in J uda ism, Ch rist ian ity, Isla m, H indu ism a nd Bu ddhis m in support of re ligi ous p lu ra lis m)). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 415

Interfaith relations have progressed most evidently among the mainstream churches. Relations between mainstream churches and the new religions,60 often referred to as cults,61 have been more difficult. Dialogue between Christians and Jews ha s brought new un derstan ding,62 while dialogue with Muslims is st ill at a ver y ear ly stage. In Africa, with th e exce pt ion of South Africa, dialogue between Muslims and Christians is limit ed to occasional cooperat ion in t he capital cities. On the other hand, in most parts of rural Africa, Christians and Muslims live amicably side by side and th ere is consider able intermarriage in countr ies along th e Muslim- Christian line.63 The two exceptions, Nigeria and the Sudan, seem to show that th e tensions reflect th eir r espective political, rather than religious, histories.64 In this sense, the new Christian thin kin g in the We st coin cides wit h a gr ass roots sentiment in Africa that has promoted r eligiou s accommodation. Unfortu nately, with respect to religious tolerance and pluralism, most domestic and int ern at ional laws rem ain at rudimentary levels in th eir capa city to protect freedom of religion and belief. The U N app roved a Decla ration on the Elimination of all Forms of Intolerance a nd Discrim in ation based on Religion or Belief in 1981,65 bu t lit tle in the way of a convention or treaty seems likely in the immediate future. In addition to religious conversion, Christia n a nd Muslim missionaries bring about many other tangible and far-reaching changes, often with significan t social consequences. The r esults reflect both th e cultur al difference bet ween th e two religions and th e more gen eral political a nd cultur al in vasion affecting

60. S ee, e.g., ISICHEI, supra note 31, at 335 (discus sin g th e Ch ur ch of God Mission In te rn at ion al ). 61. See generally EILEEN BARKER, NEW RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS : A PRACTICAL INTRODUCTION (4t h e d. 1 989 ). 62. Cf. Pet er S tein fels, Fordham ’s New Theologian: A Flair for Diplom acy, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 2, 1988, a t 50 (descr ibing the Cat holic Chu rch’s att empts t o impr ove relations wit h P rote st an ts , J ews a nd oth er s). 63. See KING, supra note 31, at 112. 64. Cf. Arthur E. Anthony, Comment, Beyond the Paper Tiger: The Challenge of a H um an R igh ts Cou rt in Af rica , 32 TEX. INT’L L.J . 511, 512 (1997) (discussin g political an d hu ma n r ight s difficultie s in S uda n a nd N igeria ). 65. See Declaration on th e Eliminat ion of All Forms of Intolerance and Dis crim ina tion Bas ed on R eligion or Belief, G.A. Res. 36 155, U.N . GAOR, 36th Sess ., Supp. No. 51, at 171 , U .N . Doc. A/36/51 (1 981 ). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

416 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1998

Africa and t he for mer socialis t countries . Any m ea su rem en t of outcomes should examine at least the following: (1) the formation of new social groupings and the adopt ion of new normative reference groups, as well as new world views and visions that reorient t he next generations with more inclusive and universalist visions; (2) th e adoption of new social practices tha t challenge previous practices and p ut in to qu estion the socia l in st it ution s that supported them; (3) the establishment of new rela tionships wit h t he world beyon d th e imm ediate local community, reaching to , Rome or other r eligious centers, but also to other economies; (4) the incorporation of new cultural traits and institutions ranging from words, music, art, social practices, and ceremonies to eating patterns and economic structures; (5) integration of the missionaries’ work an d resources (e.g., funding, hea lth an d education ser vices, commun ications, a nd equipment) and t heir im pa ct on t he physical well-bein g of the loca l community (e.g. educational and health services and standards as w ell as economic structures and s ystem s of wealth). All of these dimensions m ust be ta ken int o considerat ion if we are going to evaluate the impact of a religion on a given society, but also if the government power is going to prepare it self t o deal with pot en tia l poin ts of con flict . In a post-Universal Declaration of Human Rights world, we cannot neglect qu estions of social justice in th is pr ocess. What are the rights and obligation s of the various actors? To what extent can Islam and Christianity come together to assure that human rights standards ar e used t o promote religious well- being, religiou s fr eedom , and religious outreach activities as well as general social order?

IV. THE NEED F OR COMMON STANDARDS Empirical human rights studies show that the groups most in need of p rotect ion are popu la tion s w it hout political power wh o su ffer viola tion s because of their relative weakness.66 They

66. See generally Dan iel Th ur er, National Minorities: A Global, European, and Swiss Perspective, 19 FLETCHER F. WORLD AFF. 53 (199 5) (de scr ibing difficu lti es of minorities in leg al sys te ms ). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 417 cannot resist an opp ressive s uperior power . Th is weakness ca n stem from many reasons ranging from pressing needs such as hunger, ph ysica l plight, a nd ou trigh t coer cion , t o the la ck of education and knowledge of the outside world. At what point are the rights of individuals or groups with out the power to resist violated by religious forces? What criter ia ought to be used to evaluate such situations? There is a gener al m oral and legal language that argues for a level playing field for all actors. The concept of a free market refle cts this commitment in economics. Are there adequate international st anda rds , a gr eemen ts a nd/or exa mples of national provis ion s t o pr otect aga in st religiou s d iscrim in ation an d persecut ion, or do we need more det ailed an d issue-specific legal an d ethical codes to assure a level playing field? Is the principle of a level playing field acceptable as a general principle? For some r eligion s the a nsw er is no. H owever , m ore religion s w ould answ er yes toda y t han a cen tury a go. The primary responsibility for any necessary standards belongs to the state. Wit h respect to the religious authorities and activists, the most serious tensions come from accusations of the u se of coer cion an d abuse of power. The ta ctics vary from with holding food fr om the hungry un til t hey conver t, a ta ctic reportedly being u sed in Khartoum to convert refugees from southern Su da n, t o denyin g coveted access t o religiou s schools.67 The state enters into this rea lm as t he n eu tral gu arantor of its peoples’ rights and is required to respond should they be violated. It must, for example, decide on the right of foreign missionaries to enter the country and on their rights while they are there. The state must then respond to any resulting tensions or conflicts. History shows that states have played a range of roles that have been an yth ing bu t n eut ra l toward faith traditions wit hin their bor ders. Indeed, in terms of extent and impact, persecution and other violations of religious rights by states have always been a much greater problem than the violation of rights by religious aut horities an d activists.68

67. See Donna E. Ar zt, Religious Hum an R ights in M uslim St ates of the an d N ort h A fri ca, 10 EMORY INT’L L. REV. 139, 144-45, 155-56 (1996) (describing nominal con ver sions to I sla m a nd va ri ous t act ics e mp loye d). 68. See Sam uels on, supra note 12, at 358 n.153 (citing Donn a J . Sullivan, D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

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Thus, there are two le vels of n eed, dom estic la ws to ass ure religious rights and to prevent discrimination, and international in st it ution s t o respon d when a st ate’s own action or lack of action results in serious violations of religious rights. Much seems to be needed in bot h the domestic a nd international fields. Domestic standards vary sign ifica ntly fr om country to country and international standards are very sketchy and enjoy little in the way of enforcement mechanisms.69 In a world where intera ction is increasing, ther e is a trend toward and a need for more common domestic and international standards. International human rights standards have begun the move toward a level playing field. While religious rights are barely add ressed, human righ ts a re t he m ost wid ely accepted standards of social justice in the world today70 and many, such as freedom of ass em bly, a ss ocia tion and expression, can be used to protect religious freedoms. These righ ts ar e defined in th e va riou s human rights documents developed by governments under the a usp ices of the U nit ed Na tion s 71 and some have been further refin ed through judicia l decis ion s a nd lega l opin ion s. 72 In terms of foreign policy, the state has many interests to reconcile, including its own legit ima te in ter est in the well-being of it s p eople, nation al secu rity, economy, language and culture, as well as such other concerns a s p ublic order and s afet y. E ach of th ese m ay provide t he sta te with a legit ima te rubr ic for restricting or supporting religious a ctivity. When a governm ent violates th e righ t t o freedom of religion, the issue may become

Advancing the Freedom of Religion or Belief Through the UN Declaration on the El im in ati on of Religious Intolerance and Discrimination, 82 AM. J. INT’L L. 487, 499 (198 8)). 69. See Str ong, supra note 14, at 111. 70. S ee, e.g., Reginald E zeta h, Th e Right to Dem ocracy: A Qualitative Inquiry, 22 BROOK. J. INT’L L. 495, 519 (1997) (stating that one of the purposes of the United Nations is to promote human rights and social progress); Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann, Constitutionalism and International Organizations, 17 NW. J. INT’L L. & BUS. 398, 434 (Winter -Sprin g 1996-199 7) (sta tin g th at th e pr omot ion of social ju stice i s on e of t he goals or m ajor t ask s of inte rn at ional orga niza tions). 71. See Str ong, supra note 14, at 111. 72. See generally Fion nu ala Ni Aolain , The E m ergen ce of Di versit y: Dif feren ces in Hu m an R igh ts J ur isp ru den ce, 19 FORD HAM INT’L L.J . 101 (1995) (discussin g judicial exa mi na tion of human rights documents); Brenda Sue Thornton, International Human Rights in Am erican Courts: The Case of Nels on v. Sa udi Ar abia , 86 AM. SOC’Y INT’L L. PROC. 324 (199 2) (sam e). D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 419 of interest to other states. The various national communities of Isla mic and Christian believers have the power, because th ey are international religions, to urge their governments to take diplomatic or other a ction to protect coreligionist s in another nation. As far a s Africa is concerned, religion is increasingly an international issue in the Sudanese conflict, which could lead to new policies and alliances.

V. CONCLUSION The purpose of this Ess ay h as been to la y ou t som e of the element s of religiou s fr eedom that stem from Islam and Christianity in Africa, with an emphasis on t heir missionary and un iversalist perspectives. With the exception of Nigeria and Suda n, religion is not a pr imar y element in any of the current violent conflicts. Nevertheless, precisely because there is little religiou s con flict and lit tle e xplicit religiou s legislation or litigation, now is the time t o examine the need and possibilit y of common standards. The common standards should be based on international human rights, as they are the only widely accepted standards that can be applied across countries. Such stan dards could in clude stan dards to govern t he righ ts of populations targeted by missionary groups, but also protect the rights of the different religions. In recent yea rs, Chr istian missions have tended to become more respon sive t o the r igh ts of t heir target pop ula tion s. However, as est ablished religions both Islam a nd Chr istian ity have historically fought ha rd, in wor d and th rough politics, to exclude other religions from their t erritories.73 Given t he r ole that religion , a s p er son al con vict ion and as institutional heritage, still plays in personal and national identity, and the dangers of the H obbesia n wor ld outlin ed in Huntin gt on’s book 74—that such socia l id en tit ies ea sily becom e lines of conflict —not only resolving tensions with religiou s d im en sions

73. S ee, e.g., Arzt, supra note 23, at 385 (explaining the crusades and the bloodshed between different religions); James David Phipps, Comm ent , Kiss of Death: Ap pli cati on of T itl e VII’s Proh ibit ion Aga in st R eligi ous Discrim in ati on i n th e Kin gdom of Saudi A rabia, 19 94 BYU L. REV. 399, 427 n.28 (1994) (citing ALBERT HOURANI, A HISTORY OF THE ARAB PEOPLES 35, 134 , 13 9-40 , 21 7-18 (199 2)) (explaining that Islam required a p oll t ax by n on-con ver ti ng J ews a nd Ch ri st ia ns bu t n ot b y Mu sli ms ). 74. See HUNTINGTON, supra note 4, at 268-72. D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

420 BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY LAW REVIEW [1998 but also setting up institutions to do so ought to be high priorities for all public authorities. Religion is a la rge p art of the socia l process in many Afr ica n countries an d st at e policies can play a very importan t r ole in in ter -religiou s relations. So far, religiou s conflicts have not been a major problem for African governments. During crisis, however, it is difficu lt to differ en tia te bet ween religion as a basic inspirat ion, mobilizing tool, demarcation of different interests, or as a pretext. The positive news is that Islam and Christianity preach a world of peace and brotherhood. However, can they promote a world of peace a nd brother hood if t he effective political apparatus is neutral? Is it possible to create a system in which the state is both supportive and n onpa rtisan? Th is transp oses into a qu estion of polit ica l order, t he m ost app ropr ia te pla ce a lon g t he spectrum between a U.S. position of maximum sepa ration of religion and state and those that have instituted elaborate government minist ries to monitor religion an d inter faith r elations. As each system has its m er it s, this Ess ay does not advocate either model or one of the many possible intermediates. My add it ional conclusions a re: (a ) that while domestic and international legisla tion may help, critical factors to consider in order to achieve r eligious pea ce include comm on st an dards, and national administrative and educational institutions that, on a day to day basis, assure social peace; and (b) that to achieve religiou s peace, the people and government need to have a strong commitment to equal treatment, and to effective and appropriate rules and institutions. Social structures require accept ed r ules pr otecting t he rights of all individuals. Effective institut ions mediate between poten tia lly competing religious groups on th e basis of principles of toleran ce and equal t reatment. Huntington is correct that religion is an important part of national ident ity, but h e is likely in correct th at conflicts ar e inevit able an d tha t we should aim to keep different religiou s com munit ies sepa rate fr om one another.75 Rather, it is important that different religious communities be allowed to intermingle and that at the same time we develop the institution s n ecess ary t o resolve conflict s

75. See id. D:\ 1998-2\ FINAL\ MAR-FIN.WPD Ja n. 8, 2001

401] CHRISTIANITY AND ISLAM 421 and tensions before they reach situations such as those in presen t-da y Yugoslavia an d Isra el.