The Company that Taught the World to Sing: Coca-Cola, Globalization, and the Cultural Politics of Branding in the Twentieth Century by Laura A. Hymson A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (American Culture) in The University of Michigan 2011 Doctoral Committee: Associate Professor, James W. Cook, Chair Professor Philip J. Deloria Professor Susan J. Douglass Professor Penny Von Eschen © Laura A. Hymson 2011 Acknowledgements I owe an extraordinary debt to the people and institutions that helped and supported me as I worked to complete this dissertation. While working on this project, I spent time in several cities, including: Ann Arbor, New York, Atlanta, Urbana- Champagne, Alexandria, Washington, D.C, Newark, and Hartford. In all of these places where I have lived, researched, or taught, I have been shown incredible kindness and I am grateful for everyone who has helped me along the way. Thanks first to the chair of my dissertation committee, Jay Cook, who has been exceptionally generous with his time. Without his insightful feedback, invaluable advice, and thoughtful comments this dissertation would not have been possible. I can only hope to be as effective and compassionate as a teacher and mentor as he has been to me. My entire dissertation committee was composed of scholars whose work I truly admire and I am grateful for the time they devoted to my ideas and my work. Penny Von Eschen and Phil Deloria provided important feedback on drafts, and made suggestions for research and writing that helped advance my thinking on a number key issues at the heart of this project. Susan Douglas offered critical input at a later stage, which served me well in this stage of revisions and certainly will continue to going forward. Additionally, Marlene Moore, in the Program in American Culture, was a great help with funding issues, endless paperwork, and last minute deadlines. ii Several institutions provided support for this project, including financial support, office space, archival materials, and mentorship. Most recently, I was the Jackie McLean Fellow at the University of Hartford in the History Department. I would especially like to thank Warren Goldstein for his candid advice about successfully navigating academia. Thanks also to my mentor, Laurel Clark, who jumped right in on day one and read every word of my dissertation. She helped me get to the finish line. The archivists and staff at the Manuscript, Archives, and Rare Book Library at Emory University helped me access their vast collection on Coca-Cola. Audrey P. Davis, the Assistant Director and Curator of the Alexandria Black History Museum, was a knowledgeable guide through the Moss Kendrix Collection. The John W. Hartman Center for Sales, Advertising and Marketing History at Duke University and The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History gave me generous funding for research. Additionally, the Mellon Mays Undergraduate Fellowship program, and the network of Mellon Fellows, has been an invaluable resource. Special thanks to Krishna Winston, the Mellon program director at Wesleyan, who continually offered words of encouragement. I do not know if it was luck or fate, but I am truly grateful for my cohort in American Culture. An extra special thank you goes to Erin Pipkin, Jan Bernabe, Sarah Gould, and Afia Ofori-Mensa. I learned so much from each of you, in and out of the classroom. Most importantly, it was you who showed me that academia does not have to be a lonely place, and that collaboration, not competition, is the best path towards the creation of knowledge. Thanks also to an extended cohort that includes: Jason Chang, who continues to be my go-to person to talk through new ideas and remember old ones that have slipped from memory; Nick Syrett, who shared his tiny apartment in Little Italy iii and took “the long way” with me to Illinois which made the archives there much more fun; Will Mackintosh and Victoria Castillo, who helped convince me I am a historian; and Rachel Quinn, for a friendship and intellectual connection that has carried over from college into graduate school. I might not have made it through that first winter, let alone completed a dissertation, but I did, thanks to your friendship and camaraderie. Without the love and support of my family I most certainly would not be where I am today. My parents, Lena and Michael Hymson, my brothers, Mike Hymson and Brad Davis, and my aunt Barbara Hymson encouraged me every step of the way. They instilled a love of learning and created opportunities for me to follow my curiosity and interests. At times of uncertainty, their unwavering belief in me kept me going. Thanks especially to my Mom, for the pep talks and Thai dinners. And my Dad, for his support and advice. Thank you to Leslie Rosenberg and Sara Pullen, two dear friends who are like family and have always been there for me. Thank you to the entire Krauss family. To Jill who graded my WMST 101 papers as my TA at Wesleyan in 1996 and still helps with my writing. Thank you for your help along the way. Katie, Mike, Heidi, Allie, and Ethan, you not only warmly welcomed me into your family but went above and beyond this past year by providing me with a place to stay, masterful editing services, home cooked meals, and spectacular singing performances. And finally, thank you Sarah, for all that you do. Time spent with you and Ozzie was my favorite reward after more than a few very long days of writing. Your love, patience, and support made this journey not only bearable but meaningful. I might never be able to thank you enough, but I plan to try. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………ii List of Figures…...…………………………………………………………………….....vi Introduction………………………………………………………………………..……..1 Chapter One: “The Drink That Makes the Whole World Kin”: Global Expansion and Alignment of the Coca-Cola Company and the U.S. Nation State…..……………………………………………………………………….…30 Chapter Two: “The Pause that Refreshes:” Coca-Cola’s Technical Observer Program Boosts Energy and Morale Around the World in the U.S. Armed Forces, 1942 1948…………………………………………………68 Chapter Three: “The Global High-Sign”: Constructing a Global and Local Market in Coca-Cola’s Domestic Wartime Advertising, 1943-1945.....…………......106 Chapter Four: The Color Line in the Cola Line: Coca-Cola’s Post-War Pursuit of the Negro Market…………....…………..147 Chapter Five: “I’d Like to Buy the World a Coke”: Corporate Cosmopolitanism in the Global Marketplace, 1950-1971……....201 Conclusion Coca-Cola’s Global Impact: 1886-1971 and Beyond………………………..248 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………...261 v List of Figures 1 Figure 1-1: Pemberton’s Coca Wine…………………………………………………34 2 Figure 1-2: Drink Ticket…………………………………….…………………………44 3 Figure 1-3: Promotional Serving Tray and Wall Clock……………………………… 46 4 Figure 3-1: Brussels, 1945……………………………………………………………108 5 Figure 3-2: Alaska, 1943……………………………………………………………...122 6 Figure 3-3: Leyte, Philippines, 1945………………………………………………….127 7 Figure 3-4: You’re My Kind, 1944…………………………………………………...132 8 Figure 3-5: Brazil, 1944………………………………………………………………133 9 Figure 3-6: Panama, China, and New Zealand, 1943-1944…………………………..141 10 Figure 3-7: Admiralty Isles, 1945…………………………………………………..143 11 Figure 4-1: Refresh Yourself, 1925…………………………………………………155 12 Figure 4-2: Refresh Yourself, 1924…………………………………………………157 13 Figure 4-3: White Customers Only…………………………………………………188 14 Figure 4-4: There’s Nothing Like a Coke…………………………………………..195 15 Figure 5-1: World as Friend…………………………………………………………209 16 Figure 5-2: Greensboro Four, 1960…………………………………………………230 17 Figure 5-3: Hilltop Commercial, Still Frame Image, No.1, 1971…………………..237 18 Figure 5-4: Hilltop Commercial, Still Frame Image, No. 2, 1971………………….238 vi Introduction Since the Yankees came to Trinidad \ They got the young girls all goin’ mad. The young girls say they treat them nice \ Make Trinidad like paradise. Drinkin' rum and Coca-Cola \ Go down Point Koo-mah-nah; Both mother and daughter \ Workin' for the Yankee dollar. – The Andrews Sisters, “Rum and Coca- Cola” (1944) With its infectious calypso rhythms, the Andrew Sisters’ hit song, “Rum and Coca-Cola,” enthralled American audiences during World War II. Nearly 40 years later, Maxine Andrews recalled that the group thought the lyrics were “cute” and that the group “didn't think of what it meant . because we weren't as morally open as we are today and so . [the meaning of the lyrics] just went over our heads.” 1 The song was popular despite implicit references to alcohol, prostitution, and questionable moral behavior from American soldiers. Some radio stations refused to play the song because it amounted to free advertising for the Coca-Cola Company – which actually had no involvement in creating the song. None of this, however, stopped the song from growing in popularity. During the Andrew Sisters United Service Organizations (USO) tours during World War II (WWII), “Rum and Coca-Cola” was their most requested song. American GIs called it “the national anthem of the GI camps.”2 The song stayed at number one on Billboard ’s 1 “Maxine Andrews interviewed by Jim Harlan” (WNEW-AM Radio, February 1992). 2 John Sforza, Swing It!: The Andrews Sisters Story , 2nd ed. (The University Press of Kentucky, 2004), 71. 1 U.S. Pop Singles chart for ten weeks in 1945. This calypso hit with racy lyrics became popular with troops on military bases, as well as with civilians on the home front. 3 Another kind of controversy surrounding the song was reported in a Time magazine article later that year. The question was asked: Who really wrote the lyrics and music to “Rum and Coca-Cola”? In fact, a singer named Jeri Sullivan was the first to perform the song in the U.S.