PRESIDENTIAL PROFILES THE FDR YEARS

William D. Pederson Presidential Profiles: The FDR Years

Copyright © 2006 by William D. Pederson

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Pederson, William D., 1946– The FDR Years / William D. Pederson. p. cm. — (Presidential profiles) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8160-5368-5 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Politicians——Biography. 2. United States—Politics and government—1933–1945. 3. Roosevelt, Franklin D. (Franklin Delano), 1882–1945—Friends and associates. 4. United States—History—1933–1945— Biography. 5. United States—Biography. I. Title. II. Presidential profiles (Facts on File, Inc.) E747.P43 2006 973.917—dc22 2005016260

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This book is printed on acid-free paper. CONTENTS w

PREFACE iv

INTRODUCTION v

BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY A–Z1

APPENDICES Chronology 275 Principal U.S. Government Officials of the FDR Years 295 Selected Primary Documents 305

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 433

INDEX 461 PREFACE w

he FDR Years is part of Facts On File’s Pres- son’s career in relation to FDR, the Great T idential Profiles reference series. This vol- Depression, and World War II. Though most ume contains biographical sketches of nearly of these individuals interacted directly with the 300 individuals during the longest presidential president, a few are selected because they administration in American history, which reflect the larger social milieu on which the shaped public policy during the Great Depres- exerted influence. sion of the 1930s and World War II during the Several appendices are contained in the vol- 1940s. Special emphasis is given to the executive ume, including a chronology of events during branch officials, justices of the U.S. Supreme FDR’s presidency. Because the FDR presidency Court, members of Congress, and governors was the nation’s longest (1933–45), the chronol- and cultural icons of the period, in addition to a ogy highlights Franklin Roosevelt’s life, particu- few of the political leaders abroad with whom larly the events in which FDR participated Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) dealt. during his administration. This is followed by a Biographical entries begin with the name of list of Roosevelt’s cabinet for each term, the the individual and his or her date of birth and members of the Supreme Court, and the lead- death, followed by the name of the office held ership of the U.S. Congress. A number of FDR’s in the Franklin Roosevelt administration or the most important speeches are also included. The position or occupation for which the subject volume concludes with a selected bibliography, was most noted during that time. The entries with an emphasis on publications since 1995. are meant to capture the essence of each per- —William D. Pederson

iv INTRODUCTION w

ranklin Delano Roosevelt’s presidency Weimar Republic or in the United States, as F established a benchmark for democratic too outmoded to address the massive problems leadership. He proved worthy of Mount Rush- facing nations in the 20th century. However, more status, not only for his unprecedented Franklin Roosevelt, with his energetic and flex- four presidential electoral victories, but also for ible character, working within the framework meeting the two overlapping great challenges of the world’s oldest written constitution, suc- of the 20th century that spanned his presi- cessfully transformed the executive branch by dency: the Great Depression and World War creating what is referred to as the modern pres- II. He prevailed against these two defining idency, thereby refuting critics and affirming crises in American history and still managed to the Founders’ great experiment in democracy. transform the presidency itself while altering Born on January 30, 1882, into a secure and the direction of American domestic and for- serene family of wealth and privilege among eign policy. Moreover, FDR accomplished all New York’s Hudson River aristocracy, the boy this while remaining within the bounds of who entered Groton School hardly seemed a democratic constraints, unlike his major chal- future great leader who would transform lengers at home and abroad. It is for these rea- America and the world. Like his role model sons that scholars rank FDR with George and distant cousin , one of Washington and Abraham Lincoln, the tri- the four presidents, Franklin umvirate of greatest American presidents. Delano Roosevelt graduated from Harvard Indeed, polls of scholars consider FDR second University in 1903. He attended Columbia only to Abraham Lincoln. Law School without graduating but was admit- FDR’s democratic leadership becomes even ted to the bar in 1907. FDR had found the law more impressive when considered with respect dull, and although he failed two law courses, to the world of that era. He was first elected in the young aristocrat, as one might expect, soon 1932 during an age when communist and fas- joined a prestigious Wall Street law firm. Early cist regimes, totalitarian systems in which dic- on, he had given clues to the direction he tators could conceive and implement executive wanted his career to take. decisions without constitutional checks, were On St. Patrick’s Day 1905, he married his romanticized as the wave of the future. Critics fifth cousin, Anna Roosevelt, favorite dismissed the ponderously slow and inefficient niece of President Theodore Roosevelt, who democratic model, whether in Germany’s gave the bride away. Within five years FDR

v vi The FDR Years

the Wilson administration; “Uncle Ted” had held the same position in the William McKin- ley administration. The Roosevelt name and World War I catapulted FDR to prominence as the Democratic vice presidential nominee in 1920. The Democratic ticket failed that year in voter backlash against the activism of the Wil- son administration, but FDR’s spirited cam- paign solidified his reputation as a rising star among national Democrats. Equally important, FDR had observed the blunders Wilson made in foreign policy because of his psychological rigidity as well as blunders that TR made because of his occasional excesses, and he learned from them. Franklin Roosevelt never achieved the scholarly heights of Woodrow Wilson or Teddy Roosevelt; he focused more on practical politics. Although not their aca- demic equal, FDR nevertheless absorbed the intellectual lessons from pragmatism. He had been introduced to pragmatism, America’s unique philosophical school, in classes at Har- vard taught by the philosophy’s founder, William James. This enabled FDR to avoid the D. Roosevelt at Hyde Park, costly political mistakes that TR and Wilson N.Y., 1905 (FDR Library) had made. His full grasp of pragmatism would soon reveal itself. ran for political office for the first time. His In 1921, FDR was stricken with polio. The role model “Uncle Ted” was Republican, but devastating illness not only threatened his life FDR ran as a Democrat and won a seat in the and permanently paralyzed his legs but also New York State senate. At the same time, for- threatened to halt his political momentum. In mer Princeton University president Woodrow the same way that FDR had looked to TR as Wilson also took electoral office for the first his political role model, TR’s resiliency and tri- time as governor of New Jersey. FDR won umph over major personal crises—overcoming reelection to the state senate in 1912, while a sickly childhood and enduring the deaths of Democrat Wilson was elected president of the his first wife and mother on the same day— United States, thanks to the Republican Party served as inspiration for FDR as he battled split that Teddy Roosevelt (TR) caused with polio and the paralysis that followed. Rather his third-party Bull Moose campaign. than yield to paralysis, Roosevelt spent several As TR’s political star was fading, FDR’s was years in physical therapy with limited success in its ascendancy. FDR was on the same path- while he focused on resuming his political way that TR had followed to the . career. Eleanor, one of the gifted inner circle For example, he resigned his state senate seat in that surrounded him, helped him to keep his 1913 to become assistant secretary of state in name politically alive while he convalesced. She Introduction vii evolved into his full political partner and equal lican landslide that year. Reelected governor in in the White House and remained a political 1930, FDR experimented with programs to deal power in her own right until her death. with the growing economic depression that had New York governor Al Smith, the Demo- resulted from the 1929 Wall Street crash. As cratic Party presidential candidate in 1928, per- governor of the nation’s most populous state suaded FDR to run as his successor. Roosevelt and a successful campaign veteran, FDR was a narrowly won, becoming one of the few leading contender for the 1932 Democratic Democrats to survive Herbert Hoover’s Repub- presidential ticket.

Shown in this 1931 photograph is a breadline in Boston during the Great Depression, the most severe economic crisis in U.S. history. (Library of Congress) viii The FDR Years

After a deal was struck with the Texas delega- who asserted that “the best government is the tion during the 1932 Democratic National Con- least government”—had largely served as the vention in Chicago to make John Nance Garner, basis for the federal government. The New speaker of the House of Representatives, his Deal represented a switch to “positive govern- vice-presidential running mate, FDR won the ment,” which allowed the federal government presidential nomination on the fourth ballot. For to step in when conditions exceeded the power only the second time in the history of national of individuals alone to deal with them. This conventions, the presidential nominee showed new activist approach and FDR’s confident up at the convention that year. Teddy Roosevelt pronouncements inspired the American public had been the first in 1912; 20 years later, Franklin with hope. He was aided in implementing the Roosevelt followed in his political footsteps. New Deal by a large group of young lawyers FDR promised “a New Deal for the American who largely staffed many key positions in his people” while also promising reduced govern- administration. These lawyers were influenced mental spending and a balanced budget. Despite by the new school of jurisprudence from the the contradictions his promises suggested, the 1920s known as “legal realism.” The legal real- worsening Great Depression worked in the ists thought the law should adapt to changing Democrats’ favor. Herbert Hoover and Charles conditions. It was the most important school of Curtis had been renominated as the Republican jurisprudence during the 20th century and it ticket at the Republican National Convention in helped to make the New Deal successful. Chicago. Voters, however, blamed the party in In 1935, Congress enacted two of the most power for the nation’s economic crisis and significant pieces of legislation in its history. embraced the optimistic man with the enthusi- Based on a committee chaired by Secretary of astic smile to help the crippled nation get back on Labor Frances Perkins, the first female cabinet its feet, just as he had apparently overcome polio. member, and the energetic support of German- On November 8, 1932, Roosevelt garnered born senator Robert F. Wagner (D-N.Y.), often 22,821,857 votes (57.4%) to Hoover’s 15,761,841 referred to as the chief legislative architect of (39.6%). Moreover, by carrying 42 states, the the New Deal, Congress passed the Social Democrats achieved overwhelming majorities Security Act. It was America’s first social insur- in the U.S. House of Representatives and the ance system. In 1940, the Social Security Board Senate. began to issue monthly checks to eligible senior FDR’s first term as president began in March citizens. By 1997, one in seven Americans was 1933, and during the first 100 days of his receiving Social Security benefits. In 1935, administration, he revealed his energetic and Congress also enacted the landmark National flexible character through an unprecedented ad Labor Relations Act (NLRA), often called the hoc experimental program involving reform Wagner Act. Regarded by many as labor’s and regulation of the economy and public reas- Magna Carta, it recognized employees’ right to surances to the nation. Congress quickly organize for the first time and made collective enacted an ambitious legislative package that bargaining a part of the economic recovery ranged from the Civilian Conservation Corps policy of the New Deal. to the Tennessee Valley Authority Act. The leg- If the 1932 election primarily expressed islation served to redefine the role of the public disgust with “Hoover’s Depression,” the national government in American society. sign of the changing times was that the From the country’s founding, “negative gov- Democrats gained congressional seats in the ernment”—championed by Thomas Jefferson, 1934 election, an atypical midterm elections Introduction ix outcome for the party in the White House. In ing the early stages of what would ultimately 1936, the Republican National Convention become the largest bureaucracy in the world. met in Cleveland to chose Kansas governor Uncharacteristically, FDR failed to lay the nec- Alfred E. Landon, a former Bull Mooser, as its essary political groundwork of consulting with presidential candidate on the first ballot. Frank Congress on the proposal, and his failure Knox, publisher of the Chicago Daily News, was played into the hands of his opponents, who chosen as Landon’s running mate. charged that he was merely trying to consoli- Riding the crest of the New Deal, the FDR- date more power into his own hands. The Garner ticket was renominated by acclamation stressful battle for the Brownlow bill caused its at the 1936 Democratic National Convention namesake, Louis Brownlow (1879–1963), to in Philadelphia. The New Deal, started as eco- have a heart attack that removed him from the nomic chicken soup for the nation, became the legislative struggle. alphabet soup of federal agencies and laws. For The battle between FDR and his congres- example, the Agricultural Adjustment Admin- sional opponents intensified the next month istration (AAA) addressed the needs of farmers. with FDR’s second, even larger political blun- The Works Progress Administration (WPA) der, the Supreme Court packing plan, in which employed the jobless. The Public Works he repeated the misstep he had made with the Administration (PWA) helped state and local Brownlow bill. governments build highways and bridges. In Between January 1935 and June 1936, the keeping with national changes, FDR adapted a U.S. Supreme Court had issued a dozen judi- new persona for the 1936 election, that of a cial activist decisions declaring New Deal leg- warrior fighting the “economic royalists.” islation unconstitutional. Believing that a Funded by organized labor, his leadership constitutional amendment to change the court attracted a coalition of ethnic voter groups. Pit- composition would take too long to pass, FDR ted against demagogues on the left and right, had Attorney General Homer S. Cummings FDR won in a landslide—27,751,597 (60.8%) secretly draft a plan that would enable him to to 16,679,583 (36.5%) popular votes. He car- overcome Court opposition to the popularly ried every state except Maine and Vermont. supported New Deal legislation. On February As typically happens during a second presi- 7, 1937, the president announced the Judicial dential term, FDR was considerably more con- Reform Bill of 1937, decried as the “Court troversial and less successful than he was in his packing plan.” It allowed for the appointment first term. In early 1936, he appointed the Pres- of one new Supreme Court justice for each one ident’s Committee on Administrative Manage- of the justices who did not retire at age 70. At ment, popularly known as the Brownlow the time, six sitting justices were at least 70 Committee, and charged it with recommend- years old. The proposal’s real intent—to ing changes that would enable the chief execu- appoint enough justices who favored FDR’s tive to manage efficiently the modern welfare New Deal legislation to stop the decisions find- state that had emerged with the New Deal. Jus- ing it unconstitutional—was only transparently tifiably considered the most important study cloaked by broadening it to allow for 44 new on the executive branch since the Federalist judges on the lower federal benches. Papers, the Brownlow Report was issued in The number of justices on the high bench is early January 1937. Its conclusions recom- fixed by statute rather than in the Constitution, mended granting to the president managerial and court enlargement schemes had precedents power commensurate with his role in oversee- from the Civil War. The last attempt to assure x The FDR Years a younger judiciary had come in 1913 when withdrawing the bill after the Court began President Woodrow Wilson’s attorney general, changing its stance on New Deal legislation. James C. McReynolds, devised a scheme that FDR’s Brownlow plan to reorganize and ultimately served as the basis for FDR’s plan. strengthen the Executive Branch was post- Wilson had not pursued the plan, and in an poned for more than two years as a result and ironic twist, McReynolds was now one of the finally implemented in a much-weakened for- four most conservative of the Supreme Court mat in the Reorganization Act of 1939 and sub- brethren, dubbed the Four Horsemen to invoke sequent legislation. Roosevelt may have “lost the biblical image of the Four Horsemen of the the battle but won the war” in regard to the Apocalypse. Supreme Court’s reaction to the New Deal, but FDR went forward with his bold plan, draw- the victory was politically expensive: it con- ing immediate and vocal opposition from tributed to the rise of the “conservative coali- Republicans, newspaper editors, and the orga- tion” of southern Democrats and Republicans nized bar. The proposal had considerable sup- in Congress capable of blocking further New port among New Dealers, including future Deal legislation when they were united. Ironi- justices Fred Vinson (D-Ky.), then in the cally, FDR, who had been unable to name a House of Representatives, and Hugo Black (D- single justice to the High Court during his first Ala.), then in the U.S. Senate. Other heavy- term, would go on to name more justices than weights in FDR’s corner were Solicitor any other president since George Washington. General Stanley Reed and his immediate suc- In that way, he ultimately did “pack” the Court. cessor, Robert H. Jackson, who helped Roo- Nonetheless, the ill-fated 1937 bills resulted in sevelt prepare the March 9, 1937, “fireside FDR being thwarted twice, something that had chat,” a presidential radio broadcast justifying not happened since his initial inauguration in the proposal to the American people. FDR was 1933. also counting on the leadership of popular The midterm congressional elections of Joseph T. Robinson (D-Ark.), Senate majority 1938 amplified FDR’s setbacks. He had tried to leader, to ensure its passage. It was made clear purge the most anti-New Deal conservative to Robinson that he would be the president’s Democrats in the primary elections for first nominee to the expanded Court. How- Congress, but his campaign efforts failed. ever, the bill was doomed after Robinson suf- Republican gains in the U.S. House of Repre- fered a fatal heart attack on July 14, eight days sentatives increased from 88 to 170 and from after Senate debate began on the bill. The pres- 17 to 25 in the Senate. Whether FDR’s politi- ident’s position had weakened after the Court cal blunders resulted from hubris induced by began handing down decisions that upheld the landslide reelection or because he was dis- New Deal measures, including the Wagner tracted from domestic issues by the mounting Act. Contemporaneously, Willis Van Devan- fascist threat in Europe and the Japanese threat ter, one of the Four Horsemen, timed the in the Pacific remains an open question. announcement of his decision to retire from The 1940 election was set against the back- the Court for the same day that the House drop of the war in Europe. At the Republican Judiciary Committee was scheduled to begin National Convention in Philadelphia in June, hearings on the bill. political outsider Wendell Willkie was named The Court-packing scheme was a costly and presidential candidate on the sixth ballot, with avoidable political blunder for an activist pres- Senator Charles L. McNary from Oregon as his ident. FDR would have been better served by running mate. Both were relative moderates. Introduction xi

The Democrats met in Chicago in July and on decided to focus on defeating the Nazis in the first ballot nominated FDR for an unprece- Europe first before turning full military atten- dented third term. He imposed Secretary of tion to Japan. In early 1942, he committed a Agriculture Henry Wallace on the convention as moral blunder that stained America’s demo- his vice-presidential running mate. Wallace was cratic image with his decision to intern more a loyal and liberal New Dealer with prior fam- than 100,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds ily support for Theodore Roosevelt. Both of whom were native-born American citizens. Willkie and Roosevelt conducted active cam- FDR’s level of physical activity as chief exec- paigns in an election race that returned FDR to utive officer and commander in chief belied his the White House with 27,243,466 popular votes physical paralysis. Well traveled during his (54.7%) compared to Willkie’s 22,304,744 votes youth and early adulthood, he vicariously fol- (44.8%). Despite the win, the Democratic ticket lowed international events daily as he worked carried only 38 states and gained only seven on his beloved stamp collection. Moreover, he House seats in the 1940 election. flew to Casablanca, Morocco, in January 1943 FDR’s moniker “Dr. New Deal” rapidly to meet with Churchill. In November that morphed into “Dr. Win-the-War.” He had same year he flew to Tehran, Iran, for another already persuaded Congress to repeal the Neu- meeting with Churchill and, for the first time, trality Acts from the 1930s. In March 1941, Joseph Stalin. Rather than exhausting him, the Congress passed his Lend-Lease Act to help trips seemed to energize the president. the British. Five months later, in August 1941, FDR continued his efforts toward planning a FDR officially met with British prime minster postwar world that began as early as August Winston Churchill for the first time aboard the 1941 with the principles set forth in the Atlantic American cruiser Augusta off Newfoundland. Charter. In July 1944, he convened an interna- There they signed the Atlantic Charter, which tional conference at Bretton Woods, New called for an end to fascism as well as for the Hampshire, that resulted in creation of the right to national self-determination. FDR rec- International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the ognized that the days of colonialism were International Bank for Reconstruction and doomed but Churchill stubbornly still clung to Development. The Dumbarton Oaks confer- his traditional notion of preserving the British ence was held in Washington, D.C., in August Empire. In November 1941, FDR extended 1944 for representatives from the United States, lend-lease assistance to the Soviet Union as Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China to well. Then, on December 7, Japan conducted plan the groundwork for the United Nations. its sneak bombing attack on Pearl Harbor. The During World War II, the conservative next day Congress declared war on Japan. coalition (consisting of Republican and conser- Three days later, Germany and Italy declared vative Democrats) in Congress not only blocked war on the United States; Congress recipro- the president from launching further social- cated the declarations of war. The largest war reform legislation but also was able to disman- in history was under way. tle many New Deal agencies. However, FDR FDR sought to make the war a bipartisan helped to craft a third major piece of landmark effort, appointing several Republicans to high legislation during his administration, the Ser- office. He named Henry Stimson as secretary vicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944—popu- of war, Frank Knox as secretary of the navy, larly known as the G.I. Bill of Rights. It was a and Harlan Fiske Stone as chief justice of the worthy middle-class successor to Abraham Lin- Supreme Court. Once in the war, FDR quickly coln’s Land Grant College Act of 1862, which xii The FDR Years

Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin at Yalta (Library of Congress) helped transform higher education in the returning veterans while at the same time stim- United States. Almost half a million former ulating a housing boom in growing suburbs.) American soldiers would go to college under FDR’s last hurrah came in 1944. Neither the provisions of the G.I. Bill of Rights legislation. war effort nor the midterm election had gone (By 1956, almost 9 million veterans had taken well in 1942, reflected in the Democrats’ loss of advantage of the educational and vocational 47 House seats. But in 1944, Americans went to provisions of the programs that provided the polls in the middle of a war for only the tuition, books, and living expenses. At the same second time in U.S. history. The Republican time that the G.I. Bill of Rights was allowing National Convention had met in Chicago in veterans to improve their education, the Vet- late June and chosen New York governor eran Administration’s low-interest loans for Thomas E. Dewey on the first ballot; Ohio gov- buying houses, farms, and small businesses were ernor John Bricker was named as his running making home ownership a realistic goal for the mate. The Democrats met in mid-July and Introduction xiii picked FDR for an unprecedented fourth term. Georgia. He died there on April 12 after suf- Political operatives forced Roosevelt to drop fering a massive stroke. Yet his legacy contin- Henry Wallace from the ticket, and Harry Tru- ued, in part because man was nominated as the vice-presidential worked to extend it through the United candidate on the second ballot. The stress of the Nations during the postwar era. From a war and ill health, however, were taking their domestic perspective, FDR had helped to toll on FDR, and it was beginning to show. change the United States’s philosophy of gov- Although he did not campaign until late in the ernment from one that preferred the negative election cycle, and the popular vote dropped by government advocated by Thomas Jefferson nearly 2 million votes, FDR still defeated to one that approved of positive government, Dewey, 25,602,504 (53.4%) to 22,006,285 and he institutionalized the modern presi- (45.9%). The results were similar to 1940. dency. On the international front, he helped The Allied war effort was also clearly on the to create a new world order that ended Amer- road to victory. Allied forces landed at Nor- ican isolationism and European colonialism. mandy on June 6, 1944, and by August had lib- Through his active leadership, FDR not only erated Paris. In January 1945, FDR made his demonstrated to the world the potential of the final trip abroad, flying to Yalta for a meeting United States’s great experiment in self-gov- with Churchill and Stalin. They agreed on the ernment but achieved his early personal goal postwar occupation of Germany and the cre- of surpassing Theodore Roosevelt’s accom- ation of what became the United Nations. plishments. In the opinion of most historians In April 1945, FDR left Washington for a and commentators, his was the finest political vacation at his retreat in Warm Springs, performance of the 20th century.

BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY A–Z

A w

Acheson, Dean Gooderham ner in 1926 and was a senior partner when he (1893–1971) assistant secretary of state for retired from the firm in 1964. economic affairs In early 1933, Acheson became one of Frankfurter’s many “Happy Hotdogs” when Like many other ambitious pre–World War II President Roosevelt appointed him as under- lawyers, Dean Acheson proved his worth in secretary of the Treasury. A liberal Democrat, the Roosevelt administration by performing he had campaigned for Roosevelt in 1932. yeoman political service. He was catapulted to Although he supported the New Deal, Ache- a cabinet position by Harry Truman as secre- son’s rather rigid personal ethics led him to tary of state from 1949 to 1953 and was an resign his position on November 15, 1933, in informal adviser to Presidents Kennedy, John- protest against the president’s reduction of the son, and Nixon. dollar’s gold content, an action he considered Acheson was born into a prominent Con- both unconstitutional and unwise. He resumed necticut family; his father was an Episcopal his private legal practice representing clients bishop of Connecticut and his mother had in the federal courts as well as before govern- inherited family wealth. His performance at mental agencies. both Groton School and Yale University was Despite leaving his appointment as under- lackluster. Acheson chose a legal career as his secretary, Acheson’s overall support for the pathway to public service and attended Har- New Deal and his relationship with Frank- vard Law School, where he studied with FELIX furter (who often joined him for the morning FRANKFURTER and was named to the law walk to work) and Roosevelt resulted in his review. In 1917, he married Alice Caroline being named chair of a committee to study the Stanley, and after earning his law degree in operation of the federal government’s adminis- 1918, he served briefly in the Naval Auxiliary trative bureaus and advise the president on eco- Reserve. His association with Frankfurter nomic matters. His enthusiastic support of opened the door for Acheson to be hired by FDR’s foreign policy prompted the president Supreme Court justice LOUIS BRANDEIS as his to bring him back into the administration as private secretary, a position Acheson held from assistant secretary of state to . 1918. In 1921 he joined the law firm of Cov- Working to aid the British, Acheson collabo- ington, Burling and Rublee. He became a part- rated with fellow “Happy Hotdog” BENJAMIN

1 2 Agee, James Rufus

COHEN, a presidential aide, to draft the legal best-known and perhaps greatest work, Let Us basis for a destroyer-bases swap in 1940. His Now Praise Famous Men (1941), captured the legal-brief ingenuity impressed the president, plight of impoverished Depression-era share- who appointed him assistant secretary of state croppers. The setting was reminiscent of his for economic affairs after reelection to a third father’s lower-class background; his mother presidential term. had enjoyed a genteel upbringing. During World War II, Acheson focused on Despite his border-state birthplace, Agee the executive branch’s relations with Congress was educated at Phillips Exeter Academy and and helped to coordinate the lend-lease pro- Harvard University. His first book of poems gram. He served as a delegate to the July 1944 won the Yale Series of Younger Poets award. A Bretton Woods Conference, which led to the staff writer for Fortune from 1932 to 1937, Agee International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the wrote an article on the New Deal’s Tennessee Reconstruction and Development Bank (World Valley Authority (TVA), and the magazine sub- Bank). In addition, he helped to persuade isola- sequently sent him and photographer WALKER tionist Republican senator ARTHUR VANDEN- EVANS to Alabama to gather material for a story BERG to support the United Nations in January on rural tenant farmers. They stayed for two 1945. This work led Acheson into contact with months and focused on three sharecropper Harry Truman, another early-morning walker, families. Fortune held their story for a year who as president would name Acheson secre- before finally rejecting it as too harrowing for tary of state. Each appreciated the other’s loy- publication. It was published in 1941 in book alty, orderliness, and straightforward approach form as Let Us Now Praise Famous Men and to politics in contrast to FDR’s more indirect earned Agee critical acclaim. Agee’s empathy maneuvering. Had Acheson been more flexible for his subject was transformed into one of the and less moralistic, he might have risen much great works from the Depression era. His earlier to a key position in the Roosevelt admin- poetic prose captured both the suffering and istration. Acheson left the State Department in the dignity of the three families. Like Abraham 1953, and then served as the Democratic Party’s Lincoln and Walt Whitman, who both wanted primary critic of Republican foreign policy dur- the public “to think anew,” Agee’s experimental ing the remainder of the decade. He served as style captured the lives of those whom the New an informal adviser to John Kennedy and Lyn- Deal attempted to assist. A decade later, he don Johnson during the 1960s. His final years wrote a five-part television script about Lin- were spent writing his memoirs until he died on coln’s early years for the Omnibus program. October 12, 1971, in Silver Spring, Maryland. During the 1940s and 1950s, Agee wrote Hollywood screenplays and adaptations that included The Blue Hotel, The African Queen, The Agee, James Rufus Night of the Hunter, and Key Largo. In 1951, he (1909–1955) writer wrote his only other book published during his lifetime, the short novel Morning Watch. He Great personal and political crises occasionally completed his autobiographical novel, A Death conspire to produce not only great political in the Family, in 1955. It was published posthu- leaders but also outstanding writers like James mously in 1957 and made into a play, All the Agee. He was born on November 27, 1909, in Way Home, in 1960 and a film of the same Knoxville, Tennessee, and was 16 when his name in 1963. He died on May 16, 1955, in father—whom he later idealized—died. Agee’s New York City. Anderson, Marian 3

Marian Anderson is seen here shaking hands with a woman at the ceremony for the dedication of a mural commemorating Anderson’s 1939 concert on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. (Library of Congress)

Anderson, Marian her ability, however, in high school she was (1897–1993) opera singer refused admission to a local music school due to her race. After winning a vocal competition, The pervasiveness of the New Deal through- she appeared with the New York Philharmonic out American culture is reflected in the oper- in 1925 and then received a fellowship to con- atic career of , who became a tinue her training. Her European debut was in symbol of both the talent of African Americans Berlin in 1930. From 1935 through the and their mistreatment in modern America. remainder of her professional singing career, Born on February 17, 1897, in Philadel- she was represented by the great impresario phia, Pennsylvania, to parents able to offer few Sol Hurok, who turned her contralto voice into advantages, Anderson showed an early interest an international box office hit. in music. She joined the children’s choir of In 1938 Anderson performed 70 concerts Union Baptist Church even before she taught in the United States, setting a concert tour herself to play the piano at age eight. Despite record for an opera singer. The world of opera 4 Armstrong, Louis and politics collided shortly thereafter when Armstrong, Louis Hurok tried to book her into the nation’s cap- (Louis Daniel Armstrong) ital at its then-premier auditorium, Constitu- (1901–1971) jazz musician tion Hall, owned by the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR). At that time, During the 1930s and 1940s, while Franklin Washington, D.C., was still a southern out- Roosevelt was reshaping the American presi- post, and like the rest of the South, it was seg- dency, and AARON COPLAND was defining regated. The DAR denied Anderson the American classical music, Louis Armstrong was opportunity to sing there. creating a world market for American jazz The denial sparked a national furor. while establishing himself as the most famous ELEANOR ROOSEVELT, a life member of the trumpet player in the world. The giant shad- DAR, resigned in protest. Secretary of the ows cast by all three extended around the Interior HAROLD ICKES and the First Lady globe. Each carved his place in American his- arranged to have Anderson appear instead on tory using innate talents and modeling for the the steps of the Lincoln Memorial on Easter world the United States’s embodiment of Sunday, April 9, 1939; despite her support for democratic values regardless of class or color. the singer, the First Lady did not attend. And while doing so, each seemed the epitome Anderson began her concert before a crowd of of an individual who derived personal and pro- 75,000 by singing “America” and established a fessional satisfaction from his public contribu- precedent for the Lincoln Memorial as the tions. Through the medium in which each capital site for public demonstrations. In 1943, excelled, they were able to communicate their the concert was depicted in a New Deal mural gifts easily to the public. at the Interior Department, which was pre- Louis Daniel Armstrong was born in New sented at a commemorative event by the DAR Orleans, Louisiana, on August 4, 1901, the ille- to benefit United China Relief. gitimate son of African-American parents in a Anderson became a symbol of integrated segregated society. In 1911, while still a school- America by becoming the first black American boy, he bought his first cornet. He soon to appear at the Metropolitan Opera House in dropped out of school and ended up in the New York City on January 7, 1955. She sang New Orleans Colored Waif’s Home for Boys the national anthem at the 1957 inauguration (1913–14), where he received his first formal of President Dwight Eisenhower and again in music instruction. With incredible native talent 1961 when President John F. Kennedy was and seemingly endless energy, Armstrong inaugurated. After her retirement in 1964, she began to forge his career in music despite his made guest appearances as the narrator of minimal training. As a teenager he played in Aaron Copland’s A Lincoln Portrait, often with street parades as well as for christenings and her nephew James DePriest, who became the funerals, and he held a variety of day jobs. By conductor of the Oregon Symphony and was 1918, he was married to the first of his four Anderson’s only living relative in her later wives. years. In 1978, she was selected as one of the He soon came under the influence of his first five performing artists to receive the mentor, Joe “King” Oliver and his Creole Jazz Kennedy Center Honors in the nation’s capital. Band, with whom Armstrong made some of his Her professional and symbolic careers had early recordings. In 1922, he moved to overlapped and come full circle. She died on Chicago to play second cornet in Oliver’s band April 8, 1993, in Portland, Oregon. at the Lincoln Garden’s Café. After his second Arnold, Henry Harley 5 marriage in 1924, he moved briefly to New 1935 and married his third one in 1938. He York City, where he played with the Fletcher wed for the fourth and final time in 1942 to Henderson orchestra at the Roseland Ball- Lucille Wilson. None of the marriages pro- room. It was in New York that he developed duced children. the new swing jazz style on his trumpet. The Armstrong’s popularity and fame contin- next year, he was back in to make his ued throughout his life. On February 21, 1949, first recordings as the leader of his own band. he appeared on the front cover of Time maga- Over the next three years, Satchmo—the nick- zine. That same year, he returned to his birth- name eventually bestowed on him in England place and the roots of his music to serve as by the editor of a music magazine—helped to King of the Zulus for the annual Mardi Gras create the cornet and trumpet virtuoso jazz parade, an honor that brought him enormous solo within an ensemble piece. He not only personal satisfaction. Twenty years later, he improvised in the best tradition of jazz, he also appeared in the movie Hello Dolly (1969) with composed and sang, all the while expanding Barbra Streisand. He died on July 6, 1971, in jazz’s expressive dimensions. Queens, New York. By 1929, Armstrong had returned to New York with his own band, known as the Hot Five and Hot Seven ensembles. His improvisatory Arnold, Henry Harley singing popularized the “scat” technique in (Hap Arnold) which the voice is used as a musical instrument (1886–1950) assistant chief of the Army Air stringing together nonsensical syllables. He Corps, chief of the Army Air Force, member of had picked up the basis for scat during his early the Joint Chiefs of Staff years in New Orleans. Institutionalizing it on his recordings, Satchmo would influence other Born on June 25, 1886, in Gladwyne, Pennsyl- jazz singers, including Ella Fitzgerald. The vania, to a physician father and housewife naturally gravelly quality of his voice con- mother, Henry “Hap” Arnold attended local tributed to Armstrong’s distinctive style. He public schools before entering the U.S. Military toured Europe in 1932, and his music became Academy at West Point. On graduation in a sensation there. 1907, he ranked in the middle of his class. What During the 1930s and 1940s, Satchmo he lacked in academic excellence he made up reached a creative peak. By allowing Joe Glaser for with character and a genial personality. After to serve as his business manager and agent serving as an infantry officer in the Philippines from 1935 to 1969, Armstrong was free to and New York, Arnold volunteered for flight focus on his musical genius. In doing so, he training when aviation was in its infancy and became a national celebrity. In 1937, he found his true calling. Training with the Avia- became the first African-American artist fea- tion Section of the Signal Corps in 1911, he tured in a network radio series; by then he was briefly took flight instruction from the Wright appearing with a big band. He also appeared in brothers in Dayton, Ohio. Later that year, he more than 50 films, including Rhapsody in Black became an army flight instructor in College and Blue (1932), She Done Him Wrong (1933), Park, Maryland. In 1913, he returned to the Pennies from Heaven (1936), Every Day’s a Hol- Philippines with his bride, Eleanor Pool. They iday (1937), Doctor Rhythm (1938), Cabin in the eventually had four children. Sky (1943), and Jam Session (1944). On a more Arnold returned stateside in 1917, join- personal level, he divorced his second wife in ing the Aviation Section at Rockwell Field in 6 Arnold, Thurman Wesley

San Diego, , and later that year he 1946, a year before the United States Air Force became head of the 7th Aero Squadron in the was created as a separate military branch. In Zone. During World War I, he 1949, Congress formally recognized Arnold’s served as the assistant director of the new Office role in American military aviation by making of Military Aeronautics in Washington, D.C. him the first General of the Air Force. When During the interwar period, he served in a vari- he died in California a few months later on ety of military assignments on the West Coast. January 15, 1950, Arnold’s survivors included At the beginning of the New Deal, Arnold not only his widow and children, but the U.S. was placed in charge of the army’s attempt to Air Force itself. deliver mail in the western United States via airplanes. The effort proved unsuccessful, but he was absolved of responsibility for the failure. Arnold, Thurman Wesley By the end of summer 1934, Arnold had again (1891–1969) assistant attorney general demonstrated his aviation mettle by conduct- ing a round-trip flight of 10 B-10 bombers Unlike most of the talented and ambitious from Washington, D.C., to Fairbanks, Alaska. “legal realist” lawyers who staffed the New The exercise confirmed the potential for Deal, Thurman Arnold was also a former mil- strategic aerial bombing. He was made the itary veteran, academician, and politician. He assistant chief of the Army Air Corps in 1936, was born on June 2, 1891, in Laramie, and in July 1941 he was promoted to chief of Wyoming. After graduating Phi Beta Kappa the Army Air Force. from Princeton University in 1911, he entered Like his mentor, General William “Billy” Harvard Law School, graduating in 1914. He Mitchell, Arnold understood the potential that then practiced law in Chicago. In 1917, his Illi- air power held in modern warfare. Unlike nois National Guard unit was mobilized for Mitchell, however, Arnold—whose nickname service with General “Black Jack” Pershing’s Hap was short for “Happy”—was diplomatic, expedition against Pancho Villa in Mexico, and and he became the champion for army avia- he also served in World War I. Following his tion at most of the conferences of the Allies. return from Europe, Arnold joined his father’s His experience, expertise, and personality law practice in Laramie, Wyoming, and in earned him FDR’s trust, allowing Arnold to 1921 he was elected to the Wyoming state leg- create the world’s largest air force during islature, the only Democrat. The next year, he World War II. FDR’s similar trust in GEORGE was elected mayor of Laramie on a progressive MARSHALL allowed the American service chiefs platform. After his defeat as county prosecutor to come together informally in March 1942 as in 1924, he served as the judge advocate gen- the Joint Chiefs of Staff, with Arnold repre- eral of the Wyoming National Guard for the senting the Army Air Corps. In May 1942, he next three years. developed the plan for daylight, precision A friendship with a Harvard classmate led bombing against Nazi Germany. By late 1944, to Arnold’s appointment as dean of the West he had earned his fifth star as an army general Virginia Law School from 1927 to 1930. His and directed B-29 bombings against Japan that reform of West Virginia’s court system led to would culminate in the atomic bombings of his becoming a law professor at Yale University, Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. However, as where he taught for the next eight years; fellow early as 1943, Arnold had begun to experience faculty included WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS and heart problems that forced his retirement in political scientist Harold D. Lassell. Yale was a Arnold, Thurman Wesley 7 center of legal realism, which views the law in scholars consider his tenure (1938–43) as the political terms. Arnold dismissed traditional most effective antitrust enforcement in Ameri- casebook pedagogy and was responsible for can history. He was less interested in breaking beginning Yale’s moot-court simulations. His up companies than in letting them know their two most influential legal realist books, The activities were being monitored for monopo- Symbols of Government (1935) and The Folklore listic and unfair practices. of Capitalism (1937), were written during his With the onset of World War II, the Roo- Yale tenure. sevelt administration became less concerned At the same time that he taught and wrote, with controlling big business, and Arnold the politically engaged Arnold served as coun- became disillusioned. After he resigned from sel to the Agriculture Department, as a legal the Justice Department, Roosevelt appointed adviser to the governor-general of the Philip- him to the Federal Court of Appeals for the pines, and as a trial examiner for the Securities District of Columbia, where he served two and Exchange Commission, which William O. years of a lifetime appointment. He then estab- Douglas had joined in 1936. In 1938, U.S. lished the law firm Arnold, Fortas, and Porter Attorney General ROBERT JACKSON recom- with former undersecretary of agriculture ABE mended his good friend Arnold to head the Jus- FORTAS and attorney Paul Porter. During the tice Department’s antitrust division. Arnold 1950s McCarthy era, Arnold defended several served as the New Deal’s trustbuster for five individuals charged with communist espionage. years, expanding his staff from fewer than 50 The former army veteran became a hawk dur- lawyers to more than 300. He filed 230 suits for ing the 1960s, viewing student protests of the monopoly practices or restraint of trade, involv- Vietnam War as approaching treason. He died ing most sectors of the national economy. Many on November 7, 1969, in Alexandria, Virginia. B w

Bailey, Josiah William ley broke with FDR over his Court-packing (1873–1946) U.S. senator plan and efforts to modernize the presidency. He joined Republican senator ARTHUR VAN- Born on September 14, 1873, in Warrenton, DENBERG in drafting a bipartisan “conservative North Carolina, Josiah Bailey became a Wilso- manifesto” in opposition to further New Deal nian Democrat. He was a southern progressive proposals. In the 1938 congressional elections, in education but also a states’ rights fiscal con- Bailey openly backed candidates Roosevelt had servative opposed to unions and integration. tried to purge. When he became chair of the His lifelong moralistic streak derived from the powerful Senate Commerce Committee, he influence of his father, who was a Baptist dropped his earlier isolationist views and helped preacher and editor of North Carolina’s sec- the administration repeal the Neutrality Act of ond-largest periodical, a weekly Baptist news- 1939, as did Vandenberg. Bailey supported paper. After graduation from Wake Forest taxes to finance U.S. participation in World College in 1893, Bailey assumed editorship of War II, and his support in November 1943 for the newspaper. His restlessness, however, led the Connally Resolution advocating an inter- to his resignation from the paper in 1908, and national organization was followed in February he became a lawyer. A mixture of progressive 1944 with his backing of the proposed United politics with a private law practice and his mar- Nations. He died on December 15, 1946, in riage in 1916 to Edith Walker Pou, from one of Raleigh, North Carolina. the state’s leading families, led to Bailey’s deeper involvement in state and national politics. He lost his 1922 bid for the Democratic guberna- Baker, Newton Diehl torial nomination, but after the state’s Demo- (1871–1937) Democratic presidential dark-horse cratic machine deserted AL SMITH’s presidential candidate bid in 1928, Bailey’s loyalty to the party was rewarded, and he was elected senator in 1930. The son of a physician and former Confeder- The New Deal was too radical for Bailey’s ate soldier, Newton Baker was born on provincial regionalism, though he initially stuck December 3, 1871, in Martinsburg, West Vir- by it in 1932 and 1936 out of party loyalty. After ginia. He graduated in 1892 from Johns Hop- his 1936 reelection to the Senate, however, Bai- kins University, where he took a class taught

8 Baldwin, Stanley 9 by future president Woodrow Wilson; when in Company of East Radford, Virginia. From Baltimore, Wilson would stay at the boarding there he was recruited to the Roosevelt admin- house where Baker lived. Baker received his istration. He first served as assistant to Wallace law degree from Washington and Lee Univer- from 1933 to 1935; then as assistant to REX- sity in 1894. He served as secretary to William FORD TUGWELL, the administrator of the L. Wilson, Grover Cleveland’s second-term Resettlement Administration from 1935 to postmaster general, before moving to Cleve- 1936; and finally as assistant to Will W. Alexan- land, Ohio, to practice law. From 1911 to der, the first administrator of the Farm Secu- 1915, he was the progressive “Boy Mayor” of rity Administration (FSA), from 1937 to 1939. Cleveland. In 1916 President Wilson named The FSA was designed to supervise the pro- Baker as secretary of war, a cabinet post he grams of the Resettlement Administration and retained until the end of the administration. the new farm ownership program. Never a crusader or an extremist, Baker Baldwin replaced Alexander as head of the remained loyal to the first president born in Farm Security Administration in 1940. the South after the Civil War. Although he did his best to defend the FSA In 1921, Baker left public office and from growing criticism leveled against it in returned to a successful legal practice. At the Congress by the conservative coalition, he was 1924 Democratic convention, he argued the unable to save it. Appropriations declined case for the League of Nations. Initially Baker from 1941 to 1946, when it was replaced by was supportive of the New Deal, but at heart the Farmers Home Administration. For his he remained a Cleveland conservative. In 1932, service to the New Deal, Roosevelt named he was nominated for the presidency by anti- Baldwin to his final federal government post Roosevelt Democrats as a dark-horse candi- with a State Department position in Italy, date, but he was unable to block Roosevelt’s where he served from 1942 to 1943. He even- nomination. During the 1930s, he served the tually became campaign manager for Henry army on various boards, including chairing the Wallace’s unsuccessful presidential campaign “Baker Board,” which called for the reorgani- in 1948. Baldwin remained the national secre- zation of the Army Air Corps. He died on tary of the Progressive Party until its dissolu- December 25, 1937, in Shaker Heights, Ohio. tion in 1955. Baldwin died on May 12, 1975, in Bethesda, Maryland.

Baldwin, Calvin Benham (1902–1975) Farm Security Administration official Baldwin, Stanley (1867–1947) British prime minister An assistant to Secretary of Agriculture HENRY WALLACE, Calvin Baldwin remained his close A conservative isolationist, Stanley Baldwin associate after Wallace’s cabinet service in the illustrates the lack of prescience in foreign Roosevelt administration. Baldwin was born on affairs among British political leaders between August 19, 1902, in Radford, Virginia. After World War I and World War II. He was born attending Virginia Polytechnic Institute in the on August 3, 1867, in Worcestershire, England. early 1920s, he began work with a railroad, ris- His father supervised an inherited family steel ing quickly through the ranks from inspector business, and his mother’s brother was Rudyard to the general foreman’s assistant. By 1928, he Kipling. He was educated at Harrow and Trin- was proprietor of Electric Sales and Service ity College, Cambridge University, but he lacked 10 Banister, Marion Glass intellectual ambition. In 1892, he married Rhineland, and the Spanish civil war began. Lucy Ridsdale, with whom he enjoyed a happy Because of Britain’s perilous economic state, and stable marriage. He entered the family Baldwin concentrated on domestic economic business in 1898 and remained in it until 1908. affairs. Further, as an isolationist, he had little His father’s death in 1908 was the impetus interest in foreign affairs. Many historians for Baldwin’s transition into politics. The elder believe the roots of Neville Chamberlain’s Baldwin had been a member of Parliament appeasement policy may be traced to the Mac- (MP). Although Stanley Baldwin had run Donald and Baldwin governments. While unsuccessfully for parliament two years earlier, Baldwin is credited with both skillfully han- he replaced his father as a Conservative MP. dling the abdication of King Edward VIII and “Like father, like son” was a recurring theme in improving Britain’s economic condition, it is Baldwin’s life. His early career in the House of felt by many that he underestimated Nazi Commons reflected the lifelong tendency Germany. toward caution and mediocrity that had also After the coronation of George VI, Bald- characterized his educational record. However, win retired as prime minister on May 28, 1937; World War I intervened, and Baldwin quickly he was replaced by Chamberlain. Politically rose through a series of political promotions. inactive following his retirement, he died in In 1917, he became parliamentary secretary to Worcestershire on December 13, 1947. Andrew Bonar Law, and from 1917 to 1921, he was financial secretary to the Treasury. He next became a member of David Lloyd George’s Banister, Marion Glass postwar coalition government. Bonar Law then (1875–1951) assistant treasurer of the became prime minister, and Baldwin was made United States chancellor of the exchequer, serving in that position briefly until Law died in 1923. The daughter of a distinguished Virginia fam- Because of a split among Conservative leaders, ily, Marion Glass Banister was born in 1875 in Baldwin was chosen to succeed Bonar Law, the Lynchburg. Her sister, Meta Glass, became first of what would be three terms of service as president of Sweet Briar College, and her older prime minister. brother, CARTER GLASS, served as a U.S. sena- Baldwin initially served as prime minister tor from Virginia. Marion Glass married the only a few months in 1923 due to his defeat son of another old Virginia family, Blair Banis- later that year over the issue of a protective ter, who died in the mid-1920s. tariff to relieve unemployment. The first Both Banister and her brother entered Labor government of Ramsay MacDonald political life as Wilsonian Democrats. She took over until the Conservatives returned to wrote for the Committee on Public Informa- power in 1924. Baldwin became prime minis- tion and then for the Democratic Party during ter for the second time, serving until May the 1920s. In 1922 she became the first editor 1929, when the electorate replaced him with of the Fortnightly Bulletin, a pamphlet aimed at another Labor government. Baldwin remained the Democratic Party’s women’s clubs in their the moderate leader of the Conservative Party effort to organize women voters. She remained and became prime minister for the third time as editor until 1924, the same year that she on June 7, 1935, following MacDonald’s cofounded the Women’s National Democratic retirement. During his third term, Italy Club (WNDC) in Washington, D.C. Banister invaded Ethiopia, Germany reoccupied the supported her political work between 1924 and Bankhead, William Brockman 11

1931 with employment in public relations for agriculture and defense. His concern about rural the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D.C., poverty, focusing on the fact that more than 65 until the Great Depression forced its tempo- percent of Alabama’s farms were operated by rary closure. Her active support of Roosevelt in tenants, and his support for agricultural com- the 1932 election led to her appointment in modity prices, especially for cotton, earned him 1933 as assistant treasurer of the United States. the moniker “Parity John.” He sponsored many Her position likely moderated her brother’s measures to protect southern farm interests, differences with the New Deal. She died in including the Agricultural Adjustment Acts of Washington, D.C., in 1951. 1933 and 1938, the Bankhead Cotton Control Act of 1934, the Soil Conservation and Domes- tic Allotment Act of 1936, and the Bankhead- Bankhead, John Hollis, Jr. Jones Farm Tenancy Act of 1937, which created (1872–1946) U.S. senator the Farm Security Administration. Despite his support for some of Roosevelt measures, he John H. Bankhead was born into a prominent voted against FDR’s Court-packing plan in southern family on July 8, 1872, in Moscow, 1937. He participated in filibusters against anti- Alabama. He first lived in the nation’s capital as lynching legislation, abolition of the poll tax, secretary for his father, a U.S. senator. He and a permanent fair employment practices earned his undergraduate degree in 1891 from commission. Bankhead, who typified the ami- the University of Alabama and his law degree able, bald, and portly old-style southern politi- from Georgetown University in 1893. He cian, died on June 12, 1946, in Bethesda, practiced law with his brother, WILLIAM Maryland. BROCKMAN BANKHEAD, for 12 years. After being elected to the Alabama legislature in 1902, he authored the Alabama Election Law Bankhead, William Brockman that disenfranchised most black voters. He was (1874–1940) U.S. congressman, Speaker of the legal counsel for the Alabama Power Company House and for several railroads, and from 1911 to 1925 he was president of the Bankhead Coal The son of a former U.S. senator and the Corporation, which had been founded by his younger brother of Senator JOHN HOLLIS father and operated one of the state’s largest BANKHEAD, William Brockman Bankhead was coal mines. born on April 12, 1874, in Moscow, Alabama. In 1926, Bankhead lost the Democratic He grew up in a southern states’ rights and seg- primary for the U.S. Senate seat representing regationist environment, yet the Bankheads Alabama to HUGO LAFAYETTE BLACK, who preferred compromise over rigidity in politics. had attacked him for his association with cor- An undergraduate degree in 1893 and a gradu- porations. For the rest of his political career, ate degree in 1896 were followed in 1898 with Bankhead closely aligned himself with cotton a law degree from Georgetown University. farmers to compensate for Black’s successful Bankhead then moved to New York and briefly populist attack. However, the backing of practiced law there while involved in Broadway Alabama’s corporations was key to his 1930 theater productions before returning to senatorial victory. Alabama in 1900 to practice law with his Bankhead’s senatorial career reflected gen- brother. His daughter was the actress Tallulah eral support for Franklin Roosevelt, especially in Bankhead. 12 Barkley, Alben William

Back in his home state, Bankhead followed won local elections. He was elected to the U.S. family tradition and became active in politics, House of Representatives in 1912 and devel- winning Alabama’s seventh congressional dis- oped a friendship with Woodrow Wilson, trict seat in 1916 and holding it until his death. whose progressive “New Freedom” legislation The district included counties from the north offered him a policy program to champion. Alabama hill country and the lowland Black After 14 years in the House, Barkley won Belt. His amiable personality and chairman- a seat in the U.S. Senate in 1926. With the ship of the powerful House Rules Committee advent of the Great Depression, he became (1934–39) enabled him to expedite New Deal an advocate of the New Deal and served on legislation. His seniority allowed him to the powerful finance and foreign affairs com- become the House majority leader in 1935–36 mittees. He was also a keynote speaker at the under Speaker of the House JOSEPH BYRNS. 1932, 1936, and 1940 national Democratic The next year he replaced Byrns as Speaker, conventions. With the exception of the and SAM RAYBURN assumed the post of major- Bonus Bill, to give early monetary stipends to ity leader. veterans from World War I, he strongly Although Bankhead was in ill health, he backed the New Deal, including a federal unsuccessfully sought the Democratic vice- antilynching bill. With the support of FDR, presidential nomination in 1940 without FDR’s but by only a single vote, Barkley was chosen support. Bankhead had been sympathetic to to replace the recently deceased JOSEPH FDR’s 1937 Court-packing plan, but he felt ROBINSON as the Senate majority leader in the president had mismanaged the proposal by 1937. He was known both for his talents as a failing to inform him of the plan. Bankhead stump speaker and his conciliatory personal- died on September 14, 1940, in Bethesda, ity. He was later accused of using Works Maryland. Progress Administration (WPA) personnel and money during his 1939 reelection cam- paign, resulting in congressional cutbacks in Barkley, Alben William WPA funding. The scandal also resulted in (1877–1956) Senate majority leader, vice the Hatch Act of 1939, which forbids politi- president of the United States cal activism and financial contributions by federal employees. In early 1944, he briefly Alben Barkley rose from humble border-state resigned as majority leader in protest after origins to national prominence as the Senate FDR wrote a stinging message to veto a tax majority leader during the New Deal and bill that Barkley had tried to make acceptable became vice president under HARRY S. TRU- to the administration. The president quickly MAN.Born on November 24, 1877, in Wheel, backed off, and the Senate unanimously rein- Kentucky, he was the son of a former tobacco stated the majority leader with FDR’s sup- tenant farmer and railroad worker. Barkley port. Roosevelt, however, declined to support failed to graduate from high school, but he Barkley for the vice-presidential nomination received an undergraduate degree in 1897 from in 1944, supposedly because of his age. Nev- the tiny Methodist-run Marvin College. He ertheless, Truman chose him for his running struggled to obtain legal training in Georgia mate in 1948. After his first wife’s death in and Virginia and began practicing law in 1901 1947, Barkley married Jane Rucker Hadley, in Paducah, Kentucky, developing a reputation who was 30 years younger. He died on April for public speaking. Within four years he had 30, 1956, in Lexington, Kentucky. Baruch, Bernard Mannes 13

Baruch, Bernard Mannes ficial rubber, and he assisted in a unit of the (1870–1965) presidential adviser War Mobilization Office to develop postwar industrial reconversion. was born on August 19, 1870, FDR and Baruch were ambivalent about in Camden, South Carolina. When he was 11, each other, and Baruch never became a New his physician father uprooted his southern Jew- Dealer; however, he maintained a closer friend- ish family and transplanted it to New York ship with First Lady ELEANOR ROOSEVELT.He City, where Simon Baruch became a leader in promoted her and helped to subsidize her public health. After his graduation from City Arthurdale project, a subsistence homestead College of New York, Bernard Baruch became community near Reedsville, West Virginia. He a Wall Street financier. In 1897, he married was known as the “Park Bench Statesman” for Annie Griffen, an Episcopalian. Just as he had his unofficial Washington, D.C., office on a bridged the personal religious divide between park bench in Lafayette Square across the himself and his Christian wife and the cultural street from the White House where he met divide between North and South by owning a informally with presidents and others. Decades plantation in his native South Carolina, Baruch later, the bench became a memorial to Baruch. soon bridged the gap between Wall Street and He died on June 20, 1965, in New York City. politics. He became one of the most promi- nent American Jews during the first half of the 20th century. Like FDR, Baruch entered national poli- tics through his relationship with Woodrow Wilson, becoming one of Wilson’s major financial supporters. His friendship with WILLIAM MCADOO, Wilson’s Treasury secre- tary and another transplanted southerner, led to Wilson’s appointment of Baruch as chair- man of the (WIB) in 1917, leading the public to view him as the “czar” of industry. Baruch supported McAdoo’s failed presidential bid as the Democratic nom- inee in 1924. Baruch wanted to become FDR’s secretary of state in 1932, but Roosevelt limited him to brief service as a participant during the London Economic Conference of 1933. He also added Baruch’s associate HUGH JOHNSON to his so- called and later made Johnson— who had served on Baruch’s WIB—head of the National Recovery Administration. FDR also appointed another Baruch friend and WIB member, GEORGE N. PEEK, to head the Agri- cultural Adjustment Administration. During World War II, Baruch worked to develop arti- Bernard Mannes Baruch (Library of Congress) 14 Bennett, Harry Herbert

Bennett, Harry Herbert he served without an official job title. His (1892–1979) Ford Motor Company executive emerging responsibilities included diverse duties such as supervising security at the new As personal assistant to HENRY FORD, founder Ford River Rouge plant located in Dearborn and owner of the Ford Motor Company, Harry near as well as serving as the company’s Bennett was the staff person directly in charge liaison with local reporters. of negotiating with workers during their efforts Ford’s authoritarian expectation was that throughout the 1930s and 1940s to unionize at his lieutenants’ first devotion was to the Ford the time in American history when the New Motor Company, an attitude that helped to Deal first recognized the rights of workers. In unravel the two of Bennett’s three marriages discharging his duties, Bennett was caught that ended in divorce. (He had two children, between the conflicting forces of his authori- one with his first wife and one with his third tarian employer’s demands and the emergence and final wife.) Ford’s approach with top of workers’ rights supported by the New Deal. employees was to convert them into classic In Bennett, Ford had found a right-hand man company men who had no time for personal who made up for his lack of formal training lives. The energetic and ambitious Bennett was with abundant physical vigor, personal loyalty, willing to comply, and by 1928, the year of his and street smarts. first divorce, he had become Ford’s most Bennett was born on January 17, 1892, in trusted lieutenant. Ann Arbor, Michigan, to a blue-collar worker Instead of the customary 10-round bout, father and a school-teacher mother. When he Bennett’s fight with Ford’s workers was drawn was two years old, his father was killed in a out over 10 years. Throughout that decade, fight. His mother soon remarried, but his step- there were three deciding rounds fought from father died just a few years later. Following his the opening bell in early 1932 until 1941, when stepfather’s death, he and his mother relocated Ford threw in the towel and accepted the New in 1907 to Detroit, where Bennett received Deal’s change in the rules between worker and training as a commercial artist. Conflict at employer relations. The opening round started home drove him to escape by joining the U.S. on March 7, 1932, with a hunger march on the Navy two years later. During the seven years he River Rouge, Michigan, plant by several thou- was enlisted, he performed a variety of assign- sand unemployed workers. Bennett’s efforts to ments, including cartoonist for the navy mag- calm the angry marchers had the opposite azine, ship gunner, and successful boxer. effect: they threw rocks at him, triggering gun- Bennett’s encounter with Henry Ford fire by either Bennett’s own security force or by occurred after journalist Arthur Brisbane Dearborn police. In the violence, four chanced to observe his performance in a New marchers were killed and 20 more were York street fight. Impressed, Brisbane brought wounded. Bennett was knocked unconscious Bennett to meet Henry Ford, who hired him in during the melee. early 1916. Bennett first worked briefly in The second round lasted for several years Ford’s New York sales office before being as the United Auto Workers (UAW) sparred transferred later that year to Detroit, where he with the Ford Motor Company in its attempt to worked for a short time in the Ford Motion organize at the River Rouge plant. Ford refused Picture Department. Once in Ford’s world, to negotiate and fired workers whom he sus- Bennett soon became the boss’s personal assis- pected of union activity. By 1937, union offi- tant, although, like most of Ford’s employees, cials, including WALTER REUTHER, had Bennett, Richard Bedford 15 suffered severe beatings by Bennett’s security culture in Washington, D.C. His life’s work force. This time, however, New Deal legislation was influenced by the first-ever national gov- was in place to make a difference. With the cre- ernors’ conference convened in May 1908 by ation of the new National Labor Relations THEODORE ROOSEVELT in Washington, D.C., Board as part of the New Deal program and to discuss conservation issues. the Supreme Court’s upholding of it in April Bennett spent the next 25 years conducting 1937, the Ford Motor Company was found soil surveys throughout the United States and guilty of violating provisions of the National Central America, while his reputation as a soils Labor Relations Act, which gave workers the expert grew. He aroused national attention right to join unions. Shortly afterward, in 1938, about the need to develop a national program to Henry Ford suffered a severe stroke. combat soil erosion, which in 1928 prompted By 1941, the final punches were being Congress to establish erosion control stations thrown. The union had forced a shutdown of and allowed Bennett to set up 10 of them across the River Rouge plant, compelling Ford finally the nation. That work was expanded with the to negotiate with the UAW. He signed a con- New Deal in 1933 when the National Indus- tract with the union that involved wage and trial Recovery Act allocated soil conservation working condition concessions. In a de facto within the Department of the Interior. The exchange, the Ford Motor Company received department’s secretary, HAROLD ICKES, chose war contracts from the federal government. Bennett as the director of the Soil Erosion Ser- That same year, Ford suffered a second stroke. vice. Bennett lobbied for an expanded program Two years later, Ford put the loyal Bennett on after the devastating effects of the Dust Bowl the company’s board of directors and made him during the Great Depression. As a result, the responsible for personnel, labor relations, and Soil Conservation Act returned soil conserva- public relations. Within a few years, however, tion to the Agriculture Department in 1935, Henry Ford’s senility led to assumption of the with Bennett directing the Soil Conservation presidency by his grandson, Henry Ford II. Service until his retirement in 1951. During his Bennett’s professional demise followed. He tenure, he used employees from the Civilian retired in September 1945 and lived on his Conservation Corps and other federal work- ranches out West until his death on January 4, relief agencies on conservation projects. He 1979. then decentralized soil conservation work, and in 1937, FDR persuaded states to create nearly 3,000 local conservation districts to oversee Bennett, Hugh Hammond these projects while Bennett supported them (1881–1960) chief, Soil Conservation Service, with the necessary scientific and technology Department of Agriculture knowledge. He died on July 7, 1960, in Burling- ton, North Carolina. His gift for public relations and scientific showmanship earned Hugh Bennett recogni- tion as the “father of soil conservation.” Born Bennett, Richard Bedford on April 15, 1881, in Wadesboro, North Car- (1870–1947) Canadian prime minister olina, to a family of North Carolina farmers, he graduated from the University of North Car- It was a caprice of fate that transformed Richard olina in 1903 and began work as a chemist in Bennett into the Canadian equivalent of U.S. the Bureau of Soils in the Department of Agri- president Herbert Hoover. Bennett served as 16 Benton, Thomas Hart

the leader of Canada’s Conservative Party from bring relief to unemployed workers and 1927 to 1938 and was prime minister from 1930 drought-stricken farmers. to 1935. Although Bennett was, unlike Hoover, By the end of 1934, Bennett’s fear of anar- a gifted orator, both were too wedded to tradi- chy drove him to alter his course, and he tried tion—imperialism and colonialism in Bennett’s to recast the Conservative Party in the success- case—to address effectively the changing reali- ful model of Franklin Roosevelt’s Democratic ties of their nations. Bennett would also become Party. However, his authoritarian manner failed the Canadian scapegoat for the Great Depres- to persuade either his own party or the general sion just as Hoover would in the United States. public, which had come to regard him as oppor- Born on July 3, 1870, in Hopewell, New tunistic, that a Canadian New Deal was needed. Brunswick, Bennett attended local schools and Much of his program was ruled unconstitu- then enrolled in Dalhousie University, Halifax, tional by the Canadian Supreme Court. In the Nova Scotia. He began practicing law in his election of 1935, King’s Liberals regained hometown in 1893, but in 1897 he moved to power with a resounding defeat of the Conser- Calgary, Alberta, where he developed his law vatives. Bennett remained the Conservative practice. He became one of Canada’s wealthiest Party leader until 1938, when he retired from men through a combination of inherited wealth politics. Subsequently he moved to England and prudent investments. His wealth and ora- and, in 1941, was made a member of the British torical and legal skills quickly propelled him to House of Lords with the title of viscount. He prominence in the world of politics. He served died on June 26, 1947, in Mickleham, England. in the North-West Assembly from 1898 to 1905 and in the Alberta legislature from 1909 to 1911. In 1911, he entered the Canadian House Benton, Thomas Hart of Commons, where he served until 1917. As a (1889–1975) New Deal muralist bright light in the Conservative Party, Bennett was appointed director general of the National One of the most controversial artists of the Service in 1917. By 1921, he was the minister of New Deal, Thomas Hart Benton is associated justice and attorney general in the cabinet of with the American regionalist school of the Arthur Meighen, succeeding him in 1927 as the 1930s. His innovative mural painting served as leader of the Conservative Party. the basis of the Works Progress Administration It was the impact of the Great Depression of the 1930s, and he also received a commission that both allowed Bennett to rise to the prime from the federal Public Works of Art Project. ministership and led to his ultimate political Benton’s namesake was his great-uncle, U.S. failure. The 1930 election at the outset of the Senator Thomas Hart Benton (1782–1858), Depression resulted in the defeat of Prime who had championed westward expansion; his Minister WILLIAM LYON MACKENZIE KING and populist father served in Congress. Benton was the Liberal Party. Bennett, who defeated him, born on April 15, 1889, in Neosho, Missouri. made huge promises to overcome the Depres- Although he lived in rural Missouri in the sum- sion on the basis of tariff protection. Although mers, he spent his winters in the nation’s capital, he is credited with establishment of the Bank of where he viewed the murals in the Library of Canada and the Canadian Broadcasting Cor- Congress. Benton’s father discouraged his paint- poration, Bennett’s economic policy—which ing, but his mother supported it. After working went against the popular theories of British briefly as a cartoonist for his first job, he spent a economist JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES—failed to year at the Art Institute of Chicago training as a Berle, Adolf Augustus, Jr. 17 commercial artist and then spent time in France, ter, Adolf Berle was raised and well schooled in where he was influenced by impressionism. He the Social Gospel wing of progressive reform. returned to Missouri for a year and then left for He graduated from Harvard University at 18 New York, where he was a struggling painter and its law school at 21. His first job was with for a decade. the law firm of LOUIS BRANDEIS in Boston. During World War I, Benton enlisted in After doing army intelligence work—first dur- the U.S. Navy, an experience that helped turn ing World War I, then in the Dominican him from abstractionism to realist painting. Republic in 1918, and finally at the Paris Peace His marriage in 1922 to Italian immigrant Rita Conference the next year—he practiced cor- Piacenza introduced stability into his life, and porate law in New York. In 1927, the same she acted as his manager and dealer. By 1934, year that he married Beatrice Bend Bishop, his mural painting had captured national atten- daughter of a wealthy American aristocrat, he tion, and he was featured on the cover of Time. began teaching at Columbia University. Ever In late 1936, Benton painted a bold, color- energetic, he also commuted to Massachusetts ful mural for the Missouri State Capitol in Jef- to teach at Harvard Business School and at the ferson City that he considered his masterpiece. same time wrote for liberal magazines and law Yet it was so controversial that he failed to reviews. receive another mural commission for a Berle’s first book, Studies in the Law of decade. Conservatives thought his depiction of Corporate Finance (1928), reflected his “legal the United States was too negative. By then, realism” approach to the law, which was however, his murals had achieved national echoed in the work of other young reform recognition as capturing the New Deal spirit of lawyers who staffed the New Deal—for exam- the 1930s in the same way that WALKER EVANS ple, THURMAN ARNOLD, , and used photography, JAMES AGEE used prose, and WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS.His most influential FRANK CAPRA used film to celebrate the dignity book, The Modern Corporation and Private and triumph of the average person facing com- Property (1932), warned about the dangers of mon economic adversity. concentrated corporate wealth posing a threat Benton’s best-known student was Jackson to the health of the American democracy and Pollock, whose abstract expressionism of the suggested the need for greater government 1940s seemed rooted in Benton’s early, abbre- regulation. viated stay in France. Benton’s last best-known Columbia University political science pro- mural was done in 1961 for the Truman fessor RAYMOND MOLEY invited Berle to join Library in Independence, Missouri. His rela- the FDR Brain Trust that also included another tionship with the ex-president was his closest Columbia University professor, REXFORD among former New Deal politicians. He died TUGWELL.Berle’s major contribution was on January 9, 1975, in Kansas City, Missouri. drafting FDR’s “Progressive Government” speech that was delivered at the Common- wealth Club of San Francisco on September 23, Berle, Adolf Augustus, Jr. 1932, which foreshadowed the New Deal’s (1895–1971) assistant secretary of state, approach to government planning. Berle ambassador to Brazil accepted temporary assignments with the administration during the banking crisis and Born on January 29, 1895, in Brighton, Mas- railroad emergency of 1933, and he partici- sachusetts, the son of a Congregational minis- pated in a State Department mission to Cuba 18 Bethune, Mary McLeod

to stabilize its government that same year. Dur- ment by President John F. Kennedy as chair ing this time, his home base was New York, of a task force that supported the Bay of Pigs where he was an adviser to Mayor FIORELLO LA invasion in Cuba. He also backed President GUARDIA, serving as chamberlain of the city Lyndon Johnson’s intervention in the (1934–37) and masterminding its financial Dominican Republic in 1965 as well as his recovery (1934–35), which depended on assis- Vietnam policy. The world had changed, but tance from the New Deal’s Reconstruction Adolf Berle’s ideological rigidity had not, for Finance Corporation and Public Works he remained a product of his early environ- Administration. Berle built a political base in ment. He died on February 17, 1971, in New the city among labor liberals. York City. One of FDR’s most influential advisers, Berle began his letters to the president with the jocular salutation “Dear Caesar.” That Bethune, Mary McLeod greeting, however, may have been more reveal- (1875–1955) director, Division of Negro Affairs, ing about Berle, who tended to have a National Youth Administration; special assistant Napoleonic complex. He was a short, chain- to the secretary of war smoking ideologue obsessed with power. He met his match in his former Harvard law pro- When FDR appointed her director of the fessor, FELIX FRANKFURTER, who was also Division of Negro Affairs of the National short but even more insecure. Both were pon- Youth Administration, Mary Bethune became tificators who preferred their own monologues the first African-American woman to head a to dialogues. Berle, one of the founding leaders federal office. She remained the most influen- of New York’s Liberal Party, advocated control tial African-American woman in the United over the nation’s largest corporations, while States until well after her death. Frankfurter and Brandeis both merely favored Bethune overcame substantial obstacles to enforcement of antitrust laws. succeed. Born on July 19, 1875, in Mayesville, Following the recession of 1937–38, FDR South Carolina, the 15th of 17 children of for- brought Berle back to his administration as mer slaves who became farmers in the South, assistant secretary of state to advise on eco- she attended local schools. She went to nomic policy, indicating the president’s desire Chicago to attend what became the Moody to have someone advocating planning and Bible Institute to train for a career as a mis- control rather than more antitrust enforce- sionary in Africa. After a year’s training, she ment. Berle also focused on Latin American learned there were no openings there for black affairs and in the late 1930s organized Pan- missionaries. Instead, she began her career as a American conferences to assist antifascist missionary educator in the Deep South in governments. During World War II, he ran 1896. Two years later, she married Albertus the State Department’s international intelli- Bethune, a salesman, and they moved to Geor- gence network and became a critic of the gia, where their only son was born in 1899. Soviet Union. From 1944 to 1946, he served Her husband lacked her interest in missionary as ambassador to Brazil and then worked work, and the couple separated. occasionally for the Central Intelligence In 1904, Bethune moved to Daytona, Agency. During the 1960s, Berle became an Florida, and founded a training school for anticommunist “cold war liberal.” His Latin African-American girls that evolved into the American expertise resulted in his appoint- Bethune Cookman College in 1929. She Biddle, Francis Beverly 19 gained national recognition as president of the The park is located in southeastern Washing- college and helped to found other African- ton, D.C., near the Library of Congress. American organizations. She became vice pres- ident of the National Urban League in 1920, was president of the National Association of Biddle, Francis Beverly Colored Women from 1924 to 1928, and was (1886–1968) National Labor Relations Board founding president of the National Council of chairman, U.S. solicitor general, U.S. attorney Negro Women. general Bethune’s involvement with the national government commenced during the Calvin Despite being from a wealthy, conservative Coolidge and Herbert Hoover presidential patrician family, Francis Biddle developed into administrations in the 1920s. It blossomed dur- a progressive, supporting THEODORE ROO- ing the New Deal after she and ELEANOR SEVELT’s Bull Moose third-party effort in 1912 ROOSEVELT established a close friendship. The and then turning to the Democratic Party after First Lady arranged for her appointment to a Herbert Hoover neglected labor issues in the voluntary position on the national advisory White House. Biddle identified with the poor committee to the National Youth Administra- and unemployed, so he enthusiastically sup- tion (NYA) in 1935 that led the next year to a ported FDR and became a Democrat. full-time NYA job overseeing activities involv- He was born on May 9, 1886, in Paris, ing African Americans. She became director of France. His father, Algernon Sydney Biddle, a the Division of Negro Affairs in 1939. Eleanor law professor at the University of Pennsylva- Roosevelt and Bethune visited projects nia, sent his son to Haverford Academy, Gro- together, and both wrote newspaper and mag- ton Academy, and Harvard University. He azine columns. graduated cum laude from Harvard in 1909 Bethune remained the only African-Amer- and entered its law school, receiving his law ican woman with open access to the White degree in 1911. During the 1911–12 Supreme House. Until her health began to fail in the Court term, he acted as personal secretary to 1940s, she was as energetic and politically Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, who embodied active as the First Lady. She organized a group for Biddle a sense of noblesse oblige. He then of African Americans employed in the federal returned to Philadelphia and practiced law for government, and they became known as the a decade before serving a four-year term as spe- . The couple of dozen members cial assistant to the U.S. attorney for the East- all were male except for Bethune, who headed ern District of Pennsylvania. the group and held its meetings in her home. Biddle supported FDR in the 1932 presi- When the NYA was terminated in 1943, she dential campaign, and in 1934 Roosevelt became a special assistant to the secretary of appointed him chairman of the National Labor war and assistant director of the Women’s Relations Board. He returned to his legal prac- Army Corps, establishing its first officer-can- tice after a year but in 1938 returned to Wash- didate schools. ington, D.C., as the chief counsel for a Bethune died on May 18, 1955, in Day- congressional investigation of the Tennessee tona Beach, Florida. The federal government Valley Authority (TVA). The investigation dis- dedicated the Mary McLeod Bethune Memo- proved allegations of corruption and unfair rial Statue in Lincoln Park, across from the competition at the TVA, thus restoring its rep- Lincoln statue located there, on July 10, 1974. utation. In 1938 and 1939, he also served as a 20 Bilbo, Theodore Gilmore director and deputy chairman of the Federal Born in Juniper Grove, Mississippi, on Reserve Bank. October 13, 1877, the last year of Reconstruc- In return for his governmental service, tion, Bilbo was the son of poor farmers. He Biddle was appointed as a judge on the Third attended local public schools and later took Circuit of the U.S. Court of Appeals in courses at Peabody College, Vanderbilt Uni- Philadelphia in 1939 but gave up the lifetime versity, and the University of Michigan but appointment after only a year when he found never earned a degree. He taught school in the work too boring. Instead, he returned to Mississippi for two years and then attended the nation’s capital to become the U.S. solicitor Vanderbilt Law School. Although he did not general, and in this role he won all the New receive a degree, he was admitted to the Mis- Deal cases he argued before the Supreme sissippi state bar in 1907. In 1898, he married Court. In 1941, Biddle briefly headed the his first wife, who died two years later and left Immigration and Naturalization Service. him with an infant daughter. He remarried in After FDR named ROBERT JACKSON to the 1903 to Linda Gaddy Bedgood, and the couple Supreme Court in September 1941, he chose had one son. Their marriage was troubled, and Biddle to replace Jackson as the U.S. attorney in 1938 they finally divorced. Sex and political general. Despite his civil libertarian beliefs, scandals were recurring themes that emerged Biddle reluctantly approved the internment of early in Bilbo’s career. He sought political Japanese Americans in 1942 and the enforce- office the same year he remarried but lost his ment of the Alien Registration Act. He race for county clerk. expressed regret for both actions in his mem- Bilbo’s 40-year political career was a roller- oirs. After resigning as attorney general in June coaster of electoral defeats and victories. His 1945, he served on the international tribunal first electoral success came in 1907 when he for war criminals at Nuremberg. He died on won a four-year state senate seat. In 1911, he October 4, 1968, on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. ran for lieutenant governor, a race that saw the emergence of his propensity for rhetorical excess to compensate for his small stature and Bilbo, Theodore Gilmore poor background. He was easily elected gover- (1877–1947) U.S. senator nor in 1915 after a campaign that was pitched to the poor white tenant farmers and sharecrop- Economic populist and white supremacist pers in southern and northeastern Mississippi. Theodore Bilbo epitomized a substantial seg- He championed their interests against the rich ment of the Old South that Franklin Roosevelt Delta planters. During his governorship was forced to deal with during his presidency. (1916–20), Bilbo earned a progressive record Although Bilbo supported the New Deal, many for creating a new state tax commission and considered him an embarrassment to it as well obtaining more state appropriations for public as to the Democratic Party; the longer he education and state charitable institutions. served in office, the greater the embarrassment. Unable to succeed himself as governor, A Mississippi contemporary of HUEY LONG Bilbo ran unsuccessfully for Congress in 1918. from neighboring Louisiana, Bilbo came from He failed to recapture the governorship in an even more impoverished background and 1923 but won the 1927 governor’s race. The lacked Long’s political ambition. However, they state legislature blocked his reform plans, so shared the political tendency to base their his second term was not a success. Despite his appeals on economic rather than racial grounds. dismal second term as governor, he was elected Black, Hugo Lafayette 21 to the U.S. Senate in 1934. His first term (1935–41) coincided with the peak of the New Deal, and Bilbo proved himself a genuine devotee of FDR’s programs. He supported relief spending, social security, redistributive taxation, public power regulation, tenant reset- tlement, reorganization of the executive branch, and the controversial Court-packing plan. Through service on the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, he protected his rural supporters. The only significant legislation that he initiated established regional agricultural research laboratories that sought new uses for farm products. Just as his second gubernatorial term had been less successful than his first, Bilbo’s second term as senator was less successful than his first, despite his easy reelection in 1940 as a strong supporter of FDR. He was generally supportive of the president’s war policies, but he began to move from economic populism to entrench- ment of the country’s racial status quo. Race Justice Hugo Black (United States Supreme Court) became his central message as the national Democratic Party began to champion civil rights. He battled an antipoll tax and anti- relatively humble origins. Black’s path to the lynching legislation and obstructed the Fair education he needed to pursue the American Employment Practices Commission. Never- dream was blocked when he failed to graduate theless, his blatantly racist 1946 reelection cam- from high school after he had intervened to paign drew his largest electoral win but he was prevent a high school teacher from punishing plagued with scandals from it concerning con- his sister with a switch. However, his father left flict-of-interest charges and voting fraud. Soon an inheritance that Black used to attend medi- afterward, he was admitted in declining health cal school in Birmingham for a year. He then to the Ochsner’s Clinic in New Orleans and decided to change to the two-year University died there from cancer on August 21, 1947. of Alabama Law School at Tuscaloosa, which had only two faculty members and did not require an undergraduate degree. He received Black, Hugo Lafayette his law degree in 1906. (1886–1971) U.S. senator, U.S. Supreme Court Black became one of Birmingham’s most justice successful personal-injury attorneys, practicing law for 20 years. A perennial “joiner,” he was Hugo Black had a strong instinctive sense of active in many civic organizations and taught a justice, perhaps shaped by his storekeeper popular adult class at a Baptist church despite father’s misuse of alcohol. Born on February his own religious skepticism. Renowned for his 27, 1886, in Horton, Alabama, he came from charm and magnanimity, Black was a natural 22 Blum, Leon for elected office. He served as a part-time the Deep South on the high bench. The anti- police court judge before being elected in 1914 New Deal press, however, created a national as prosecutor for Alabama’s Jefferson County. scandal shortly after his confirmation by As a son of the South, he resigned that position uncovering evidence of Black’s Klan member- in 1917 to join the army during World War I. ship. On October 1, 1937, he was forced to He rose to the rank of captain in the 81st address the issue on the relatively new medium Artillery and served as adjutant of the 19th of radio, attracting one of the largest listening Artillery Brigade, never leaving the United audiences of that time. He acknowledged his States. After the war, he returned to Birming- past membership, promised to defend the ham to resume his legal practice. His marriage rights of all Americans, and asserted that since to Josephine Foster in 1921 cemented his con- his long-ago resignation, he had had no further nection to the Birmingham elite. association with the organization. The media Black also joined the Ku Klux Klan in crisis was dispelled. 1921 as a means of furthering his political FDR’s selection turned out to be among his ambition. The underdog in Alabama’s 1926 best, since scholars rank Black as one of the race for the U.S. Senate, he relied on his social dozen greatest justices in American history. connections and tireless energy to win a nar- Apart from supporting New Deal legislation, row victory in a three-man race in the Demo- he became one of the Court’s greatest civil lib- cratic primary, which assured he would win ertarians with his literal “absolutist” standard the fall election. His mistrust of big business for the Bill of Rights. He was unable to per- grew during the Herbert Hoover administra- suade the Court brethren to adopt his view of tion. In 1932, he won reelection after defeating the immediate total incorporation of the Bill of a former Alabama governor in the Democratic Rights on the basis of using the Fourteenth Party primary. Amendment to the states, but they ended up Aside from his opposition to antilynching doing so incrementally over his three decades proposals, Black became one of FDR’s staunch- on the high court. He agreed with the consti- est supporters from the South, even backing the tutional framers’ distrust of executive power as Supreme Court packing plan that would have well as with Alexis de Tocqueville’s warning expanded the court membership to gain consti- about “the tyranny of the majority” in a democ- tutional approval of the New Deal legislation. racy. Black’s bulwark against the abuses of He proved even more liberal than FDR by urg- power was the U.S. Constitution. It was his ing a 30-hour workweek instead of 40 hours. “constitutional faith,” and he always carried a Most impressive about Black’s Senate years is small paperback copy of it with him. He died on that he demonstrated his autodidactic nature by September 25, 1971, in Bethesda, Maryland. using Library of Congress resources to com- pensate for his lack of a liberal arts education. Through constant reading, he developed a deep Blum, Leon appreciation of the U.S. Constitution that (1872–1950) French premier would manifest itself during the next and final stage of his career. Leon Blum, the first Jewish premier of France, In August 1937 Black became FDR’s first helped create the modern French Socialist nominee to the U.S. Supreme Court. He was Party. Born on April 9, 1872, near the German confirmed by a vote of 63 to 13, despite the border, he was educated at the prestigious reservations of liberals about putting a native of École Normale Supérieure in Paris and gradu- Bohlen, Charles Eustic 23 ated with the highest honors at the Sorbonne, Bohlen, Charles Eustic where he received his legal education. (1904–1974) adviser to the president on Soviet Following the dramatic and notorious anti- affairs; chief, Division of Eastern European Semitic Dreyfus affair in 1898 during the Affairs, U.S. State Department Third Republic, which led to the 1905 separa- tion of church and state, Blum joined the Charles Bohlen was born on August 30, 1904, in Socialist Party and was first elected in 1919 to Clayton, New York. His mother was from a the Chamber of Deputies, the French legisla- prominent New Orleans family, and he spent ture. A split between the Socialists and the his early years in the South before moving to the Communists in 1920 led to his rebuilding the North, from where he made frequent visits to Socialists and editing its publication Le Popu- Europe. His family background and accommo- laire. Defeated in the 1928 election, he was dating, pleasant personality combined to pro- returned to the Chamber of Deputies in the duce one of the nation’s key diplomats whose 1932 election at the same time that Franklin career spanned the Roosevelt, Truman, Eisen- Roosevelt was elected to the White House. hower, Kennedy, and Johnson administrations. Both politicians faced similar problems in their Bohlen graduated in 1927 from Harvard, nations after the worldwide Great Depression. where he had majored in European history, and Challenged by a resurgent right wing in in 1929 he joined the U.S. State Department. the early 1930s, Blum built the Popular Front, His initial service assignment was in Prague, fol- which was a coalition of socialists, radicals, and lowed by Russian language training and time in others opposed to fascism. His coalition won Estonia. Following the Roosevelt administra- the 1936 election, and he was elected premier. tion’s recognition of the Soviet government in Massive sit-down strikes in France, which 1933, Bohlen was sent to the new American influenced similar strikes at General Motors in embassy in Moscow. This was followed by his the United States, were the impetus for Blum assignment to the Washington, D.C., office of to launch his equivalent of the New Deal. His the undersecretary of state and the Division of government began a 40-hour workweek and Eastern European Affairs. In 1938, he returned recognized the right of workers to bargain col- to Moscow, and the next year he learned from a lectively. Concerned with BENITO MUSSOLINI German colleague about an impending Ger- and ADOLF HITLER’s foreign threat, the gov- man-Soviet rapprochement. The information ernment also nationalized the nation’s defense reached Secretary of State CORDELL HULL, who industries and the Bank of France. Unfortu- shared it with the British and French to no avail. nately, these measures produced a backlash After Bohlen was selected as FDR’s inter- from business and the Right, and the legisla- preter at the Tehran conference in November ture failed to grant him emergency powers to 1943, HARRY HOPKINS, special assistant to the deal with the depression. The political center president, made him chief of the Division of failed, and Blum resigned. Eastern European Affairs in the State Depart- After the Nazis invaded France in 1940, ment. He was uniquely situated by background Blum was put on trial by the Vichy govern- and personality to act as liaison between FDR ment for “war guilt”; he was exonerated, only and Hull, and he served again as FDR’s inter- to be put in a Nazi concentration camp, preter at the Yalta Conference in February which the American military liberated in 1945. After FDR’s death, Bohlen played a sim- 1945. He died on March 30, 1950, in Jouy- ilar role for HARRY S. TRUMAN at the Potsdam en-Josas, France. Conference (July–August 1945). President 24 Borah, William Edgar

Dwight Eisenhower appointed him ambas- and politically. His entrance into national pol- sador to the Soviet Union in 1953. President itics began when he joined the colorful Silver John Kennedy recruited Bohlen as an adviser Republicans, who had deserted the Republican during the Cuban missile crisis, and he again Party to support another great actor and ora- rendered useful service. Bohlen retired from tor, Williams Jennings Bryan, in his 1896 pop- the State Department in early 1969 and died ulist presidential crusade. Borah’s split with on January 1, 1974, in Long Beach, California. Republican Party regulars resulted in his fail- ure to win a seat in the U.S. House of Repre- sentatives and his subsequent failure to win a Borah, William Edgar Senate seat in 1902. After he returned to the (1865–1940) U.S. senator Republican Party fold, however, in 1907 the state legislature elected him to the U.S. Senate, It is generally considered that William Borah where he served until his death. was a better actor than statesman or political Borah’s idiosyncratic behavior was thinker. Defying his father’s desire that he reflected in his voting in the Senate. After bat- become a minister, Borah instead became an tling corporate interests, he voted against itinerant Shakespearean actor before becoming THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s efforts to regulate a flamboyant attorney and finally a nationally them. He defended civil liberties during World known senator who was often as inconsistent in War I when the Woodrow Wilson administra- his policy choices as he had been in his career tion massively violated them, but he showed choices. The constant in his life was his love of less concern for civil rights. At the same time being both literally and figuratively “on stage,” that he wanted to limit the federal govern- and he courted the media in his myriad politi- ment’s power, he supported the Prohibition cal battles. amendment regardless of the preferences of Borah was born on June 29, 1865, in individual states. Despite these and other Jasper, Illinois. His failure to follow through on inconsistencies like having a child with Alice his rhetorical battles may have resulted from Roosevelt Longworth, his seemingly maverick his episodic education. He failed to graduate party behavior and oratorical gifts made him from either high school or college; poor health one of the best-known progressives of the era. and lack of financial resources forced him to Borah’s behavior during the Franklin Roo- leave the University of Kansas after one year. sevelt presidency was similarly mixed. He sup- Rather than pursue a formal education, he read ported New Deal relief legislation for the law and passed the bar exam in 1887. For the unemployed and pensions for the elderly but next three years, he practiced law with his fought the National Industrial Recovery Act. brother-in-law. He then headed for the West Presidential ambitions always colored his Coast, but he ran out of money in Boise, Idaho, actions. In 1939 he declared his candidacy for and stayed there. the White House but failed to capture the At the same time that he became recog- Republican nomination. nized as a criminal lawyer in a frontier state, Borah had regretted his support for the Borah improvised his political career. By 1892, United States’s entry into World War I and he was chairman of Idaho’s Republican State had joined opposition in the Senate to block Central Committee. After briefly serving as the the United States from joining the League of governor’s secretary, he married the governor’s Nations. His influence had increased when he daughter, a move that advanced him socially became chairman of the Senate Foreign Rela- Bourke-White, Margaret 25 tions Committee in December 1924. He came riage to a graduate student dissolved within a to believe that political violence around the short time. She attended several universities world reflected the aspirations of other nations before she graduated in 1927 from Cornell to determine their own fate, as the United University with a degree in biology. States had done. Therefore he supported HENRY LUCE was attracted to Bourke- FDR’s recognition of the Soviet Union in 1933 White’s work on steel mills in Cleveland, as well as the president’s “Good Neighbor” where her mother then lived, and he invited policy toward Latin America. Still, his aversion her to join his new publishing venture, For- to foreign entanglements led Borah to back tune. She was an associate editor and its first neutrality legislation to block Roosevelt’s desire photographer from 1929 to 1933. Her free- to sell arms on a “cash and carry” basis. After lance work appeared in Vanity Fair from 1932 Nazi Germany’s invasion of Poland in Septem- to 1937. Meanwhile, Luce created a new pub- ber 1939, Congress ignored Borah’s advice. He lication, Life, and he hired Bourke-White as died on January 19, 1940, in Washington, D.C. one of the magazine’s four original photogra- phers. The other three Life photographers were Alfred Eisenstaedt, Thomas McAvoy, and Bourke-White, Margaret Peter Stackpole. When the magazine pre- (1904–1971) photojournalist miered in November 1936, the cover photo- graph of Fort Peck Dam in Montana was One of the pioneering female photojournalists Bourke-White’s. During the more than 25 of the 1930s, 1940s, and beyond, Margaret years that she was associated with Fortune and Bourke-White preserved the history of her era Life, Bourke-White photographed world lead- through her compelling visual legacy. Because ers who included Franklin Roosevelt, WIN- of her career successes, she became one of the STON CHURCHILL, and JOSEPH STALIN. best-known women in mid-20th century In 1934, Bourke-White worked with America. During the same male-dominated JAMES AGEE to record drought conditions in journalistic era when LORENA HICKOK became the United States. For readers of Fortune, she the first woman reporter hired by the Associ- graphically depicted the ruin wrought by the ated Press, Margaret Bourke-White became Dust Bowl on farm families who had lost the first photographer at Fortune magazine and everything. She worked with novelist ERSKINE then one of the original photographers at Life. CALDWELL to convey the story of impover- Through the lens of her camera, she witnessed ished southern sharecroppers in the book You history unfolding and documented it with pho- Have Seen Their Faces (1937). By 1939, she and tographs of the political leaders who were Caldwell were married, but they divorced three shaping it. Her camera also captured the plight years later. Despite their personal differences, of Dust Bowl farmers and inmates in Nazi con- the couple had a successful professional collab- centration camps in stark images. oration. Their 1939 book North of the Danube Born on June 14, 1904, in New York City, recalled Czechoslovakia before the Nazi Margaret Bourke-White was the daughter of takeover. Next they offered a panorama of amateur photographer Joseph White and America entitled Say, Is This the U.S.A.? (1941). teacher Minnie Bourke. Her father died when During World War II, Bourke-White she was 17, but he already had instilled in her again broke boundaries for women. The first not only his interest in photography but also in female photographer attached to the U.S. Air industrial and architectural life. Her early mar- Force, she covered the Nazi bombardment of 26 Bowers, Claude Gernade

Moscow and the 1945 liberation of the inmates torial writer for the Fort Wayne Journal- of Buchenwald by General GEORGE PATTON. Gazette, a position he held for six years. He had Although she developed Parkinson’s disease, already begun pursuing a career as a historian she continued to work for Life until 1957 but while working in journalism. His first work, did not resign until 1969. She died in Stam- The Irish Orators (1916), was followed two years ford, Connecticut, on August 27, 1971. later by a biography of his former boss, Sena- tor Kern. He then turned to his hero Thomas Jefferson, ultimately publishing a trio of works Bowers, Claude Gernade about him. In 1922 he published The Party Bat- (1878–1958) journalist, speechwriter, U.S. tles of the Jackson Period, followed three years ambassador to Spain and to Chile later by Jefferson and Hamilton and, in 1929, The Tragic Era: The Revolution after Lincoln. Born on November 20, 1878, in Westfield, In 1923, Bowers moved to New York City, Indiana, Claude Gernade Bowers was the son where he joined the editorial staff of New York of a storekeeper father and dressmaker mother. World and gained greater national attention. Reared in rural central Indiana, he moved to Throughout the decade, his books and columns Indianapolis at age 13 following his parents’ established his reputation as a scholar of the divorce. The year he graduated from Indi- Democratic Party. He viewed the political world anapolis High School, he won a state oratorical as a struggle between Hamiltonian elitism for competition. Lack of funds prevented him the few and Jeffersonian democracy for the from attending college, and he began working many. He blamed radical Republicans for hurt- for the publishing firm that later became ing the South during Reconstruction. As a result Bobbs-Merrill. of his defense of the Democratic Party, he deliv- He launched his career in journalism in ered the major address at the 1928 Jackson Day 1900 as chief editorialist for the Sentinel, the Dinner in Washington, D.C., which led to his Indianapolis daily that aligned with the Demo- invitation to be keynote speaker at the 1928 cratic Party. Three years later, Bowers, an Democratic National Convention. energetic individual with a gift for expressing In 1931, Bowers began writing editorials himself both in print and orally, became an edi- for New York City’s Evening Journal, which torialist for newspapers in Terre Haute, where distributed his columns to other newspapers he also served on the city’s Board of Public owned by WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST.He Works. He ran unsuccessfully for elective also served on occasion as speechwriter for AL office as a Democrat in 1904 and 1906. His SMITH, ROBERT F. WAGNER, and Franklin move to Washington, D.C., came in 1911 Roosevelt, for whom he campaigned in 1932. when U.S. senator John W. Kern appointed That same year, he wrote another biography, him as his secretary. That same year, Bowers this time on Albert J. Beveridge, the Indiana married Sybil McCaslin of Indianapolis; the Republican. couple had one child. In 1933, FDR appointed Bowers as U.S. Bowers worked closely with the influential ambassador to Spain, and he made efforts to Kern, who was the first Democratic Party whip improve trade between the two countries. Dur- in the Senate. Kern’s job was to guide ing the Spanish civil war (1936–39), Bowers Woodrow Wilson’s New Freedom legislation sympathized with the Loyalists defending the through the Senate. Following Kern’s defeat Spanish Republic against the rebel forces of in 1917, Bowers returned to Indiana as an edi- General FRANCISCO FRANCO.FDR failed to Brandeis, Louis Dembitz 27 support pleas by ELEANOR ROOSEVELT and supporter of the New Deal who had begun Bowers to allow the Spanish Republic to buy working with ELEANOR ROOSEVELT in the arms; instead, the United States remained neu- 1930s, Bowles accepted an offer in 1942 from tral. After the fall of the Loyalist government, the governor of Connecticut to become state Bowers was made U.S. ambassador to Chile, director of the newly established Office of where he helped to persuade the Chilean gov- Price Administration (OPA). He soon came to ernment to sever relations with the Axis powers the attention of Franklin Roosevelt, who in 1943. He continued to serve in Chile after appointed him director of the national OPA in World War II until DWIGHT EISENHOWER was November 1943. Bowles served in that capac- elected in 1952. Bowers then resigned from the ity until 1946. During his tenure, he managed Foreign Service and returned to New York, to contain inflation and built both public sup- continuing to work with Eleanor Roosevelt and port and congressional backing for fiscal disci- write accounts of his diplomatic service abroad. pline during World War II. He died in New York City on January 21, 1958. In the postwar period, Bowles served briefly as director of the newly established Office of Economic Stabilization for President Bowles, Chester Bliss HARRY S. TRUMAN.He resigned, however, after (1901–1986) head, Office of Price Administration Congress refused to extend the price controls that he wanted. He returned to Connecticut Born on April 5, 1901, into an affluent Spring- and served as U.S. ambassador to India from field, Massachusetts, business family, Chester 1951 to 1953 and again from 1963 to 1969. He Bowles attended exclusive prep schools in Con- was elected governor of Connecticut in 1953 necticut and then followed in the footsteps of and served until 1956. For a short while in his father and brother by enrolling in Yale Uni- 1961, he was undersecretary of state. versity. Although he was more interested in In the mid-1960s, Bowles developed Parkin- social and athletic college pursuits than aca- son’s disease. He died on May 25, 1986, in Essex, demics, he graduated in 1924. He first worked Connecticut. briefly at his family’s newspaper, the Spring- field Republican, founded by his grandfather in the mid-19th century. Restless and energetic, Brandeis, Louis Dembitz he soon moved to New York, where he worked (Louis David Brandeis) in a top advertising agency until 1929, when he (1856–1941) U.S. Supreme Court justice and a fellow Yale alumnus founded their own agency, Benson and Bowles. Despite the Great Born on November 13, 1856, Louis Brandeis Depression, by the mid-1930s their advertising grew up in Louisville, Kentucky. His parents agency had become the sixth largest in the were nonpracticing Jews who had fled Europe nation. Bowles helped to pioneer the use of after the failed Austrian uprising of 1848. As a consumer surveys in market research. teenager, Brandeis changed his middle name Married in 1925, Bowles and his first wife from David in honor of his abolitionist lawyer had two children before they divorced in 1933. uncle. His parents moved from Louisville to The next year he married Dorothy Stebbins, Boston, Massachusetts, and after the Civil with whom he had three children. His busi- War, in 1875, he entered Harvard Law School; ness success made him a multimillionaire, and his superlative academic performance there set he left his advertising firm in 1941. A strong a record. 28 Bricker, John William

Brandeis graduated in 1877 and a year later unsympathetic to both big business and big began practicing law in St. Louis, but he government. He convinced the Court to stop missed the intellectual environment of Har- striking down economic regulation while vard so much that he returned to Boston in offering protection to free speech and even a 1879. There he set up a law practice and helped right to privacy. Often referring to FDR as to create both the Harvard Law School Alumni “Isaiah,” Brandeis was pleased that the presi- Association and the Harvard Law Review. His dent picked WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS as his suc- practice increasingly moved in the direction of cessor on the Court. He died on October 5, public matters, and he became known as “the 1941, in Washington, D.C. people’s attorney.” Opposing the concentration of power both in business and in government, he came to view unions as necessary to balance Bricker, John William the power of corporations and the need for (1893–1986) Ohio governor, Republican individuals to have leisure in their lives for rea- vice-presidential candidate, U.S. senator sons of both health and opportunity to exercise their civic responsibilities. Born to farmer parents in Madison County, Brandeis’s focus on sociological jurispru- Ohio, on September 6, 1893, John Bricker dence—law being based on the needs of soci- graduated from Ohio State University in 1916. ety—is illustrated in what became known as He was ordained as a minister so that he could the Brandeis brief, which meant going beyond serve as a U.S. Army chaplain during World case-law precedents and using data to support War I. Following his military service, he con- one’s legal position. During his support of tinued his studies and received a law degree Woodrow Wilson’s presidential candidacy in from Ohio State in 1920, then began his law 1912, he became one of the architects of the practice in Columbus. The tall, handsome president’s New Freedom program designed young attorney married Harriet Day, with to regulate the excesses of big businesses. In whom he had one child. return, Wilson nominated him to the Bricker, a conservative, gravitated toward Supreme Court in 1916. Despite the most local Republican politics immediately after intense confirmation battle ever waged by receiving his law degree. He was appointed as conservatives to block a trust-busting people’s solicitor for Grandview Heights, Ohio, serving attorney, including former president William from 1920 to 1928. He concurrently served as Howard Taft, Brandeis was confirmed, assistant attorney general from 1923 to 1927. becoming the first Jew to sit on America’s From 1929 to 1932, he held an appointment to high court. the Ohio Public Utilities Commission. Dur- During most of his 23-year tenure as a ing those years he traveled widely throughout Supreme Court justice, Brandeis’s views were Ohio, building a base of voter support. in the minority. Although he was much more Bricker sought office for the first time in a Wilsonian than a New Dealer, he supported 1928 when he ran unsuccessfully for state FDR’s programs overall since he also practiced attorney general. Four years later, however, he judicial restraint in deferring to the elected was elected as attorney general and reelected in branches of government. In the political 1934. He insisted on a literal view of the Con- world, he relied on FELIX FRANKFURTER,one stitution in law enforcement. In 1936, Bricker of his disciples, to promote his preferred eco- ran for the Ohio governorship and lost, but nomic and labor reforms. Brandeis was two years later, he was elected during the Bridges, Harry Renton 29 period of public backlash over Franklin Roo- Bridges, Harry Renton sevelt’s Supreme Court packing plan. His polit- (Alfred Renton Bridges) ical platform was founded on strong opposition (1901–1990) union leader to the New Deal and its expanding federal bureaucracy. He instead advocated for state Harry Bridges was born Alfred Renton Bridges and local governments, believing that the states in Melbourne, Australia, on July 28, 1901. His should have control over unemployment relief, father was a real estate agent, and his mother, minimum wages, and retirement provisions. who was of Irish descent, was a shopkeeper. As He also opposed federal support for organized a teenager, he began to refer to himself as labor. Bricker won reelection 1940 and 1942. Harry, the name of an uncle who was a social- Bricker was an isolationist in world affairs, and ist trade unionist, and in time the name became while his success was due in part to his reputa- permanent. Bridges dropped out of school after tion for honesty, it also was due, ironically, to 10th grade to become a merchant seaman. By the economic prosperity that accompanied 1920 he had emigrated to the United States U.S. involvement in World War II. and was employed as a seaman and dock As a conventional conservative from the worker. He first joined the Sailors’ Union of Midwest who had a successful electoral record, the Pacific (SUP) in San Francisco. The next Bricker sought the Republican presidential year, he participated in the national seaman’s nomination in both 1940 and 1944. In 1944, strike and briefly became a “Wobblie”—a after the national convention selected New member of the Industrial Workers of the York governor THOMAS DEWEY instead, World (IWW). Bridges then became active in Dewey picked Bricker to be his running mate. the local chapter of the International Long- Bricker was one of the first national Republi- shoremen’s Association (ILA), joining a radical cans to attempt to tie FDR and the entire wing called “Albion Hall,” which took its name Democratic Party to labor and communists; from a local street. During these years, he had however, he and Dewey lost the election. In a daughter with Agnes Brown, whom he finally 1944, he also lost his reelection bid for the married in 1934. Ohio governorship to Democrat Frank J. A decade later, the radicals organized a Lausche. wildcat strike against the established “Blue Although his election efforts in 1944 Book” union that was controlled by the Water- failed, two years later Bricker was elected to front Employers Association (WEA). In 1934, the U.S. Senate, where he quickly aligned the ILA’s local unions along the entire West himself with the conservative Republicans, Coast sought a contract. After waterfront including Wisconsin senator Joseph McCarthy. employers refused, a strike spread from the In the early 1950s, he became associated with longshoremen to the seafaring unions. Bridges an amendment carrying his name that would was elected chairman of his local’s strike com- have required congressional approval of exec- mittee and soon gained notoriety. He refused a utive agreements. Only the combined oppo- bribe from employers and opposed the leader- sition of President DWIGHT EISENHOWER ship of the ILA. By early May 1934, more than and liberal Democrats defeated it. Bricker 12,000 dockworkers had closed down every was defeated when he sought a third Senate West Coast port except Los Angeles. The shut- term in 1958. He returned to private law down continued, and on July 5, San Francisco practice in Columbus, Ohio, and died there police attacked the strikers and California’s on March 22, 1986. governor called out the National Guard. As the 30 Broun, Heywood

situation escalated, on July 16, the ILA per- After FDR transferred oversight of the suaded other unions to shut down the city for INS from the Labor Department to the Justice four days. With most economic activity termi- Department, U.S. Attorney General ROBERT nated, both sides agreed to arbitration, which JACKSON asked the FBI to investigate Bridges. resulted in a victory for the longshoremen, who This time, in 1941, the INS found against on July 26 received most of their demands Bridges. Bridges appealed, and in Bridges v. from the WEA. Wixon (1945) the U.S. Supreme Court Bridges rode the strike to the presidency of reversed the INS ruling. Bridges completed his Local 38-79 and then to the presidency of the naturalization process later that year. The next entire Pacific Coast District. Within three year, he married Nancy Feinstein Berdecio; the years, he led the Pacific Coast District of the couple had two children before they divorced ILA out of the American Federation of Labor in 1953. union to form the more radical International Bridges continued his activism throughout Longshoremen’s and Warehousemen’s Union the postwar period. The CIO expelled both (ILWU), which then affiliated with the Bridges and the ILWU in 1948 for support of Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). HENRY WALLACE’s presidential bid. The next He became the first ILWU president in 1937 year the federal government tried to prove that and served until 1977. JOHN L. LEWIS, the CIO Bridges was a communist. Once again, the U.S. president, appointed Bridges as the CIO west- Supreme Court overturned the case in Bridges ern regional director in 1937, the same year v. U.S. (1953). that Bridges appeared on the front cover of Bridges married his third and final wife, Time magazine. During his entire tenure as Noriko Sawada, in 1958 and had one child. He ILWU president, Bridges’s salary never died in San Francisco on March 30, 1990. exceeded a longshoreman’s wages. As a national labor leader, Bridges was involved in a series of court cases, and the sig- Broun, Heywood nificant pressure on him affected his personal (Matthew Heywood Campbell Broun) life and health. Stress caused by his activities (1888–1939) journalist resulted not only in his divorce but also in ulcers. In Bridges v. California (1941), the Born Matthew Heywood Campbell Broun on Supreme Court upheld his First Amendment December 7, 1888, in Brooklyn, New York, right to criticize a court order involving mem- Heywood Broun was raised in Manhattan in a bers of the ILA in Los Angeles. His sympathy comfortable lifestyle. His father was an immi- toward the Communist Party prompted oppo- grant Scots businessman, and his mother was nents’ calls for his deportation. By 1939, Sec- from a prosperous German-American family. retary of Labor FRANCES PERKINS had been Broun graduated from the elitist Horace Mann drawn into the controversy, and she asked the School in 1906 and subsequently entered Har- Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), vard University, but he failed to graduate due which was within the Labor Department, to to his passions for poker, baseball, and the the- determine if Bridges could be deported. After ater. Physically imposing, he was 6’4” tall and the INS stated that he could not, the U.S. weighed more than 275 pounds. He was known House of Representatives passed legislation in for his careless dress and his tendency to act June 1940 that ordered his deportation, but the emotionally during alternating periods of great Senate killed the bill. energy and laziness. Browder, Earl Russell 31

Broun was a talented writer who loved to Mexican divorce from him in 1933, the couple drink. He landed his first job as a reporter with remained good friends until her death the next the New York Morning Telegraph and worked year. After her death, Broun married a widow, there from 1910 to 1912. He next worked at Maria Incoronata Fruscella, and adopted her the New York Tribune, where he was a reporter, nine-year-old daughter. sportswriter, and, finally, drama critic. After In 1935, Broun started writing a column serving as a war correspondent during World for the New Republic, a liberal magazine. In War I, he returned to the Tribune and in 1919 1938, his radical political views led to his sub- became the paper’s literary editor, pioneering poena to appear before the House Un-Ameri- the signed syndicated column. In 1921, he can Activities Committee, falsely accused of moved to the New York World, where his liberal associating with communists, if not actually column “It Seems to Me” elevated him to the being one. The next year the World-Telegram, ranks of the nation’s most highly regarded which had been created by a 1931 merger journalists. between the World and the Telegram, did not Broun became one of the most passionate renew his contract. Broun was forced to find defenders of Sacco and Vanzetti, the immigrant another newspaper and moved to the New York anarchists accused of murder in 1927. The Post at a substantial cut in pay. At the Post, he World temporarily suspended his column, wrote only one column before his death from which prompted him to attack it in the more pneumonia on December 18, 1939. radical Nation magazine. The World fired him the next year, and Broun moved to the New York Telegram. His columns became increas- Browder, Earl Russell ingly political, and he ran for the U.S. House (1891–1973) Communist Party presidential of Representatives as a Socialist in 1930. He candidate not only lost, he also split the Democratic vote, resulting in a narrow victory for the Republi- The son of an elementary schoolteacher father can incumbent. and homemaker mother, Earl Browder was In 1933, Broun helped to found the Amer- born on May 20, 1891, in Wichita, Kansas. His ican Newspaper Guild, the first national orga- boyhood was shaped by extreme poverty and nization of editorialists. He was elected as its political activism. He was forced to drop out of first president and held that nonpaid position elementary school and go to work to help sup- until his death. He guided the guild’s transfor- port his parents and five siblings after his father mation from a professional association to a suffered a nervous breakdown. By 1906, he was modern industrial union and then worked for an accountant as well as a member of the its affiliation with the American Federation of Socialist Party. He married his childhood Labor (AFL), which occurred in 1936, and for sweetheart in 1911, and the following year they the broader inclusion of workers in the union. moved to Kansas City, Kansas, and they had a In 1937, he helped to engineer the guild’s child. switch from the AFL to the more radical Browder found a political cause in 1917 Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). with his nonviolent resistance to the United Broun had married feminist Ruth Hale in States’s participation in World War I. By the 1917, and the couple had a son, Heywood Hale end of the year, he had been jailed for defiance Broun. Hale helped her spouse produce some of the Selective Service System. He transferred of his best work, and even after she obtained a in July 1919 to Leavenworth Penitentiary in 32 Brownlow, Louis

Kansas and remained incarcerated there until views to fit the Comitern’s directive that called November 1920. It was his actual imprison- for a popular front in Western democracies to ment during the Russian Revolution that trans- prevent fascism. formed him into a Bolshevik communist. His After William Z. Foster suffered a heart transformation took place in much the same attack during the 1932 presidential election way as reading Anton Chekhov’s short story campaign and fell from Moscow’s favor, Brow- “Ward No. 6” propelled Vladimir Lenin—the der became the CPUSA candidate in the 1936 father of the Russian Revolution—into politi- and 1940 elections. He spoke on national radio cal action in 1917, following the execution of in 1936 and in 1938 appeared on the front his older brother by the czar while his sister cover of Time magazine. However, he won was being treated in a tuberculosis sanitarium. fewer than 100,000 votes in each of those pres- When Browder was released from prison, idential elections. He was imprisoned in the he deserted his family to move to New York Atlantic Penitentiary for 14 months in 1941–42 City and become a full-time member of the for passport fraud. After the United States Communist Party of the USA (CPUSA). For entered World War II and joined the Soviet half a dozen years, he was associated with Union’s effort to fight ADOLF HITLER, the fed- William Z. Foster, head of Chicago’s Trade eral government halted its persecution of the Union Educational League (TUEL); Foster Communist Party. FDR pardoned Browder by had joined the Communist Party at the same commuting his sentence on May 16, 1942. time as Browder. Browder edited TUEL’s Browder’s second imprisonment had a paper, the Labor Herald, until 1926, when he largely negative impact on his personality, espe- broke with Foster and became a devoted fol- cially after the U.S. government’s about-face, lower of JOSEPH STALIN.He made several vis- welcoming him to the nation’s capital to discuss its to the Soviet Union between 1934 and 1943 foreign policy with , the and developed close ties to Georgi Dimitrov, undersecretary of state, on several occasions in the leader of the Comitern (Communist Inter- 1942–43. Like Stalin, Browder began to nur- national), the organization of communist par- ture an exaggerated “cult of the personality” ties worldwide. During this time, he had an among his followers, who thought that by 1944 affair with Raissa Luganovskaya, a legal scholar he could lead them into a coalition with the who subsequently moved to the United States New Deal. However, following Hitler’s defeat, to live with Browder. The couple eventually the Soviet-American alliance crumbled, and had three children. Browder was quickly deposed by his party. He Browder served briefly in China in the late was expelled from the CPUSA in February 1946 1920s as head of the Pan-Pacific Trade Union without ever gaining reinstatement. He died on Secretariat, but he returned to the United June 27, 1973, in Princeton, New Jersey, where States to battle for control of the divided Com- he had lived with his youngest son’s family. munist Party, which he gained by 1932. Two years later, he was made the party’s general sec- retary. The CPUSA began to organize the Brownlow, Louis unemployed and staged hunger marches and (1879–1963) chair, President’s Committee on demonstrations to demand congressional pas- Administrative Management sage of workers unemployment insurance. Although Browder personally advocated over- Louis Brownlow was born on August 26, 1879, throw of the U.S. government, he modified his in Buffalo, Missouri. Due to childhood ill- Brownlow, Louis 33 nesses, he was taught at home by his Ozark mittee and a conservative who wanted to abol- parents, who were former teachers. His early ish aspects of the New Deal, took similar action interest in reading and writing led him initially in the House. to a career in journalism. For 15 years he A seasoned journalist used to deadlines, worked for newspapers in Tennessee and was a Brownlow acted fast. He and Gulick presented foreign correspondent also for a syndicated their draft findings to FDR by mid-November newsletter. Through his years in Tennessee, he 1936, in keeping with the December final became a longtime friend of Democratic con- report date. The Brownlow Committee report gressman JOSEPH BYRNS. called for strengthening the executive branch Brownlow’s career changed course when in five ways: (1) enlarging the president’s staff President Woodrow Wilson appointed him as by adding individuals who had a “passion for a commissioner of the District of Columbia anonymity”; (2) expanding the merit system; (1915–20). This developed his interest and (3) improving fiscal management; (4) creating a expertise in city government, which led to his permanent planning agency; and (5) adding becoming city manager of Petersburg, Vir- two additional cabinet posts and including ginia, in 1920; he later held a similar position in agencies and independent commissions within Knoxville, Tennessee. In 1931, Brownlow the executive branch. Overall, the report called became founding director of the Public for the president to have managerial power Administration Clearinghouse in Chicago, Illi- commensurate with his developing role as the nois, an agency funded by John D. Rockefeller chief executive of the largest bureaucracy in that provided governmental advice; he held the the world. position until the end of World War II. On January 8, 1937, FDR informed the In response to a request from former pro- cabinet and congressional leaders of the gressive Republican CHARLES E. MERRIAM,a report’s contents, and on January 11, he held a pioneering American political scientist and news conference about it. Congressional hear- cofounder of the Public Administration Clear- ings began in mid-February. Unfortunately, as inghouse, Brownlow drafted a page-long with his Supreme Court packing plan, FDR memo on what might be needed to improve made tactical errors by not asking members of the president’s managerial role during the New Congress for suggestions and for having main- Deal. Subsequently, he met with FDR in early tained total secrecy while the Brownlow Com- 1936 and agreed to chair the President’s Com- mittee prepared its findings. His judgment mittee on Administrative Management, popu- errors were compounded when he introduced larly known as the Brownlow Committee. The the report almost simultaneously with the other committee members were Merriam and highly controversial Court-packing plan. FDR LUTHER GULICK.The committee faced a focused on the Supreme Court battle and pressing nine-month deadline to assemble turned over the Brownlow legislation to his son staff, conduct its research, and prepare its find- James. ings. The president’s action was meant partly Left to fend for himself in getting legisla- to counter congressional initiatives already tion passed to implement the report recom- under way to reorganize executive agencies. mendations, Brownlow suffered a heart attack Senator HARRY F. BYRD (D-Va.) had already on May 31, 1937. Fortunately, his heart attack convened such a committee in the Senate, and was not fatal, like the one his friend House Congressman James P. Buchanan (D-Tex.), Speaker Joseph Byrns had suffered the previous chairman of the House Appropriations Com- year or the one that had killed majority leader 34 Buck, Pearl Sydenstricker

JOSEPH ROBINSON later in the summer amid College in Lynchburg, Virginia, in 1904. She the stress of dealing with New Deal legislation. married John Lossing Buck in 1917, and in the With Brownlow sidelined, however, conserva- early 1920s she began teaching English at sev- tive opponents labeled the Brownlow bill as a eral Chinese colleges. While on a year’s leave call for executive dictatorship. The reorganiza- of absence, she earned an M.A. degree in tion bill was finally defeated by a narrow mar- English from Cornell University in 1926 and gin in 1938. Opponents leading the defeat were then went back to China, but in the early 1930s Senators Harry Byrd and JAMES F. BYRNES. she returned permanently to the United States. FDR may have lost the battle, as he did She divorced her first husband in 1934 and with the Court-packing plan, but he mostly subsequently married Richard Walsh, presi- won the executive war the next year. Facing dent of the John Day Company, publisher of World War II, Congress passed the Reorgani- The Good Earth. During World War II, she zation Act of 1939, which began to enact what wrote radio plays for the Office of War Infor- Brownlow had recommended. It institutional- mation that were broadcast to China. They ized the modern presidency and, in doing so, were meant to mobilize support for the Chi- permitted the abuses of the Watergate and the nese. Buck died on March 6, 1973, in Danby, Iran-contra affairs in the 1970s and 1980s as Vermont. later administrations violated most of what Brownlow had intended. He died on Septem- ber 28, 1963, in Arlington, Virginia. Bullitt, William Christian (1891–1967) special assistant to the secretary of state, ambassador to the USSR and to France Buck, Pearl Sydenstricker (1892–1973) American novelist, Office of War Born into a wealthy old-line Philadelphia fam- Information writer ily on January 25, 1891, William Bullitt attended DeLancey Preparatory School and A prolific and popular writer in the United then went to Yale University, where he edited States and abroad, Pearl Buck received the 1938 Nobel Prize in Literature, in large part for her best-known novel, The Good Earth (1931), an international best seller that had won a Pulitzer Prize in 1932. Both the book and the film version of 1937 presented a sym- pathetic picture of struggling Chinese peasants that allowed Western readers to identify with their triumph over a harsh economic struggle. It made China real for a generation of Ameri- cans and heavily influenced their view of China, creating sympathy after the Japanese invasion there in the 1930s. Buck was born Pearl Sydenstricker on June 26, 1892, to Presbyterian missionaries in Roosevelt says good-bye to William C. Bullitt, China. After an early education in China, she ambassador to the Soviet Union. (Library of graduated from Randolph-Macon Woman’s Congress) Bullitt, William Christian 35 the campus newspaper. After his graduation in and in 1936, FDR appointed Bullitt ambas- 1913, at the insistence of his lawyer father, he sador to France. Bullitt, who correctly forecast enrolled in Harvard Law School. However, ADOLF HITLER’s aggressive intentions, after his father’s death in 1914, he immediately remained in this post until the surrender of switched to a career in foreign affairs. By the France in 1940. end of that same year, he had become a foreign During World War II, Bullitt supported correspondent for the Philadelphia Public FDR’s foreign policy. However, he urged FDR Ledger, and he covered HENRY FORD’s idealistic to fire Undersecretary of State SUMNER 1915 peace crusade to end World War I. WELLES, with whom he had been engaged in a During World War I, Bullitt was appointed long feud. When the conflict was leaked to the to the State Department’s Bureau of Central press, Roosevelt personally blamed Bullitt and European Information and subsequently to the never forgave him. Frustrated, Bullitt volun- United States Peace Commission to Paris. He teered to become an infantry commandant led a secret mission to the Soviet Union in 1919 with the French Free Forces in mid-1944. and obtained favorable terms to end the Rus- Just as Bullitt’s professional relationships sian civil war, but Woodrow Wilson refused with both Wilson and Roosevelt ended in acri- even to meet with him after the president’s mony, his two marriages also failed. He had negotiations with the Allied leaders broke down married Philadelphia socialite Ernesta Brinker over personal differences among them. ADOLF in 1916, but their childless marriage ended in BERLE, historian Samuel Eliot Morison, and divorce in 1923. Later that year, he married Bullitt resigned from the U.S. peace delegation. Louise Bryant, widow of journalist John Reed, In autumn 1920, Bullitt’s testimony before the the author of Ten Days That Shook the World. Senate Foreign Relations Committee con- His second marriage produced one daughter tributed to Congress’s decision not to approve before it ended in divorce in 1930. He was the Treaty of Versailles. involved with MISSY LEHAND, FDR’s private Bullitt initially held a favorable view of secretary, during the 1930s. Franklin Roosevelt, having known him while During the postwar period, Bullitt lectured FDR was assistant secretary of the navy in the and wrote about foreign affairs from an Wilson administration, and was an early sup- increasingly anticommunist perspective. porter of Roosevelt’s bid for the presidency in Though he had written an autobiographical 1932. After the fall election victory, FDR dis- novel during the interwar years, his first non- patched Bullitt on secret missions to Europe fiction book was published in 1946. The Great regarding World War I debts. He was subse- Globe Itself attacked FDR’s foreign policy as quently appointed as special assistant to Secre- well as the Soviet Union. The lifelong Demo- tary of State CORDELL HULL, serving as crat then joined the Republican Party. After executive officer to the London Monetary and the death of Woodrow Wilson’s second wife, Economic Conference in 1933. That fall, Bul- the biography of Wilson that Bullitt had writ- litt helped to negotiate formal recognition of ten with Sigmund Freud in 1931, Thomas the Soviet Union with the Roosevelt-Litvinov Woodrow Wilson: 28th President, A Psychological Agreements, and FDR rewarded him by mak- Study, was published in 1967. The first psy- ing Bullitt the first U.S. ambassador to the chobiography ever written, it portrays Wilson Soviet Union. Bullitt became increasingly crit- as obsessed with his minister father. Ironically, ical of Soviet intentions, but FDR ignored his Bullitt manifested some of the same behavior advice. Nevertheless, they remained friends, for which he condemned Wilson: both could 36 Burdick, Usher Lloyd

be bright and charming, but they could also be well as World War II. During this period, he extremely arrogant toward those with whom developed a reputation as a maverick who they worked. sometimes supported the New Deal, including Bullitt died on February 15, 1967, in Neuilly, work relief, the Wagner Housing Act, and even France. the Court-packing plan. Before the December 1941 bombing of Pearl Harbor, he was a mid- western isolationist in foreign affairs, but dur- Burdick, Usher Lloyd ing World War II he supported FDR’s wartime (1879–1960) U.S. congressman policies. Burdick chose not to seek reelection in Born to farmer parents in Owatonna, Min- 1944, instead running unsuccessfully for a seat nesota, on February 21, 1879, Usher Burdick in the U.S. Senate. In 1948, he returned to the was reared in Grisham’s Island, in the Dakota House and was reelected until 1958 when he Territory, where he attended local schools. He stepped down and backed his son, Quentin graduated in 1900 from State Normal School Burdick, who was elected to replace him. in Mayville, North Dakota, and then worked Usher Burdick died on August 19, 1960, in for two years as the deputy superintendent of Washington, D.C. schools in Benson County, North Dakota. Following this, he entered the law program at the University of Minnesota, where he played Burns, Eveline Richardson on the university football team; he graduated (1900–1985) research director, Committee on in 1904. Long-Range Work and Relief Policies of the Burdick returned to Munich, North National Resources Planning Board Dakota, was admitted to the bar, and practiced law. Within three years, he was active in state Born on March 16, 1900, in London, England, politics. He was elected as a state legislator in where she was also educated, Eveline Richard- 1907 and served until 1911, when he was son worked at the British Ministry of Labor elected lieutenant governor, a post he held and was a night student at the London School until 1913. From 1913 until 1932, he served in of Economics, from which she graduated with various legal capacities—as state attorney, spe- honors in 1920. She married Arthur R. Burns cial prosecutor, and U.S. district attorney. At in 1920, the same year she entered graduate the same time, he farmed and wrote about school. In 1926, she was awarded her doctorate western history. from the London School of Economics. Burdick’s independent streak in politics Eveline Burns’s academic career began in first manifested itself in 1932 when he ran 1928 when she became a member of the Eco- unsuccessfully for election to the U.S. House nomics Department at Columbia University. of Representatives as a Republican. Contrary There she conducted comparative research on to local popular opinion in his district, he sup- the German and British unemployment insur- ported Franklin Roosevelt over Herbert ance systems. At the same time, she became Hoover, and he favored the repeal of Prohibi- the president of the New York Consumer’s tion in that election. Two years later, he won League and served as the vice president of the his congressional race, and he was reelected to American Association for Social Security from five additional terms, which placed him in 1935 to 1943. From this academic and policy Congress throughout the entire New Deal as background, she became a staff member for Bush, Vannevar 37

FDR’s Committee on Economic Security in 1934. Her lobbying efforts helped to pass the Social Security Act of 1935. She wrote Toward Social Security (1936) to explain the new pro- gram and conducted training sessions for its administrators the same year. While still teaching at Columbia, Burns was asked to review New Deal relief and pub- lic-works programs in 1939, as the research director to the Committee in Long-Range Work and Relief Policies of the National Resources Planning Board. Her report, “Social Insurance and Allied Services,” was submitted by FDR to Congress in March 1943. It recommended a national system of Vannevar Bush (Library of Congress) unemployment insurance and federal relief programs when states failed to establish their own. Conservative congressional critics con- that position five years later to join the MIT demned the report and Burns for advocating faculty as a professor of electrical power, which socialism. She remained with the National allowed him to combine his interests in math- Planning Agency until 1945 when it was abol- ematics and tinkering. By 1931, he had risen to ished. During the postwar period she acted as become the vice president and dean of engi- a government consultant and wrote books on neering at MIT. He then left MIT in 1938 to social security. She died on September 2, 1985, become the president of the Carnegie Institu- in Newton, Pennsylvania. tion of Washington (CIW), which helped him extend his network of contacts to both the nation’s capital and New York. That same year, Bush, Vannevar he was appointed to chair the National Advi- (1890–1974) head, National Defense Research sory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) Committee; director, Office of Scientific while simultaneously serving as chair of the Research and Development Division of Engineering and Industrial Research in the National Research Council The son of a minister and his wife, Vannevar (NRC), the operational branch of the National Bush was born on March 11, 1890, in Everett, Academy of Sciences (NAS). He would later Massachusetts, and reared in Chelsea, Mas- entrench himself even further in this milieu by sachusetts. He earned his undergraduate and becoming a member of the Committee on Sci- master’s degrees from Tufts University before entific Aids to Learning in the NRC, which entering the doctoral program in engineering was chaired by Harvard’s James B. Conant. jointly offered by MIT and Harvard. He Bush’s conservative background had led received his doctorate in 1916, the same year him to support the isolationist Liberty League’s he married Phoebe Davis, with whom he had backing of ’s 1936 presidential two sons. bid. However, he had come to appreciate the Having begun teaching mathematics and intersection of sciences and politics, just as ear- electrical engineering at Tufts in 1914, he left lier he had grasped intuitively the intellectual 38 Butler, Pierce

linkages between mathematics and engineer- nizations to acquire what was necessary to win ing. Drawing on this broader understanding, the war while avoiding getting into the more he had Frederick Delano, a nephew of Franklin political thicket of military arms and supplies Roosevelt and a CIW trustee who headed the procurement. He also eschewed involvement National Resources Planning Board, introduce in social policies and postwar planning. After him to HARRY HOPKINS.It proved to be a the program to develop a nuclear device mutually advantageous connection between became too large, he turned it over to the Bush and the Roosevelt administration as FDR Army Corps of Engineers while retaining over- later appointed him to head the National sight. Bush wanted to have the OSRD abol- Defense Research Committee (NDRC). ished after the war because he viewed it as an The Roosevelt-Bush relationship not only ad hoc emergency entity only. He was a clicked but deepened. For FDR, Bush was bureaucratic entrepreneur who appreciated another extra pair of capable hands that helped democratic restraint. the modern presidency in the way that the rec- From 1946 to 1949, Bush headed the ommendations of the LOUIS BROWNLOW Research and Development Board before committee on administrative management had returning to the CIW, where he remained until intended. FDR’s bureaucratic experience as he retired in 1955. His 1949 book, Modern assistant secretary of the navy during World Arms and Free Men: A Discussion of the Role of War I melded with Bush’s frustrations with the Science in Preserving Democracy, became a best navy during the same time over his invention seller. It captured the contribution to the Roo- of an electromagnetic tool for locating sub- sevelt administration that he had made through marines. Often to the chagrin of both military marrying basic and applied science to meeting and civilian bureaucrats, FDR bestowed upon national security needs and through creating Bush the freedom to act with a separate budget the role of a science adviser to the modern and direct access to the president. By 1941, presidency. FDR had enlarged Bush’s role to director of Bush died on June 28, 1974, in Belmont, the new Office of Scientific Research and Massachusetts. Development (OSRD), which included the NDRC with Conant, who replaced him as chair, and the new Committee on Medical Butler, Pierce Research (CMR). This arrangement provided (1866–1939) U.S. Supreme Court justice Bush’s group of scientists and engineers the venue to develop new weapons outside of tra- Born on March 17, 1866, in Pine Bend, Min- ditional bureaucratic channels. Bush came to nesota, Pierce Butler was the son of Irish admire FDR’s leadership style and, in fact, Catholic immigrant farmers who came to the adapted it to his own scientific and engineering United States in 1848 due to the potato famine. realm. He networked, co-opted potential After narrowly missing admission to the U.S. adversaries, and kept his multiple committees Military Academy, he attended nearby Car- filled with the technically competent while act- leton College, where he developed a conserva- ing as director of general policy and resolving tive political philosophy. He graduated in 1887, lower-level conflicts. and the next year he was admitted to the Min- Bush tried to limit OSRD to research and nesota bar after clerking and reading law in a development. Whenever possible, he used its St. Paul law office. After a brief stint as a contracts with universities and industrial orga- county attorney, he began a two-decade legal Byrd, Harry Flood 39 practice representing utilities and railroads. In tory. His judicial activism in promoting laissez 1908 he became president of the Minnesota faire government earned his place as the most Bar Association, the same year he began what overruled justice in Supreme Court history. would be a long tenure on the University of Minnesota Board of Regents. He had made the transition from immigrant background to Byrd, Harry Flood established society. During World War I, per- (1887–1966) Virginia governor, U.S. senator haps to provide proof of his national loyalty because of his Irish ancestry, he became a Harry Byrd inherited a family name traceable leader in the dismissal of professors who did to colonial Virginia, but it carried no financial not support the American war effort. advantages. Born on June 10, 1887, in Martins- Despite the fact that Butler remained a life- burg, West Virginia, he attended public schools long Democrat, in 1922 Chief Justice William in Westchester, Virginia, until he quit high Howard Taft recommended that Butler fill the school to work for the failing family newspaper. newly vacated opening on the U.S. Supreme Through hard work and thrift, he turned the Court. The traditional “Catholic seat” had been paper around and soon developed an apple unfilled since the retirement in 1921 of Justice orchard business into one of the nation’s largest. Edward D. White. Butler was confirmed as an In the tradition of his uncle Hal Flood, who associate justice on December 21, 1922, on a had been the Democratic state party boss dur- vote of 61 to 8, with an amazing 27 abstentions. ing the Woodrow Wilson era, he created his Taft and President Warren Harding got own political machine. Byrd served in the Vir- what they had sought. Butler was an energetic ginia state senate between 1915 and 1925 and conservative ideologue who never wavered in then held the governorship from 1926 to 1930. upholding laissez-faire decisions. He became With characteristic energy and drive, he estab- part of the Court conservative coalition known lished a record of progressive state leadership in as the “Four Horsemen” by New Deal sup- terms of economy and industrial growth. Rely- porters frustrated by the justices’ opposition to ing on the fame of his brother, Admiral Richard FDR’s programs. The others were JAMES Evelyn Byrd Jr. (1888–1957), the polar explorer MCREYNOLDS, GEORGE SUTHERLAND, and who flew over the North and South Poles, he WILLIS VAN DEVANTER.They rejected both encouraged development of airports and roads. sociological jurisprudence and legal realism, the He also supported creation of the Shenandoah legal-reform schools of jurisprudence during National Park. In contrast to his later civil- the 1920s. Butler may have been the most con- rights record, as governor he backed a tough servative justice of the 1920s and 1930s. He antilynching bill enacted in 1928. In 1932, he held the conservative bloc together with his was Virginia’s “favorite son” candidate at the proverbial Irish wit and congenial personality. Democratic national convention. In addition to voting against nearly every aspect For more than three decades, as he rose of the New Deal, he demanded total loyalty in stature to become Virginia’s most promi- from citizens rather than permitting dissent just nent 20th-century politician, Byrd was as he had at the University of Minnesota. among the most intense critics of the New Increasingly in ill health in the late 1930s, he Deal and its legacy. His dynamic governor- died suddenly on November 16, 1939, in Wash- ship regressed into a national leadership that ington, D.C. Scholars of the Court have rated blocked economic and social progress by him as one of the eight failures in its entire his- advocating negative government and states’ 40 Byrnes, James Francis

rights. He joined the conservation coalition in Byrnes’s only electoral defeat occurred in Congress, though he was a Democrat and not 1924 when a racist and anti-Catholic opponent an isolationist. After FDR appointed Virginia used the Ku Klux Klan against him. Byrnes was senator Claude Swanson as secretary of the openly a segregationist, but he never belonged navy in 1933, Byrd filled Swanson’s seat as a to the KKK as charged. After his defeat, he protégé of Senator CARTER GLASS.In 1944 he joined a prominent law firm in Spartanburg. A was a token protest presidential candidate few years later, with the endorsement of his against FDR, who prevailed in the contest with Episcopal minister and the friendship and Byrd to enact historically significant legisla- financial backing of BERNARD BARUCH, Byrnes tion. Byrd, however, won his patronage battles defeated the reelection bid of his former elec- to maintain control in Virginia. He died on toral opponent and took his seat in the U.S. October 20, 1966, in Berryville, Virginia. Senate in 1930. His alliance with Baruch enabled Byrnes to allocate Baruch’s money to other Senate campaigns, making him a power Byrnes, James Francis broker in the nation’s capital. (Jimmy Byrnes) In Washington, D.C., Byrnes developed (1879–1972) U.S. senator; U.S. Supreme Court his reputation for accomplishing things and justice; director, Office of Economic helped to get most New Deal legislation Stabilization; director, Office of War Mobilization through the Senate. Although a central figure in the conservative coalition resisting the fed- A third-generation Irish-Catholic American, eral antilynching bill, the use of sit-down James Byrnes was not yet born on May 21, strikes, and the attempted congressional purge 1879, when his father died. He had to quit in 1938, the outbreak of World War II pushed school when he was a teenager to help support him back in FDR’s direction, and he helped his family. He was a messenger for a law office, steer the Reorganization Act of 1939 to reor- then a court stenographer, and two judges acted ganize the presidency through Congress. At as father surrogates in guiding him to read law. the 1940 Democratic convention, Byrnes He passed the South Carolina bar in 1903. served as FDR’s floor manger to secure the After three years of both practicing law and president’s nomination for an unprecedented working as a court stenographer, he married third term. He also helped to gain repeal of Maude Busch in 1906 and converted to the the Neutrality Acts as well as passage of the Episcopal faith. He also purchased the local Lend-Lease Act to assist the British. As a newspaper and edited it for the next four years. reward, FDR nominated Byrnes to the U.S. In 1908, Byrnes became the local solicitor Supreme Court in June 1941, and he was con- in Aiken, South Carolina, which prepared him firmed unanimously. for politics. The next year he was elected to After slightly more than a year, Byrnes the U.S. House of Representatives, serving resigned from the Court to head the wartime from 1911 to 1924. His ability to compromise Office of Economic Stabilization. The next made him well liked by members of both par- year the president named him as the director of ties. While sitting on the Appropriations Com- war mobilization. FDR referred to Byrnes as mittee, he forged a fast friendship with his “assistant president,” an accurate descrip- Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. tion of his role in domestic affairs during Roosevelt when FDR sought naval funding World War II. The president delegated during the Wilson administration. unprecedented and broad executive power to Byrns, Joseph Wellington, Sr. 41

Byrnes, enabling him to plan and coordinate began practicing law in Nashville. His political military and civilian production. He received career started in 1894 with his election to the widespread praise for administrative ability. Tennessee house, where he became the speaker Expecting the vice-presidential nomina- during his third term. In 1900, he was elected tion and a chance for the presidency in 1948, to the state senate, but he lost his 1902 race for Byrnes felt cheated when the 1944 vice presi- county district attorney. The Democrat began dency went to HARRY S. TRUMAN.He was also his career in the U.S. Congress with an upset disappointed in 1944 when FDR chose election that put him in the House of Repre- EDWARD STETTINUS instead of him to suc- sentatives from 1908 until his death. ceed CORDELL HULL as secretary of state. A workhorse congressman, Byrns soon won However, FDR did invite Byrnes to accom- a seat on the powerful Appropriations Com- pany him to the Yalta Conference in February mittee. He aspired to the U.S. Senate, but 1945. Later President Truman named him as health problems began in 1930, and he had to his first secretary of state, but Byrnes was withdraw from the election. The next year, his unable to harness the same power he had legislative power in the House increased when enjoyed with FDR. Similarly, his later gover- he became chairman of the Appropriations norship of South Carolina proved disappoint- Committee. In 1932, he became House major- ing. Nonetheless, Byrnes was one of the most ity leader. Byrns was very loyal to the New powerful national politicians during the 1930s Deal, especially as it related to agriculture. He and 1940s and ranks as one of South Carolina’s personally sponsored the Civilian Conservation greatest. He died on April 9, 1972, in Columbia, Corps, which was FDR’s original idea. With South Carolina. the death of House Speaker Henry T. Rainey, Byrns became a candidate for the position in January 1935. FDR preferred either WILLIAM Byrns, Joseph Wellington, Sr. BANKHEAD or SAM RAYBURN as Speaker, but (1869–1936) U.S. congressman, Speaker of the the Democratic caucus elected Byrns, and House Bankhead became the majority leader. Byrns instituted the initial expansion of the whip sys- Born on July 20, 1869, in Cedar Hill to Ten- tem to guide New Deal legislation through the nessee farmers, Joseph Byrns received his law House. He died suddenly of a heart attack on degree from Vanderbilt University in 1890 and June 4, 1936, while in the Capitol. C w

Caldwell, Erskine cal leanings moved to the left. Pioneering (1903–1987) novelist, playwright photojournalist MARGARET BOURKE-WHITE, the third of his four wives, collaborated with The only child of a liberal southern minister him on the photos and text for You Have Seen father and schoolteacher mother, Erskine Their Faces (1937), which captures the despair Caldwell was born on December 17, 1903, in Oak, Georgia. He was exposed as a child to the behavior of both poor whites and blacks as his family traveled throughout the South. After attending Erskine College in South Carolina, the University of Pennsylvania, and the Uni- versity of Virginia in the early 1920s, Caldwell became a newspaper reporter and a prolific writer. Caldwell achieved his greatest success in the 1930s and 1940s. His work of that time sympathetically portrayed the comic and absurd lives of rural Georgia’s poor whites, first in Tobacco Road (1932), with its grotesque sexual behavior, then in God’s Little Acre (1933). Tobacco Road was made into a 1933 Broadway play that ran for nearly eight years, and an obscenity trial turned God’s Little Acre into a best seller. These literary efforts helped to provide the cultural rationale for the New Deal’s Resettlement Administration and the Farm Security Administration. Caldwell spent the next 20 years in Hollywood. He turned to documentary writing during the height of the Great Depression as his politi- Erskine Caldwell (Library of Congress)

42 Capper, Arthur 43 on the faces of black and white farmers in the ulists, he opposed the domination of railroads South. He worked as a correspondent during in Kansas politics and came to endorse Pro- World War II. After the war he became a gressive Republican reforms. When THEO- Hollywood screenwriter and wrote more DORE ROOSEVELT launched his 1912 Bull novels without ever regaining his prewar Moose presidential campaign, Capper threw popularity. He died on April 11, 1987, in Par- his hat into the state political ring, becoming adise Valley, Arizona. the Republican candidate for governor. He lost that race by a narrow margin but defeated the incumbent two years later and Capper, Arthur was subsequently reelected in 1916. He ran (1865–1951) U.S. Senator successfully for the U.S. Senate in 1918 and served five consecutive terms before he Arthur Capper was the first native-born Kansan retired in 1949. to become both the state’s governor and a U.S. Capper compensated for his lack of senator. He was initially a progressive Republi- rhetorical skills by being as industrious in his can who favored Theodore Roosevelt’s Bull senatorial committee work as he had been in Moose 1912 presidential bid but later became building his newspaper empire. In both pur- known in the Senate as a Republican New suits, he remained open to colleagues and the Dealer. Such exceptions notwithstanding, he public, promptly responding to questions remained a loyal Republican. whether asked to him directly or by mail. He Capper was born on July 14, 1865, in Gar- voted for the League of Nations, although he nett, Kansas; his father was an English immi- had reservations about it, and later became a grant. After his graduation from Garnett High foreign-policy isolationist. He became a School in 1884, Capper began working for the leader of the farm bloc and sponsored the Topeka Daily Capital, worked briefly for the Capper-Volstead Acts of 1922 and 1926 and New York Tribune, and in 1891 was a correspon- the Capper-Ketchum Act of 1928, which dent in the nation’s capital for the Daily Capital. backed 4-H clubs. In 1892, he married Florence Crawford, the Critical of conservative Republican presi- daughter of a former Kansas governor. Married dents during the 1920s, Capper became an for 34 years, the couple had no children. early supporter of New Deal legislation. He Capper launched his midwestern business favored work relief, agricultural reform, and career in 1893 when he began purchasing provisions for social security. While serving on newspapers that were in financial trouble. His the congressional District of Columbia Com- first acquisition was a small weekly, the North mittee, he became a proponent of civil-rights Topeka Mail. He later bought the Daily Capital, legislation. On the other hand, he was critical where he had been a cub reporter years earlier. of FDR’s Court-packing plan. During World Eventually he owned at least a dozen newspa- War II, he suspended his previous isolationist pers that employed more than a thousand per- stance. Though he became known as a Repub- sons and boasted combined circulations of lican New Dealer, he remained a member of nearly 5 million. By the late 1920s, he had the Republican Party. moved into the new communications field Capper died in Topeka on December 19, opened by radio. 1951, and left the bulk of his estate to the Cap- Capper was a Republican in a state dom- per Foundation for Crippled Children and to inated by the Populist Party. Yet like the Pop- his employees. 44 Capra, Frank

Capra, Frank Academy Award for the best documentary of (1897–1991) film director 1942. Some journalists during the postwar era Frank Capra was born on May 18, 1897, in derided his optimistic outlook as “Capracorn,” Bisaquino, Sicily. He was six years old when but Capra had tapped into a basic dimension of his Sicilian family emigrated to Los Angeles, the American democratic spirit that resonated and he was the only one among 14 children to with the public. He portrayed individuals who attend college. Attending on scholarship, he confronted crises like the Great Depression graduated in 1918 with a degree in chemical without giving in to defeat or cynicism but engineering from what would become the Cal- relied on bedrock American resourcefulness, ifornia Institute of Technology. During World ingenuity, and humor to survive and overcome. War I, he served as an artillery school instruc- He died on September 3, 1991, in LaQuinta, tor. He first began making short films in San California. Francisco and in 1923 moved to Hollywood, where he developed his knack for directing social comedies. Caraway, Hattie Ophelia Wyatt Capra’s romantic comedy It Happened One (1878–1950) U.S. senator Night (1934) was the first film ever to win five Academy Awards. It turned Columbia Pictures The daughter of a Tennessee farmer and shop- into a major studio, launched the screwball- keeper, Hattie Wyatt was born on February 1, comedy genre, and made him Hollywood’s 1878, in Bakerville, Tennessee. She graduated most sought-after director. His subsequent from Dickson Normal College in 1896 and Great Depression films preached the basic taught school in Tennessee before her 1902 goodness of humankind. Mr. Deeds Goes to Town wedding to Thaddeus H. Caraway, whom she (1936) set the formula for his other films with had met in college. The couple moved to an honest, idealistic, and slightly naive hero Jonesboro, Arkansas, where he began a law confronting corrupt men and institutions and practice while she reared their three children ultimately prevailing through the assistance of and oversaw the family’s cotton farm. After he a more realistic girlfriend. He won Academy was elected to the U.S. House of Representa- Awards for best picture and best director with tives in 1912, they established a second home You Can’t Take It with You (1938) and nomina- in Riverdale, Maryland. tions for Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939). Caraway was elected to the U.S. Senate in Some have argued that the lead character, Jef- 1921 and served until his death on November ferson Smith, was modeled in part on Senator 6, 1931. Following the precedent of widow BURTON WHEELER (D-Mon.). In Meet John appointments, Hattie Caraway assumed the Doe (1941), Capra presents a small-town hero vacant seat on December 9, 1931, and won the who outwits an industrialist’s attempted fascist special election held in January 1932 to com- coup to take over the United States. plete the remaining months of the term, thus During World War II, Capra became head becoming the first woman elected to the Sen- of the Army Pictorial Service, directing and ate. She stunned the Arkansas political estab- producing Why We Fight, a series of propa- lishment when she chose to seek reelection in ganda documentaries. Intended originally only her own right. Without other significant back- for American soldiers, the series was released to ing, Caraway accepted the offer of help from the public and garnered him yet another popular populist HUEY LONG, the Louisiana Cárdenas, Lázaro 45 senator whose sympathy for the poor she had owner; his mother was a seamstress. With only supported. In typical fashion, the ambitious a primary school education, the energetic Long wanted to show up his rival senator youth went from working in menial jobs to JOSEPH ROBINSON in his home state. Long serving as a local public official at age eigh- accomplished his goal with a flamboyant road teen. He joined the Mexican Revolution in campaign for Caraway that used the latest 1913 and rose rapidly to become a general in technology of the time (radio and sound trucks) the army. during the week before the Democratic pri- Cárdenas was elected governor of his mary. Campaigning with Long, she garnered native state on September 15, 1928. He nearly twice as many votes as her nearest rival became a main leader in the formation of what in a crowd of prominent candidates. became the Institutional Revolutionary Party Carraway became one of the New Deal’s (PRI in Spanish) and briefly served in a variety most loyal supporters, showing concern for the of leadership offices. In his run for the presi- plight of the poor during the Great Depres- dency in 1934, he undertook the most vigorous sion. However, as with other white southern- campaign for the office ever waged up to that ers, this compassion did not extend to racial time, even though the PRI’s dominance nearly justice, and she joined in the filibuster of the guaranteed his victory. With his promises of FDR administration’s antilynching bill in 1938. land reform and industrial development, he Nevertheless, FDR backed her over Represen- was elected at age 39, becoming Mexico’s tative John L. McClellan in the Democratic youngest president in the 20th century. primary that year, and she won reelection by a Aggressive implementation of Cárdenas’s narrow victory. Not only did she support reforms began in the late 1930s. On assuming FDR’s domestic New Deal, as a mother with office he gave his full support to strikers. He two sons in the army, she also supported the expropriated the nation’s foreign-owned oil president’s foreign policy. In 1943, she became companies on March 18, 1938, and then cre- the first woman legislator to cosponsor the ated the huge Petroleos, or Pemex, which Equal Rights Amendment. would serve as a model for similar public cor- After a poor showing in the 1944 Demo- porations in other developing nations. The cratic primary, which resulted in Caraway’s los- railroads owned by Southern Pacific, Missouri ing her seat to freshman congressman J. Pacific, and the Missouri-Kansas-Texas corpo- William Fulbright, she was appointed to the rations were also expropriated and turned into Employees’ Compensation Commission. Pres- public corporations. He distributed twice as ident HARRY S. TRUMAN later promoted her to much land to peasants as all of his predecessors its Appeal Board, where she remained until her combined and expanded government banks so death on December 21, 1950, in Falls Church, they could borrow money. This was the equiv- Virginia. alent of the New Deal in Mexico. Cárdenas created new organizations such as the National Peasant Confederation and the Confederation Cárdenas, Lázaro of Mexican Workers, a national trade union (1895–1970) Mexican president federation, to solidify his power base. In foreign policy, Cárdenas opposed Of Indian descent, Lázaro Cárdenas was born attacks on independent nations, such as the on May 21, 1895, in Jiquilpan de Juarez, Italian fascist invasion of Ethiopia, the Soviet Michoacan, the son of a weaver and small store and Nazi German intervention in the Spanish 46 Cardozo, Benjamin Nathan

civil war, Nazi Germany’s annexation of Austria York Court of Appeals, but that turned into a and invasion of Czechoslovakia, the Soviet 14-year elected term. He won the post of chief invasion of Finland, and Japan’s invasion of judge when he was unopposed in the 1926 China. He extended political refuge to Leon election. During his tenure on the Court of Trotsky after JOSEPH STALIN forced him into Appeals, it became known as the most distin- exile. guished court in the nation, second only to the In 1940, in the PRI tradition, Cárdenas U.S. Supreme Court. picked his own successor, General Manuel In addition to his many decisions on the Avila Camacho. Cárdenas was back in govern- bench, Cardozo wrote five books. His first, The ment when he served as minister of national Nature of the Judicial Process (1921), was his defense (1943–45), and he served as a govern- most important and it became a classic. He mental adviser for most of his life. He died on argued that judges did not “find” a preexisting October 19, 1970. His son Cuauhtemoc law but rather “made” it. Though controversial became mayor of Mexico City and nearly won at the time, he was essentially a pragmatist who the presidency in 1988 on an anti-PRI ticket. viewed the U.S. Constitution as a living tradi- tion that had to grow and adapt to changing conditions to fit human needs. Cardozo, Benjamin Nathan In 1932, President HERBERT HOOVER (1870–1938) U.S. Supreme Court justice nominated Cardozo to replace Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., on the U.S. Supreme Court. With Born on May 24, 1870, in New York City, Ben- the backing of powerful senators such as jamin Cardozo was the only son of Sephardic WILLIAM BORAH, Cardozo’s nomination Jewish parents whose forebears predated the trumped geographic and ethnic objections to American Revolution. His father was a suc- win a rapid and unanimous confirmation. His cessful lawyer elected to the New York State belief in judicial restraint led him to emerge as Supreme Court who resigned under clouded the most persuasive member of the liberal fac- circumstances. Cardozo’s mother died when he tion approving most New Deal legislation, espe- was nine, and his father died six years later; his cially measures to regulate the economy. sister, who was 10 years older, largely reared However, in the area of individual rights, he was him. He was tutored at home with help from less progressive. For example, his last and most Horatio Alger, Jr., the rags-to-riches novelist, influential decision, rendered in Palko v. Con- who prepared him for Columbia College. Car- necticut (1937), reflected his belief in selective dozo graduated in 1889 and the next year incorporation of the Bill of Rights by the states, received his master’s degree in political science. unlike HUGO BLACK, who favored total incor- He entered Columbia’s School of Law as a poration. Nonetheless, Cardozo is ranked as one member of its second class, but he withdrew of the nation’s dozen greatest justices. He died after two years and passed the bar. During the on July 9, 1938, in Port Chester, New York. ensuing two decades, he became a prominent New York City attorney, a lawyer’s lawyer who specialized in preparing appeal briefs. Carmody, John Michael In 1913–41 years after his father’s resigna- (1881–1963) federal bureaucrat tion—Cardozo won election to the New York Supreme Court. His tenure was brief because Born in 1881 in Towanda, Pennsylvania, John he was asked to serve temporarily on the New Carmody attended the Free Academy at Elmira, Chamberlain, Neville 47

New York, and the Elmira Business College. He media had dubbed the additional bureaucrats then moved to the Midwest and attended the that the LOUIS BROWNLOW Committee had Lewis Institute in Chicago and the Emerson recommended in its 1937 report on adminis- School in Gary, Indiana. For a short time in trative management. Carmody avoided public- 1926 he attended Columbia University. After ity and worked effectively with others behind initially working as a bookkeeper, he served the scenes. After the Executive Reorganization from 1900 to 1914 as an inspector for steel firms Act of 1939 was enacted until 1941, Carmody in Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Indiana as well as served as head of the new Federal Works in Ontario, Canada, and Havana, Cuba. During Agency, supervising the Works Progress the next 10 years he worked for garment manu- Administration, Public Works Administration, facturers including H. Black Company of Cleve- Public Roads Administration, and the United land, Ohio, and Printz-Biederman. States Public Buildings Administration. His Carmody’s first federal job was with the final post during the FDR years was as a mem- Bituminous Coal Commission during Presi- ber of the Maritime Commission from 1941 dent Warren Harding’s administration. His to 1946. work with that commission led to his appoint- During the postwar era, Carmody served ment as vice president of industrial relations in a variety of government posts in HARRY S. for the Davis Coal and Coke Company. From TRUMAN’s administration. He died on Novem- 1927 to 1933, he served as the editor of Coal ber 11, 1963. Age and Industrial and Factory Management, published by McGraw-Hill. A trip to the Soviet Union in 1931 sponsored by McGraw Chamberlain, Neville Hill to survey industrial developments there (1869–1940) British prime minister later led extreme conservatives to question his loyalty to the United States. The son of a distinguished Unitarian business Carmody’s active involvement in the New family in Birmingham, England, Neville Deal began after he was selected to head the Chamberlain was born on March 18, 1869, in Bituminous Coal Labor Board. Late in 1933, Edgboston, a suburb of Birmingham. He stud- he was named chief engineer of the Civil ied business at the local trade school and at age Works Administration, and later he assumed 21 was sent to the Bahamas to manage his the same position for the Federal Emergency father’s new estate, growing sisal fiber for rope. Relief Administration. In 1934, he served with The venture failed due to the soil, and he the National Mediation Board, and the next returned to Birmingham in 1897. After his year, Franklin Roosevelt put him on the family purchased a metal ship-berth-making National Labor Relations Board and named company, he spent a number of years in that him as a mediator in coal disputes and cases business until World War I began. involving the National Recovery Administra- Chamberlain was increasingly drawn to tion. In 1936, MORRIS COOKE made him the civic duties and in 1911 won his first political deputy administrator of the Rural Electrifica- office on the Birmingham city council; he then tion Administration (REA), and FDR selected became lord mayor in 1915 and 1916. He Carmody to succeed Cooke as REA head the briefly served in a minor position in David following year. Lloyd George’s coalition cabinet during World In all of these positions, Carmody acted as War I but resigned after half a year due to a dis- the quintessential “passionate anonym,” as the agreement with the prime minister. In 1918, he 48 Chiang Kai-shek

won a seat in Parliament representing Birm- into a middle-class family. He was educated at ingham, a seat that he kept until his death. military academies in China and Japan and Chamberlain was a progressive member of served with the Japanese military (1909–11) the Conservative Party. He served in a series of before returning to China to fight for Sun Yat- governmental posts, including postmaster gen- sen (1866–1925) during the revolution of 1911. eral, health minister, and for five years during Sun was financially backed by Charlie Soong the Great Depression he was chancellor of the (Sung), who became wealthy as a Bible salesman exchequer (finance minister). On May 28, 1937, in China and was the father of Chiang’s second at age 68, Chamberlain replaced STANLEY wife. Chiang joined the Kuomintang (Guomin- BALDWIN as prime minister. He immediately dang; the Nationalist Party) of Sun, who wanted launched a three-year defense program, with to unify the nation under a central republican an emphasis on building the British air force. government based on democratic principles he He accepted Fascist Italy’s takeover of Ethiopia had derived from Abraham Lincoln. After sev- and maintained British neutrality in the Spanish eral years of fighting warlords unsuccessfully, civil war. Due to the relative weakness of the Chiang traveled in 1923 to the Soviet Union to British military, Chamberlain then began a study Marxism. However, he remained an anti- series of meetings with ADOLF HITLER.These communist. Chiang’s wife, born Soong Mei-ling failed efforts at negotiations led to Chamber- (Sung Meiling; 1897–2003), was the sister of Sun lain’s name becoming synonymous with Yat-sen’s wife, Soong Ch’ing-ling (Sung Qing- appeasement and defeatism in foreign policy. ling). The sisters all attended Wesleyan College Though he took no action when Hitler annexed in Macon, Georgia; Mei-ling transferred to and Austria and occupied Czechoslovakia, Central graduated from Wellesley College, in Massa- Europe’s only democracy, Chamberlain finally chusetts, however. The Sung family converted declared war on Germany after Nazi armies Chiang to Christianity in 1930 and was active in invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. the rise of the Kuomintang, which in the 1930s Chamberlain quickly assembled a war cab- was responsible for renaming a tiny island off inet that included WINSTON CHURCHILL, the the Vietnamese coast as Lincoln Island, the name only member who had disagreed with Cham- it retains today. berlain’s prior appeasement policy. After Chinese Communists, eventually led by Hitler’s invasion of Norway in May 1940, Mao Tse-tung (Mao Zedong; 1893–1976) and Chamberlain’s parliamentary consensus crum- Chou En-lai (Zhou Enlai; 1896–1976), who had bled, and he resigned in favor of Churchill. Ill briefly worked for Chiang, were forced to flee to health forced his resignation from Churchill’s the mountains after Chiang’s Nationalist army cabinet on September 29. He died on Novem- tried to crush them in the late 1920s. Chiang ber 9, 1940, in Birmingham. then tried to quell the warlords in northern China, capturing Peking (Beijing) in 1928. Chiang talked about reforms, but most of the Chiang Kai-shek country remained under the influence of war- (Jiang Jieshi) lords, provincial leaders, and the Communists. (1887–1975) president of China and the Republic Compounding the Nationalists’ problems, of China (Taiwan) Japan took over Manchuria in 1931, which Chiang chose to ignore in launching another Chiang Kai-shek was born in 1887 in the east campaign against Mao that forced the Commu- coast province of Chekiang (Zhejiang), China, nists to retreat on the famous Long March. Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer 49

Though Chiang wanted finally to crush the Sandhurst Military Academy, the traditional Communists, he was threatened with a coup if training ground for British army officers. It he did not unite with them to resist the took three attempts at the entrance examination Japanese. He was kidnapped by one of his mili- before Churchill was admitted to Sandhurst. tary leaders in 1936 and held for 11 days until His parents focused most of their attention on Madame Chiang intervened and quickly his younger brother, and without the attention obtained his release in return for an agreement of a concerned nanny to compensate for to fight the Japanese in conjunction with the parental disfavor, Churchill might have suffered Communists. Chiang and the Communists more serious flaws than his lifelong tendency to waged a desperate war against the better- depression (bipolarity). He dealt with parental equipped Japanese, controlling the large rural rejection by idealizing his parents. areas and keeping them confused in urban areas. Churchill developed a unique career that Beginning in 1945, the United States pro- intertwined the military and journalism. While vided the Nationalists with massive economic on leave, he reported on the war of Cuban aid. After meeting Madame Chiang earlier in independence (1898) and also served in the the year, FDR invited the Chiangs to the Cairo British army in India and Africa in the 1890s. Conference. Because her husband spoke little His military correspondent reports from India English, Madame Chiang undertook to speak and Egypt brought him prominence. In 1899, on his behalf. She became the first Chinese cit- he resigned his army commission to run unsuc- izen to address Congress, and she completely cessfully for a seat in the House of Commons. impressed and disarmed both the politicians After losing, he traveled to South Africa to and the American public. (It was before cover the Boer War. His dramatic adventures ELEANOR ROOSEVELT realized Madame Chi- there led to his election to a seat in Parliament ang’s elitism and racism.) The Allies subse- in 1900. He moved quickly up the political lad- quently gave Nationalist China a seat on the der, especially after changing his party affilia- new United Nations Security Council. tion from the Conservatives to the Liberals After World War II ended, the Chinese between 1904 and 1924. He would eventually civil war resumed, and the Nationalists were hold numerous major positions with each finally forced to flee to Taiwan in 1949. The party, including every principal cabinet post Chiangs ruled the island as dictators until his except foreign secretary. death in Taipei in 1975. In 1924, Churchill reversed course and returned permanently to the Conservative Party. During the 1920s and 1930s, he was in Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer and out of office while at the same time becom- (1874–1965) British prime minister ing a prolific essayist. From 1929 to 1939, he remained a pariah among the consensus Tories Winston Churchill was born on November 24, for his vocal criticism of Prime Ministers 1874, in Blenheim Palace in Oxfordshire, STANLEY BALDWIN and NEVILLE CHAMBER- England. Despite his aristocrat lineage—he was LAIN.He considered Chamberlain’s appease- the son of Lord Randolph Churchill and Amer- ment policy giving ADOLF HITLER what he ican-born Jennie Jerome, whose father was a wanted on the Continent to avoid another New York financier—Churchill was only an world war to be highly dangerous. average student at prestigious Harrow School. After Hitler invaded Poland in September His father therefore decided to send him to 1939, Chamberlain resigned in April 1940, and 50 Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer

Churchill became prime minister. With Britain facing defeat, he provided inspirational leader- ship. Despite his age, he worked long, if unusual, hours and made numerous trips over- seas. He was adamant that the British would never surrender to the Nazis after the fall of France in 1940 and the disaster of Dunkirk, which necessitated a mass evacuation of British soldiers across the English Channel. Churchill recognized that British success depended on the United States’s entrance into the war, thus triggering his friendship with Franklin Roosevelt, whom he had met once during World War I. FDR had not been favor- Prime Minister Winston Churchill addressing the ably impressed by that first meeting or by the U.S. Congress, December 1941 (University of fact that Churchill had forgotten it. Nonethe- Kentucky Libraries) less, the two world leaders were drawn to each other by Churchill’s need for American sup- port and Roosevelt’s appreciation of world controversial Allied conference was held Febru- affairs. ary 4–11, 1945, at Yalta in the Crimea and Within a year, FDR’s maneuverings around resulted in Stalin’s being territorially rewarded the isolationists in Congress allowed him to pro- for the Soviet Union’s role during the war. vide support to the British in the form of military Churchill possessed an active, humorous, surplus matériel and old destroyers. This esca- and magnanimous personality, and his record lated to massive military aid through the 1941 on domestic legislation and modern technol- Lend-Lease Act, passed at a crucial time when ogy was progressive, yet at his core he was the British material resources were virtually true descendant of the First Lord of Marlbor- exhausted. This was followed by a series of con- ough, hero of the Battle of Blenheim. His lead- ferences between FDR and Churchill, the first in ership style was that of a traditional democrat August 1941 aboard a ship off the eastern coast who wanted to preserve the British Empire. of Canada, where they issued the Atlantic Char- He admired Napoleon I, in contrast to FDR, ter with principles that formed the basis for the who admired Theodore Roosevelt (whose own United Nations Charter. In January 1943 came political hero was Lincoln). The Roosevelts, the Casablanca Conference in Morocco when like Lincoln, were rational democrats; FDR General DWIGHT EISENHOWER was designated wanted to end colonialism. the commander of Allied forces in North Africa Churchill was forced from office abruptly and Churchill reluctantly agreed to FDR’s terms when the Conservative Party suffered a stun- for the unconditional surrender of the Axis pow- ning defeat in the July 1945 election. He had ers. The November and December Cairo Con- admirably and heroically provided for the safety ferences in 1943 led to Eisenhower’s designation and security needs of the British when exter- as the commander of the Western Europe inva- nally threatened by the Nazis. As soon as the sion. The Tehran Conference in Iran was held threat ended, though, the British turned to the between the two Cairo meetings, and JOSEPH obscure leadership of Clement Attlee, whose STALIN attended for the first time. The most Labor Party had a blueprint to address the Cohen, Benjamin Victor 51

British people’s emerging social needs. Scripps-Howard papers, owner of the UP news Churchill, unfortunately, was as blind to the service, which began to syndicate his column to need for change at home as he was to the emerg- its 176 papers, with a combined readership of ing needs of British colonists. Nonetheless, he 10 million. Clapper also wrote for magazines was briefly reelected prime minister in the mid- and served as a radio news anchor and com- 1950s. He died on January 24, 1965, in London. mentator for the Mutual radio network. Endeavoring to be an impartial reporter and commentator, Clapper never registered to Clapper, Raymond Lewis vote. He characterized himself mostly as a New (1892–1944) journalist, radio commentator Dealer but criticized Franklin Roosevelt’s third-term bid. Highly regarded by his col- Born near LaCygne, Kansas, on May 29, 1892, leagues, he was elected president of the Grid- Raymond Clapper was the son of farmers who iron Club in 1939. In November 1943, the moved to Kansas City, Kansas, shortly after his Saturday Evening Post described him as “The birth. Clapper developed an early interest in Average Man’s Columnist.” Although Clapper reading and began to read newspapers while in was seldom profound, he tried to convey his grade school. His interest in the printed word political analysis in clear, plain language that increased during the three years he worked for average readers could understand. a local print shop, and he ultimately became a During World War II, Clapper moved away journeyman printer. While he was a teenager, from political stories to the human dimensions of his hero was fellow Kansan William Allen war. In 1943, he went to the Mediterranean the- White, the well-known and influential editor ater to cover the Allied invasion of Italy, and early of the Emporia Gazette. Clapper did not enter the next year he flew to the Pacific to report on high school until age 17, and before he gradu- the war there. While he was covering the inva- ated, he married Olive Vincent Ewing in 1913; sion of the Marshall Islands, he was killed in an the couple eventually had two children. Both airplane accident on February 1, 1944. Clapper and his wife attended the University of Kansas after their marriage, and he became the campus correspondent for the Kansas City Star. Cohen, Benjamin Victor They left college without graduating in 1916 (1894–1983) legal counsel to the Roosevelt and moved to Kansas City, Missouri, where he administration joined the Star’s staff. His work quickly caught the attention of United Press (UP). The news Ben Cohen was born on September 23, 1894, service recruited him and sent him to Chicago in Muncie, Indiana. The son of affluent Polish- later in 1916. He was also assigned briefly to Jewish immigrants, he received his undergrad- Milwaukee, St. Paul, and New York, before UP uate degree from the University of Chicago in moved him to the nation’s capital in 1923 to 1914, a law degree from the University of manage its Washington bureau. He held that Chicago the next year, and a second law degree post until 1933, when he published the book from Harvard Law School in 1916. His legal Racketeering in Washington. talent attracted the attention of FELIX FRANK- In 1933, Clapper moved to the Washington FURTER and LOUIS BRANDEIS, who arranged Post as its bureau chief. The next year, he began federal employment for him during Woodrow his daily column, “Between You and Me.” Wilson’s administration. From 1922 to 1933, When his contract expired, he was hired by the Cohen practiced law on Wall Street. 52 Collier, John

After the New Deal was launched in 1933, Atlanta, Georgia. His mother died when he Brandeis and Frankfurter brought Cohen to the was 13, and his father died three years later. nation’s capital. He worked with two other of Convinced that his father had committed sui- Felix Frankfurter’s legendary “Happy Hotdogs,” cide, Collier vowed to dedicate his life to pub- JAMES LANDIS and THOMAS CORCORAN,to lic service instead of worldly success. He refine the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securi- attended Columbia University and the Collège ties Exchange Act of 1934, which established the de France during the first decade of the 20th Securities Exchange Commission (SEC). The century but did not earn a degree. During the Cohen-Corcoran team drafted much New Deal next decade, he worked with immigrants, legislation, including the acts establishing the mostly in New York City, and concluded that Federal Housing Administration and the Ten- preserving one’s heritage was consistent with nessee Valley Authority; the extension of the becoming an American. Reconstruction Finance Corporation; the Public It was in 1920 that Collier found his calling Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, designed after observing traditional Pueblo Indian to regulate giant utility corporations; the Rural dances in Taos, New Mexico. He was inspired Electrification Act of 1935; and the Fair Labor by their culture and community spirit and Standards Act of 1938. Indefatigable workers, made a lifelong commitment to preserving Cohen and Corcoran drafted the legislation, tribal life as an alternative to assimilation into helped to shepherd it through Congress, and modern American society. He worked as a lob- defended it in court when needed. byist in Washington, D.C., for the American Cohen’s legal abilities continued to help Indian Defense Association, which he founded FDR during World War II. He gave the pres- in 1923, and attracted national attention as an ident legal advice on the 1940 destroyers-for- Indian reformer. bases deal with the British, and he was Collier’s efforts were recognized in 1933 responsible for drafting the Lend-Lease Act. when FDR appointed him as commissioner of Serving as the general counsel to the Office of Indian affairs. He thus became FDR’s agent to War Mobilization, he drafted the agreement bring a “New Deal” to Native Americans. He for the Dumbarton Oaks conference in Wash- worked to enact the Johnson-O’Malley Act of ington, D.C., which led to the United Nations 1934, which allowed the federal government Charter. Cohen was the epitome of a presiden- to contract with the states to provide educa- tial assistant with a “passion for anonymity,” as tional, medical, and social welfare services to White House adviser LOUIS BROWNLOW American Indians. The cornerstone legislation called for in the modern presidency. Never was the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and seeking the limelight, he was simply another the formation of an Indian Arts and Crafts pair of competent hands for the president when Board in 1935 to market Indian-made items. help was needed. He died on August 15, 1983, Collier arranged for federal agencies to bring in Washington, D.C. New Deal relief programs to reservations and he organized a separate Indian Civilian Con- servation Corps. Collier, John Collier was an idealist who tended to (1884–1968) commissioner of Indian affairs romanticize American Indian culture, and his initiatives suffered setbacks from Congress, the Born on May 4, 1884, John Collier was the son administration, and Indians themselves. The of a prominent banker who was mayor of Navajo voted against the Indian Reorganiza- Cooke, Morris Llewellyn 53 tion Act, the Senate Indian Affairs Committee branch. As a southerner, he supported states’ criticized him for advocating segregation, and rights against federal power and was against Secretary of War HENRY STIMSON rejected legislation that favored African Americans and Collier’s call for separate Indian military units. organized labor. He resigned as commissioner in early 1945. He Connally was, however, an internationalist died on May 8, 1968, in Talpa, New Mexico. and liberal on foreign policy. He served as either the chairman or the ranking minority member on the Senate Foreign Relations Com- Connally, Thomas Terry mittee from 1941 until his retirement. He died (Tom Connally) on October 28, 1963, in Washington, D.C. (1877–1963) U.S. congressman, U.S. senator

Born on August 19, 1877, in Hewitt, Texas, the Cooke, Morris Llewellyn son of well-to-do Texas farmers, Tom Connally (1872–1960) director, Rural Electrification graduated in 1896 from Baylor College and Administration earned his law degree from the University of Texas in 1898. He enlisted in the Second Texas Morris Cooke was born on May 11, 1872, one Infantry Volunteers during the Spanish-Ameri- of eight children; his father was a physician. can War, but illness kept him stateside. He Cooke received a degree in mechanical engi- began practicing law and was elected to the neering from Lehigh University in 1895. Ever Texas House of Representatives for two terms energetic, while in college he worked for sev- and then served from 1906 to 1910 as a county eral newspapers and as a machinist. He served prosecutor. He resumed a successful law practice as an assistant engineer in the navy in the Span- until he was elected in 1916 to the U.S. House ish-American War and then entered the print- of Representatives. Two years later, he volun- ing business. In 1900, he married heiress teered for military service and was commis- Eleanor Bushnell, who shared his progressive sioned as an army officer, but again illness kept beliefs. him stateside. He returned to Congress, where, One of the great influences on Cooke’s with the help of JOHN NANCE GARNER (D- professional life was Frederick W. Taylor, a Tex.), he landed a seat on the House Foreign mechanical engineer he met in 1903. Taylor Affairs Committee and supported Woodrow selected Cooke as one of the four engineers to Wilson’s foreign policy. learn his approach to scientific management, In 1928, Connally unseated a one-term which Cooke utilized after establishing his own incumbent for the U.S. Senate. An admirer of engineering consulting firm in 1905. Philadel- William Jennings Bryan, after whom he mod- phia’s reform mayor, Rudolf Blackenburg, eled his colorful oratory and appearance, Con- appointed him as director of the city’s Depart- nally became an early FDR backer, helping to ment of Public Works (1911–15), where Cooke persuade Garner to support Roosevelt at the applied Taylor’s scientific management meth- 1932 Democratic convention. He also sup- ods for industry to local government and ported the early New Deal. However, the achieved considerable savings. He performed court-packing scheme so enraged Connally that similarly during World War I, serving on the he and FDR did not speak to each other for War Industries Board and then as executive two years. He also opposed the Reorganization assistant to the chairman of the U.S. Shipping Act of 1939, which strengthened the executive Board. As a progressive Republican himself, 54 Copland, Aaron

Pennsylvania governor Gifford Pinchot made Texan. Copland learned basic composition and Cooke an economic adviser and appointed him harmony through a correspondence course and to head a survey (1923–25) for rural electrifi- later regretted that he had never attended col- cation and state reorganization of the electric lege. However, he went to France in 1920 and industry. met Nadia Boulanger, considered one of the Cooke’s work in Pennsylvania caught the best teachers of musical composition of her era. attention of New York governor Franklin Roo- Copland became her first great student; under sevelt, who appointed him to the Power her tutelage, he developed a compositional Authority of the State of New York in 1929. It voice epitomizing American themes. also led Cooke to join the Democratic Party By the 1930s, Copland had become a and support FDR’s presidential bid in 1932. staunch FDR Democrat. As FDR established The next year, the president made him chair, his New Deal for America and Good Neighbor first of the Mississippi Valley Committee of the policy toward Latin America in the 1930s and Public Works Committee, then of the National 1940s, Copland completed some of his most Power Policy Committee, as well as a member famous works, musical equivalents to FDR’s of planning committees. political programs, during the same time. For Cooke considered rural electrification as example, El Salon Mexico (1936), A Lincoln Por- his most important contribution. FDR made trait (1942), Fanfare for the Common Man (1942), him the first director of the Rural Electrifica- and Appalachian Spring (1944) were the distinctly tion Administration (1935–37), which was American musical works that reflected the spirit established to finance construction of power of FDR’s leadership. Copland’s mother’s south- distribution systems in rural areas that lacked western background was reflected in Billy the electricity. As an advocate for national eco- Kid (1938) and Rodeo (1932). That egalitarian nomic planning and conservation, he was on dimension of his music, especially associated the cusp of those developing issues during the with America’s West, was also reflected in his Great Depression when economic growth took personal openness and unpretentiousness. precedence. He designed a 25-year economic During the next two decades, Copland cre- and ecological plan for the Midwest when he ated music for films and orchestras before his was appointed in 1937 to chair the Great Plains retirement in 1970. He died on December 2, Drought Area Committee. During World War 1990, in Terrytown, New York. II, Cooke became a technical consultant to the Office of Production Management and headed a technical mission to Brazil. He died on Corcoran, Thomas Gardiner March 5, 1960, in Philadelphia. (“The Cork”) (1900–1981) Reconstruction Finance Corpora- tion lawyer, FDR speechwriter Copland, Aaron (1900–1990) composer Born on December 29, 1900, in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, to an upper-class Irish-American Born on November 14, 1900, in Brooklyn, family, Thomas Corcoran excelled in school. He New York, Aaron Copland was the youngest of was valedictorian at Brown University and edi- five children of Russian Jewish immigrant tor of the law review at Harvard Law School, shopkeepers. His mother had attended high where he became a favorite pupil of Professor school in Dallas and considered herself a FELIX FRANKFURTER.After graduating in 1925, Coughlin, Charles Edward 55

Corcoran remained an extra year to earn a of the covert team spearheading FDR’s doctorate of juristic science. On Frankfurter’s unprecedented third-term bid in 1940. recommendation, he then served a year as sec- Corcoran resigned from the RFC in 1940 retary to Supreme Court justice Oliver Wen- to campaign openly for FDR’s reelection. dell Holmes, Jr. He practiced law on Wall Because of Senate hostility and a break with Street for five years before accepting his first Frankfurter, who had declined to support Cor- federal job in 1932. He joined the legal staff of coran’s nomination as solicitor general, he was the Reconstruction Finance Corporation not brought back into the administration. (RFC), which had been established by HER- Instead, he married his longtime secretary and BERT HOOVER to revive the nation’s businesses began a family as well as one of the most suc- and financial institutions. He remained with cessful lobbying firms in the capital. He died the RFC until 1940. on December 6, 1981, in Washington, D.C. Like other important players in the Roo- sevelt administration, Corcoran’s minor formal position belied his real status and the role he Coughlin, Charles Edward played in the New Deal. While Felix Frank- (1891–1979) radio personality furter taught at Harvard Law School, Corco- ran served as Frankfurter’s designated agent in Charles Coughlin was born on October 25, the capital for the first three years while estab- 1891, in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. The lishing his own independent power base. Cor- only child of devout parents of Irish Catholic coran placed hundreds of attorneys in descent, he was shaped by his religion and government jobs. His closest association was with legal counsel BENJAMIN COHEN, with whom he teamed to draft legislation and per- suade Congress to accept it. Cohen acted as the primary drafter, and Corcoran lobbied the legislation using his intellect, wit, and personal charm. He was known as the life—and the music—of any party, for he would bring along his accordion to dinner parties and entertain. FDR enjoyed his company and appreciated his writing skills. He was the principal writer of FDR’s 1936 acceptance speech at the Demo- cratic National Convention in Philadelphia, coining the famous “rendezvous with destiny” phrase. He became too well known to conser- vative Democrats in Congress to remain a behind-the-scenes “passionate anonym” (as the media called the additional federal bureaucrats recommended by the LOUIS BROWNLOW committee). He had lobbied for the disastrous Court-packing plan of 1937, orchestrated FDR’s campaign to purge conservatives from Father Charles Coughlin addressing a convention, the Senate in 1938, and was an active member 1936 (Library of Congress) 56 Couzens, James Joseph, Jr.

education in local parish schools in Ontario to The campaign flopped, but some scholars become a priest. He was ordained in 1916 and believe it helped to push FDR in a more radi- taught in Canada for seven years. He then cal direction. He also may have learned his own moved to Michigan, where he served as a mastery of the radio from listening to the parish priest for three years before being “radio priest’s” sermons. assigned to the new parish in Detroit where he After Coughlin’s attacks became too extreme would serve until his death. Because his church and openly anti-Semitic, his influence dimin- was under attack by the Ku Klux Klan and in ished, especially after America’s entry into World financial trouble, he began to broadcast his War II. His magazine was banned from the U.S. Sunday sermons on a local radio station in mails as seditious, and the American Catholic 1926. The sermons became a hit, and in 1930 hierarchy stopped his broadcasts in May 1942. CBS radio began broadcasting them as “The He died in Detroit on October 27, 1979. Golden Hour from the Little Flower.” The program attracted huge national audiences, in part because of Coughlin’s made-for-radio Couzens, James Joseph, Jr. voice—rich, mellifluous, and dramatic. (1872–1936) U.S. Senator After the Great Depression struck, Cough- lin’s sermons took on political overtones, and James Couzens was born in Chatham, Ontario, they became a populist critique of corporate Canada, on August 26, 1872. Not only was he America. He became the most listened-to man geographically an outsider, but also he was the in America and required a staff of more than son of immigrants from England, a lower-class 100 to answer mail. Coughlin met FDR in family who lived on the wrong side of town. 1932 and initially admired him, endorsing With only two years of bookkeeping education Roosevelt’s candidacy for president and telling at Chatham’s Canada Business College, in 1890 his listeners it was “Roosevelt or ruin.” As the he set out for Detroit to make his mark in the White House staff began to distance itself from United States. him, Coughlin changed his view of the New Couzens first began working for the Deal, and by late 1934 he had created the Michigan Central Railroad. In 1895, he National Union for Social Justice and the mag- became a bookkeeper for Alex Malcomson’s azine Social Justice. The American public was fuel company, work that brought him into con- sending more mail to him than to anyone in tact with another highly energetic individual, the United States, including the president. HENRY FORD.Malcomson and Couzens In 1935, after Roosevelt proposed U.S. entered into an arrangement to finance Ford’s membership in the World Court, Coughlin, an mechanical talent to manufacture automobiles. isolationist, mounted a campaign that bom- Couzens, who became the Ford company busi- barded Congress with so much negative mail ness manager in 1903, made Ford produce a that it failed to ratify the treaty. It was FDR’s vehicle that could be sold immediately rather first major legislative defeat. That same year, than indulge Ford’s tendency to invest endless Coughlin formed an alliance with other New time perfecting his model. Deal critics, especially Senators HUEY LONG By 1913, Couzens’s boundless energy was and FRANCIS TOWNSEND, called the Union focused on Detroit’s incomplete public trans- Party. They hoped to run Long for president in portation system. He resigned from his man- 1936, but his assassination in September 1935 agerial position with Ford Motor Company in forced them to back WILLIAM LEMKE instead. 1915 over disputes triggered by Ford’s quirky Cowley, Malcolm 57 personality, and in 1916 he was appointed as ity Holding Company Act, and the Works Pro- Detroit’s police commissioner. Three years ject Administration. later, Couzens sold out his investment in the Through it all, Couzens seemed to Ford Company, and he became a multimil- remember his roots and so liked to chastise the lionaire. By this time, he was already a full- Republican Old Guard, conservative time politician, having been elected as mayor Democrats, the American Liberty League, and of Detroit in 1918 and reelected in 1921. His the Hearst press. He also spent a large amount persistence resulted in bringing about munic- of his own fortune on establishing the Chil- ipal ownership of the city’s transportation sys- dren’s Fund of Michigan in 1934, yet he tem in 1922. adamantly refused to let his name be used in Couzens’s reputation for honesty and association with the project. accomplishment led to his appointment in Lacking the typical rhetorical and diplo- 1922 to fill the unexpired term of Michigan’s matic skills of a politician, Couzens rejected an incumbent U.S. senator, who had resigned offer to run as a Democrat in the 1936 Senate amidst a corruption scandal. Although he was race. Instead, he endorsed FDR’s reelection bid a Republican, Couzens began his 14-year Sen- before the September Republican primary in ate career as an independent maverick who Michigan, dooming his own chance for reelec- seemingly enjoyed tweaking the establish- tion. His son, Frank, however, served as ment. He opposed the scheme of his former Detroit’s mayor from 1933 to 1938. Couzens business partner Henry Ford to buy the pub- developed uremic poisoning and died in licly owned Muscle Shoals and instead sup- Detroit on October 22, 1936, leaving his wife ported Nebraska senator GEORGE NORRIS’s of 38 years and their five children. proposal that the hydroelectric facilities be operated by the federal government. He also opposed the tax proposals of the secretary of Cowley, Malcolm the Treasury, fellow Republican ANDREW (1898–1989) literary critic, magazine editor MELLON, and instead sponsored a surtax on the wealthy. A leftist intellectual, Malcolm Cowley not only Couzens’s support of the New Deal was served as editor of the New Republic magazine strong enough to earn him the appellation from 1929 to 1944 but also was involved in sig- “New Deal Republican,” although he person- nificant literary and political events that tran- ally objected to that characterization. Franklin spired during the Great Depression, World Roosevelt tried in 1933 to co-opt him by War II, and the postwar period. As his political including him as a U.S. representative to the views came under attack in the 1940s, he shifted World Economic and Monetary Conference his focus more to literary matters, with consid- in London. When American banks began col- erably greater success, through the 1970s. lapsing in 1933, Couzens received much blame Cowley was born on August 24, 1898, in as a member of the Senate banking and cur- Belsano, Pennsylvania, to a physician father rency committee. He supported FERDINAND and homemaker mother. His boyhood was PECORA’s investigations of the nation’s banking spent on the family farm. He attended public and investment networks. He also supported schools in Pittsburgh and entered Harvard in the Civilian Conservation Corps, the National 1915 but left three years later to serve with the Recovery Administration, Social Security, the American Field Service in France during National Labor Relations Act, the Public Util- World War I. He then returned to Harvard 58 Cox, Edward Eugene

but stayed only briefly before leaving again to postwar period. Cowley died on March 28, receive military training in Kentucky with the 1989, in New Milford, Connecticut. U.S. Army. After he married Marguerite “Peggy” Baird in 1919, he returned to Har- vard and graduated in 1920. Cox, Edward Eugene Cowley and his wife, a painter, lived in (1880–1952) U.S. congressman New York’s Greenwich Village for two years and then moved to France, where he studied Edward Cox was born on April 3, 1880, near French literature at the University of Mont- Camilla, Georgia, where he attended local pellier, which granted him a diploma in 1922. public schools. He graduated from Mercer While abroad, he met many American expatri- University with a law degree in 1902 and was ate writers, including ERNEST HEMINGWAY, admitted to the bar that same year. After Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein, Hart Crane, and beginning his law practice, Cox was soon Allen Tate. In 1929, he succeeded Edmund involved in local politics, winning his first race Wilson as the editor of New Republic. He and becoming mayor of Camilla for two years divorced his wife in 1931 and the following (1904–06). In 1908, he served as a delegate to year married Muriel Maurer, with whom he the Democratic National Convention. He was had his only child. first appointed and subsequently elected as a Cowley never joined the Communist judge of the superior court of the Albany cir- Party, but he helped to move the New Republic cuit, serving from 1912 to 1916 when he further to the left. In September 1932, he resigned to run as a Democrat for the U.S. joined more than 50 other prominent intellec- House of Representatives. He lost the elec- tuals in signing a letter that endorsed Commu- tion but ran again and was elected in 1924. He nist Party leader WILLIAM Z. FOSTER in his was reelected 13 consecutive times through presidential bid. Three years later, Cowley 1952. helped to organize the liberal League of Amer- Cox supported the Public Utility Holding ican Writers, but he resigned in 1940 after it Act of 1935 but turned against the New Deal became affiliated with communists. during Franklin Roosevelt’s second term. A During World War II, ARCHIBALD typical white southerner who championed MACLEISH recruited Cowley for the Office of states rights and private property, he became Facts and Figures in the nation’s capital. Cow- enraged over “sit-down” strikes. He equated ley was soon under surveillance by the Federal Franklin Roosevelt’s tolerance for the newly Bureau of Investigation and under public organized Congress of Industrial Organiza- attack. In 1942 he was criticized in the media tions (CIO) as evidence that FDR harbored by journalists Whittaker Chambers and WEST- radical intentions. Cox opposed FDR’s Court- BROOK PEGLER as well as by Congressman packing plan, the executive reorganization MARTIN DIES (D-Tex.) for communist associa- plan, the Works Projects Administration, and tions. Cowley resigned his government posi- the National Labor Relations Board. He tion that same year. became a leader among members of the Con- Moving from the political to the literary servative Coalition of southern Democrats who world afforded Cowley greater success, which often voted with northern Republicans after including bringing public attention to a num- 1937. ber of writers. He is credited for the renewed Cox died on December 24, 1952, in Beth- interest in WILLIAM FAULKNER during the esda, Maryland. Crowley, Leo Thomas 59

Crowley, Leo Thomas chairman of the Reconstruction Finance Cor- (1889–1972) Federal Deposit Insurance Corpo- poration (RFC), and with Federal Farm Bureau ration chairman, alien property custodian; head chairman HENRY MORGENTHAU, JR., who in of Office of Economic Workforce and Foreign October 1933 appointed Crowley coordinator Economic Administration of the Seventh Farm District for the Farm Credit Administration. Crowley’s typical energy Leo Crowley was born in 1889 into a conser- and pluck earned him praise from both busi- vative Catholic family in Junction, Wisconsin. nessmen and politicians. His family subsequently moved to Madison, In 1934, FDR named Crowley to head the where he was raised. His father’s early death new Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation from tuberculosis and his older brothers’ (FDIC), headquartered in the nation’s capital injuries in railroad accidents forced Crowley and charged with oversight of the process to to quit school and find a job to support his bring troubled banks into the insurance pro- mother and siblings. Always a hard worker, he gram. The next year, Crowley helped to gain was able to buy an interest in a wholesale paper congressional passage of banking regulatory and supply company by 1910. Applying his legislation. He also acted as a liaison between innate talents, personality, and industrious- the New Deal and La Follette and his brother ness, he worked his way to the top in eight ROBERT LA FOLLETTE in the 1936 and 1940 years, becoming company president with presidential elections. In 1939, he also became investments in banking and real estate. By the chairman of Standard Gas and Electric, a major 1920s, he was president of the State Bank of public utility company. Wisconsin and director of First Wisconsin Crowley had not only FDR’s favor but Bankshares, making him the most influential also that of FDR’s “assistant president,” JAMES banker in the state by the end of that decade. BYRNES, who acted as his patron during Unfortunately, the stock-market crash World War II. Over Morgenthau’s objections, plunged him deeply into debt, and he was Crowley was appointed in 1942 as the alien forced to quit his position as bank president. property custodian. The next year, because of The State Bank failed in 1932. conflict between Vice President HENRY WAL- It was Crowley’s Democratic Party political LACE and Jesse Jones, Byrnes persuaded FDR connections that provided him the avenue to to appoint Crowley to head first the new make his comeback. Wisconsin governor Office of Economic Warfare and then the PHILIP LA FOLLETTE named Crowley as chair Foreign Economic Administration, which of the Wisconsin Banking Review Board in oversaw economic operations overseas, 1932. La Follette’s successor, Democratic gov- including the lend-lease program to Britain. ernor Albert G. Schmedeman, came to rely on After winning the extension of the lend-lease Crowley behind the scenes. Crowley previously program in 1944, Crowley began to be criti- had helped to direct Schmedeman’s successful cized in the media, and by March 1944 he had gubernatorial campaign in 1932; at the same resigned his alien property appointment. time, he supported Franklin Roosevelt’s presi- After HARRY S. TRUMAN became president, dential bid. He adeptly drafted Wisconsin’s Crowley left the administration, and in banking holiday proclamation in March 1933 December 1945 he became the head of the and quickly gained FDR’s approval for it. Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Addressing bank liquidity and farm mortgages Railroad, a position he held through the in the state, he worked with JESSE JONES, 1960s. He died on April 15, 1972. 60 Crump, Edward Hull

Crump, Edward Hull to 1945. He also served in the U.S. House of (1874–1954) political boss, U.S. congressman Representatives from 1931 to 1935. He often combined politics with business and culture. Born in Holly Springs, Mississippi, on October The “Father of the Blues,” W. C. Handy, com- 2, 1874, Edward Crump was the son of a posed a marching song for Crump that later planter father and housewife mother. His became famous as the “Memphis Blues.” father, a Confederate veteran, died when he Despite his Deep South roots, Crump was only three years old, forcing his mother to strongly opposed the Ku Klux Klan, which abandon the family plantation and move to helped gain him the support of African-Amer- town. During his youth, Crump held a series of ican voters. He supported the presidential odd jobs before he moved to Memphis, Ten- candidacies of AL SMITH and Franklin Roo- nessee, when he was 17 years old. There he sevelt. During Crump’s reign as a political took a job at a harness shop, which he bought boss, the crime rate in Memphis declined, and from the owners eight years later. He married he brought about a system of municipally Bessie Byrd McLean in 1902, and they had owned public utilities. He demanded effi- three children. ciency and honesty in the expenditure of pub- Always ambitious, Crump was soon active lic funds. in Democratic Party politics in his adopted During the postwar period, Crump state. He attended the state party conventions became critical of HARRY TRUMAN, ELEANOR in 1902 and 1904. The next year, he won a seat ROOSEVELT, and Senator Estes Kefauver (D- on the Memphis city council while simultane- Tenn.) for moving the Democratic Party too ously serving on the city’s Board of Public far to the left. He often accused others of hav- Works. In 1907, he was elected fire and police ing communist sympathies. He died on Octo- commissioner on a reform platform to rid col- ber 16, 1954, in Memphis. lusion between public utilities and local gov- ernment. He next ran for mayor of Memphis and was elected in 1910. From 1917 to 1923, Cummings, Homer Stille he was treasurer of Shelby County, Tennessee’s (1870–1956) U.S. attorney general largest county. Crump built a strong urban political The son of a Chicago businessman, Homer machine that supported candidates for the Cummings was born on April 30, 1870, in next four decades. His machine’s strength per- Chicago. He was educated at Heathcote haps peaked at the 1940 Democratic National School in upstate New York before entering Convention in Chicago when it aligned with Yale University for his undergraduate degree those of EDWARD KELLY in Chicago, FRANK in engineering. He graduated from Yale Law HAGUE in Jersey City, EDWARD FLYNN in School in 1893 and then began practicing law New York, and THOMAS PENDERGAST in in Stamford, Connecticut. His first love, how- Kansas City to deliver Franklin Roosevelt the ever, was politics, and he was a William Jen- nomination for an unprecedented third pres- nings Bryan partisan. In 1900, Cummings was idential term. elected to the first of three terms as Stam- Crump also served as a delegate to many ford’s mayor. He was the state’s attorney in Democratic national conventions between Fairfield County from 1914 to 1924 and the 1912 and 1948 and was a member of the Democratic Party national chairman from Democratic National Committee from 1936 1914 to 1920. Currie, Lauchlin 61

Cummings supported Franklin Roosevelt ate. He taught at Harvard from 1927 to 1934, in 1932, helping FDR’s delegate search at the and he also taught at the Fletcher School of Chicago convention and delivering a second- Law and Diplomacy. After he became a natu- ing speech for him. FDR reciprocated by first ralized citizen of the United States in 1934, he offering him the governor-generalship of the began his involvement with the New Deal. He Philippine Islands. After the sudden death of started working at the Treasury Department in his attorney general–designate Thomas Walsh, Washington, D.C., where he became a friend however, FDR named Cummings to that post. of MARRINER ECCLES, the special assistant on In his new position, Cummings expanded fed- monetary and credit matters. eral criminal prosecutions and recruited better After Eccles became the head of the Fed- lawyers, such as ROBERT JACKSON, into the eral Reserve Board in November 1934, Cur- Justice Department. But he faced a series of rie began to work there as assistant director defeats in 1935–36 as the Supreme Court over- of the Research and Statistics Division. In turned New Deal statutes. Unfortunately, his that position, he helped draft the Banking Act judgment was clouded by the 1936 landslide of 1935, centralizing control of the Federal presidential victory, and he shared FDR’s over- Reserve System through the new board of confidence in the mandate as well as his desire governors in Washington, D.C. The previ- for revenge against the Court’s judicial ous year he had published an influential book, activists. Rejecting the option of a constitu- The Supply and Control of Money in the United tional amendment as too slow, he secretly States (1934), which advocated government drafted the Judicial Reorganization bill of spending to recover from the Great Depres- 1937—commonly called the Court-packing sion. Currie influenced Eccles to persuade plan—after discovering that former attorney FDR to resume federal expenditures to general JAMES MCREYNOLDS had drafted a counter the recession of 1937. He became similar plan before he was appointed to the one of the most influential advocates of the Supreme Court. The backlash against the pro- theories of economist JOHN MAYNARD posal in Congress led to the emergence of a KEYNES. bipartisan conservative coalition against the The enactment of the Reorganization New Deal. Cummings resigned in 1939 after Act of 1939 led to the creation of a formal having served one of the longest tenures of any White House staff consisting of six new attorney general. He died on September 10, administrative assistants (“passionate ano- 1956, in Washington, D.C. nyms,” as the press referred to them) and the Executive Office of the President. FDR appointed Currie, the first economist on the Currie, Lauchlin White House staff, as “passionate anonym” (1902–1993) assistant for economic affairs, responsible to the president for economic director of aid to China affairs. When the White House office staff later expanded from six to 600—never Lauchlin Currie was born on October 8, 1902, intended by the LOUIS BROWNLOW Com- in New Dublin, Nova Scotia, Canada. He was mittee—that position led to the larger post- a well-educated economist who received his war Council of Economic Advisers. A limited education from St. Francis Xavier University, staff grew into a bureaucracy. the London School of Economics, and Har- During World War II, Currie’s attention vard University, where he received his doctor- turned toward foreign affairs. Serving on the 62 Currie, Lauchlin

Foreign Economic Administration in China, Un-American Activities Committee, which Currie worked on the lend-lease program. In led him ultimately to renounce his American the postwar era of McCarthyism, he was citizenship in 1958. He died on December 23, investigated by the House of Representatives’ 1993, in Bogotá, Colombia. D w

Daladier, Édouard the third time in 1938 by allying his party with (1884–1970) French premier conservatives in the Chamber of Deputies. Yet at the Munich Conference in September 1938, Born in Carpentras, France, on June 18, 1884, he misread ADOLF HITLER and followed Édouard Daladier was the son of a baker. He British prime minister NEVILLE CHAMBER- was a history teacher prior to being elected to LAIN’s appeasement policy by ceding Czecho- the Chamber of Deputies in 1919, and he slovakia’s Sudetenland to Nazi Germany in the served as a leading Radical Socialist Party Munich Pact. deputy from 1919 to 1940. During his career, After Hitler invaded Poland in September Daladier held several cabinet posts, beginning 1939, Daladier joined the British in declaring as minister of colonies in 1924. In the late 1920s war on Nazi Germany. On March 20, 1940, he and early 1930s, he was minister of public was replaced as premier by his rival, Paul Rey- instruction and minister of public works. Later naud, another leader seen as a strong man. he was minister of national defense in Premier Daladier continued to serve in the cabinet, first LEON BLUM’s cabinet from 1936 to 1937 and in as minister of war and then as minister of for- successive cabinets, including his own, until eign affairs, until June 16, 1940. Five days later, May 1940. The French were looking for strong the Vichy government arrested him with other men, and Daladier, who had survived the battle parliamentary leaders who were planning to set of Verdun, seemed to fit the bill. He served as up a government in exile. He was put on pub- premier from January to October 1933; in Jan- lic trial in 1941 after France’s defeat. Accused uary and February 1934; and, for the third and with other republican leaders of causing the longest time, from April 1938 to March 20, defeat, Daladier denounced the Vichy dicta- 1940. His knowledge of history and experience torship. He defended himself so well that the should have served him well; unfortunately just proceedings were suspended, and he was the opposite proved to be true. deported to Nazi Germany as a political pris- In 1935, Daladier led his Radical Party into oner in 1943. He remained there until the the leftist Popular Front coalition with Pre- April 1945 liberation by American troops. mier Léon Blum’s Socialist Party and the Com- During the postwar period, Daladier was munist Party. When the Popular Front elected once more to the Chamber of Deputies, coalition collapsed, he became the premier for where he served from 1945 until the collapse of

63 64 Davis, James John

the Fourth Republic in 1958. He died in Paris tensions and was successful in three out of the on October 10, 1970. four senatorial campaigns he ran. He supported New Deal measures that favored minimum wages, maximum hours, collective bargaining, Davis, James John and unemployment assistance, while at the (1873–1947) U.S. senator same time, he criticized the growing federal bureaucracy and budget deficits. Toeing the Born on October 27, 1873, in Tredegar, South Republican line, he condemned FDR’s Court- Wales, Davis was eight years old when his fam- packing plan along with the recommendations ily emigrated to the United States. The family of the LOUIS BROWNLOW committee on reor- first settled in Pittsburgh and later moved to ganization of the executive branch. Sharon, Pennsylvania. He attended public Davis was defeated in his 1944 reelection schools and business college in Sharon while bid and returned to work for the Loyal Order of working in local mills. He made a fourth move Moose in support of its educational and other in 1893, relocating to Elwood, Indiana, where organizational activities. He died in Takoma he continued to work in steel and tin plate mills. Park, Maryland, on November 22, 1947. He held several positions in the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers of America, and within five years of moving to Dawes, Charles Gates Elwood, he had become city clerk. In 1903, he (1865–1951) Reconstruction Finance became recorder for Madison County, Indiana, Corporation director a position he held for five years. Davis uprooted the life he had established Born in Marietta, Ohio, on August 27, 1865, for himself in Elwood when he moved to Pitts- Charles Dawes was the son of a Civil War gen- burgh, Pennsylvania, in 1907 to work for the eral who later established himself in the lumber Loyal Order of Moose, a civic and social orga- business and was elected to Congress for one nization, as its director general. He was chair- term. Dawes earned his undergraduate degree man of the Loyal Order of Moose War Relief at Marietta College in 1884, entered Cincin- Commission in 1918, and in that capacity he nati Law School, from which he obtained his made trips to visit relief camps throughout the law degree in 1886, and then returned to Mari- United States, Canada, and Europe. He then etta and earned his graduate degree in 1887. came to the attention of President Warren G. He moved that same year to Lincoln, Harding, who appointed Davis as his secretary Nebraska, and opened his law practice. Two of labor in 1921. Davis retained that post in the years later, he married Caro Blymyer of presidential cabinets of Calvin Coolidge and Cincinnati. The couple had two children and HERBERT HOOVER.He resigned in 1930 to run adopted two more. successfully as a Republican for a U.S. Senate Dawes’s law practice and real-estate invest- seat made available by the Senate’s refusal to ments made him not only wealthy but also seat Pennsylvania’s William S. Vare. increasingly conservative. In Lincoln, he Davis remained in the Senate until 1945. became friends with both John J. Pershing and He was caught in the political middle, given his William Jennings Bryan. During the 1890s, he party affiliation versus his own labor and union became wealthier through his purchases of gas background as well as the union strength within plants, one of which was located in Evanston, the state. He tried to reconcile these conflicting Illinois, where he relocated with his family. Dawson, Mary Williams 65

Dawes also moved into the political world, bank survived the crisis and it may have helped serving as William McKinley’s western treasurer to stabilize other Chicago banks. His abrupt during the 1896 presidential campaign. After resignation from the RFC to save his bank sug- McKinley became president, he appointed gested the dire condition of the nation’s finan- Dawes comptroller of the currency, a position cial system that FDR faced on assuming the that Dawes held until 1901, when he resigned to presidency. make an unsuccessful bid for the Republican Franklin Roosevelt’s election in 1932 ended nomination for the U.S. Senate. Dawes’s political career and influence. He In 1902, Dawes became the president of a opposed American involvement in World War newly founded bank, the Central Trust Com- II. He died on April 23, 1951, in Evanston, pany of Illinois, leaving that post during World Illinois. War I to become part of the American Expedi- tionary Force. His old friend Pershing made him the head of the General Purchasing Board, Dawson, Mary Williams the Military Board of Allied Supply, and the (Molly Dawson) U.S. Liquidation Commission. This experi- (1874–1962) director, Women’s Division, ence led to his 1921 appointment by President Democratic National Committee; member, Warren Harding as the first director of the Committee on Economic Security; member, Bureau of the Budget. The next year, he Social Security Board chaired the commission charged with adjusting Germany’s reparations from World War I by Molly Dawson was born on February 18, 1874. obtaining American loans, an approach dubbed After graduating from Wellesley College, she the Dawes Plan. For this work, which helped to worked as an economic researcher for the save the European financial system, he shared Women’s Educational and Industrial Union in the 1925 Nobel Peace Prize with Sir J. Austen Boston, then served a dozen years as the super- Chamberlain. Riding the crest of acclaim, he intendent of parole at the Massachusetts State became Calvin Coolidge’s vice-presidential Industrial School for Girls. A suffragette, she running mate in 1924. Dawes campaigned not operated a dairy farm with her lifetime partner, only against the Democrats but also against Mary (Polly) Porter. The two served as social Progressive candidate ROBERT M. LA FOL- workers with the American Red Cross in LETTE and against the Ku Klux Klan. France during World I and then returned to In 1928, Dawes declined the opportunity New York City. Dawson worked with the to run for the presidency. HERBERT HOOVER National Consumers League (1919–31) and as appointed him as ambassador to Great Britain, the civic secretary of the Women’s City Club, and he held that post from June 1929 to Jan- the prominent reform organization, whose vice uary 1932. Hoover then named him to head president was ELEANOR ROOSEVELT. the new Reconstruction Finance Corporation Through her connection with Eleanor (RFC), the president’s major effort to combat Roosevelt, Dawson became a Democratic the Great Depression. The RFC’s purpose was Party operative by working on AL SMITH’s to lend federal funds to prop up the nation’s 1928 presidential campaign, Franklin Roo- economy. After less than six months, Dawes sevelt’s reelection campaign for the New York resigned the position to return to his own bank governorship in 1930, and as head of the in Chicago and seek a large RFC loan himself. women’s activities in FDR’s 1932 presidential Dawes was criticized for his action, but his bid. She successfully promoted FRANCES 66 Dennis, Lawrence

PERKINS for secretary of labor in his cabinet. In Dennis joined the U.S. State Department 1933, National Democratic Committee chair- in 1921 as a Foreign Service officer. He served man JAMES FARLEY named Dawson the chief both in Europe (Romania and France) and leader of the Democratic Party women, and Central America (Haiti, Honduras, and she headed the Women’s Division of the Nicaragua). He became critical of how Ameri- Democratic National Committee and then its can corporations used the State Department to advisory committee through 1957. further their economic interests, and in 1927 In 1934, FDR appointed Dawson as a he resigned to become the representative in member of the Committee on Economic Secu- Peru of J. W. Seligman and Company, an rity, where she contributed to the report that investment bank. He resigned that position became the basis for the Social Security Act of three years later to serve as a witness against 1935. The Roosevelts rewarded her loyal ser- Wall Street during the PECORA investigations vice by naming her in 1937 to the new Social of the stock-market crash. Security Board. Ill health forced her retirement Dennis launched his writing career as an from government service the next year, outgrowth of his criticisms of U.S. intervention although she worked briefly in the 1940 presi- in Latin America. His first book, Is Capitalism dential campaign. In many ways her work epit- Doomed? (1932), criticized business and omized the “passion for anonymity” that LOUIS asserted that government was needed to BROWNLOW had recommended for an resolve unemployment. He criticized the New expanded presidential staff. Dawson died in Deal as an ad hoc program rather than a gen- Castine, Maine on October 24, 1962. uine revolution. The next year, he became the associate editor of the Awakener, a semimonthly reactionary magazine critical of Franklin Roo- Dennis, Lawrence sevelt. In 1935, he joined a New York broker- (1893–1977) writer age firm as an economist. The next year, he published his second book, The Coming Amer- Dennis was born on Christmas Day 1893 in ican Fascism (1936), which cemented his repu- Atlanta, Georgia, to an African-American tation as a fascist theorist. He traveled to mother and a Caucasian father. In 1897, he was Europe and met ADOLF HITLER and BENITO adopted by African-American parents, Green MUSSOLINI. Dennis and Cornelia Walker. Soon he became Dennis resigned from the New York bro- known as the “mulatto child evangelist” kerage firm in 1938 to edit and publish his own throughout Atlanta’s African-American subscription newsletter, Weekly Foreign Letter. churches. As a teenager he toured the United He was not anti-Semitic but was an isolation- States and Europe as an evangelist prodigy. ist searching for political leaders to promote Despite his lack of formal schooling, he applied fascism at home. Entry of the United States to Phillips Exeter Academy at age 20 and grad- into World War II shattered his dream. In uated within two years. He entered Harvard 1940, he published The Dynamics of War and University in 1915, received military training, Revolution, advocating a socialist revolution and served during World War I as an officer that he expected would result when the Allies stationed in France. After the war, he returned fought the Axis powers. By 1944 the Justice to Harvard and graduated in 1920. He had Department had charged Dennis and others identified with the white establishment and with sedition, but the seven-month trial ended been educated in two of its notable institutions. after the death of the presiding judge. The Dies, Martin, Jr. 67 indictments were dismissed in 1947. Ostra- warned of the dangers of one-man rule, and cized as a fascist, Dennis continued to write even alleged that the administration had sold until his death. He died in obscurity on August out to communists. 20, 1977, in Spring Valley, New York. Dewey had a progressive domestic record, strong civil libertarian convictions, and an internationalist view of foreign policy, but he Dewey, Thomas Edmund was not a natural politician. He appeared (1902–1971) New York district attorney, aloof and rigid on the campaign trail. He nar- New York governor rowly lost the presidential race in 1948 to HARRY S. TRUMAN but in 1952 helped Thomas Dewey was born on March 24, 1902, DWIGHT EISENHOWER secure the presidency, in Owasso, Michigan, where he was reared in a with Richard Nixon as his vice president. In Republican family of newspaper editors and 1968, as president, Nixon offered Dewey the publishers. He graduated from the University chief justiceship of the U.S. Supreme Court, of Michigan and in 1923 moved to New York but he declined. He died on March 16, 1971, to attend Columbia Law School after he in Bal Harbor, Florida. decided against further musical training to develop his baritone voice. He completed law school in 1928 and worked at Wall Street firms Dies, Martin, Jr. while also becoming active in local Republican (1901–1972) U.S. congressman Party politics. He developed a friendship with fellow New York lawyer Herbert Brownell, a Martin Dies, Jr., a second-generation Demo- progressive Republican who would become his cratic U.S. congressman whose father had served closest political adviser. in the House for 10 years, was born in Colorado, Dewey first made a national name for him- Texas, on November 6, 1901. He received his self after HERBERT H. LEHMAN, New York’s undergraduate education at the University of Democratic governor, appointed him in 1935 Texas and his law degree from National Univer- to investigate racketeering. He became known sity in Washington, D.C., in 1920. He then prac- as a “racket-buster” when he successfully pros- ticed law in Orange, Texas, for a decade before ecuted a criminal syndicate in New York City, being elected to the U.S. House of Representa- which was the springboard he used to launch tives in 1931. A protégé of JOHN NANCE GAR- his political career. In 1937, he became the first NER, Dies received a seat on the powerful House Republican district attorney in a quarter cen- Rules Committee after the Roosevelt-Garner tury. He narrowly lost the governorship to ticket won the 1932 presidency. Initially, Dies Lehman in 1938 but won it in 1942, serving supported the New Deal, but like his fellow three terms in the tradition of a Theodore Roo- southern Democrats he remained antiunion and sevelt progressive. He was a fiscal conservative, anti-immigrant. Reflecting the values of his East but he established a strong civil rights record. Texas rural constituency and his own back- With Brownell’s help, Dewey won the ground, he had no sympathy for sit-down strik- Republican presidential nominations in both ers in Michigan’s auto factories or for ELEANOR 1944 and 1948. By securing 46 percent of the ROOSEVELT’s support for antilynching legisla- 1944 popular vote, he polled better than any tion and other activism. other Republican since the 1920s. He had por- By FDR’s second term, which yielded the trayed FDR’s administration as worn out, Court-packing plan of 1937 and the 1938 68 Dos Passos, John

campaign to purge anti-New Deal members of ing the heyday of McCarthyism. He was unable, Congress, Dies had become a leader in the however, to secure a seat on the committee he conservative coalition of southern Democrats had started, by then a standing committee infa- and Republicans who banded together to stop mously known as the House Un-American the New Deal and, if possible, reverse it with Activities Committee. After a second failed congressional action. In 1938, he introduced attempt for the Senate in 1946, Dies soon faded the bill to establish the Special Committee to from the political landscape. He died in Lufkin, Investigate Un-American Activities, which Texas, on November 14, 1972. became known as the Dies Committee. Dies saw FDR’s effort to manipulate the Supreme Court and modernize the presidency (in reac- Dos Passos, John tion to fascist and Marxist governments) as a (John Roderigo Madison) larger threat to the checks and balances of the (1896–1970) writer American political system than that posed by totalitarian governments abroad. John Dos Passos was born John Roderigo The Dies Committee conducted a series Madison on January 14, 1896, in Chicago, Illi- of media events during the late 1930s charging nois. His mother was the mistress of a married the Roosevelt administration with incompe- corporate lawyer who did not marry her until tence in handling domestic communists. He 1910, after his wife died. Until this happened, released purported reports of communist infil- Dos Passos spent a rootless life traveling tration of the New Deal programs and labor Europe with his mother. He changed his last organizations. These allegations peaked dur- name to his father’s when he was a teenager. ing the years 1938–40 and were a constant dis- Due to his father’s wealth, Dos Passos led traction to the White House. The committee a privileged life. He attended Choate Rose- persuaded Congress to terminate the Federal mary Hall in Connecticut and graduated from Theater Project and to pass the Hatch Act of Harvard University in 1916. His first poetry 1939, which banned federal employees from and novels were published the following year; being involved in electoral activities. His com- at the same time, he volunteered to be an mittee composed a list of hundreds of organi- ambulance driver in Italy during World War I. zations and newspapers it regarded as possible During the 1920s, he became a champion of communist fronts, including the American leftist causes, and his participation in a protest Civil Liberties Union, the Boy Scouts, and the march during the trial of the anarchists Sacco Girl Scouts. FDR initially tried to ignore the and Vanzetti led to his arrest; he published a committee but later met with Dies and used J. book in their defense in 1927. In 1928, he vis- EDGAR HOOVER to investigate him. Hoover ited the Soviet Union, a trip that served to dis- viewed Dies and his committee as a potential illusion him about communism. rival to his agency and therefore as a greater During the 1920s and 1930s, Dos Passos threat personally, so Hoover did not cooperate became a prolific writer of poems, travel books, fully with the committee in investigating the and plays. His most original work was the loyalty of New Deal personnel. U.S.A. trilogy (The 42nd Parallel [1930], 1919 Dies was unsuccessful in his bid for election [1932], and The Big Money [1936]), which were to the Senate in 1941 and lost his interest in un- difficult works in modernism that juxtaposed American activities. He retired from Congress several elements: prose poem portraits of in 1945 but returned to the House in 1952 dur- Thomas Jefferson, HENRY FORD, and others Doughton, Robert Lee 69 whom the author considered to be major con- achieve his political goals. This was particu- tributors to the American culture; collages of larly true among the most important perma- newspaper headlines; and subjective prose nent committees in the U.S. House of poems of the author’s state of being. Marxists Representatives, which exercised considerable and European intellectuals were impressed by political muscle. As the chairman of its Ways Dos Passos’s approach to the work. and Means Committee during FDR’s entire Dos Passos also spent time in Spain in 1936 presidency, Robert Doughton played a crucial during its civil war, an experience that produced role in FDR’s legislative success. several books in 1937 and 1938. The Spanish Born in Laurel Springs, North Carolina, civil war also led to the breakup of his friend- on November 7, 1863, Robert Lee Doughton ship with ERNEST HEMINGWAY.For the first was the son of farmers. His first and middle time in his life Hemingway became attracted to names were testament to his father’s service as left-wing politics during his relationship with a captain in the Confederate army during the Martha Gellhorn. Dos Passos’s personal friend American Civil War. Young Doughton was José Robles, a left-wing aristocrat and professor educated in local schools in Laurel Springs and at Johns Hopkins University, was shot during Sparta before receiving his law degree from the Spanish civil war, probably as a result of a Catawba College. He became a farmer, banker, Stalinist purge. Feeling betrayed, Dos Passos and businessman, and after the death of his first came to see Hemingway as a tool of Stalin. The wife, he married Lillie Sticker Hix in 1898; relationship between the writers was further they had four children. complicated because he had married Katharine Doughton’s interest soon turned to local Smith, a writer who had been one of Heming- and state politics. For a decade, Doughton way’s childhood friends in Michigan. His child- served on the North Carolina State Board of less marriage to Smith ended with her death in Agriculture. In 1908, he won his first elective a 1947 automobile accident; he lost an eye in office during his race for the state senate as a the same accident. Democrat. He was appointed in 1909 as direc- Dos Passos published a second trilogy of tor of the state prison system, and he served in novels and a series of books on major American that position until he defeated the Republican political figures, including Thomas Jefferson incumbent in the U.S. House of Representa- and Tom Paine, in the late 1930s and 1940s. tives in 1911. He would serve in the House These works failed to receive the praise of his until he retired in 1953, setting one of the U.S.A. trilogy, however. He continued to pub- longest career records in Congress. lish during the postwar years, a period in which Under the seniority system, Doughton he grew increasingly conservative and lived a rose to chairmanship of the Ways and Means respectable life in the Deep South. In 1949, he Committee, which oversees taxation. His ser- married Elizabeth Holdridge, with whom he vice as the chairman covered two periods, had one child. He died on September 28, 1970. 1933–47 and 1949–53. During his first chair- manship, he played an important role in Franklin Roosevelt’s presidency. Although he Doughton, Robert Lee was a southern conservative, he proved to be a (1863–1954) U.S. congressman Roosevelt loyalist who was able to bring together southern and northern Democrats. Franklin Roosevelt was dependent upon the Moreover, through persistent, diligent work, one-party South and the seniority system to he first supported New Deal legislation that 70 Douglas, Lewis William

addressed the desperate state of the nation. sachusetts, from which he graduated in 1916. Later, however, he rationalized the legislation He spent an additional year at the Mas- as a temporary, ad hoc solution rather than a sachusetts Institute of Technology studying fundamental change in American government. geology and metallurgy. During World War I, Doughton often modified New Deal pro- he was an artillery officer, and after the war he posals, but his banking background made him returned to the United States and taught at a champion of the Federal Deposit Insurance two of his alma maters, Amherst and the Hack- Corporation in 1933. As a lifelong supporter of ley School. In 1921, he returned to Arizona lower tariffs, he favored the Reciprocal Trade and married Margaret Zinsser, with whom he Act of 1934. As a southerner who recognized had three children. the impact of poverty, he favored the Social State politics quickly caught Douglas’s Security Act of 1935 as a permanent program. interest. He ran for the state legislature and Doughton is also viewed as an architect and was elected as a Democrat for a term that defender of the graduated income tax. He was began in 1923 and ended in 1925. His next suc- tempted to step down from his congressional cessful race was for the U.S. House of Repre- perch to run for the governorship of his home sentatives, and he served in Congress from state in 1936, but FDR persuaded Doughton 1926 to 1932. During his term, he served on that he was needed more at the helm of the the Military Affairs, Appropriations, and Recla- Ways and Means Committee. mation committees and developed a reputation Doughton retired from Congress in 1953 as a fiscal conservative. Douglas reluctantly and died on October 2, 1954, at his Laurel gave up his congressional career in February Springs home. 1933 when Senator JAMES F. BYRNES persuaded FDR to appoint him as the first director of the Bureau of the Budget. Douglas, Lewis William By March 1933, Douglas had helped gain (1894–1974) budget director passage of the Economy Act, which cut federal spending. He was an insider with the president If background determines destiny, the fate of until FDR soon reversed course and advocated Lewis Douglas was sealed the moment he the creation of the Agricultural Adjustment agreed to become Franklin Roosevelt’s first Administration, the Federal Relief Administra- director of the budget. Like FDR, Douglas was tion, and the Civilian Conservation Corps. charming; however, he was also a throwback After FDR took the nation off the gold stan- Grover Cleveland Democrat who believed in dard, Douglas became disillusioned and grew free trade, sound money, and small government increasingly so after FDR called for drought with balanced budgets, while FDR was a flexi- relief in June 1934. Grown tired of Douglas’s ble pragmatist who would experiment to find dissents, FDR excluded him from meetings solutions to public-policy problems. and, in effect, forced Douglas to resign at the Douglas was born in Bisbee, Arizona, on end of August 1934. July 2, 1894. His father was a mine owner and Thereafter, Douglas became a vocal critic banker, and his mother was a housewife. His of New Deal economics, publishing his objec- parents sent him east for his education, and he tions in his book The Liberal Tradition (1939). attended the Hackley School in Tarrytown, He became an adviser to Republican presiden- New York; the Montclair Military Academy in tial candidate ALFRED LANDON in 1936 and New Jersey; and Amherst College in Mas- helped to organize Democrats for WENDELL Douglas, William Orville 71

WILLKIE in 1940. During World War II, how- ever, Douglas supported FDR’s war policies. He became the deputy lend-lease expediter in Britain and from February 1942 to March 1944 was the deputy administrator of the War Ship- ping Administration. After working briefly with the American Cyanamid Company in New York from 1934 to 1937, Douglas served as the vice chancellor of McGill University in Montreal, Canada from 1938 to 1939. In 1940, he became presi- dent of the Mutual Life Insurance of New York, serving until 1947. He served in the post- war period as HARRY S. TRUMAN’s ambassador to Great Britain (1947–50). Following his ser- vice as ambassador, he returned to Tucson, Ari- zona, where he died on March 7, 1974.

Douglas, William Orville (1898–1980) chairman, Securities and Exchange Commission; U.S. Supreme Court justice Justice William O. Douglas (United State Supreme Court) Born on October 16, 1898, in Main, Min- nesota, to a Presbyterian minister who subse- quently moved his family from the Midwest to Columbia pioneered the development of legal the West Coast, William O. Douglas con- realism, which viewed the law in largely polit- tracted polio before he lost his father at age ical terms, he was made an assistant professor. six. Douglas inherited his parents’ Protestant Following appointment of a new dean who work ethic, and he applied that diligence not opposed this approach to jurisprudence, a only to hiking, which transformed his sickly number of faculty, including Douglas, left the body, but also to improving his mind. At an law school. He then began teaching at Yale early age, he learned to work harder than most Law School, which developed an even greater people; he excelled in everything he tried. He reputation in legal realism. Douglas was named went east for his professional training and the Sterling Chair of Commercial and Corpo- career, but always found his greatest pleasure in rate Law and wrote seven casebooks from the the outdoors. legal-realist perspective. After graduating in 1920 from Whitman Douglas’s involvement with the New Deal College on the Washington and Oregon state began in 1934 after federal administrator JAMES border, Douglas moved to New York and LANDIS asked him to study bankruptcy and busi- attended Columbia Law School (1922–25). He ness reorganization for the new Securities and was employed by a Wall Street law firm for the Exchange Commission (SEC). He soon became following two years and taught part-time at a close family friend of JOSEPH P. KENNEDY, the Columbia Law School. In 1928, at a time when SEC chairman who lobbied FDR in 1936 to put 72 Dubinsky, David

Douglas on the commission and then in 1937 to Dubinsky, David name Douglas to succeed him as chairman. As (David Dubnievski) the New Deal’s showcase regulatory agency of (1892–1982) union leader Wall Street, the SEC was designed to enforce the Securities Acts of 1933 and 1934, as well as Born David Dubnievski on February 22, 1892, the “death sentence” provisions of the Public in Brest Litovsk, Russian Poland (now Brest, Utilities Holding Company Act of 1935. Dou- Belarus), David Dubinsky was the son of bak- glas’s boyhood work ethic made him one of the ers. The family later moved to L⁄ ód´z, where he best New Deal administrators, and he soon attended elementary school, but at age 11, he became a poker buddy and unofficial economic left school to apprentice for his father. Four adviser to FDR. years later, he was a master baker and a mem- Douglas was slated to become the next ber of the socialist General Jewish Workers dean of the Yale Law School, but FDR nomi- Union. Committed to the union, Dubinsky led nated him to replace LOUIS BRANDEIS on the a strike against his own father’s bakery. His U.S. Supreme Court in early 1939. He became activism brought him under the scrutiny of the second-youngest justice in Supreme Court czarist police who jailed him and ultimately history. With the legal realist’s appointment, exiled him to Siberia. Eventually able to escape, FDR got just what he wanted on the high he emigrated with his brother to New York bench. Though Douglas developed a major City in 1911. civil-libertarian reputation in his postwar years, In the United States, Dubinsky abandoned he had served a short time in World War I and baking for the garment-making business. He was equally patriotic in World War II. The joined Local 10 of the International Ladies’ author of many books, including one on Abra- Garment Workers Union (ILGWU) as well as ham Lincoln, Douglas shared the view of the the Socialist Party. In 1914, he married Emma majority of his brethren that civil liberties Goldberg, a Lithuanian immigrant who also ended where the president’s war powers began. belonged to the ILGWU, and the couple had As a result, he approved the Japanese-American a daughter. After organizing a successful gen- relocation program during World War II. eral strike in 1916, Dubinsky quickly rose in FDR considered making Douglas his the union hierarchy and became chairman of domestic policy czar during World War II and the local in 1920. He was elected president of his vice-presidential running mate in both 1940 the entire ILGWU in 1932 and held that posi- and 1944, but Douglas remained on the Court tion until 1966. to become the longest-serving justice in its his- It was Section 7(a) of the National Indus- tory. During his tenure, he not only developed trial Recovery Act (1933), which guaranteed into a major civil libertarian but also became a the right to union recognition, that ensured champion of the underdog and a pioneer in Dubinsky’s career. He shepherded the union environmental protection. Apart from his role from limited membership and near-bankruptcy as a jurist, he organized a hike in 1954 along during the early years of the Great Depression the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal towpath to into a thriving organization with a vast trea- protest a proposed parkway. Today the area is sury. He also became one of Franklin Roo- preserved by the National Park Service and sevelt’s strongest backers throughout his entire dedicated to him. After a stroke, Douglas presidency. In FDR’s 1936 reelection cam- retired from the Court in 1975. He died in paign, Dubinsky and fellow union leader SID- Washington, D.C., on January 19, 1980. NEY HILLMAN quit the Socialist Party to help Dubinsky, David 73 found the American Labor Party (ALP), which Republican presidential bid of WENDELL supported FDR and the New Deal. Dubinsky WILLKIE.In 1943, Dubinsky led an anticom- also joined Hillman and JOHN L. LEWIS to form munist faction out of the ALP to the Liberal the Committee for Industrial Organization, Party of New York, which he had helped to which in 1938 became the Congress of Indus- form with ADOLF BERLE and others. The Lib- trial Organizations (CIO). In part because eral Party endorsed state and local Democrats Lewis was indifferent to communists in the and helped to reelect FDR in 1944. CIO, Dubinsky led the ILGWU out of the In 1947, Dubinsky helped to organize CIO in 1930 and then back into the American Americans for Democratic Action (ADA) and Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1940. Later that in 1955 he helped to merge the AFL and CIO. year, he condemned Lewis for endorsing the He died in Manhattan on September 17, 1982. E w

Early, Stephen Tyree tions. Early is credited with being the first des- (1889–1951) presidential press secretary ignated presidential press secretary. Early and FDR—a newspaper editor him- Distantly related to Confederate general Jubal self during his undergraduate college years— Early, Stephen Early was born on August 27, were a media- and public relations–savvy team. 1889, in Crozet, Virginia. He attended public Their joint efforts to cultivate relationships schools in Virginia and Washington, D.C., but with individual reporters, along with FDR’s use did not attend college, instead beginning work of radio, helped to undercut the hostility of as a news reporter. Early first met Franklin newspaper editors of the era. Loyal to the pres- Roosevelt at the 1912 Democratic National ident and quick-tempered, Early was open to Convention in Baltimore and later covered the media. In addition to working directly with FDR’s work as assistant secretary of the navy the press corps accompanying FDR, he was the during Woodrow Wilson’s presidency. During publicity agent for the New Deal until the late World War I, Early joined the officer’s train- 1930s. He also advised ELEANOR ROOSEVELT, ing program and won the Silver Star for par- cabinet members, and agency heads about han- ticipating in the Somme offensive and the dling the media. battle of Meuse-Argonne. He was then placed During World War II, the White House in charge of Stars and Stripes, the soldier’s flow of information was more controlled, but at newspaper, until he was discharged in 1919. Early’s recommendation, FDR continued to He retained his commission in the Army hold his legendary press conferences. The Reserves. stress of his demanding job is considered to After FDR won the vice-presidential spot have played a part in Early’s death on August on the 1920 Democratic ticket, he persuaded 11, 1951, in Washington, D.C. Early to become his advance man. Even though the Democrats lost, Early’s professional Eccles, Marriner Stoddard reputation as one of the nation’s best reporters (1890–1977) assistant secretary of the Treasury; continued to build during the 1920s; he was chairman, Federal Reserve System Board of hired as the Washington, D.C., editor for Governors Paramount Newsreel Company in 1927. In 1932, President-elect Roosevelt named Early Born on September 9, 1890, in Logan, Utah, his assistant secretary in charge of press rela- Marriner Eccles was the oldest of nine siblings;

74 Einstein, Albert 75 his parents were a prosperous Mormon couple. civic and educational concerns. He died in Salt Eccles graduated from Brigham Young College Lake City on December 18, 1977. in 1909 and then served on a church mission to Scotland. Both his inheritance and his own Einstein, Albert business instincts made him an extremely suc- (1879–1955) physicist cessful banker with operations in three western states. However, monetary success was balanced Born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Germany, by his Mormon upbringing, which emphasized Albert Einstein was the son of German Jewish a sense of community responsibility, and by the parents; his father managed an electrical busi- influence of English economist JOHN MAY- ness. He attended local primary and progres- NARD KEYNES.During the 1930s, he favored sive secondary schools in Munich. From 1896 deficit financing of public works, minimum- to 1900, he studied at the Swiss Federal Poly- wage laws, and agricultural regulations. technic in Zurich, noted as one of Europe’s Eccles first attracted national attention best institutions for studying science. He had after skillfully avoiding having a depositor run renounced his German citizenship in 1896 to on his banks at the outset of the Great Depres- avoid the German draft, and he became a Swiss sion. None of his banks failed. Secretary of the citizen in 1901. Because of his independent Treasury HENRY MORGENTHAU, JR., recruited nature, he failed to obtain a position at the Eccles to his department following Eccles’s Polytechnic. Instead, he held a series of tem- work in developing the Emergency Banking porary teaching jobs until he received a posi- Act of 1933, the Federal Deposit Savings Cor- tion in 1902 at the federal patent office in Bern. poration, and the Federal Housing Act. He In his off hours he worked on his doctorate, joined the Federal Reserve Board in late 1934 which he received in 1905 from the University and supported the Banking Act of 1935 for the of Zurich. His first job in higher education was purpose of creating a unified banking system. in 1908 as an unsalaried instructor at the Uni- He also utilized his friendship with presidential versity of Bern. adviser HARRY HOPKINS in influencing FDR to Einstein’s published works between 1900 increase deficit spending in opposition to Mor- and 1909 transformed physics with his theory genthau’s advice. At one point Eccles debated of relativity. From 1909 to 1913, he taught in Senator HARRY BYRD (D-Va.) on national radio Zurich and Prague, and the next year he went and accused him of favoring the wealthy. to Berlin, remaining there until 1933. During While he supported some elements of the that time, he regained his German citizenship. New Deal, Eccles was against other programs, In 1921, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in such as the Agriculture Adjustment Act, the physics, which made him the best-known sci- Tennessee Valley Authority, and the National entist of the 20th century. Following the 1933 Recovery Administration. He also opposed Nazi revolution, Einstein again renounced his deregulated banking and branch banking. He German citizenship. He accepted a position at was reappointed in 1944 to the Board of Gov- the new Institute for Advanced Study at ernors of the Federal Reserve Board and Princeton University since it permitted him became concerned over the vast increase in the the maximum amount of time to pursue inde- national deficit during World War II. After his pendent research. In 1940, he was naturalized government service, Eccles wrote his memoirs as an American citizen. and returned to his family’s corporations, Though he had become a pacifist during including First Security Bancorporation and World War I, the Nazi threat persuaded him Amalgamated Sugar, as well as involvement in to change his stance. With his knowledge of 76 Eisenhower, Dwight David

the German physics program, the most ad- Eisenhower, Dwight David vanced in the world at the time, and at the (Ike) urging of other exiled physicists, Einstein (1890–1969) general, Allied Expeditionary Force wrote to FDR in 1939, urging him to fund in Western Europe supreme commander research to build an atomic bomb before Nazi Germany did it. He met with FDR, but he Born on October 14, 1890, in Denison, Texas, was branded a security risk, preventing his Dwight Eisenhower grew up in Kansas in a fam- direct participation in the Manhattan Project, ily of modest means. He was ambitious and ath- although scientists working on it consulted letic, but after a sports injury, he redirected his with him. Later in World War II, he was per- goals toward a military career. He graduated mitted to serve as a consultant to the U.S. from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point Navy. He died in Princeton, New Jersey, on in 1915. Frustrated by not being sent overseas in April 18, 1955. World War I, Eisenhower spent the following

In this photo, taken in England a few hours before their jump into France, General Dwight D. Eisenhower urges men of the U.S. 101st Airborne Division to “Full victory—nothing else.” (Library of Congress) Evans, Luther Harris 77 years in staff assignments with DOUGLAS grandmother’s farm in Bastrop County, Texas. MACARTHUR and GEORGE C. MARSHALL. As a youngster, he attended local public schools Although Eisenhower had expected a forced before entering the University of Texas. He retirement as a lieutenant colonel in 1940, Mar- worked his way through college by teaching shall recognized his abilities and kept him on, and by working on a farm. In 1923, Harris making him the head of the War Plans Division received his undergraduate degree, and the (later called the Operations Division) in the War next year he earned his M.A. in political sci- Department five days after the Japanese attack ence. After graduation, he spent a summer in on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. The next Europe before marrying a former college class- year, Marshall put Eisenhower in charge of the mate in 1925; the couple had one child. Harris American Forces in Great Britain, and he was then attended Stanford University, where he made supreme commander of the American and received his doctorate in political science in British invasion of North Africa. In November 1927. He subsequently began teaching full- 1942, Eisenhower concluded a controversial time at New York University (1927–28). He deal with Admiral Jean Darlan, commander in later taught at Dartmouth University from chief of the French Vichy forces, which resulted 1928 to 1930 and at Princeton University from in a cease-fire in return for making Darlan gov- 1930 to 1935. ernor general of French North Africa. Presidential speechwriter RAYMOND MOLEY In December 1943, Franklin Roosevelt learned about Evans and in June 1935 invited made Eisenhower Supreme Commander of the him to Washington, D.C., to talk to FDR Allied Expeditionary Force for Operation adviser HARRY HOPKINS about a national Overlord, the D-Day invasion of France in records survey. Evans wrote a proposal for the June 1944. Eisenhower’s diplomatic skills were project that led to his appointment as the tested in dealing with not only American gen- supervisor of historic projects in the Works eral GEORGE S. PATTON and British general Progress Administration (WPA) in October Bernard L. Montgomery, as well as rivals and 1935. The next month, he was named director publicity seekers like DOUGLAS MACARTHUR, of the Historical Records Survey of the WPA but also JOSEPH STALIN and the Soviet army. within the Federal Writers’ Project headed by Eisenhower’s innate ability to work with Henry Alsberg. In 1936, the Historical others and lack of vanity made him one of the Records Survey was made an independent pro- greatest leaders in the Allied defeat of Nazi Ger- gram within Federal Project No. 1 of the many. Emerging from World War II as the WPA. During the next three years, Evans world’s most successful and famous general, he demonstrated his diplomatic skills working went on to be elected the 34th president of the with a variety of state, local, and national United States in 1952 and again in 1956. He politicians, historians, and archivists. died on March 28, 1969, in Bethesda, Maryland. By autumn 1939, Evans’s work had cap- tured the attention of newly appointed Librar- Evans, Luther Harris ian of Congress ARCHIBALD MACLEISH, who (1902–1981) director, Historical Records Survey offered him the job of directing the Legislative of the Works Progress Administration; director, Reference Service (LRS). Evans accepted, and Legislative Reference Services; chief assistant less than a year later he also became MacLeish’s librarian, Library of Congress chief assistant librarian. MacLeish, who served as a wartime adviser to Franklin Roosevelt, was Luther Harris Evans, the son of a railroad fore- often absent, and Evans ran the Library of man, was born on October 13, 1902, on his Congress during those intervals. During the 78 Evans, Walker

A mother and daughter from a sharecropper family in Hale County, Alabama, are featured in this photo by Walker Evans, 1936.

postwar period, he became the 10th Librarian photography and quickly gained recognition of Congress (1945–53) and later was director- for his photographs of American architecture. general of UNESCO. He died on December His career got a boost after he met Lincoln 23, 1981, in San Antonio, Texas. Kirstein, who had good connections in the New York art world. During the early 1930s, Evans began trav- Evans, Walker eling throughout the South, establishing his (1903–1975) photographer national reputation by using what he called his “documentary style” to chronicle what he saw. Born on November 2, 1903, in St. Louis and He spent time in Florida, South Carolina, reared in Chicago, Walker Evans moved to Georgia, and Louisiana. His association with New York City in 1918 after his affluent par- the New Deal began in 1935 through the ents separated. After a series of boarding Division of Information of the Resettlement schools and a brief stint at Williams College, Administration, which was renamed the Farm he spent 1926 in France, where he came under Security Administration in 1937. Its Historical the influence of documentary photographer Section, headed by ROY E. STRYKER, built a Eugène Atget. When he returned to New large photographic record to document how York, he enlisted the help of a friend to learn the New Deal helped to alleviate the problems Ezekiel, Mordecai J. 79 facing rural Americans. Evans was the senior year in Europe as a Guggenheim Fellow, and photographer among a group that included when he returned, he began to propose a DOROTHEA LANGE and Ben Shahn. Granted a domestic allotment plan to solve farm prob- leave of absence in 1936, he and writer JAMES lems. He met with President-elect Franklin AGEE went to Alabama to do an article on ten- Roosevelt, FDR adviser HENRY MORGEN- ant farming. His transcendent images of share- THAU, JR., economist , and cropper families in the Great Depression M. L. Wilson, the chairman of the department eventually were published in Let Us Now Praise of agricultural economics at Montana State Famous Men (1941). Even before the delayed College, to promote his plan. publication, the photos constituted the most After FDR took office and established his important part of a retrospective of his work cabinet, Ezekiel was made chief economic exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art in adviser to Secretary of Agriculture HENRY A. 1938. WALLACE, a post he held from 1933 to 1944. After his government employment ended He helped to draft the Agricultural Adjustment in 1937, Evans photographed subway portraits Act of 1933 and subsequently wrote two books from 1938 to 1941. In 1943, he served as the in which he tried to promote the idea of film, book, and art critic for Time. For 20 years, planned production: $2,500 A Year: From he was a postwar staff photographer at Fortune, Scarcity to Abundance (1936) and Jobs for All and he later taught at Yale University. He died Through Industrial Expansion (1939). His effort on April 10, 1975, in New Haven, Connecticut. to popularize national economic planning suc- ceeded so well that Father CHARLES COUGH- LIN called him a communist. Ezekiel’s Ezekiel, Mordecai J. economic views that large corporations had (1899–1974) economic adviser effectively eliminated market competition had been influenced by the sociologist and Mordecai Ezekiel was born on May 10, 1899, in economist Thorstein Veblen. Richmond, Virginia, and raised in the nation’s As the New Deal shifted from industrial capital. In 1918, he received his undergraduate planning to antitrust efforts, Ezekiel had little degree in agriculture from the University of influence on the Roosevelt administration. Maryland. Afterward, he served briefly in the Moreover, he came to support the economic military during World War I and then returned spending approach advocated by JOHN MAY- to Washington, D.C., where he took a job with NARD KEYNES to deal with the Great Depres- the U.S. Census Bureau in 1919. In 1922, he sion. In 1944, he transferred from the secretary changed jobs and became an economist with of agriculture’s office to become economic the Division of Farm Management, Depart- adviser in the Bureau of Agriculture Eco- ment of Agriculture. The next year he received nomics. During the postwar years, Ezekiel his master’s degree from the University of Min- moved to the United Nations Food and Agri- nesota, and in 1926 he was awarded his doctor- culture Organization, serving there from 1947 ate in economics. In 1930, he began working as to 1962. He left that post for the U.S. Agency the assistant chief economist with the Federal for International Development, where he Farm Board and also published his first book, served for five years. He died in Washington, Methods of Correlation Analysis. Ezekiel spent a D.C., on October 31, 1974. F w

Fahy, Charles rather than a political or legal theorist, Fahy (1892–1979) federal attorney, solicitor general oversaw the effort to have the National Labor of the United States Relations Act of 1935 implemented by the fed- eral courts. He won 18 cases that demonstrated Charles Fahy was born on August 27, 1892, in labor problems could “obstruct the stream of Rome, Georgia, where his Catholic parents commerce,” thereby giving Congress jurisdic- were small-business owners. He attended the tion to regulate the flow of interstate com- University of Notre Dame in 1910–11 before merce. He also led the battle against the earning a law degree at Georgetown University American Liberty League, which had sought in 1914. He then practiced law in the nation’s an “injunction assault” against the National capital for 10 years before health problems Labor Relations Act. prompted him to relocate to Santa Fe, New A loyal Democrat and supporter of the Mexico. He married Mary Agnes Lane in 1929; New Deal, Fahy was appointed assistant U.S. the couple had four children. solicitor general in 1940. The following year, Fahy became city attorney of Santa Fe in in his role as a member of the president’s Naval 1932 but continued his law practice. The next and Air Base Commission to London, Fahy year, he was appointed as the assistant solicitor assisted in negotiating a deal to trade 50 Amer- of the Department of the Interior and moved ican destroyers for British military bases in the with his family to Washington, D.C. Later that Western Hemisphere, a major boost for WIN- same year, Secretary of the Interior HAROLD STON CHURCHILL.In November 1941, ICKES appointed Fahy as a member of the Franklin Roosevelt rewarded Fahy by appoint- Petroleum Administrative Board; he was chair- ing him as the solicitor general of the United man in 1934–35. However, on January 7, 1935, States. He held this position until 1945, repre- in Panama Refining Company v. Ryan, the U.S. senting the federal government before the U.S. Supreme Court held that the Petroleum Supreme Court. Administrative Board was unconstitutional in Fahy’s legal style combined his origins as a an 8:1 vote that was the first major challenge to southern gentleman with a narrow view of the the New Deal. Fahy then became the general law. He was an enforcer, not a theorist. He was counsel of the National Labor Relations Board, always well prepared and modest in demeanor, serving there for five years. A practitioner and his reserve and restrained manner earned

80 Farley, James Aloysius 81 him the nickname “New Deal Sphinx.” His assemblyman (1923–24), and chairman of the many successful cases before the High Court state Athletic Commission (1924–33). After he included the relocation and internment of helped AL SMITH take control of the state party West Coast Japanese Americans, even though from WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST, Farley two-thirds of them were native-born Ameri- worked to support Franklin Roosevelt’s elec- can citizens. His actions in those cases were tion as New York governor in 1928. His sup- redeemed by his later postwar actions. port was rewarded when he was made chairman After World War II, Fahy continued to of the state Democratic Committee (1930–44). serve in advisory positions to the State Depart- Farley made an impression on FDR aide LOUIS ment and the United Nations. In 1947, he M. HOWE and FDR himself, who made Farley returned to private law practice in Washington, his 1932 presidential campaign manager and D.C. Two years later, HARRY S. TRUMAN made also chairman of the Democratic National him chairman of the Committee on Equality of Committee, after Bronx boss EDWARD J. FLYNN Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed declined. Farley expected a first-ballot victory Forces. Within four years, the American mili- for FDR, but it took four ballots at the Demo- tary was desegregated. In 1949, Truman cratic National Convention in Chicago before appointed him to the United States Court of Roosevelt secured the nomination. For his sup- Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit; port, Farley was awarded the traditional plum, Fahy served there until 1967. He died on the postmaster generalship, and he became the September 17, 1979, in Washington, D.C. main dispenser of political patronage during FDR’s first two administrations. He also served as FDR’s 1936 campaign manager. Farley, James Aloysius Farley had political ambitions of his own, (1888–1976) chairman, New York Democratic however, and in 1940 he opposed FDR’s bid for Committee and National Democratic Committee; a third term because he wanted the nomination postmaster general for himself. He had begun to seek support from conservative Southern Democrats such as Born on May 30, 1888, in Grassy Point, New CORDELL HULL, CARTER GLASS, and JOHN York, James Farley was from Irish Catholic NANCE GARNER, and he refused to join FDR’s immigrant stock. He graduated from Packard failed 1938 attempt to purge New Deal oppo- Commercial School of New York in 1905 and nents from Congress. Furthermore, Farley’s he worked briefly as a bookkeeper before feelings had been injured because he was becoming first a salesman and then sales man- excluded from FDR’s social circle. After receiv- ager for Universal Gypsum Company. In 1926, ing only 72 votes at the 1940 Democratic Party he formed his own company, which merged Convention, Farley resigned the party chair- into a building supply corporation that he ran manship as well as his cabinet post in August until the Franklin Roosevelt administration 1940. Not one to give up easily, though, he began. fought FDR for control of the New York State With characteristic high energy, Farley Democratic Party in 1942, which Farley wanted had entered politics in 1912 when he was to use for his future political ambition. Though elected as the Stony Point, New York, town his nominee for governor won against FDR’s, clerk, a post he held for six years. He ascended he was defeated in the general election by the local Democratic Party ladder quickly, Republican THOMAS DEWEY.Farley resigned becoming a county chairman, a New York as state chairman in 1944 but remained a loyal 82 Faulkner, William

Democrat, supporting the national ticket in Faulkner was born on September 25, 1897, both 1940 and 1944. He died in New York City as William Falkner—he later added the “u” to on January 9, 1976. the spelling to set himself apart from his imme- diate relatives. He was born to Murry and Maud Falkner in New Albany, Mississippi, Faulkner, William where his father was working briefly on the (William Cuthbert Falkner) family’s railroad, but the family soon moved to (1897–1962) novelist Ripley, another small town, before moving for the third and final time to Oxford, Mississippi, Franklin D. Roosevelt termed the South the in 1902. Faulkner would spend most of his life nation’s number-one economic problem, and there. He grew up subject to the demands of a in a sense the post–Civil War South of the early strong mother, who was an amateur painter, 20th century also represented a profound and surrounded by a large, prominent north national psychological problem. Its essence was Mississippi family. His father’s success never captured by novelist William Faulkner, who equaled that of either his grandfather or his created a fictional world in his greatest novels, writer great-grandfather, who had served in the published during the Great Depression and Mexican War and then been a Confederate World War II. Faulkner’s fictional world was officer during the Civil War. After the Civil inhabited by a cast of southern characters— War, the family wealth declined with each suc- black, white, mentally retarded, and all memo- cessive generation, an embarrassment to rable—that provided readers with insights into Faulkner, who had social and intellectual aspi- the lasting, devastating imprint that Civil War rations early on. Still, the success he desired and Reconstruction had left on the psyche of would be a long time in coming. inhabitants of the defeated region. His even- By the third grade, Faulkner had decided tual success can be attributed to the fact that to become a writer like his great-grandfather. Faulkner himself can be considered that era’s He read a great deal and as a child listened to most psychologically marginal writer, an out- stories told by others. His small physical size sider, based on the novelist’s physical, social, harmed his self-esteem, and although he could and intellectual status. He came up literally have been a good athlete and excellent student, short using several measures: physical stature he was neither. More than anything, he was an (he was 5’6”), attempts at marriage that fell outsider during his year in Oxford’s public short, and academic shortcomings that caused schools, someone who primarily observed and him to drop out of high school. These personal listened to others. He eventually lost interest in shortcomings were overlaid on bruised family formal academics, and to the consternation of pride, so integral to the southern sense of his family, he dropped out of high school in worth. His Confederate great-grandfather, 1915. William Clark Falkner, was known for both his Faulkner’s father had been forced to take a writing and his military exploits, but the repu- job as a secretary and then as a business man- tations and fortunes of his male heirs fell far ager at the University of Mississippi. Faulkner short of his revered status. Faulkner ultimately began to hang out on the campus but never was able to restore pride in the family name— enrolled as a student. His first published work albeit a name of a different spelling—by becom- was a drawing in the university’s 1917 year- ing the author of some of the most creative book. The next year, his childhood sweetheart, short stories and novels of the 20th century. Estelle Oldham, jilted him in favor of a more Faulkner, William 83 promising rival. The rejection prompted time, he unsuccessfully pursued a woman, Faulkner to volunteer for the U.S. military, but someone he had met while in New Orleans. he was rejected because of his height. His frus- By the late 1920s, Faulkner had decided to tration over being unacceptable for the military construct an imaginary county named Yoknap- was highlighted by the fact that a younger atawpha, in which the southern characters from brother was wounded and decorated while his imagination who populated it would reflect serving during World War I. The military the human struggles of those in the wider rejection underscored Faulkner’s perception of world. His manuscript was rejected in 1927 by himself as a failure. He moved to Canada to the publisher of his first novel, and his friends volunteer with the Royal Air Force and was came to his rescue. After some 10 more rejec- accepted, but World War I ended before he tions, a friend finally found a young editor at had finished his training. He returned to Harcourt Brace, and the heavily cut manuscript, Oxford, drank, and wrote poetry. His first pub- newly entitled Sartoris, was published in 1929. lished poem, “L’Apres-Midi d’un Faune,” was Faulkner’s second novel set in Yoknapatawpha, initially published in the New Republic on The Sound and the Fury, was completed during August 6, 1919. Because he was a veteran, he the extended quest to publish the first. Both was able to enroll in the University of Missis- novels were published in the fall of the same sippi as a special student, but he dropped out at year. The Sound and the Fury, considered his first the beginning of the second year. Neverthe- less, he continued to write and publish poetry, prose pieces, critiques, and drawings for uni- versity publications. Faulkner’s first governmental job was his appointment as postmaster of the University of Mississippi post office, 1921–24. He contin- ued to write and in late 1924 published his first book, a long poem entitled The Marble Faun. He spent brief periods in New Haven, Con- necticut, and Greenwich Village, New York, and moved briefly to the French Quarter in New Orleans. It was there that he made his transition from poetry to fiction and for the first time was in an environment that appreci- ated his artistic struggles. The successful nov- elist Sherwood Anderson befriended him and helped him to publish his first novel, Soldier’s Pay (1926). He made a few close friends, but Faulkner remained an outsider, even when sur- rounded by other writers and artists. In July 1925, for example, he boarded a ship in New Orleans for a brief walking tour of Europe. Traveling alone, he visited Italy, Switzerland, England, and France, but by the end of the year he had returned to Oxford. For the second William Faulkner (Library of Congress) 84 Fish, Hamilton

masterpiece, required four different voices to The postwar period proved to be Faulkner’s tell the twisted story of an extended southern denouement. By then, all of his novels were out family. of print until MALCOLM COWLEY edited the Between the publication of the first two nov- Portable Faulkner in 1946, which served to revive els set in his fictional kingdom, Faulkner married popular interest in his writing. Subsequently, he Estelle Oldham Franklin, his former childhood was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature in sweetheart, who had recently divorced. The 1948, and he delivered one of the most memo- stock-market crash came on the heels of publi- rable acceptance addresses. Like FDR’s handling cation of The Sound and the Fury, and Faulkner’s of the Great Depression and World War II, marriage began to crash as well. It had been Faulkner’s literary achievements showed the troubled from the start, and both turned to alco- nation and the world that a devastated region hol. Despite their problems, however, the couple could endure and even triumph at a time when had two daughters who kept them together, and the United States worked to restore its former their marriage endured. enemies through the Marshall Plan of HARRY S. Marriage was, in fact, Faulkner’s spur to TRUMAN’s administration. write. Shortly after he married in 1929, the Faulkner died in Wright’s Sanitorium in decade of his greatest literary productivity Byhalia, Mississippi, near Oxford, on July 6, began, just as the nation started to confront 1962, the birthday of the great-grandfather he some of the same economic and social prob- had set out to emulate. lems that the South had faced following the Civil War. During this prolific period, Faulkner published As I Lay Dying in 1930; Fish, Hamilton Sanctuary in 1931; Light in August in 1932; and, (1888–1991) U.S. congressman in 1936, Absalom, Absalom!, considered by some to be his greatest novel. In this novel, southern Hamilton Fish was born on December 7, 1888, and Canadian roommates at Harvard explore and it was a great stroke of irony when the the burden and meaning of history, placing the attack on Pearl Harbor, triggering the U.S. southern past within terms of world history. entry into World War II, fell on the birthday of Faulkner’s native South is thus transmogrified someone so opposed to American intervention into a universal place. in the war. Fish was the product of tradition, Two years later, Faulkner published The wealth, and Republican politics. His father was Unvanquished, followed in 1939 by The Wild a congressman, and his grandfather had been a Palms, in 1940 by The Hamlet, and in 1942 by governor of New York, a U.S. senator, and Go Down, Moses. His stories present the voices U.S. secretary of state. In keeping with his fam- of all three social classes, the elite aristocracy as ily’s position, he received an elite education at well as the mentally retarded, parental conflict, Chateau de Lancy near Geneva, Switzerland, kinship rivalries, wounded offspring, and the and St. Mark’s School in Southborough, Mas- deterioration and dissolution of families. In the sachusetts. The 6’4” Fish then attended Har- broadest sense, these were existential novels set vard University, where he played football until in the traditional South and filled with charac- he graduated in 1910. He began Harvard Law ters trying to deal with lives disrupted by the School but attended only one year and did not twin crises of the Civil War and Reconstruc- complete his degree. tion, as well as with a nation that subsequently Given his heritage, it was not surprising had written it off as a backwater. that Fish soon landed in New York politics. Fisher, Irving 85

Running as a member of the Progressive Party, attack on Pearl Harbor, Fish changed his anti- he was elected to the state legislature in 1914 interventionist stance. He was defeated for and served until 1916. He supported presiden- reelection in 1944 after gerrymandering tial primaries, workers’ compensation, and occurred in redrawing his district in Orange, penal reform. During World War I, he com- Putnam, and Dutchess counties. manded the Harlem Hellfighters, a black After he left politics, Fish reentered pri- infantry regiment, and returned home in 1919 vate business and wrote a number of books as a decorated military officer. Upon his return, during the postwar period in which he blamed he helped to found the American Legion. In FDR both for helping to launch World War II 1920, he was elected to the U.S. House of Rep- and for the spread of communism during the resentatives and ultimately served as a con- cold war. He died on January 18, 1991, in Cold gressman for a quarter of a century. Through Spring, New York. his congressional tenure, he became the rank- ing Republican on the House Rules Commit- tee and Foreign Affairs Committee. He Fisher, Irving continued his interest in prison reform, and, (1867–1947) economist drawing on his military experience, he cham- pioned the veteran’s bonus as well as anti- The son of a Congregationalist minister father lynching legislation. He introduced legislation and homemaker mother, Irving Fisher was born for the burial of the Unknown Soldier in on February 27, 1867, in Saugerties, New York. Arlington National Cemetery. He was the oldest of the couple’s four children The Great Depression and World War II who survived past childhood. During his boy- were not Fish’s finest moments, although given hood, Fisher’s family lived in Rhode Island for his background one might have expected oth- 12 years and then moved to Missouri. He was erwise from a one-time Bull Moose Republi- sent back east to attend Yale University in 1884, can. He and Franklin Roosevelt were personal just a few months before his father died of tuber- friends, but Fish lacked FDR’s flexibility. His culosis. He completed his undergraduate degree aristocratic sense of noblesse oblige allowed in 1888 and remained at Yale to begin his grad- Fish to support minimum-wage and social- uate studies in math and political economics. security legislation. As an Old Guard Republi- Political scientist William Graham Sumner per- can, he was bound to balanced budgets, and suaded Fisher to combine the two fields for his tight money combined with the huge new dissertation. Published in 1892, his dissertation bureaucracy, massive deficits, and labor unrest became one of the first American works in forced him to break with FDR. He was con- mathematical economics. It also gained him an vinced that the Court-packing plan and the international reputation that resulted in Yale recommendations of the LOUIS BROWNLOW hiring him to teach math. He joined Yale’s social committee were the first steps to certain dicta- and political science faculty permanently in torship in the White House. 1895 and remained there for the rest of his life. After World War II broke out in Europe, Fisher’s greatest accomplishment may have Fish led the fight in the House against the been his marriage to Margaret Hazard, whose “cash-and-carry” Neutrality Act of 1939, the wealthy father built them the mansion in New Selective Service Act of 1940, and the Lend- Haven where they raised their three children. Lease Act of 1941. He was a frequent speaker Fisher became a full professor in 1898, and soon for the America First Committee. After the afterward he began to suffer from tuberculosis, 86 Flanagan, Hallie Mae Ferguson the disease that had caused his father’s death. Flanagan, Hallie Mae Ferguson He took a three-year leave of absence while he (1890–1969) director, Federal Theatre Project recovered his health, and during that hiatus from teaching he wrote his successful book How Born on August 27, 1890, in Redfield, South to Live. Fisher had inherited his father’s tendency Dakota, Hallie Mae Ferguson, the product of for tireless proselytizing, and he applied those midwestern parents, graduated form Grinnell tendencies to his crusade for Americans to live College in 1911 and taught school. She mar- in homes with fresh air ventilation and to abstain ried Murray Flanagan, but her husband and from alcohol and tobacco use. He also made older son died in 1922. After their deaths, she regular pilgrimages to Battle Creek, Michigan, began teaching theater at her alma mater and to engage in John Harvey Kellogg’s health prac- wrote plays. She learned more about theater tices. Fisher changed his own health practices after becoming George Pierce Baker’s assistant almost as frequently as he changed his mind at Harvard University, and she was able to about economic panaceas. He wrote little in complete her M.A. degree at Radcliff College mathematical economics after 1892 but became in 1924. She took a teaching job at Vassar Col- a prolific author over the next three decades. lege and then spent a year in Europe viewing He favored a consumption tax rather than an modern European theater before returning to income tax. In 1927, he arranged a visit in Rome Vassar to implement what she had learned with BENITO MUSSOLINI, who declined to there in the Vassar Experimental Theatre. adopt Fisher’s monetary advice. Flanagan’s connection to the New Deal By the late 1920s, Fisher had become came in 1935 after presidential adviser HARRY extremely wealthy from a card-index system HOPKINS, a friend from her undergraduate that he had invented and marketed before years at Grinnell, asked her to become head of Sperry Rand Corporation purchased it. He the Federal Theatre Project (FTP) within the used his wealth to support his crusades to abol- Works Project Administration. The FTP con- ish war, fight disease, promote eugenics, and sisted of four sections: a popular-price theater, advocate a stable monetary system. None of the Living Newspaper, the Negro theater, and his great reform campaigns succeeded, and the experimental theater. It provided employ- during the Great Depression, which he had ment for more than 12,000 persons in 158 the- failed to predict, he lost his personal fortune; aters across 28 states. Productions were staged his sister-in-law saved him from bankruptcy. in parks, halls, and hospitals. Flanagan had Fisher always had answers, even if they were hoped to develop a national theater that would wrong. He urged FDR to abandon the gold outlive the New Deal. standard and stabilize the currency. The presi- The most controversial section of the FTP dent’ gold-buying plan in 1933 and 1934 grew was the so-called Living Newspaper, which was out of Fisher’s position. But Fisher argued used to employ many out-of-work actors in against the New Deal’s effort to raise farm prices productions dealing with current political by restricting production. He began to criticize issues. As a result, plays were performed about New Deal programs and by 1944 turned against American foreign relations, Supreme Court FDR. Fisher’s economic panaceas illustrated the decisions on the New Deal, slum life, and con- conflicting advice that the president received gressional legislation. The direct link between from academics. these performances and the New Deal forced He died on April 29, 1947, in New York Flanagan to defend the FTP before the House City. Un-American Activities Committee in 1938. Ford, Henry 87

The program was accused of being tainted with argued for urban and labor interests, which communism. Congress ended its funding for FDR had long cultivated. the FTP in mid-1939. Flanagan became dean Most important, Flynn was FDR’s liaison at Smith College in 1942 and served there until with the big-city political machines in New 1946. She died on July 23, 1969, in Old Tap- York, Chicago, and elsewhere. He replaced pan, New Jersey. JAMES FARLEY as chairman of the Democratic National Committee in 1940 after FDR decided to seek an unprecedented third term Flynn, Edward Joseph and split with Farley. As someone who was (Boss Flynn) content to operate in the background, Flynn (1891–1953) political boss, National Democratic remained a principal confidant and adviser to Committee, chairman the president. Recognizing FDR’s health prob- lems, Flynn maneuvered to have Truman on Born on September 22, 1891, in New York City the Democratic presidential ticket in 1944. He to Irish-Catholic immigrant parents who were also attended the Yalta Conference with the relatively well-to-do, Edward Flynn graduated president in 1945. Flynn died in Dublin, Ire- in 1912 from Fordham University Law School. land on August 18, 1953. He began a legal practice that he continued throughout his life. Despite having a reserved personality for a politician, he was selected by Ford, Henry the head of the Tammany Hall political (1863–1947) Ford Motor Company founder machine to run for the state legislature. After serving two terms, he was selected sheriff of Born on July 30, 1863, to farmer parents in Bronx County and then appointed city cham- Springwells (now Greenfield) Township, berlain by Mayor Jimmy Walker in 1925. Michigan, Henry Ford attended local public Flynn’s formal association with Franklin schools for eight years. He rejected the farm Roosevelt began in 1929 after he was life that faced him, and at age 16 he walked to appointed as New York’s secretary of state. By Detroit, where he planned to become a that time he already had been Tammany Hall’s mechanic. Fascinated with machinery but chairman of the Bronx County Democratic armed only with ability in math, Ford worked Executive Committee. He held this political in a number of shops. In August 1880, he machine “boss” position for more than 30 began an apprenticeship at Detroit’s largest years, maintaining tight control to produce shipbuilding company, working in its engine good government by backing candidates like shop. He completed his apprenticeship in 1882 FDR, AL SMITH, HERBERT LEHMAN, and and returned to the family farm. Soon, how- HARRY S. TRUMAN.Flynn was an early FDR ever, he caught the attention of a representative supporter, and he became an influential adviser from Westinghouse Engine Company of Sche- to FDR throughout his governorship and pres- nectady, New York, who recruited him to set idency. In return, FDR appointed him as the up a shop and service Westinghouse steam regional administrator of the National Recov- engines throughout southern Michigan. ery Administration public works program and In 1888, Ford married Clara Bryant. His as U.S. commissioner general to the 1939–40 father gave him 40 acres of farmland on the World’s Fair. He was part of the informal condition that he would make it into a produc- White House inner circle whose members tive farm, but Ford refused and, instead, sold 88 Ford, Henry the timber on it and moved back to Detroit in for industrial workers while it shortened the autumn 1891. Beginning as a night engineer standard workday by two hours. He also intro- for the Edison Illuminating Company, the duced the profit-sharing plan and an education ever-energetic Ford became the chief engineer department to monitor employees’ work and in the fall of 1893, the same year that the cou- private lives to make sure theirs were consistent ple’s only child, Edsel, was born. with his own middle-class American morality. By summer 1896, Ford had also produced Nonetheless, his pay scale alone made him a his first experimental car. By 1899, with back- hero among his own workers and the American ing from JAMES COUZENS, who later became working class. Detroit’s mayor, and a local merchant, Ford By the end of World War I, Ford had began the Detroit Automobile Company. He bought out his remaining stockholders and his became the superintendent in charge of pro- company became totally family owned and duction, but after producing only about a operated. Ford obtained a draft deferment for dozen autos, the company went out of busi- his son, Edsel, and immediately appointed him ness at the end of 1900. He then began his pre- as president of the company, a position Edsel occupation with building race cars in the retained until his death in 1943. Although his Henry Ford Company in 1901, but his fixation son was president, the real power resided in on the race cars led his financial backers to fire Henry Ford, who was as autocratic in his con- him. That company became the Cadillac trol of his business fiefdom as his own father Motor Car Company, named in honor of the had been over the family farm. During World founder of Detroit. Nevertheless, with his War I, he had recruited HARRY BENNETT, his innate mechanical ability, Ford had proven most trusted associate, to deal with the labor himself by 1902 to be the nation’s best race car unrest in the company. By 1920, the Ford designer. Motor Company owned its main Highland With new backers, Ford returned to auto- Park plant, a huge new industrial Rouge Plant mobile manufacturing in 1903 with the forma- complex south of Detroit, and branch plants at tion of the Ford Motor Company. He home and abroad, including rubber planta- assembled the components to his autos, and tions, iron mines, lumber mills, coal mines, other small businesses actually built them. By glass plants, a railroad, and a fleet of ships. the end of the decade, he had introduced the There were 21 assembly plants abroad, all con- Model T, the first mass-produced car. More trolled by Ford from Dearborn, Michigan. than 15 million Model Ts were eventually sold. Republicans and Democrats alike made Ford, who became one of the wealthiest indus- political overtures to Ford, trying to entice him trialists in the United States, opened his 62- to run for office. Woodrow Wilson persuaded acre Highland Park plant in January 1910. The Ford to run for the Senate in 1918, and he nar- plant bred a new kind of semiskilled industrial rowly won the Democratic nomination but lost worker who performed small, repetitive func- the election. During autumn 1924, Ford tions on an assembly line. endorsed Calvin Coolidge in exchange for Ford soon proved to be his father’s son in Coolidge’s endorsement of Prohibition and, terms of exercising benevolent paternalism, some say, for his support of Ford’s bid to which over time increasingly evolved into his develop a government-owned plant at Muscle being an autocrat. In 1914, he introduced the Shoals, Tennessee, which Congress opposed. unprecedented five-dollar, eight-hour work- The success of his industrial empire masked day, a wage that nearly doubled the going rate the flaws in Ford’s personality and his limited Fortas, Abe 89 education. His eccentric personality would United States on December 11, 1941. That manifest itself through subjecting his employees year, Ford suffered a second stoke. to his peculiar outlook. He purchased a news- To add insult to injury, Ford watched in paper in Dearborn, and by the early 1920s, early 1940 as FDR recruited William S. Knud- numerous anti-Semitic articles had been pub- sen, a former Ford executive who had left Ford lished under his name in the newspaper. Some Motor Company for General Motors, where of these articles were gathered into a book, The he had become president, to be chairman of International Jew, which blamed Jews for con- the National Advisory Defense Committee, a trolling the world’s banks, starting World War position he held without salary. Edsel per- I, and undermining moral values. The book suaded his reluctant father to let the company appeared at a time when anti-Semitism was on participate in building aircraft engines for the the rise in Germany; Ford was the only Amer- U.S. Air Force. By autumn 1942, the entire ican ADOLF HITLER praised in Mein Kampf. American automotive industry had converted The Great Depression in many ways to war production. Following Edsel’s death in proved to be Ford’s undoing. Lacking the flex- 1943, Henry Ford briefly reassumed the pres- ibility of either FDR or his fellow auto com- idency. In 1945, his grandson, Henry Ford II, petitors, sales of Ford’s namesake automobile succeeded him after Ford’s wife and daughter- dropped from first to third place among pas- in-law forced him to relinquish the presidency. senger cars. The longer he fought unioniza- A mere shell of his former self, Ford died on tion, the more he shattered his popularity. He April 7, 1947, at Fair Lane, his 2,000-acre held out against unionization several years estate in Dearborn, only two miles from the longer than General Motors and Chrysler, but farm where he had been born. the United Auto Workers finally forced Ford to sign a contract in mid-1941. The workers had broken free of Henry Ford’s paternalism Fortas, Abe just as he had once rebelled against his own (1910–1982) New Deal legal counsel, father’s control. Department of the Interior undersecretary, Ford’s stubbornness proved most costly in Supreme Court justice the toll it took on his mental and physical health. At age 75, he suffered his first stroke, Born on June 19, 1910, in Memphis, Ten- which left him with reduced mental abilities nessee, Abe Fortas was a first-generation and impaired his memory. Ford’s son, Edsel, American born to Russian and Lithuanian par- had been president of the company since 1919, ents who had immigrated to the United States but in reality most of the company decisions from England in 1905. His mother reared the had to be approved by Henry. The stress from children as Orthodox Jews, while his father the criticism he directed at Edsel caused his tried to assimilate into the border state’s son to develop stomach trouble. Protestant community. Fortas was an outsider On Ford’s birthday in 1938—the same year with enormous energy and musical talent. He he had his first stroke—Hitler awarded Ford graduated in 1930 from local Southwestern the Grand Cross of the Supreme Order of the College, now Rhodes. The fall after his col- German Eagle. Two years later, however, the lege graduation, he decided to attend Yale Law German dictator took control of the Ford School on scholarship, and his life changed plants in Europe, seizing them as “enemy dramatically. At Yale, he came under the influ- property” after he declared war against the ence of WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS and the new 90 Foster, William Z.

school of jurisprudence called legal realism, first justice to resign in disgrace from the high which essentially viewed the law largely in bench. His resignation occurred under a bar- political terms. Fortas served as editor in chief rage of public criticism for accepting payments of the law journal. After completing his law from a wealthy financier and philanthropist who degree in 1933, he took a temporary job on the was under federal investigation. Fortas died on legal staff of the Agricultural Adjustment April 5, 1982, in Washington, D.C. Administration, headed by JEROME FRANK. From 1934 to 1937, he shuttled between Yale Law School, where he was a teacher, and Foster, William Z. Washington, D.C., where he accepted part- (1881–1961) Communist Party leader time assignments with the Roosevelt adminis- tration. In 1935, Fortas married Carolyn Born in Taunton, Massachusetts, on February Eugenia Agger, whom he persuaded to study 15, 1881, William Foster was the son of an law at Yale. Their marriage was childless. Irish immigrant father and English immigrant In 1937, Douglas recruited Fortas as the mother who had 23 children, most of whom assistant director of the public utilities division died in infancy. His father was a horse carriage at the Securities and Exchange Commission washer, and the family was very poor. When (SEC), which Douglas then chaired. After Foster was six years old, his struggling family Douglas was nominated to the U.S. Supreme moved to the Irish-Catholic slums of Philadel- Court in 1939, Fortas became general counsel phia. He dropped out of school when he was 10 to the Public Works Administration, which was and subsequently worked in a series of menial headed by Secretary of the Interior HAROLD jobs, including a stint as a seaman that took ICKES.While the large number of Jews andhim from the east to the west coast. legal realists in the FDR administration is often Coming of age during the worst excesses of cited, it would be more accurate to say that it industrial America, Foster rejected his ties with had an even larger number of social out- Catholicism for other beliefs after a policeman siders—individuals who were Irish, southern- in the City of Brotherly Love clubbed him on ers, blacks, and others. the head during a 1895 Philadelphia street car Fortas was appointed undersecretary of the strike. He first embraced William Jennings interior in 1942 but soon resigned to enlist in Bryan’s populism and later joined the Socialist the navy, returning to his old position in the Party. Moderation was never a Foster trade- Interior Department within a month after his mark. After briefly forming a Wage Workers discharge due to ocular tuberculosis. He subse- party, he joined the “Wobblies” (Industrial quently participated in the relocation of 110,000 Workers of the World). By the time he joined Japanese Americans, two-thirds of them native- the Socialist Party in 1909 he had returned to born Americans, from temporary assembly cen- the West Coast to take part in the Wobblies’ ters to permanent internment camps. “free speech fight” in Spokane, Washington, Through the postwar period, Fortas’s career where he was arrested and held briefly. would follow a pattern of similar rise and fall. In 1910, Foster traveled abroad for the sec- He helped to found one of the best law firms in ond time since his seaman’s days, this time to the nation’s capital in 1946, remaining there Europe, where he joined the syndicalist trade until 1965, when President Lyndon Johnson union movement. After returning to the appointed him as an associate justice of the U.S. United States, he published Syndicalism, the Supreme Court. In May 1969, he became the book marked the emergence of his career as an Franco, Francisco 91 activist. He founded the Syndicalist League of believer within the party during the onset of North America in 1912, and that same year, he the Great Depression. He viewed Franklin married a member of his organization, Esther Roosevelt and the New Deal as the last-ditch Abramowitz, a Russian immigrant with three efforts to salvage American capitalism. In 1932, children. They had no children together. he was the Communist Party presidential can- The couple began working for the Chicago didate, winning more than 100,000 votes but Federation of Labor. During World War I, losing badly to FDR. During the campaign, he Foster organized the meat packers, the trade suffered a near-fatal heart attack. Afterward, about which UPTON SINCLAIR had written his Browder, the Communist Party’s general secre- classic novel The Jungle. After World War I, on tary, retained the real power, and Foster was behalf of the American Federation of Labor, relegated to the honorific post of chairman. Foster led a large but unsuccessful strike Foster thought that Browder’s support of among mostly immigrant workers in the steel the Popular Front during the early days before industry who wanted union recognition. The World War II undermined the party’s ideo- Red Scare hysteria in the postwar era assured logical purity. After the Molotov-Ribbentrop the effort’s defeat. Nonetheless, the perennial pact between the Soviet Union and Nazi Ger- organizer formed yet another new group, the many was signed in 1939, Foster’s influence Trade Union Education League (TUEL), was on the ascendancy again until ADOLF which espoused industrial unionism, a new HITLER invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, labor party, and the Bolshevik Revolution. In which reinstated Browder’s leadership primacy 1921, Foster made his first trip to Moscow with until the first days of the cold war emerged. a group of other radicals, including his chief Browder was then soon excommunicated from assistant, EARL BROWDER, to attend the first the reformatted American Communist Party, congress of the Red International Labor and Foster was restored to his original leader- Unions. Foster returned as a convert to com- ship role. munism, which caused the leadership of the Foster’s fortunes turned bleak again after American Federation of Labor to denounce federal prosecution in 1948, and party mem- TUEL as merely a communist front organiza- bership dwindled significantly. In ill health, he tion. His ties to the more moderate American died on September 1, 1961, while in the Soviet labor movement were severed, which had not Union. He was honored with a state funeral in been the Kremlin’s intended strategy. But he Red Square before his cremated remains were had found—or thought he had—his rock of returned to Chicago for interment in Wald- support in communism. heim Cemetery. In early 1924, Foster ran for the presidency as the candidate of the Workers Party, then the name of the American Communist Party, but Franco, Francisco pulled only 33,000 votes. Four years later, he (“El Caudillo”) ran again with similarly dismal results. Follow- (1892–1975) Spanish head of state ing his poor showing, the Kremlin delivered Foster a major blow when it anointed his The youngest of three brothers, Francisco charismatic lieutenant with boyish appeal, Franco was born on December 4, 1892, to a Browder, as its top leader in the United States. lower middle-class family in extreme north- Nonetheless, having converted to his new polit- western Spain. He enrolled at the Toledo Mil- ical religion, Foster continued to work as a true itary Academy when he was 15 years old and 92 Frank, Jerome New

quickly identified with the frustrations of the War II. His power remained based on the army Spanish army, which had been humiliated dur- and the Catholic Church. In 1947, Franco ing the Spanish-American War in 1898. After restored the monarchy in Spain, with himself his graduation in 1910, he volunteered to serve as regent. He died on November 20, 1975. in Morocco, the best means for an ambitious soldier to achieve promotion. By 1915, he had become the youngest captain in the Spanish Frank, Jerome New army during Spain’s colonial campaigns in (1889–1957) New Deal legal counsel; chairman, North Africa. He joined the Spanish Foreign Securities and Exchange Commission; judge, Legion in 1920 and three years later improved U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit his social standing by marrying into a wealthy business family. He took command of the For- Born on September 10, 1889, Jerome Frank eign Legion five years later, and in 1926 he was the only son among the three children born became the youngest general in Europe. He of his Jewish parents, in New York City; his was appointed head of the Zaragoza Military father was a lawyer and his mother was a musi- Academy in 1928. cian. The family moved to Chicago, where With the end of the Spanish monarchy and Frank was educated. At the University of the establishment of the new Second Republic Chicago, CHARLES MERRIAM, a renowned with its antimilitary policy, Franco was forced political scientist, changed the course of his life. on the inactive list. But after the conservative By the time he received his undergraduate right regained power in 1933, he returned to degree in 1909, Frank had taken all of Mer- active duty, crushed a miners’ strike the next riam’s courses. Bowing to pressure from his year, and was appointed in May 1935 as the father, he went to the University of Chicago army’s chief of staff. The 1936 elections, how- Law School, where he encountered Roscoe ever, returned the left wing to power, plunging Pound, who became the father of sociological the nation into political crisis. On July 18, 1936, jurisprudence. However, his first mentor’s con- Franco, then on the Spanish-held Canary tinued influence led Frank to take a year’s leave Islands, rebelled against the Second Republic. to serve as Merriam’s secretary while he was a He raised an army in Morocco and Spain to reform alderman on Chicago’s city council. overthrow the government in Madrid but Frank thus gained both an academic and a prac- encountered resistance there. He subsequently tical view of the link between law and politics. obtained military aid from ADOLF HITLER and He graduated from law school in 1912, simul- BENITO MUSSOLINI during the three-year taneously beginning the practice of corporate Spanish civil war that raged between Franco’s law and becoming involved in local political Falange (Spanish Fascist party) and the Repub- reforms. While in Chicago, he met John Gun- lican government, aided by JOSEPH STALIN as ther, Sherwood Anderson, SINCLAIR LEWIS, well as international antifascist volunteers, and other intellectuals and writers of the period. including those from the United States who In 1928, Frank moved to New York City to called themselves the International Lincoln take a job with one of the nation’s premier law Brigade. By April 1939, Franco had won, but firms. Yet he found little satisfaction from Wall not until after nearly 1 million Spaniards from Street. Two years later, the publication of his both sides of the civil war had died. classic book Law and the Modern Mind, which Though privately pro-Axis, Franco’s Spain applied Freudian analysis to the law, enabled remained technically neutral during World Frank to move from private practice into pub- Frankfurter, Felix 93 lic service. The book became the most impor- On the suggestion of WILLIAM O. DOU- tant work of the legal realism movement, and GLAS, Frank was appointed to the Securities Frank soon became a research associate at Yale and Exchange Commission (SEC), and after Law School, the epicenter of legal realism. His Douglas’s appointment to the U.S. Supreme association with Yale continued until his death. Court in 1939, Frank succeeded Douglas as While there, he formed friendships with chairman of the SEC. In this role, he was often WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS, THURMAN ARNOLD, in conflict with conservative Wall Street busi- ABE FORTAS, Harold Lasswell, and other lead- nessmen. In 1941, at Douglas’s urging, FDR ing figures. nominated Frank to an opening on the U.S. After becoming acquainted with FELIX Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. It was FRANKFURTER, FDR’s legal adviser, Frank an ideal position for Frank since his chambers wrote to him in 1932 seeking a job with the were in New York City, allowing him to over- New Deal. He was soon appointed the first see Wall Street and also teach part-time at Yale general counsel in the Agricultural Adjustment Law School. During his judicial career on the Administration (AAA), and his office became a Second Circuit, he wrote a number of deci- hotbed for reform. He assembled a talented sions that influenced the U.S. Supreme Court staff, including Arnold, Fortas, and Alger Hiss, to expand civil liberties. Frank died on January Adlai Stevenson, and Telford Taylor. These 13, 1957, in New Haven, Connecticut. urban liberal lawyers championed tenant farm- ers and sharecroppers, thus coming in conflict with AAA head Chester Davis. Frankfurter, Felix Frank lost his job over this but remained in (1882–1965) U.S. Supreme Court justice good graces with FDR, who had included him in his famous “brain trust,” which had helped Born on November 15, 1882, in Vienna, Aus- to draft the National Industrial Recovery Act tria, Felix Frankfurter was the son of Austrian of 1933, especially the provision to guarantee Jewish immigrant parents who moved to New labor’s right to bargain collectively. Among York City in 1894. He graduated from the City Frank’s enduring contributions was helping to College of New York in 1902 and entered Har- create the Federal Register, which publishes the vard Law School before it became heavily regulations of all administrative agencies of the influenced by legal realism and sociological federal government. jurisprudence. However, while enrolled there In 1933, Frank created the Federal Surplus he heard LOUIS BRANDEIS deliver a presenta- Relief Corporation to administer procurement tion that motivated him to become involved in and distribution of agricultural surpluses to the liberal political causes. hungry, establishing a precedent for future fed- After his graduation in 1906, Frankfurter eral food programs. After he was dismissed obtained a position with a prominent Wall from the AAA, Frank served briefly as a special Street law firm, becoming its first Jewish counsel for the Reconstruction Finance Cor- lawyer. He then became a staff member to poration in addition to performing legal work HENRY L. STIMSON, who had become U.S. for Secretary of the Interior HAROLD ICKES attorney for the Southern District of New York, that allowed the Public Works Administration and later served as Stimson’s campaign man- to make loans to county power-development ager in his unsuccessful bid for the governor- projects. He won the government’s case, ship in 1910. After President William Howard Alabama Power Company v. Ickes, in 1938. Taft brought Stimson into his administration 94 Frazier, Lynn Joseph

NARD KEYNES.He would later arrange for FDR to meet Keynes. Using his law-school student contacts, Frankfurter became a one-person New Deal employment service for his “Happy Hot Dogs,” furnishing legal talent for the Roosevelt administration in Washington. His influence expanded during FDR’s second term, enabling him to push the administration leftward. After the death of BENJAMIN CARDOZO in 1938, FDR nominated Frankfurter as Cardozo’s replacement on the Supreme Court. Liberals were overjoyed with the nomination, but con- servatives were dismayed by Frankfurter’s efforts to help found the American Civil Lib- erties Union and the New Republic magazine. To the surprise of both groups, he revealed himself to be a political liberal but a judicial conservative. Except for supporting New Deal economic reforms, Frankfurter typically sided with restrictions in free-speech cases, showing Justice Felix Frankfurter (United States Supreme easy deference to majority consensus in society. Court) With an almost mystical belief in the melt- ing pot, Frankfurter had married a Congrega- as secretary of war the next year, Stimson tional minister’s daughter, just as he was brought Frankfurter to Washington to serve as wedded to the pre-legal-realism jurisprudential his special assistant. He subsequently rewarded tenets of Harvard Law School. His wife suf- Frankfurter for his work by helping to raise fered several mental breakdowns during their funds that allowed Harvard to hire Frankfurter, marriage, and his brethren on the high tribunal its first Jewish law faculty member, in 1914. finally turned against him because of his arro- Frankfurter also worked as a special assis- gant insistence on lecturing them about most tant to Woodrow Wilson’s secretary of war, cases. Frankfurter is considered a great justice NEWTON D. BAKER, during World War I. As in terms of historical rankings of justices, but chairman of the War Labor Policies Board, he retired from the Court in 1962 embittered Frankfurter worked with Franklin D. Roo- and frustrated after the majority rejected his sevelt, assistant secretary of the navy. He sub- leadership. He died on February 22, 1965, in sequently acted as Roosevelt’s legal adviser Washington, D.C. when FDR became governor of New York in 1929 and then president of the United States in 1933. FDR initially asked Frankfurter to Frazier, Lynn Joseph become the solicitor general, but Frankfurter (1874–1947) U.S. senator had already accepted a visiting professorship at Oxford University, where he developed a Lynn Joseph Frazier was born on December 21, friendship with British economist JOHN MAY- 1874, near Medford, Minnesota, to a farm cou- Frazier, Lynn Joseph 95 ple. When he was seven years old, the family can Party’s bid for a U.S. Senate seat by defeat- moved to Pembina County, North Dakota, to ing four-term incumbent Porter J. McCumber homestead a tract of land. He earned a teaching in the primary. Frazier defeated his Democratic degree from Mayville Normal School in 1895 opponent in the fall general election. As with and six years later received his bachelor’s degree his governorship, he was reelected to the Sen- from the University of North Dakota. He ate twice, despite the fact that he was con- returned to farm for several years near Hoople, demned in 1924 for endorsing the presidential North Dakota, and in 1903 married Lottie bid of ROBERT LA FOLLETTE, JR.on the Pro- Stafford, with whom he had five children. gressive ticket. The lingering economic plight of farmers While in the Senate, Frazier worked with after the Civil War prompted Frazier to other progressive Republicans, including Wis- become active in the politics of the new Non- consin’s La Follette and Oregon’s CHARLES partisan League, a farmers’ organization MCNARY, in their efforts to help the unem- founded in the state. It advocated restraints on ployed and the underprivileged while regulat- railroads, bankers, and millers seen by mem- ing major corporations. His best-known pieces bers as exploiting small family farmers. Because of legislation were the two Frazier-Lemke Acts of his farming experience and his unusually of 1934 and 1935, which imposed moratoriums advanced education for that time and locale, on foreclosures when farmers were unable to the Nonpartisan League backed Frazier for the pay their mortgages. The U.S. Supreme Court North Dakota governorship in 1916. Surpris- held the 1934 act unconstitutional in Louisville ingly, he won the Republican primary and Joint Stock Land Bank v. Radford (1935), but it overwhelmingly defeated his Democratic was rewritten in August of that year as the Farm opponent in the fall general election. He was Mortgage Moratorium Act of 1935. reelected in 1918 and 1920. Frazier preferred to work behind the scenes Frazier became an active governor, oppos- while his flamboyant North Dakota colleague ing U.S. involvement in World War I because GERALD NYE reveled in the limelight. Frazier he viewed it as diverting attention from domes- consistently supported farm relief and remained tic problems. He helped to create the state- an isolationist in international affairs. He was owned Bank of North Dakota and a defeated for reelection in 1940 when dema- state-owned flour mill and grain elevator. gogue William Langer, the former League col- Charges of the Nonpartisan League’s support league from whom he had split, won the for socialistic policies and a scandal in the Republican primary. Frazier returned to farm- newly created bank precipitated a recall elec- ing in Pembina County, and his subsequent tion in 1921, and he was narrowly defeated. efforts to regain public office failed. He died The next year, however, he won the Republi- on January 11, 1947, in Riverdale, Maryland. G w

Gannett, Frank Ernest headed the Gannett Company, Inc. In 1922, (1876–1957) newspaper publisher he expanded into the new communication medium of radio by launching a radio station Frank Ernest Gannett was born on September in Rochester. By the end of that decade, the 15, 1876, in Bristol, New York, to farmer par- Gannett Company had gained Associated ents. He worked as a newspaper reporter while Press membership. Gannett’s media empire in high school and in college, graduating from had expanded to 22 newspapers in 16 cities, Cornell University in 1898. Cornell’s presi- five radio stations, and three television stations dent, Jacob Gould Schurman, who was then in New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, and head of the first Philippine Commission and Illinois. knew Gannett as a student, recruited him to Gannett’s early sympathy for the Demo- serve for a year as the commission’s secretary. cratic Party gradually transformed as his At the end of that commitment, Gannett empire grew until he espoused an Old Guard returned to New York and newspaper work for Republican outlook. By the time of the New the next five years. Deal and Franklin Roosevelt, he was a major Gannett moved into his long career in critic of both, but he continued his practice of newspaper ownership in 1906 with his pur- allowing local papers to develop their own chase of a half interest in the Elmira Gazette. editorial policies. His interests turned to pol- His early trademarks included editorial brevity, itics after FDR’s reelection in 1936. Gannett separating news reporting from editorial writ- founded the National Committee to Uphold ing, and refusing to sell space for liquor adver- Constitutional Government in 1937 to fight tisements. Within a year, he had bought the FDR’s Court-packing scheme as well as the city’s other paper and merged the two, a move LOUIS BROWNLOW committee recommenda- that foreshadowed another of his career trade- tions for reorganizing the executive branch, marks. In 1920, he married Caroline Werner. which he viewed as efforts to create a dicta- The couple had a daughter, Sarah, and adopted torship. He unsuccessfully sought the 1938 a son, Dixon. Republican nomination for the New York Gannett continued to replicate his pattern governorship and the party’s presidential nod of newspaper acquisitions and mergers in New in 1940, losing the latter to WENDELL York cities in the early 1920s and finally WILLKIE.

96 Garner, John Nance 97

Gannett’s National Committee to Uphold and Means Committee in 1913, allowing him Constitutional Government continued to fight to fund local projects for his constituents. many New Deal reform and relief proposals As a southerner, Garner loyally supported until its contributor base faded by early 1941, Woodrow Wilson’s entry into World War I, at which time it morphed into a corporation but he opposed the Ku Klux Klan. His safe seat named the Committee for Constitutional Gov- led him to become the senior Democrat on the ernment. Gannett served as the assistant chair- Ways and Means Committee in 1923, where man of the Republican National Committee he typically worked behind the scenes. His from 1940 to 1942. He died on December 3, closest friend in the House was Speaker 1957, in Rochester. After his death, his news- Nicholas Longworth (R-Ohio), who was mar- paper chain continued to grow and eventually ried to THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s daughter. became the nation’s largest. With Longworth, Democratic leader Garner ran the so-called Board of Education in the Capitol to keep their colleagues in line. By the Garner, John Nance narrow margin of three votes, Garner finally (Cactus Jack) became Speaker on December 7, 1931, after (1868–1967) Speaker of the House, the Democrats had regained the House. vice president of the United States

Born in a log cabin on November 22, 1868, in Blossom Prairie, Texas, John Nance Garner later played semiprofessional baseball for a short time. He entered Vanderbilt University in 1886, but his poor educational background had not prepared him for college, and he soon dropped out. Returning home, he read law and set up a legal practice in 1890. He contracted tuberculosis and moved to the drier climate of Uvalde, west of San Antonio. After his health improved, he became involved in local com- munity affairs as a publisher and county judge. In addition to his law practice, he became a banker and large landowner. The energetic Garner entered state politics with his election to the Texas House of Repre- sentatives (1898–1902), where he favored pop- ulist measures to regulate insurance companies and railroads. He then moved into national politics with his election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1902. “Cactus Jack,” as he was called, maintained a homespun political style. His ability to cooperate and compromise led him to become the Democratic Whip in 1911 and obtain a spot on the powerful Ways John Nance Garner (Library of Congress) 98 Gaulle, Charles de

Garner tended to be conservative on eco- embodied in the Maginot Line intended to nomic matters during the Great Depression. protect France against another German inva- With the support of WILLIAM RANDOLPH sion and argued unsuccessfully for a mobile HEARST’s newspaper empire, he won the Cali- strike force instead. His criticism of French fornia primary and was a contender for the military strategy was responsible for repeated presidency in 1932. Fearing a divided conven- denials of promotion. tion, as had happened in 1924, Garner released After Nazi Germany attacked France in his delegates after the third ballot and accepted May 1940 with the same kind of motorized Franklin Roosevelt’s vice-presidential slot. armored attacks that de Gaulle had advocated Although initially supporting many New Deal for French defense, 84-year-old Marshal programs only out of a sense of party loyalty, Philippe Pétain, his former patron and a World he was consulted by FDR and remained on the War I national hero, was named premier. ticket in 1936. His differences with FDR grew, Pétain, a known supporter of a cease-fire, however, especially after the 1937 Supreme agreed with the armistice the government Court–packing plan. Differences over the plan signed with the Nazis that limited his govern- aside, Garner engineered the final, watered- ment to the southern zone of France with down, face-saving version of the Court-pack- headquarters in the spa town of Vichy while ing bill to reform only lower courts. allowing Nazi occupation of the northern Garner’s final split with FDR came after three-fifths of France. The French Vichy gov- the president’s attempted purge of conserva- ernment collaborated with ADOLF HITLER, tive Democrats from the party in 1938. He assuming that the dictator would soon defeat made a bid for the 1940 presidential nomina- the British, and sentenced de Gaulle to death in tion but was thwarted by JESSE JONES, another absentia as a traitor. Texan, especially after the state convention De Gaulle, who had recently been pro- failed to oppose a third term for FDR. His moted to general, refused to accept defeat. In favorite-son status proved meaningless as FDR early June 1940, he and his family fled to Lon- obtained a first-ballot victory in 1940 at the don, where he made a radio appeal for the national convention. Garner retired from French to resist. Without an electoral man- national politics early in 1941. He died on date, he renamed his Free France resistance November 7, 1967, in Uvalde, Texas. movement “Fighting France” in 1942, and by the time of the Allied liberation in 1944, he had emerged as the undisputed, charismatic Gaulle, Charles de leader of the resistance. His hope was to (1890–1970) French head of state restore French honor, which had been lost with the Nazi occupation. Largely because of this, Born on November 22, 1890, to Catholic par- de Gaulle was prickly toward British prime ents in northern France, Charles de Gaulle minister WINSTON CHURCHILL, who had been enlisted in the French army in 1909 and was his host in exile, and even more so toward accepted in the Saint-Cyr military academy, Franklin Roosevelt, who had withheld formal the equivalent of America’s West Point. During recognition of the Free French until a last World War I, he was wounded several times resort shortly before the August 1944 libera- and held as a prisoner of war. Afterward, he tion. De Gaulle was also excluded from both was a history lecturer at Saint-Cyr. De Gaulle the Yalta and the Potsdam conferences. (FDR disagreed with the prevailing defensive strategy had recognized the Vichy government in 1941 Giannini, Amadeo Peter 99 to prevent French naval vessels and strategic cover the Spanish civil war for Collier’s Weekly overseas territory from falling into the hands of in 1936 and 1937. She was a strong backer of the Axis powers.) the Loyalist (republican) side, as was ERNEST Temporarily blocked by the Americans and HEMINGWAY; their eventual five-year marriage British, de Gaulle eventually gained political (1940–45) grew from this episode. The couple power during the postwar period and estab- made a movie of the Spanish civil war that lished a stable Fifth Republic in 1959 with a showed the dangers of FRANCISCO FRANCO strong presidency that he occupied. He often and fascism. The First Lady showed the film at governed by plebiscite to terminate French the White House for FDR, but it failed to colonialism, to develop a close relationship change his neutrality policy toward Spain. with West Germany, and to be a frequent irri- Gellhorn remained a welcome White House tant to both the British and Americans. He guest. After the war she moved to London cov- became the most effective democratic leader ering military conflicts around the world. Gell- in France’s history. He died in Colombey-les- horn published articles, short stories and Deux-Églises, France, on November 9, 1970. novels. She died on February 16, 1998, in Lon- don, England.

Gellhorn, Martha (1908–1998) reporter Giannini, Amadeo Peter (1870–1949) banker Martha Gellhorn was born on November 8, 1908, in St. Louis, Missouri, the only daugh- Born in San Jose, California, on May 6, 1870, ter of a prominent Prussian-Jewish physician Amadeo Giannini was the son of Italian immi- father and his progressive wife. She entered grant parents. His father was killed when he was Byrn Mawr College but dropped out to work seven years old, and his mother remarried. for United Press International as a corre- Giannini’s stepfather, Lorenzo Scatena, was an spondent from France. ELEANOR ROOSEVELT ambitious wholesale produce owner who moved and her mother had worked together on the the family to San Francisco. Giannini began League of Women Voters and the Women’s working for him when he was 12 years old and Division of the Democratic Party. In 1934, still a student at Washington Grammar School, Gellhorn began her contact with the New which he attended through the eighth grade. Deal by working as one of a team of 16 writ- After briefly attending Heald’s Business College, ers hired by presidential aide HARRY HOPKINS Giannini went to work full-time for his stepfa- to tour the nation and report on the impact of ther and at 19 was made a partner in the whole- the Great Depression. His chief investigator, sale business. Three years later, he married LORENA HICKOK, who also had a reporter Clorinda Agnes Cuneo, whose father was a background, arranged a meeting with Eleanor wealthy real-estate investor. The couple had six Roosevelt, who in turn introduced Gellhorn children, but only three survived to adulthood. to FDR. Her reporter’s knowledge provided In 1901, the Scatena wholesale produce the Roosevelts with firsthand observations firm was among the largest such businesses in about social conditions and the need for pub- San Francisco, and Giannini retired with a small lic relief. fortune. His father-in-law died the following After she left her brief assignment with year, and the family asked him to manage the Hopkins, Gellhorn returned to Europe to half-million dollar estate, which included shares 100 Girdler, Tom Mercer in the Columbus Savings and Loan Society At the time of his death from a heart attack located in San Francisco’s Italian quarter. Gian- on June 3, 1949, in San Mateo, California, the nini unsuccessfully urged the institution to cul- Bank of America was the world’s largest com- tivate small borrowers and resigned to help mercial bank. It had more than 500 branches in found the Bank of Italy in late 1904. The new California as well as international branches bank targeted small borrowers, and he actively abroad. Transamerica Corporation, a holding advertised to attract such customers at a time company, had 127 more banking offices in when established banks did not solicit business. western states, in addition to real estate and Giannini applied his industriousness, busi- industrial companies. The empire played a sig- ness acuity, and humanity to building the new nificant role in California’s postwar economic bank, and it flourished. After the California growth. legislature enacted a law in 1909 that permitted branch banking, Giannini rapidly expanded the Bank of Italy by acquiring small banks and Girdler, Tom Mercer turning them into branches. By 1918, in addi- (1877–1965) steel executive tion to its headquarters location in San Fran- cisco, there were 24 branches of the Bank of Tom Girdler was born on May 19, 1877, in Italy, the nation’s first large-banking system. Clark County, Indiana, to parents who owned He organized the Bancitaly Corporation in a small farm as well as a cement plant. He 1919 to further expand his banking system, attended a one-room country school as a boy acquiring New York banks and branch banks in and then went to Manual Training High Italy as well as the Bank of America in Los School in nearby Louisville, Kentucky. In Angeles. Five years later, he retired as president 1901, he earned his degree in mechanical of the Bank of Italy but retained the presidency engineering from Lehigh University. He then of Bancitaly and bought more banks with worked as a sales engineer in the London branches, calling the group the Bank of Amer- office of the Buffalo Forge Company for a ica of California. By 1933, all these banks were year. In 1902, he left for Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- brought together as the Bank of America vania, and employment with the Oliver Iron National Trust and Savings Association, later and Steel Company. The next year, he mar- known as the Bank of America, part of the ried Mary Elizabeth Hayes, who died in 1917. Transamerica Corporation. Remarkably, des- (Girdler remarried three times after her pite his success, Giannini adhered to his origi- death; all four of his children were from his nal philosophy of putting emphasis on small first marriage.) borrowers, and he never succumbed to the cor- Girdler excelled at his job with Oliver Iron ruption of power. and Steel but soon left to work for Colorado Under his careful management, Giannini’s Fuel and Iron Company in Pueblo for two banking empire survived the Great Depression, years. He then went to Atlantic Steel Com- although he was forced to obtain a loan from the pany in Atlanta, Georgia, staying for six years Reconstruction Finance Corporation in 1932. before being hired by Jones and Laughlin Steel He became a supporter of Franklin Roosevelt, Corporation in Pittsburgh in 1914. There he and unlike others, he praised the Emergency rose quickly in management and became the Banking Act of 1933, the Banking Act of 1933, general superintendent of the corporation’s and the Banking Act of 1935. By 1939, Giannini plant at Aliquippa, Pennsylvania, in 1920. had doubled the resources of his banks. Girdler’s “model town” at Aliquippa was con- Girdler, Tom Mercer 101 sidered “Little Siberia” by his workers. Still, to recognize unions. Girdler became the however ruthless he may have been, his eco- authoritarian voice of what was dubbed “Little nomic success during these years propelled him Steel,” which responded to the threat of a up the corporate ladder, and he became the strike with lockouts. Nearly 1 million workers company’s president in 1928. went on strike and there were hundreds of The next year, Girdler made his last career instances of violence. On May 30, 1937, after a move when he unexpectedly left Jones and six-week strike at Republic’s South Chicago Laughlin at the pinnacle of his career to take plant, police shot and killed 10 workers, and over the newly organized Republic Steel Cor- more than 100 were injured. That gave the poration. The new position in Cleveland, union its rallying cry, “Remember the Memo- Ohio, gave him the opportunity to build an rial Day Massacre.” Franklin Roosevelt blamed entire company that would bear his imprint. It both Girdler and Lewis, and neither backed soon had plants and mines in 77 cities, his 1940 presidential campaign. FDR, in turn, although it operated at a loss until 1935. denounced both of them as he campaigned for Girdler had the foresight to see that railroads his third term. would be supplanted as steel’s future by auto- Girdler had broken the strike by Novem- mobiles, airplanes, and home products. As a ber 1937, turning public opinion against the result, Republic moved toward specialization strikers by playing the communist menace in lightweight steel alloys suitable for those trump card. But his victory was short-lived products. after FDR’s unprecedented third-term reelec- Girdler was a lifelong Republican, but he tion in 1940 and the subsequent entrance of became a major booster of the New Deal’s the United States into World War II. By 1942, National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of the new National Labor Board had ruled that 1933 because it allowed the steel industry as a government contracts would be limited to whole to establish a code that was pro-busi- companies that recognized the right of work- ness. At the same time, it helped to prevent ers to bargain collectively. “Little Steel” was the steel giants from overwhelming the forced to bow to reality to retain a market for emerging ones like Republic with unfair price its product. competition. Republic became a leader in During World War II, Girdler was head backing the steel code, and even after the of both the Republic Steel headquarters in Supreme Court declared the NIRA unconsti- Cleveland as well as the Consolidated Vultee tutional in 1935, he continued to advocate vol- Aircraft Corporation headquarters in San untary code compliance. Diego. He introduced the assembly line to Girdler became one of the major oppo- the production of aircraft, setting records in nents of the National Labor Relations Act making the B-24 Liberator bomber for the (NLRA) of 1935, which allowed labor to orga- army and the PBY Flying Boat for the navy. nize and bargain collectively with manage- During the postwar era, he returned to his ment. A collision occurred soon after JOHN L. duties at Republic, continuing plant and mar- LEWIS and his Committee for Industrial Orga- ket expansion for new company products nizations won a contract with United States using steel alloys. At age 79, he retired in Steel in March 1937. Similar contracts with 1955 with Republic at its peak of 70,000 Jones and Laughlin and others followed that employees and its greatest profit. He died a one. However, Republic, Bethlehem, Youngs- decade later at his home near Easton, Mary- town Sheet and Tube, and Inland Steel refused land, on February 4, 1965. 102 Glass, Carter

Glass, Carter internationalist who supported FDR’s foreign (1858–1946) U.S. senator policy. In 1938, FDR dedicated a bronze bas- relief of Glass, the self-described “unrecon- Carter Glass was born on January 4, 1858, into structed rebel,” in the lobby of the Federal the political environment that surrounded his Reserve Building, where it hangs across from a influential newspaper family in Virginia. Fam- similar likeness of Wilson, another native Vir- ily financial hardship caused him to drop out of ginian. The inscription plaque for Glass reads school at age 14, and he soon was following in “Defender of the Federal Reserve System.” He his father’s footsteps, working with local news- died on May 26, 1946, in Washington, D.C. papers. In 1887, he became an editor for the Lynchburg News, and the next year he became the newspaper’s owner. Over the ensuing Green, William decade, Glass acquired several more newspa- (1870–1952) president, American Federation of pers. He became involved in local politics as a Labor state senator (1899–1903), favoring literacy tests and poll taxes to limit suffrage for blacks Born on March 3, 1870, in Coshocton, Ohio, and whites. William Green was the son of a poor immi- Glass’s long career in national politics grant coal miner and his wife. As a boy, he was began with his election to the U.S. House of slightly built and unusually energetic, bright, Representatives, where he served from 1902 to and religious. After completing the eighth 1918. He soon developed expertise in banking grade, he worked for the local railroad for a issues and became the main architect of the short time before going to work in the coal Federal Reserve Act of 1913, earning him the mines, which he did for 19 years. In 1892, he title Father of the Federal Reserve System. He married Jennie Mobley, the daughter of another became Woodrow Wilson’s secretary of the local miner; the couple had six children. Treasury (1918–20) until he was appointed to Green and his father joined the Progres- fill the vacant U.S. Senate seat from Virginia sive Miners’ Union in 1886, five years before it left by the death of Thomas S. Martin. He merged with the Knights of Labor District 35 remained in that seat until his death. During his to form the United Mine Workers of America career, Glass also served as a member of the (UMWA). Green was elected secretary of his Democratic National Committee (1916–28). local and then become the local president. By FDR tried to co-opt Glass by inviting him 1906 he was president of the entire Ohio dis- to become his secretary of the Treasury, but trict. After losing two elections to the presi- Glass declined in 1933. However, FDR was dency of the national UMWA he turned to successful in recruiting his sister, MARION state politics. In 1910, he won a seat in the state GLASS BANISTER, as the assistant treasurer of senate as a Democrat, and in 1912, he was the United States that same year. Nonetheless, reelected and became the Democratic floor Glass remained a conservative “states’ rights” leader. Democrat who believed in the gold standard When he was appointed statistician for the and a balanced budget. He voted against the UMWA in 1911, Green returned to full-time New Deal more than any other congressional union work. He was elected as secretary-trea- Democrat. However, with a southern heritage surer of the UMWA in 1913 and held that shaped by having lost the American Civil War, position until 1924, serving during the early Glass compensated by remaining a Wilsonian years of the presidency of JOHN L. LEWIS.In Gulick, Luther Halsey, IV 103

1913, the president of the American Federation many of Green’s previous duties, transforming of Labor (AFL), Samuel Gompers, arranged Green into a figurehead in the process. for Green’s election as vice president and mem- Nonetheless, Green remained an influen- ber of the AFL executive council. Following tial labor leader during the New Deal and Gomper’s death in 1924, Lewis arranged for World War II. He served on FDR’s Commit- Green’s succession to the AFL presidency. tee on Economic Security, the National Having finally achieved leadership of the group Recovery Administration, the Management- with which he identified, though, Green grew Labor Policy Committee of the War Produc- increasingly conservative and moralistic. tion Board, the Economic Stabilization Board As the Great Depression deepened, the of the Office of Economic Stabilization, the conservative executive council of the AFL was Management Labor Council of the War Pro- forced to reverse its traditional opposition to duction Board, and the advisory council to the federal legislation to protect labor. With pres- Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion. sure coming from rank-and-file workers for Green had been thoroughly co-opted into him to become a lobbyist on their behalf, FDR’s administration just as he previously had Green assumed a new role and contributed to been co-opted into the more conservative formulation of New Deal reforms that he then wing of the AFL. In contrast to Lewis, who backed. In 1933, he became an enthusiastic called a miners’ strike during World War II, supporter of Senator HUGO BLACK’s 30-hour Green collaborated with both the government work-week bill. That same year, Green also and business to prevent strikes and maintain supported passage of the National Industrial full production. Recovery Act. Having helped to create Ohio’s During the postwar period, Green opposed workmen’s compensation program, he sup- the Taft-Hartley Act but overall maintained his ported the Social Security Act of 1935. He also conservative union stance. He died on Novem- supported the 1935 National Labor Relations ber 21, 1952, in Coshocton, Ohio, where he Act, which guaranteed labor’s right to bargain was born. collectively. In 1938, he helped gain passage of the Fair Labor Standards Act. It was Green’s traditional opposition to Gulick, Luther Halsey, IV strikes that contributed to division within the (1892–1993) member, President’s Committee on AFL between the conservative craft union Administrative Management leaders who dominated the AFL executive council and the more radical industrial union Luther Halsey Gulick was born in Osaka, Japan, advocates led by Lewis. Green personally on January 17, 1892. He shared his names with believed in industrial unionism but deferred to his Congregational church missionary father; the majority of the council. He voted with the his physical-educator grandfather, who is in the majority to suspend the Committee for Indus- Basketball Hall of Fame and helped found the trial Organization in 1936, and two years later Boy Scouts of America; and his great-grandfa- he voted to expel the group of unions that then ther, who also was a missionary. Gulick also became the Congress of Industrial Organiza- inherited the missionary zeal of his forebears tions (CIO). Green spent the remainder of his but chose to apply his energies in a new field in life fighting Lewis and the sit-down strike. By political science, public administration. 1939, the executive council had named George After spending his boyhood in Japan, Meany its secretary-treasurer, and he assumed Gulick received both his undergraduate and 104 Gulick, Luther Halsey, IV master’s degrees from Oberlin College in Gulick’s work at Columbia caught the atten- Ohio. For two years, he was a student of the tion of FDR, who appointed him to the presi- progressive economic historian Charles A. dential Committee on Administrative Beard at the Training School for Public Service Management (the Brownlow Committee) in of the New York Bureau of Municipal 1936 to study the administrative needs of a mod- Research, Columbia University. He ultimately ern executive. Gulick served with LOUIS replaced his mentor. During World War I, he BROWNLOW and CHARLES MERRIAM on the worked for the Council of National Defense study, which resulted in FDR’s proposal of the and the War Department in Washington, Executive Office of the President and the con- D.C., where he was a captain in the statistical cept of the modern White House staff. The branch of the general staff. After the war, he study called for a small presidential staff com- returned to Columbia and was awarded his posed of individuals described as having a “pas- doctorate in 1920. sion for anonymity.” Because the proposal was Gulick was the founding president of the submitted at virtually the same time as FDR’s Institute of Public Administration at Columbia Court-packing plan, its implementation was (1920–64) and simultaneously served as the diluted and delayed until Congress, recognizing director of the New York Bureau of Municipal the necessity of strengthening the presidency Research. With the fervor of a missionary, he during an era of totalitarianism abroad, passed conducted a variety of municipal studies and the Reorganization Act of 1939. If subsequent lectured at a number of colleges and universities presidents had observed the recommendations of in the 1920s and 1930s. At that time a Repub- the Brownlow Committee (e.g., especially a lican, he helped to organize Massachusetts’s small White House staff with assistants who did budget system during Calvin Coolidge’s gover- not make policy), episodes such as the Watergate norship. During his tenure as the Eaton pro- and Iran-Contra affairs might have been fessor of municipal science and administration avoided. The study remains one of the most sig- at Columbia University (1931–42), his work nificant documents on the American presidency. attracted national recognition, and he was From 1921 to 1962, Gulick served as the presi- appointed by the Social Sciences Research dent of the Institute of Public Administration, Council to direct the Commission of Inquiry on and then served as its chairman until 1982. He Public Service Personnel (1933–35). died on January 10, 1993, in New York City. H w

Hague, Frank tion. Along with Hopkins and Chicago mayor (1876–1956) Jersey City mayor EDWARD KELLY, he successfully managed FDR’s third-term bid at the 1940 Democratic Born on January 17, 1876, to Irish immigrant national convention in Chicago. parents, Frank Hague grew up in the Irish- Unfortunately, Hague’s power grew American tenements of Jersey City, New Jer- increasingly corrupt and tyrannical. He des- sey, called the Horseshoe District, which would pised the newly formed Committee on Indus- be his power base for the rest of his political trial Organization (CIO), using his police force life. He left school at age 14 and soon found to drive them violently from Jersey City in opportunity in ward politics, being elected 1937. That same year he also barred socialist constable of the Second Ward in 1899. With NORMAN THOMAS from speaking at a public street smarts, he worked his way up the Demo- rally in Jersey City, which resulted in a lawsuit cratic ladder over the next two decades, serving from the CIO and the American Civil Liberties as city commissioner before being elected as Union; the case was appealed to the U.S. mayor in 1917. He became the boss and virtual Supreme Court, which in 1939 upheld the First dictator of the urban political machine, based Amendment. Regular junkets to Florida and the on a 3 percent annual salary kickback from city Jersey Shore turned Hague into the absentee workers, 10 percent from suppliers and con- mayor of a city with the highest tax rate of any tractors, and a cut from the rackets it protected. comparably sized municipality in the nation. He provided the bacon; his patrons supplied His police were the best paid in the United voter loyalty. States, but teachers were slighted. A ruthless Hague’s urban machine served FDR loy- persona combined with policies that drove busi- ally during all four presidential campaigns. In ness and the middle class out of the city led to return, New Deal recovery programs and the defeat of his machine by 1949. Jersey City patronage in New Jersey were channeled pri- was changing, but Hague’s policies lacked inno- marily through Hague’s operation. He worked vation, and his personality showed little flexi- with presidential aide HARRY HOPKINS to bility. FDR and the New Deal had been willing obtain thousands of federal jobs between 1935 to overlook the corruption as long as it served and 1941. In turn, Hague delivered the the administration’s political purposes. Hague repeated support needed on New Deal legisla- died on January 1, 1956, in New York City.

105 106 Hansen, Alvin Harvey

Hansen, Alvin Harvey Harriman, William Averell (1887–1975) economic adviser to the Roosevelt (1891–1986) federal administrator, ambassador administration to the Soviet Union

Born on August 23, 1887, in Viborg, South Born on November 15, 1891, in New York City, Dakota, Alvin Hansen was the son of midwest- the son of a wealthy railroad magnate, Averell ern Baptist farmers. He was educated at Yank- Harriman attended Groton School in Con- ton College, the oldest private college in South necticut, where his academic performance was Dakota, graduating in 1910 with a degree in poor despite his father’s pressure for him to English. In 1913, he began his study of eco- excel; historians consider this a possible factor in nomics at the University of Wisconsin, where his lifelong stammer. FDR and ELEANOR ROO- he learned to use economics to address social SEVELT first met Harriman at Groton when he issues. Hansen completed his dissertation in was a classmate with Hall Roosevelt, Eleanor’s 1918 while teaching at Brown University in brother. After he graduated from Yale, Harri- Providence, Rhode Island, and then began a man began work at his father’s Union Pacific successful teaching career at the University of Railroad and went on to create one of the largest Minnesota. After Franklin Roosevelt was merchant fleets in the world after World War I, elected president in 1932, Hansen became an earning him the nickname “the Steamship economic adviser to Secretary of State King.” He became chairman of the Union CORDELL HULL. Pacific board in 1932 but derived less pleasure In 1937, Hansen moved to Harvard Uni- from business success than from recreational versity to become the first holder of the Lucius pursuits like polo. He had been a member of N. Littaurer chair of political economy. Many the 1928 American polo team and later also of his students, such as Paul Samuelson and earned a place in the Croquet Hall of Fame. John Kenneth Galbraith, would later become The Roosevelt presidency turned Harri- influential economists. While at Harvard, he man’s interest to politics. He and his sister, Mary acquired the nickname “the American Keynes” Harriman Rumsey, left the Republican Party since he concluded that JOHN MAYNARD fold in 1928 and voted for FDR in 1932. A KEYNES had the appropriate solution to the friend of Brigadier General HUGH JOHNSON, Great Depression. Hansen always saw eco- Harriman accepted a position in the National nomics as a means to solving social problems. Recovery Administration until it was declared His appointment as an economic adviser to unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1935. MARRINER ECCLES at the Federal Reserve He then served as the chairman of the Business Board (1940–45) furnished him a venue to pro- Advisory Council in the Commerce Department mote American Keynesianism as well as (1937–39) and joined the Office of Production Keynes’s Fiscal Policy and Business Cycles (1941). Management during World War II. Combining Incurably optimistic, he believed in a mixed his enjoyment of travel and public service, Har- economy. In the same way that FELIX FRANK- riman was FDR’s representative to Britain to FURTER provided lawyers to staff the New coordinate the lend-lease program. With his Deal, Hansen provided a generation of Keyne- access to direct communication with the presi- sian policy advisers to staff the war mobiliza- dent and HARRY HOPKINS, Harriman’s friend tion and the postwar Council of Economic and protégé, he became friends with Prime Min- Advisers. He died on June 6, 1975, in Alexan- ister WINSTON CHURCHILL.(He would later dria, Virginia. marry Churchill’s former daughter-in-law.) After Harrison, Byron Patton 107

Soviet foreign minister V. M. Molotov, W. Averell Harriman, and British prime minister Winston Churchill (Library of Congress) the Soviet Union entered World War II, Harri- Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge. man eventually was appointed the American After briefly working as a public school teacher ambassador to Moscow (1943–46), and he and lawyer, he found his calling in politics. He attended the Tehran and Yalta conferences with first served as a Mississippi district attorney and FDR. His experience in the Roosevelt adminis- entered the national arena with his election to tration served as the basis for his assistance to the U.S. House of Representatives (1911–19), subsequent presidential administrations as well where he took his lead from Deep South–born as his later single and unsuccessful term as New president Woodrow Wilson. In part because York governor (1954–58). He died on July 26, incumbent Senator James K. Vardaman, a for- 1986, in Westchester County, New York. mer governor and race-baiter known as “the Great White Chief,” failed to support Wilson’s entrance into World War I, Harrison chal- Harrison, Byron Patton lenged him for election in 1918 and won. Har- (Pat Harrison) rison held his Senate seat until his death shortly (1881–1941) U.S. senator before the United States entered World War II. Because of his lively, energetic personality, A classic Deep South character, Pat Harrison, Harrison was popular in the Senate. After the born on August 29, 1881, was reared in Crystal Democrats took control of Congress in March Springs, Mississippi, and attended what became 1933, he became chairman of the Senate Finance 108 Hastie, William Henry

Committee. Initially, Harrison supported New the Department of the Interior during the pres- Deal legislation, including the National Indus- idency of FDR. trial Recovery Act, the Social Security Act, and Hastie’s association with the New Deal the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Acts, as well as began late that same year when Secretary of the a series of revenue acts. However, he split with Interior HAROLD ICKES, a civil-rights activist, FDR after the president’s failure to support him recruited him as assistant solicitor, and he drafted in his bid to become Senate majority leader in the Organic Act of 1936, which reorganized gov- 1937; ALBEN BARKLEY won the position by a ernment in the Virgin Islands. Hastie and single vote. Nonetheless, by 1940, the Second Weaver became members of FDR’s so-called World War had triggered Harrison’s habitual black cabinet. He was next appointed as district support for defense revenue and preparedness. judge in the Virgin Islands, the first African- His long tenure in the Senate resulted in his American federal judge in U.S. history. Two being named president pro tempore in January years later, he resigned that position to become 1941. FDR had the lend-lease bill sent to the dean of the Howard University Law School. Finance Committee instead of Foreign Relations Hastie’s service to the Roosevelt adminis- because he knew that Harrison’s loyalty in for- tration continued during World War II. In eign affairs was unquestioned. He died of cancer 1940, he took leave from Howard to assume a on June 22, 1941, in Washington, D.C. position with Secretary of War HENRY STIM- SON and handled racial matters in the military, becoming known as the “father of the black air Hastie, William Henry force.” Yet he resigned his position in early (1904–1976) Roosevelt administration aide, 1943 over his inability to end discrimination in federal judge the military. FDR had already picked Hastie as a member of the Caribbean Advisory Commit- William Hastie was born on November 17, tee to the Anglo-American Caribbean Com- 1904, to a lower-middle-class African-American mission. During the postwar period, reflecting family from Knoxville, Tennessee. His mother his pro–human rights stance, President HARRY was a teacher, and his father was a clerk in the TRUMAN appointed Hastie as governor of the U.S. Pension Office. He attended the highly Virgin Islands, the first African-American gov- regarded Paul Lawrence Dunbar High School ernor since P. B. S. Pinchback, who had served in Washington, D.C., and earned his under- briefly as Louisiana’s acting governor during graduate degree in mathematics from Amherst Reconstruction. Truman elevated him in 1950 College in 1925. He taught briefly before going to a Federal Court of Appeals judgeship, mak- to Harvard University Law School, where he ing Hastie the first African-American federal served on the law review. After he graduated in judge with life tenure. He died on April 14, 1930, he returned to Washington, D.C., to 1976, in Norristown, Pennsylvania. practice law, and he joined the law faculty at Howard University. One of his first students was future Supreme Court justice Thurgood Mar- Hearst, William Randolph shall, who had been denied entry into the Uni- (1863–1951) newspaper publisher versity of Maryland Law School because of his race. Hastie returned to Harvard to earn a sec- Born on April 29, 1863, in San Francisco, ond law degree in 1933. His roommate was William Randolph Hearst was the son of a Robert C. Weaver, who would earn a doctorate wealthy mine developer who was also a U.S. from Harvard University in 1934, and serve in senator; his mother was Victorian in outlook Hearst, William Randolph 109 and an art connoisseur in interest. Hearst many Hall representative from New York and developed a nearly split personality—part con- set a record for his absenteeism. He ran close ventional and part rebel—and never reconciled but unsuccessful campaigns for mayor and his origins. Early evidence of this was that he governor in New York and in 1910 failed to never graduated from St. Paul’s School or Har- win the lieutenant governorship on a third- vard College, where he worked for the Harvard party ticket. Lampoon. He later worked at Joseph Pulitzer’s Hearst favored Cuban independence. He New York World. He acquired the San Francisco exploited fear in California of Asian immigra- Examiner and focused both his father’s money tion at the same time that he favored Irish and his own energy on making it a success. He nationalism and supported the Germans over subsequently acquired the New York Morning the English in the first two years of World War Journal as a challenge to newspaper magnate I. He opposed U.S. entrance into the war as Pulitzer. well as U.S. membership in the postwar From that start, the emerging publishing League of Nations. He supported the Russian mogul poured his fortune into creating a media Revolution and was against Woodrow Wilson’s empire of newspapers, magazines, news services, interventionist efforts to reverse it. and a film company. Hearst’s trademarks were Initially Hearst supported the presidential brash headlines, lots of photographs, and sensa- candidacy of Texas congressman JOHN NANCE tional stories to appeal to the masses, a style GARNER at the 1932 Democratic National known as yellow journalism. His mean-minded Convention, but when that failed, he backed and sensational columnists included Ambrose FDR to prevent Wilson’s internationalist for- Bierce, WESTBROOK PEGLER, and Walter mer secretary of war, NEWTON BAKER, from Winchell. Hearst was 6’2” tall, but his reputa- getting the nomination. He supported FDR tion was even larger than life as he developed a during the campaign and for the first years of bully’s reputation because of his papers. Perhaps the New Deal, but once more his tendency to due to his mother’s influence, he was polite— bifurcate views dominated, and he changed his sometimes even shy—in person and neither mind. In 1934, he worked to defeat Upton Sin- smoked nor drank, and his extremely high- clair’s bid for the California governorship. pitched voice was at odds with his appearance. That same year, he traveled to Europe and met Hearst’s strategy was to use his journalism ADOLF HITLER and BENITO MUSSOLINI.He empire as a base to become president and win opposed U.S. entrance into World War II and acceptance from the Northeast establishment. warned about the threat of communism. After His political orientation was bifurcated and had 1935, Hearst claimed that the New Deal was a begun on the left side of the political spectrum, “Raw Deal,” reflecting his new concern about but by the mid-1930s, it had swung to the unions and increased taxation. In FDR’s subse- extreme right. He was a Populist before World quent reelection campaigns, Hearst backed War I, supporting William Jennings Bryan’s Republican challengers. presidential bids in 1896 and 1900 along with Growing out of touch with most Ameri- muckraking journalist and novelist UPTON cans, Hearst increasingly retreated to his San SINCLAIR and labor lawyer Clarence Darrow. Simeon estate near the California coast, where He served two terms in the U.S. House of Rep- he lived for nearly three decades with actress resentatives (1903–07) and was nearly selected Marion Davies, although he never divorced his by the 1904 Democratic National Convention wife. Despite Hearst’s attempts to block its as its presidential candidate. He was a Tam- release, in 1941 ORSON WELLES’s fictionalized 110 Hemingway, Ernest biography of him, the classic Citizen Kane, was way blamed his mother for his father’s suicide, he released. He died on August 14, 1951, in Bev- remained the dutiful son who stayed in regular erly Hills, California. contact with her and ultimately supported her financially. Ties to his past were limited to that gesture, as he lived life on his own terms. Hemingway, Ernest After he graduated from high school in (1899–1961) novelist 1917, Hemingway found a job as a cub reporter for the Kansas City Star, covering crime news Ernest Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, about the same time that his boyhood hero, in Oak Park, Illinois, to a physician father and Teddy Roosevelt, was fighting crime as New a musician/voice teacher mother. Hemingway, York City’s police commissioner. Thirsting for his brother, and four sisters grew up in a seem- greater adventure, he volunteered to drive Red ingly conventional, well-to-do family. During Cross ambulances in Italy during World War I. the school year, they lived in an elitist enclave Within two weeks, the 18-year-old Heming- eight miles from downtown Chicago, but sum- way was wounded, and he returned home in mers were spent mostly in the outdoors of early 1919. In 1920, he began writing for the northern Michigan at his parents’ lakeside Toronto Star. The following year, he married house. THEODORE ROOSEVELT, America’s leg- Hadley Richardson, the first of his four wives, endary turn-of-the-century outdoorsman, and the marriage produced one son. They soon became Hemingway’s childhood hero, just as moved to Paris, where Hemingway worked as a he was FDR’s role model. Like Teddy Roo- foreign news correspondent covering Georges sevelt, Hemingway began to lead a strenuous Clemenceau, David Lloyd George, BENITO physical life at an early age, and he developed MUSSOLINI, and other post–World War I lead- a lifelong admiration for boxers, baseball play- ers. During this period, Hemingway’s Oak Park ers, and, eventually, bullfighters, who dared Republicanism confronted European socialism, fate instead of seeking a safe, comfortable exis- slowly pushing him into the political world tence. Throughout his life, Hemingway while also contributing to his own emerging remained energetic, intense, and competitive. intellectual existentialism. In that world, he was Although Hemingway was surrounded by an outsider without a religious or political external trappings that suggested a family to be home. Hemingway and his wife returned home envied, there was internal family dissent due to in 1923, and by January 1924 he had quit his job tension between his parents. The tension was at the Toronto Star. It was the last time in his life further magnified by his father’s slide into that he held a conventional full-time job. depression during Hemingway’s teenage years. Almost immediately the couple returned Those circumstances likely triggered his later to Paris and lived on his wife’s small trust and rebellion against his family and rejection of his the periodic sale of his writing. They lived near traditional middle-class upbringing. For exam- the poet Ezra Pound, who became a mentor, ple, while his family was well educated and and the writer Gertrude Stein, who not only involved in the Congregational Church, Hem- was godmother to their son but also became ingway never attended college and married four Hemingway’s surrogate mother figure. During times. He, too, would eventually slip into depres- this time, he also became friends with Ford sion and commit suicide just as his father had Madox Ford and met Pablo Picasso, done in 1928 and as his brother and and one of ARCHIBALD MACLEISH, James Joyce, and many his sisters would do as well. Although Heming- other influential figures of the era. In Paris, Hemingway, Ernest 111

Hemingway was a restless man on the move, By 1939, Hemingway’s second marriage but he was moving upward. By the mid- to late had also fallen apart. He began writing For 1920s, Hemingway was one of the best-known Whom the Bell Tolls, considered his best novel, novelists of his generation. His breakthrough in his room at the Hotel Ambos Mundos in novel, The Sun Also Rises, was published in downtown Havana, Cuba. He then bought a 1926, and in 1929 came A Farewell to Arms, his house outside of Havana and completed work first war novel. He had been fortunate enough on For Whom the Bell Tolls by mid-1940. That to find at his publisher, Charles Scribner’s same year, Pauline divorced him and he mar- Sons, an extremely supportive editor, Max ried MARTHA GELLHORN.Soon afterward, he Perkins, who would become his surrogate began drinking heavily and stopped writing father figure. for the longest stretch in his career. He In 1927, as Hemingway was finally experi- remained unproductive throughout World encing success, his wife divorced him; he gave War II. her lifetime rights to income from The Sun Also Despite his hiatus from writing novels, Rises. He subsequently began an affair with Hemingway could not sit still. He served as a Pauline Pfeiffer and married her. Pfeiffer, with correspondent in London and flew several a degree from the University of Missouri missions with the Royal Air Force during School of Journalism, was a devout Catholic World War II. By summer 1944, he was with a large trust fund who had worked as a attached briefly to General GEORGE PATTON’s fashion editor for Vogue and Vanity Fair. In Third Army. At the end of that summer, he led 1928, the couple returned to the United States, a small group of French irregulars and others where Pauline gave birth to Hemingway’s sec- during the liberation of Paris. A U.S. court ond son in 1931. During the Great Depres- martial subsequently cleared him of charges sion, the Hemingways depended partially on that he had acted illegally as a field officer. In Pauline’s trust fund for income. In 1933, he November 1944, he rejoined the Fourth Army, published a novel about Spain and bullfighting, participating for a couple of weeks in intense Death in the Afternoon, followed in 1935 by The combat. During this time, he was also con- Green Hills of Africa, which dealt with African ducting an affair with Mary Welsh Monks, safaris. In September 1937, he reverted to his who became his fourth wife in 1946. They journalistic past and began covering the Span- married in Havana. ish civil war. He appeared on the front cover of Hemingway was not particularly produc- Time the next month. tive during the postwar period. As his fourth At a time when the nation remained neu- marriage disintegrated, he returned to places tral and isolationist, Hemingway became anti- he had visited previously. Despite the upheaval Franco and politically engaged. He bought a in his life, he completed The Old Man and the house in Key West, Florida, and wrote To Have Sea (1952), which won the Pulitzer Prize the and Have Not (1937), which lightly foreshad- next year. In 1954, he was awarded the Nobel owed a Cuban revolt that paralleled the civil Prize for literature, but poor health prevented war in Spain. It was a less-successful novel that him from traveling to Stockholm to accept the followed an ideological formula, and the title award. Sympathetic to the Cuban revolution, alone suggested Hemingway’s growing exis- he nonetheless moved to Ketchum, Idaho, to tentialism. The following year, he wrote his live. There, after two previous failed suicide only play, The Fifth Column, and contributed to attempts, Hemingway fatally shot himself on the film The Spanish Earth. July 2, 1961. 112 Henderson, Leon

Henderson, Leon mit more deficit spending and antitrust activity (1895–1986) economic adviser to the Roosevelt in what became known as the Second New administration; administrator, Office of Price Deal. WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS and MARRINER Administration ECCLES supported their efforts against the bal- anced budget approach preferred by Secretary Born on May 26, 1895, in Millville, New Jer- of the Treasury HENRY MORGANTHAU, JR. sey, Leon Henderson was the son of a factory FDR then created the Temporary National worker turned farmer. Attending college was Economic Committee to investigate monopo- not an immediate option for him, so he joined lies and put Henderson in charge of it the army during World War I. Afterward he (1938–41); the following year, he appointed attended Swarthmore College, graduating in Henderson to the Securities and Exchange 1920, and went on to graduate school majoring Commission (1939–41). in economics at the Wharton School of the During World War II, FDR made Hen- University of Pennsylvania. He then began derson the administrator of the Office of Price teaching at the Carnegie Institute of Technol- Administration and the head of the Civilian ogy, a job he held only briefly. Supply Division of the War Production Board. Henderson’s entrance into the political His efforts against price hikes and use of world came in 1923 when he joined the admin- rationing, combined with his personality, made istration of Pennsylvania governor Gilford him unpopular, but they held the cost of living Pinchot, who had been one of President down compared to what it was during World THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s cabinet members. War I. At the end of 1942, he left government Henderson served in a variety of positions with service. During the postwar period he engaged Pinchot before joining the Russell Sage Foun- in a variety of professional and civic pursuits. dation (1925–43), where he worked to protect He became president of the International consumers from loan sharks. His entrée to the Hudson Corporation, the chief economist for New Deal came in December 1933 after he the Research Institute of America, and the had led a consumer delegation into the office of chairman of the Americans for Democratic General HUGH JOHNSON, the National Recov- Action (ADA). He died on October 19, 1986, ery Administration director, with whom Hen- in Oceanside, California. derson engaged in a shouting match. Johnson, however, appreciated a fellow wisecracker, hired Henderson as a consumer adviser, and Hickok, Lorena Alice soon made him the agency’s chief economist. (1893–1968) reporter; Federal Emergency Relief Henderson became an important economic Administration investigator; executive director, adviser for the New Deal and was sent on a National Democratic Party, Women’s Division number of assignments. A dedicated New Dealer, Henderson Born on March 7, 1893, in East Troy, Wiscon- advised the Democratic National Committee sin, to an abusive father who frequently moved in 1936, which led to his becoming the eco- his family, Lorena Hickok had an unhappy nomic consultant for HARRY HOPKINS in the childhood. She was 13 when her mother died, Works Progress Administration. Hopkins, and the next year she left home and began Henderson, and fellow economist LAUCHLIN work as a domestic. Eventually she completed CURRIE were among those who led FDR to high school, and after several attempts at col- shift direction in administration policy to per- lege, where she was discriminated against Hicks, Granville 113 because of her weight, Hickok entered the moved to Hyde Park, New York, to be near male-dominated world of journalism. Making a Eleanor Roosevelt. Hickok by then was par- name for herself through tenacity and native tially blind, so the former First Lady aided her ability, she became one of the first women financially by collaborating with her on the reporters hired by the Associated Press (AP). book Ladies of Courage (1954), dealing with Hickok became involved with the New women in politics. Hickok lived first at Roo- Deal through her association with ELEANOR sevelt’s Val-Kill home and then in rental units. ROOSEVELT, whom she covered during the She went on to write several biographies for 1932 presidential campaign and who became juveniles and a biography of Eleanor Roo- her lifelong friend. She subsequently left her sevelt, Reluctant First Lady, in 1962. Hickok AP job to become the chief investigator for the died on May 1, 1968, in Rhinebeck, New York. Federal Emergency Relief Administration. Traveling through 32 states between 1933 and 1936, she used her reporter background to Hicks, Granville write concrete reports on the conditions that (1901–1982) literary critic, novelist people at the grassroots faced: bureaucratic inefficiency, greedy politicians using the New Many liberal intellectuals were blinded by their Deal for personal benefit, and the upset that idealism in the 1930s as the despair in the New Deal programs were causing in class and United States produced by the Great Depres- racial relationships. The reports went to pres- sion squeezed hope from millions of Ameri- idential aide HARRY HOPKINS and reached cans. The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia FDR and others, helping to promote more had led them to believe that a utopia would public relief as well as the creation of the Civil emerge in the aftermath. Granville Hicks was Works Administration and the Emergency among those who dismissed democratic prin- Relief Appropriation Act of 1935. ciples in favor of idealism. In 1937 Hickok worked as a publicist for Hicks was born on September 9, 1901, in the New York World’s Fair. In 1940 she Exeter, New Hampshire; his father was the returned to Washington to join the staff of the superintendent of a small factory, and his Democratic National Committee, serving first mother was a housewife. While at Harvard as its publicist and then, until 1945, as executive studying English, he attended the Universalist secretary of the Women’s Division. Eleanor Church. After he graduated in 1923, he Roosevelt invited her to live as a guest at the attended Harvard Theological School for two White House during this period so that Hickok years before leaving it to teach and write. In could afford to maintain her home on Long 1925, he married his high-school sweetheart, Island. She developed a close relationship with Dorothy Dyer; the couple had one child. Judge Marion Harron of the United States Tax In 1925, Hicks also became an instructor Court and a political friendship with Helen in religion and English at Smith College, Gahagan Douglas. where he was influenced by Newton Arvin’s At the end of the FDR administration her antibusiness views and Van Wyck Brooks’s health began to fail. Nonetheless, to support notions that artists are necessarily alien to a herself she was still able to work as a researcher mass industrial society like the United States. for Representative Mary Norton of New Jersey He received his M.A. degree in English from and the New York State Democratic Commit- Harvard in 1929 and accepted a professorship tee from 1947 to 1952. The following year she at Renssalaer Polytechnic Institute. By the time 114 High, Stanley

FDR was sworn in as president for the first Criticism had emerged from the South during time, Hicks was advocating communism as the the 1930s by a new group of Southern intel- solution to America’s economic problems. In lectuals who insisted that society and fiction be 1934 he became the literary editor of the com- interpreted on what was presented in the work munist journal, New Masses, and lost his pro- of art itself without introducing outside histor- fessorship the next year. ical and cultural forces to explain it. This group Hicks increasingly came to view literary of so-called New Critics included the poets and criticism as the proper venue to promote revo- writers John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, lutionary change, so he dismissed writers who Robert Penn Warren, and Cleanth Brooks. In failed to adopt a similar approach, such as contrast, Hicks favored ideology to explain lit- PEARL BUCK and WILLIAM FAULKNER.He also erary works. The New Criticism became the dismissed ERNEST HEMINGWAY until the pub- predominant literary school during the postwar lication of Hemingway’s most political and least era. He died on June 18, 1982, in Franklin commercially successful novel, To Have and Park, New Jersey. Have Not, in 1937. On the other hand, Hicks supported the social realism of writers such as JOHN DOS PASSOS and JOHN STEINBECK. High, Stanley Hicks and other leftist intellectuals were (1895–1961) presidential speechwriter, Good united in their opposition to fascism in Ger- Neighbor League organizer many, Italy, and Spain during the 1930s. Like many of his contemporaries, Hicks supported Born on December 30, 1895, in Chicago, Stan- the Republican side in Spain against FRAN- ley High was a product of middle-class mid- CISCO FRANCO during the Spanish civil war. western parents. He was a 1917 graduate of But some of the leftist intellectuals grew disil- Nebraska Wesleyan University and graduated lusioned with their own Marxist views after from Boston University School of Theology JOSEPH STALIN entered into a nonaggression in 1923. He began his career by serving with pact with ADOLF HITLER in August 1939. That the Methodist Mission to China (1919–20) and shocking event led Hicks not only to resign his then was the European correspondent for the position at the New Masses but also to write a Christian Science Monitor (1921–24). He con- letter that appeared in the October 4, 1939, tinued to blend journalism and religion during issue of the New Republic in which he publicly the 1920s with his work for the Board of For- resigned his membership in the Communist eign Missions of the Methodist Church as a Party. lecturer on international affairs. He became Nonetheless, idealists tend to retain their editor of the Christian Herald in 1928 and was basic worldviews, and though Hicks came to a staff member of the National Broadcasting criticize literary Marxism and communism, he Company, delivering radio lectures on current wrote a utopian novel, The First to Awaken, in events. 1940. In 1942 he wrote a second such novel, Although High was a Republican, SAMUEL Only One Storm, dealing with life in small-town ROSENMAN recruited him in 1936 to join the America. During the postwar period, his liter- White House speechwriting staff after High ary criticism became increasingly erratic. Hicks had become disillusioned with HERBERT became overly critical of the New Criticism HOOVER’s conservatism. His work helped to and in the process demonstrated considerable enhance FDR’s inspirational addresses. FDR lack of understanding about its goals. The New also used High to implement his secretary Hirohito 115

LOUIS HOWE’s idea of a Good Neighbor lic works section of the National Industrial League to attract members of the religious, Recovery Act and was a member of the newspaper, and academic worlds, along with National Recovery Administration (NRA) social workers, into the 1936 Roosevelt reelec- board. After the American Federation of tion campaign. By election time, more than 20 Labor, which initially had viewed the ACWA as state chapters had been established, consisting an illegitimate rival of the UGW, admitted the in large part of Republicans who might not ACWA in 1933, Hillman joined the insurgency otherwise have voted Democratic. High tried of JOHN L. LEWIS, who wanted both unskilled but failed to get this organization to support and skilled workers in each industrial union. FDR’s Court-packing scheme in 1937. They formed the Committee for Industrial After his departure from the administra- Organizations, which became the Congress of tion, High returned to writing. He became a Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1938. Hill- correspondent for the Saturday Evening Post, a man served as the CIO vice president until senior editor of the Reader’s Digest in 1952, and 1940. the author of Roosevelt-And Then in 1937. He In 1936, Hillman and Lewis founded died on February 3, 1961. Labor’s Non-Partisan League to help reelect Franklin Roosevelt for a second term. Hillman also helped found the American Labor Party in Hillman, Sidney New York to encourage Socialists and inde- (1887–1946) national union leader pendents to back FDR. That support led Hill- man to win passage of the Fair Labor Born on March 23, 1887, to Jewish shopkeep- Standards Act of 1938. After Lewis broke with ers in Zagare, Lithuania, Sidney Hillman was FDR in 1940, Hillman became the senior educated at the Slobodka Rabbinical Seminary. union leader in the Democratic Party. He soon He became caught up in revolutionary activity became cochairman of the Office of Produc- and was imprisoned. Afterward he fled to tion Management (1940–42) and then returned Manchester, England, and then emigrated to to the ACWA presidency. In 1943, as the new the United States in 1907. He went to chairman of the CIO’s Political Action Com- Chicago, where he eventually found work mittee, Hillman helped to turn out labor for under terrible conditions at the clothing fac- FDR’s fourth-term presidential bid in 1944 and tory of Hart, Schaffner and Marx. He emerged eventually backed HARRY S. TRUMAN for the as the business agent of the new Local 39 of the second spot after HENRY WALLACE’s effort United Garment Workers of America (UGW) failed. Hillman died on July 10, 1946, in Point after a strike in 1910. Four years later, he Lookout, New York. moved to New York and served as chief clerk of the Cloakmaker’s Union. After the more radical immigrants in Hirohito Chicago broke from the UGW in 1914 and (1901–1989) Japanese emperor began the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (ACWA), Hillman became its first Born April 29, 1901, Hirohito experienced a president and built it into one of the nation’s surreal upbringing as a god, not a human. The most powerful unions. Following the onset of eldest son in the royal family, he became crown the Great Depression, he became a strong prince in 1916 while still a teenager and mar- New Deal supporter and helped draft the pub- ried Princess Kuni, in 1924. After the death of 116 Hitler, Adolf his father, the Taisho emperor, in late 1928, was Pope Pius XII’s accommodation to fascism Hirohito became the 124th Showa emperor of during World War II in order to preserve the the world’s oldest monarchy. According to Roman Catholic Church. Both the pope and Japanese tradition, the emperor was not only Hirohito faced moral dilemmas and appear to Japan’s ruler but also a god in human guise; his have opted for the preservation of their histor- people were not even allowed to look upon ical institutions. Hirohito’s personal interven- him. On the other hand, Hirohito grew up tion was critical in the decision for Japan to during a period when Western standards, espe- surrender in August 1945. General DOUGLAS cially those of the United States, were in vogue. MACARTHUR and General Tojo Hideki Emerging democratic political parties and absolved the emperor of personal responsibil- cooperation with the West were the trend. As ity for the war and its atrocities in return for a student, Hirohito had three busts in his Hirohito’s public renouncement of his divinity room: Charles Darwin, Abraham Lincoln, and and willingness to accept a reduced status as Napoleon. Both Hirohito himself and the Japan’s constitutional monarch. He died in Japanese people were torn between tradition Tokyo on January 7, 1989. and modernization. He became the first crown prince to travel abroad when he visited Europe in 1921. Hitler, Adolf The great unresolved question about (1889–1945) German chancellor Hirohito is whether he might have used his godlike authority to suppress the influence of Both of Adolf Hitler’s parents were illegiti- the Japanese military leading up to World War mate, but his authoritarian father managed to II. The Great Depression and the emergence advance in society to become a customs official. of the Chinese Nationalist Party played into His peasant mother, a much-younger third the hands of the militarists. After the assassi- wife, was over-indulgent with her only child, nation of the Japanese prime minister in 1931 born on April 20, 1889, in Braunau Inn, Aus- and a failed major coup d’etat by young officers tria. In the five years between his father’s death in early 1936, the military dominated the gov- in 1903 and his mother’s in 1908, the teenage ernment until the end of the war. The mili- Hitler dropped out of school and drifted into a tarists tried to resolve the tension between vagrant’s life in Vienna, choosing not to receive modernization and tradition by idealizing a the state’s orphan benefits to which he was warrior past. The policies held by the Japanese entitled. Cut loose from parental and school military eventually led Japan into the Sino- ties, he twice failed to gain entrance to the Japanese War and World War II. During Vienna Fine Arts Academy, where he might World War II Hirohito formed alliances with have received training in art or architecture. Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, resulting in Hitler’s physical, social, and intellectual the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. marginality, the mental condition of feeling After the war many believed that Hirohito like an outsider, resolved initially when he vol- had masterminded the Japanese war effort, unteered for the German army in 1914 at the while others claimed he was simply a powerless outset of World War I. Driven by his desire to figurehead. belong, the Austrian-born Hitler would Some critics find Hirohito complicit in the become more German than even native Ger- brutalities committed by the Japanese army, yet mans. He first proved this through his service the equivalent situation, to at least a degree, as a dispatch runner in a Bavarian infantry reg- Hitler, Adolf 117 iment. Twice wounded, he was evacuated to a 1925 and 1926, the book was a political mani- military hospital near Berlin. Despite his low festo that espoused German self-sufficiency, rank, he was awarded the Iron Cross, Second the suppression of trade unions, and the sup- Class in 1914. The war afforded him his first pression of Jews. success, and the experience made a lasting Although the Nazis held only 12 of the 491 impression. Even more remarkable, he was seats in the Reichstag (the German parliament) awarded the Iron Cross, First Class four years by 1928, Hitler led a revolution in Germany later, an exceptional honor for a mere corporal. after the worldwide depression hit industrial- From 1916 to 1918, Hitler was in a mili- ized Germany especially hard, putting nearly a tary hospital recovering from temporary blind- third of the nation out of work. In 1932, Hitler ness caused by a mustard-gas attack. It was acquired German citizenship and ran for pres- there that he learned of Germany’s defeat in ident. The Nazi Party had become the largest World War I. He vowed immediately that he in the Reichstag, and he was appointed chan- would become a politician and rescue Germany cellor of Germany on January 30, 1933. On from Jews and Bolsheviks, the groups he March 5 that year, in the last of the quasi-free blamed for Germany’s defeat. elections, the Nazis achieved a 44.5 percent In summer 1919, while still serving in the plurality of the vote. Lower-middle-class and army, Hitler was sent to investigate and report middle-class voters had turned to Hitler, while on political groups in Munich. One of them, a the working class supported the communists. minor right-wing nationalistic party called the Hitler had particular appeal to a generation Germany Workers’ Party, invited him to join. that had grown up without traditional parental He found his political voice and quickly influence because of fathers absent due to demonstrated both his oratorical and his orga- World War I military service—many of whom nizational skills. In 1920, the party was never came home—and mothers who replaced renamed the National Socialist German Work- them in the factory. Hitler became a successful ers Party (Nazis), and Hitler became chairman. surrogate father figure with whom this gener- He quickly began using the then-new electrical ation could identify, and he offered a national loudspeaker as well as radio broadcasts, which face-saving explanation for Germany’s military allowed him to transmit his voice nationally, defeat. to spread his call for racial nationalism, the Germany had been among Europe’s last need for more territory, and an anti-Semitic nations to unify, and its only experience with and antidemocratic government. parliamentary democracy was short-lived—the Overestimating his early appeal, Hitler led Weimar Republic (1919–33). Many in Ger- the failed November 1923 Beer Hall Putsch to many and abroad, including a number of take over Bavaria and then marched on toward FDR’s critics at home, saw in Hitler and the capital, following the example of BENITO Nazism the basis for a new model of govern- MUSSOLINI in Italy. Sixteen Nazis were killed, ment as Hitler’s Third Reich achieved results and Hitler was arrested and sentenced to a faster than the New Deal. Unemployment dis- five-year imprisonment, but he served only appeared, the economy expanded, wages nine months. The ensuing five years were not increased, and consumer goods appeared. favorable to the Nazis since the economy had Deficit spending allowed industrial expansion; recovered, but the mission-driven Hitler wrote public-works projects and rearmament were his major work, Mein Kampf (“my struggle” or products of a mixed economy. Most Germans “my battle”). Published in two volumes in felt their pride and self-esteem return under 118 Hoover, Herbert Clark

their dynamic new leader. His programs were nine years old. He lived with relatives in Iowa manifested in the Autobahnen (highways), con- and Oregon, and thanks to a prosperous uncle struction of new public buildings, and workers’ in the latter state, he studied mining engineer- housing projects. The Berlin Olympics of 1936 ing at the new Stanford University in Califor- put these impressive achievements and Ger- nia and graduated in its first class in 1895. many in the international spotlight. During the next two decades, he traveled Yet like many dictators, Hitler tended to abroad as a mining engineer and businessman, overextend himself—in his case, by trying to becoming a millionaire by age 40. prove to native Germans that he was even World War I made Hoover famous. As a son more German than they were. Hitler’s desire of the Midwest, he had always admired Abra- for more power escalated while satisfaction ham Lincoln, as did Woodrow Wilson, who ide- with their improved lives subdued Germans alized the 16th president. Hoover had grown up into submission, and they overlooked the con- in a home where a sketch of Lincoln that origi- centration camps at home and extermination nally belonged to his grandfather was displayed; camps abroad where millions were executed, the same sketch hung in the White House dur- many in gas chambers. After his February 1938 ing his presidency, the period during which Lin- takeover of Austria was followed by grabbing coln became a prominent influence on his life. Czechoslovakia, his hubris led him to begin Like Lincoln and Wilson, Hoover believed in World War II through an unprovoked attack “positive government,” the notion that govern- against Poland on September 1, 1939, followed ment could intervene when people needed help. by an assault on the Soviet Union in June 1941 Yet he believed more in volunteerism than what and the declaration of war against the United he labeled “the dole”—government relief— States on December 11 that same year. because he feared that taking government aid Franklin Roosevelt loathed both fascism would become a habit. Wilson made Hoover and Adolf Hitler as the wave of the future. He head of the Commission for the Relief in Bel- condemned Hitler’s totalitarian behavior, mil- gium. From 1917 to 1919 Hoover served as the itarism, racism, and the glorification of the president’s U.S. food administrator, supervising Nazi regime. On the other hand, Hitler voluntary rationing, and then was director gen- resented America’s wealth, and its cultural, eral of the American Relief Administration in racial, ethnic, and religious diversity. He Europe from 1919 to 1920. His former reputa- sneered at FDR’s infirmity. Hitler’s grandiose tion as “the Great Engineer” from developing thousand-year Reich (or empire) ended after a mines in China, Burma, Australia, and Russia dozen years with his suicide in Berlin on April was transformed by his administrative skill into 30, 1945. an international reputation as the “Great Humanitarian.” Even FDR was impressed. Hoover finally joined the Republican Party Hoover, Herbert Clark after both parties made overtures to him to run (1874–1964) president of the United States for the presidency in 1920. However, rather than seek the presidency, he opted for another Neither fate nor history nor politics was par- administration capacity, serving as secretary of ticularly kind to the Oval Office occupant who commerce for the duration of both the Warren preceded Franklin Roosevelt. Born August 10, Harding and Calvin Coolidge administrations. 1874, in West Branch, Iowa, Herbert Hoover His scientific training made him almost apolit- was the son of farmers who died before he was ical, like many of the political progressives of Hoover, Herbert Clark 119 the 1920s who wanted to remove the political After Calvin Coolidge decided against dimensions from government. They favored seeking a second term, Hoover ran for his first “good government,” which meant steering elective office as the Republican presidential away from the large, corrupt Democratic urban candidate. He won a landslide electoral victory machines dominant at the time. In keeping in 1928, carrying with him a huge Republican with his philosophy, he made the Commerce majority in Congress. Initially it appeared he Department important, in part, by advocating would bring an active scientific approach to a scientific approach to business cycles, indus- the presidency, as he had done in mining, busi- trial standards, and government regulation of ness, and administration. He established the the emerging radio and aviation industries. Research Committee on Social Trends, which With his scientific background, the empirical brought together social scientists and the approach to government seemed reasonable recently established voluntary organizations, to him. the National Institute of Public Administration

Shown in this photo is a Hooverville outside Seattle, Washington. (Private Collection) 120 Hoover, J. Edgar

and the Social Science Research Council. Hoover, J. Edgar Hoover wanted to abolish poverty while pro- (1895–1972) FBI director moting peace and prosperity. Fate intervened after the Wall Street crash Born on New Year’s Day 1895, John Edgar of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression. Hoover was the son of a Washington, D.C., The crisis magnified Hoover’s inflexible beliefs government printer and his wife. He was and lifelong inability to admit mistakes. Initially reared in a middle-class neighborhood behind he thought the economic crisis was merely an the Library of Congress and attended local American recession, so he tried to increase vol- public schools. He worked his way through the unteerism, held educational conferences, and National University of Law School as a clerk at established commissions. After his cooperative the Library of Congress. He graduated in 1916 approach proved ineffective in restoring the and the next year was hired by the Alien economy, he became convinced that the source Enemy Bureau in the Department of Justice. of the crisis was abroad. He fought congres- His work came to the attention of Woodrow sional efforts to provide direct relief for the Wilson’s attorney general, A. Mitchell Palmer. increasing millions of unemployed Americans. Following the bombing of his home by radicals After he used General DOUGLAS MACARTHUR in retaliation for his violations of civil liberties, in July 1932 to drive the so-called Bonus Expe- Palmer named Hoover to head the Radical ditionary Force of unemployed ex-servicemen Division. Hoover was the person in charge of from the nation’s capital, he became the popu- the infamous Palmer raids in November 1919 lar scapegoat for the Great Depression, which and January 1920 that cracked down on alien became “Hoover’s Depression.” His resound- radicals. ing defeat by FDR in 1932 branded him with a In 1921, Hoover was named assistant direc- loser’s image across the nation. tor of the Bureau of Investigation. As a result of After keeping his silence for two years, the Teapot Dome scandals during the Warren Hoover published The Challenge of Liberty (1934), Harding presidency, the bureau was reorga- a book that reiterated his previous policies. From nized in 1924, and Attorney General HARLAN the next year, he became a major critic of the FISKE STONE appointed Hoover as director of New Deal. Although he hoped for the Republi- the bureau. Over the ensuing decade, Hoover can nominations in 1936 and 1940, his party built the bureau’s reputation for professionalism turned to others. Nevertheless, both Franklin through use of scientific methodology in fin- and ELEANOR ROOSEVELT wanted Hoover to gerprint identification, a modern crime labora- head relief efforts abroad during World War II tory, and a system to analyze national crime because of his demonstrated abilities. Hoover statistics. In 1935, it was renamed the Federal not only turned down the offer, he refused even Bureau of Investigation (FBI). to visit the White House during the entire Roo- Hoover was adept at adjusting to new pres- sevelt administration. Like the only other engi- idents, and when Franklin Roosevelt was neer to occupy the White House in the 20th elected, he acceded to the request of FDR’s century, Jimmy Carter, Hoover tended to think attorney general, HOMER CUMMINGS, and that leadership was limited to a mastery of facts transformed the image of G-men (government applied to public policy. Their successors proved men) into good-guy national heroes fighting them mistaken. celebrity gangsters and bank robbers. During Hoover died on October 20, 1964, in New the early days of Nazi Germany, FDR covertly York City. put Hoover back into the business of political Hopkins, Harry Lloyd 121 surveillance, and consequently several leaders of the American Nazi movement were put on trial. After World War II broke out abroad, FDR put Hoover in charge of domestic coun- terintelligence. During the war, Hoover proved his skill at public relations to promote further the FBI’s image as well as its budget, and he cooperated with authors and Hollywood producers who worked on projects dealing with the FBI. To his credit, Hoover opposed the government’s internment of Japanese Americans, and he used groups like the American Legion as a network under the FBI’s supervision to watch for espi- onage, in part to prevent the hysteria that had President Roosevelt and Harry Hopkins in the backseat of an automobile, 1938 (Library of manifested during World War I. Congress) Hoover became increasingly partisan dur- ing the postwar period and aligned himself with abilities. He could also inspire others with his anticommunist zealots. An example of a suc- optimistic confidence. cessful bureaucratic entrepreneur, he increas- Hopkins’s association with Franklin Roo- ingly came to symbolize governmental abuse of sevelt (then New York’s governor) began in authority. Still, he headed the FBI until his 1931 when he was made director of the New death on May 2, 1972, in Washington, D.C. York Temporary Emergency Relief Adminis- tration, the nation’s first executive agency to deal with unemployment during the Great Hopkins, Harry Lloyd Depression. In May 1933, FDR brought him to (1890–1946) federal administrator, secretary of Washington, D.C., to direct federal relief. commerce, special assistant to the president Hopkins came to believe that employment should be a right of American citizenship. Harry Hopkins, the son of a Midwest sales- When he headed the Works Progress Adminis- man, was born on May 19, 1890, in Sioux City, tration (WPA) from 1935 to 1938, he came in Iowa, into a family of modest means that conflict with Secretary of the Interior HAROLD moved frequently. In 1912, he graduated from ICKES, who favored large construction projects progressive Grinnell College, where he had supervised from Washington; Hopkins favored been an average academic student but a natural smaller projects involving more workers with leader and great basketball player. A believer in greater local initiative. After several months, the Social Gospel, expressing one’s faith by FDR sided with Hopkins. Nonetheless, most of providing social services to the less fortunate, the WPA involved construction projects, Hopkins became a social worker on New York although it also allowed for grassroots art and City’s Lower East Side, where he learned first- music programs. Both FDR’s secretary, LOUIS hand about abject poverty amid great wealth. HOWE, and First Lady ELEANOR ROOSEVELT During his two decades there, he earned a supported all these projects, which provided streetwise reputation for his swearing as well as relief labor. Hopkins eventually employed more for his effective and energetic problem-solving workers and spent more funds than probably 122 Horner, Henry

any other person in American history, becom- Horner, Henry ing known as the U.S. “minister of relief.” He (1879–1940) Illinois governor managed this without financial scandal or even caring about the partisan affiliation of those Born November 30, 1879, in Chicago, Illinois, employed. Henry Horner went on to lead his native state Hopkins’s administrative skill led FDR to during the Great Depression. Elected in 1932, consider him as his successor in the Oval Office he became the first Democratic governor of following the landslide victory of 1936, but Illinois since World War I and was the first personal tragedies struck Hopkins in the form Jewish governor in its history. Confronting the of his wife’s death in 1937 and his own stomach Great Depression, which caused nearly half of cancer. Health doomed not only his presiden- Chicago’s workers to be unemployed, he tial aspirations but also his December 1938 brought together politicians and academics to appointment as secretary of commerce, the deal with the situation. In addition to facing cabinet position that HERBERT HOOVER had massive economic problems when he entered used as a springboard to the presidency. After office, Horner lost his friend and political ally, managing FDR’s unprecedented third-term Chicago mayor Anton J. Cermak, who was nomination at the 1940 Democratic National accidentally killed in an assassination attempt Convention, Hopkins resigned from the on President-elect Franklin Roosevelt. Cer- administration in August that year. mak’s replacement, EDWARD KELLY, tried to It was a brief hiatus. FDR named Hopkins wrest control of state politics from Horner. as special assistant to the president—he served Horner fought back in an urban-rural, Cook from 1941 to 1945—and moved him into the County-versus-the-rest-of-the-state struggle White House to live. He served as the first de that took its toll on the bachelor governor’s facto national security adviser and became health. Ironically, he was fighting for New FDR’s closest confidant during World War II. Deal government at the same time New Deal- Despite his serious health problems, Hopkins ers supported his major opponent. acted as FDR’s personal emissary to Great Horner did his best to confront responsi- Britain and the Soviet Union, negotiating with bly the dual economic and political crises fac- WINSTON CHURCHILL and JOSEPH STALIN. ing him. He convinced the Illinois General He also became allies with Army Chief of Staff Assembly to approve an unpopular two-cent GEORGE C. MARSHALL; EDWARD STETTINIUS, sales tax and also persuaded a reluctant legisla- who headed the lend-lease program before ture to approve a $30 million bond to supple- becoming secretary of state; AVERELL HARRI- ment money from the Federal Emergency MAN, the lend-lease representative in London Relief Administration. Moreover, he kept the who later became ambassador to the Soviet legislature in session to pass a “Little New Union; and CHARLES BOHLEN, who served as Deal” for the state, including measures to pre- a liaison between the White House and the vent farm foreclosures, provide public school State Department. Hopkins’s service was funds, and implement the New Deal’s National another example of the “passionate anonyms” Recovery Administration’s industrial codes. that LOUIS BROWNLOW had advocated to work Though Horner was a champion of the for the chief executive. New Deal, the Roosevelt administration Less than a year after FDR’s death, Hop- worked against him. Secretary of the Interior kins died in New York City on January 29, HAROLD ICKES understood that the Chicago 1946. machine used nondemocratic methods, but Howe, Louis McHenry 123 presidential adviser HARRY HOPKINS and other to Buffalo after William McKinley’s assassina- New Dealers were more interested in the tion in 1901. Five years later, he began cover- dependable machine’s votes from Chicago and ing state politics for the New York Herald. Cook County. FDR sided with Hopkins and Physically unattractive—short and wiry, with a pulled the rug from under the governor in homely face scarred since childhood—Howe downstate Springfield by channeling federal became fascinated with power. As he covered patronage through Kelly’s political machine. FDR in the New York State Senate in 1911, the In addition, FDR backed the machine’s candi- characteristically gruff and rumpled reporter date against Horner in the 1936 gubernatorial quickly saw potential in the man with a famous primary. The feisty governor fought back to name, handsome appearance, and charismatic win the primary and in the election carried personality. After FDR caught typhoid the next every county in Illinois, except Cook County. year during his reelection campaign, Howe Unfortunately, his choice for a running mate filled in as his campaign manager. FDR won lost the lieutenant governor bid in the primary. not only reelection but also a political partner Nonetheless, Horner and John Stelle, his until Howe’s death. unwelcome partner, carried the state in the Following FDR’s appointment as assistant November general election, winning 53.1 per- secretary of the navy in 1913 during the cent of the vote. Woodrow Wilson administration, he made Like Abraham Lincoln, whose memora- Howe his chief of staff. The former reporter bilia he collected, Horner’s executive days were drafted FDR’s speeches and took care of plagued with ongoing political strife, in addi- administrative details in the Washington, D.C., tion to labor mine violence and serious flood- office while also handling federal patronage in ing in lower Illinois. The stress on him was New York and acting as his boss’s agent to the enormous, and two days before the 1940 pri- state party. In 1920, he served as campaign mary election, he suffered a stroke. Despite his manager for FDR’s unsuccessful Democratic health issues, Horner battled his opposition to vice-presidential campaign. When FDR con- a stalemate until his death on October 6, 1940, tracted polio in 1921, Howe teamed with a few months before his second term would ELEANOR ROOSEVELT to keep FDR’s political have expired. career alive. He wrote articles with FDR’s byline, issued press releases, and brokered a truce between FDR and Tammany Hall so that Howe, Louis McHenry FDR could dramatically appear at the 1924 (1871–1936) secretary to the president Democratic convention to nominate AL SMITH for president. Roosevelt was back in the polit- The only child of a struggling Indianapolis, ical arena. In 1928, Howe served as FDR’s Indiana, businessman and his wife, Louis campaign manager in his successful run for the Howe was born on January 14, 1871. His fam- New York governorship. He then worked with ily moved to Saratoga Springs, New York, New York Democratic Committee chairman when he was five years old. Poor health and JAMES FARLEY to help FDR win the 1932 poor finances prevented him from attending Democratic nomination for president as well as college, and he instead became a newspaper the subsequent presidential election. reporter. His major scoop was breaking the Howe was named secretary to the presi- story of THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s hasty travel dent in 1933, and he held that post until his adventure from Lake of the Clouds, New York, death. In the White House, the Roosevelts put 124 Hughes, Charles Evans

Howe in the Lincoln bedroom, where he could originally planned to follow his father’s exam- be accessible to both of them without having to ple, and he entered Madison College (now deal with the public. He helped Eleanor Roo- Colgate University) in Hamilton, New York, to sevelt to develop an unprecedented approach as study for the ministry, but after two years he First Lady, taking her to visit a group of World transferred to the larger and more cosmopoli- War I “bonus army” veterans, who were seek- tan Brown University in Providence, Rhode ing a pension. Her obvious concern for them Island. There he compiled a good social and dissipated their anger and they sang old war academic record and developed an interest in songs. While Howe privately told the veterans the law. that there would be jobs through the new After graduating in 1881, Hughes taught Civilian Conservation Corps, the oft-quoted for a year at a private school to earn money for denouement was “Hoover sent the Army, Roo- law school while reading law in his spare time. sevelt sent his wife,” in reference to the fact He entered Columbia Law School the next fall that General DOUGLAS MACARTHUR, acting and graduated with highest honors in 1884. He on then-president HERBERT HOOVER’s orders, then joined a prestigious New York City law had forcibly evicted a much larger group of firm and through hard work became a partner them from Washington, D.C., on July 28, in the reorganized firm in 1887. The following 1932. year, he married Antoinette Carter, the daugh- Howe’s power waned after he was actually ter of one of his partners. It was a storybook inside the White House, partly due to his ill marriage that resulted in three daughters and health and also because President Roosevelt one son, Charles Evans Hughes, Jr., who had assembled new advisers who were much became the U.S. solicitor general in 1929–30. more liberal. After Howe’s death on April 18, Hughes had a strong professional work 1936, the Roosevelts gave him a state funeral in ethic that repeatedly drove him to near exhaus- the East Room of the White House. He had tion. For that reason, he left private practice in helped FDR achieve the presidency and pro- 1891 to teach law at Cornell University. After vided a political education for Eleanor Roo- two years, he had regained his health and sevelt that enabled her to set a new standard for rejoined his old law firm, where the pay was First Ladies. much better than law school. He first gained national recognition as special counsel for two New York legislative committees investigating Hughes, Charles Evans price gouging by gas, electrical, and life-insur- (1862–1948) U.S. Supreme Court chief justice ance companies. His work led to a variety of reforms. Charles Evans Hughes was born April 11, Never a glad-hander politician, the stern- 1862, in Glens Falls, New York, the only child looking Hughes entered politics through the of an itinerant preacher and his wife. Hughes orchestration of President THEODORE ROO- was particularly influenced by his Baptist SEVELT, who saw him as a fellow progressive father, who had converted from Methodism to Republican. As candidate for the New York placate his wife’s Welsh immigrant parents and governorship in 1906, Hughes narrowly moved his family several times before settling defeated his Democratic opponent, newspaper in New York City. Hughes’s parents also had a mogul WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST.As a pro- strong influence on his education, home- gressive, he distrusted politicians, and like schooling him until he was a teenager. Hughes many of them he wanted to take politics out of Hughes, Charles Evans 125 public business. He wanted good, clean gov- sion during the Civil War and would later fight ernment where reason (logic, efficiency, and federal civil-rights intervention, asked for fed- fairness) trumped deal-making. In 1908, eral intervention to regulate unequal railroad William Howard Taft, who also hated “poli- rates imposed by neighboring Texas. The tics,” asked Hughes to be his vice-presidential Court’s decision prevented the abuse by running mate. Hughes declined in favor of strengthening the power of the Interstate running successfully for reelection as gover- Commerce Commission (ICC). nor. President Theodore Roosevelt was sub- Hughes’s service on the bench had allowed jected to Hughes’s independence after his him to sit out the split between Roosevelt and friendly efforts to referee a fight to oust Taft in the 1912 election that permitted Demo- Hughes’s superintendent of insurance was crat Woodrow Wilson to gain the presidency. rebuffed by the governor. It caused a perma- In 1916, Hughes reluctantly accepted the nent rift between them. Republican Party’s nomination, although he In 1910, President Taft made Hughes a had not sought it, as its moderately progressive second offer: to become an associate justice on presidential candidate to heal the division the U.S. Supreme Court. Hughes accepted and between the conservative and progressive was easily confirmed in early May. After two wings of the party. The only sitting justice ever months, Chief Justice Melville Fuller died, and to be nominated for president, he lost by a many expected Taft would elevate Hughes to mere 13-vote margin in the electoral college. the position, not knowing that Taft wanted to Out of a job, Hughes was appointed secre- name someone older and in bad health so he tary of state in March 1921 and retained that himself could have a shot at becoming chief position after Calvin Coolidge succeeded to justice in the future. Taft settled on Associate the presidency in 1923. He proved to be a Justice Edward D. White from Louisiana to be gifted international diplomat who adapted his chief justice, and his plan worked perfectly, for political and judicial views to the world that he Taft became White’s replacement a decade wanted governed by reason that could be later. It may have been serendipitous for incorporated over time into the customs and Hughes and the nation that Taft did not elevate laws of nations. Once again experiencing him to chief justice and put White into the exhaustion from his hard work, Hughes position instead, since the ever-courteous gen- returned to private legal practice while still tleman from the Deep South introduced a new serving in a part-time position as head of the custom—handshakes among the justices—at a U.S. delegation to the Sixth Pan-American time when divisiveness was so prevalent that Conference in 1928 and as a judge on the Per- Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., referred to his manent Court of International Justice. brethren as “nine scorpions in a bottle.” On February 3, 1930, President HERBERT White’s calming effect on the Court was so HOOVER nominated Hughes to be chief jus- effective that Hughes would later hang a por- tice of the U.S. Supreme Court. Unlike his trait of him over his fireplace at home; it is confirmation 20 years before, though, and to likely that White was Hughes’s model when he his chagrin, Hughes faced opposition from later became chief justice. many progressives who believed he was too As an associate justice, Hughes wrote the tied to corporate interests. Nonetheless, he was majority decision in the so-called Shreveport confirmed 10 days later and at age 67 became Rate Case (1914), which was fraught with irony the oldest man ever confirmed to the post. because Louisianans, who had opted for seces- Despite his age, he brought to the position his 126 Hull, Cordell

trademark work ethic, diplomacy, and inde- that he held: governor, secretary of state, and pendence. Usually he occupied the golden Supreme Court justice. He truly was a com- mean between the liberal and conservative petitor equal to FDR, whom he not only wings on the court while trying to limit hostil- bested in the very political game that he dis- ities between them. dained but also outlived. Hughes died on Both Hughes and Justice OWEN ROBERTS, August 27, 1948, on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. also at the center of the ideological wings on the bench, sided with the conservatives in declaring New Deal legislation unconstitu- Hull, Cordell tional until 1936. They began to modify their (1871–1955) secretary of state stance during the private conference meetings of the justices by the end of that year, unbe- Born in Overton County (now Pickett), Ten- knownst to Franklin Roosevelt, who, after his nessee, on October 2, 1871, Cordell Hull was landslide election in 1936, made his first major part of a middle-class Baptist family. He was political blunder in trying to outmaneuver the educated in local schools until he moved to Court. Without seeking advice from his regu- Ohio for college. In 1893, he was elected to the lar staff or Congress, Roosevelt proposed state legislature, but like many other southern increasing the number of justices on the Court politicians, his term was interrupted by his mil- by six if the sitting justices over age 70 did not itary service. Hull served as a captain in the retire. This obvious manipulative ploy encoun- brief Spanish-American War (1898). In 1891 tered considerable public and congressional he attended Cumberland Law School for a year opposition. Still, it might have gained legisla- and then practiced law until 1903, when he was tive approval if Chief Justice Hughes had not appointed to the Fifth Tennessee Judicial Cir- taken the unusual step of writing a letter to the cuit, a position he held until 1907. Senate Judiciary Committee, which under- Like many others, Hull used law as his mined FDR’s obviously false assertion that the path to politics. By 1906, he was prepared for current justices were unable to handle their the national political arena. A towering bor- caseload. Hughes’s letter handed a defeat to yet der-state political presence, the six-foot Hull another Roosevelt in the Oval Office who had won a seat in the U.S. House of Representa- been trying to interject unwelcome politics tives that year on the traditional southern plat- into his world. form of preaching against the traditional It is often said that FDR lost the Supreme protective tariffs, which he argued were con- Court–packing battle but won the war. It is trary to the interest of his farmer constituents. more accurate to say that he had won it already In place of the protective tariff, he favored an in private judicial conference meetings but did income tax, and in 1913 he authored the first not know that he had. It is also accurate to say income-tax statute. It would become a consti- that his scheme produced a new coalition of tutional amendment in 1917 during the conservative Democrats from the South and Woodrow Wilson administration. Hull became Republicans that could defeat him. It was pri- a supporter of the southern-born president’s marily World War II that helped him to over- policies, particularly Wilson’s internationalist come the domestic battle that Hughes had goals. Although he was never a dynamic won. Moreover, in terms of the rankings of speaker, Hull’s appearance and his political scholars, only Hughes has achieved the great- style as a compromiser made him a lifelong ness rating in all three of the political positions popular leader in Congress. Unfortunately, in Hull, Cordell 127 the short term, his loyalty to Wilson cost him caught in that position, it was frustrating for his congressional office during the backlash Hull, especially since he tended to be more against the administration in the 1920 Warren conservative than the New Dealers. However, Harding electoral landslide. Hull bided his he needed FDR to accomplish his goals just as time as chairman of the Democratic National FDR needed Hull’s influence in Congress. In Committee until he was reelected to his former private, the president would often imitate congressional seat in 1922. In 1930, he was Hull’s slight lisp. elected to the U.S. Senate. In 1934, in large part because of Hull’s per- Hull’s Wilsonianism first brought him into sistence, Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade contact with FDR, who had supported his Agreements, a cornerstone of New Deal for- failed 1928 vice-presidential bid. In return, eign policy. This began the tradition of the Hull made an early announcement in 1932 in most-favored-nation trading policy under which support of FDR’s presidential bid. Recognizing presidents were allowed to negotiate tariff that he needed support from the southern wing agreements. Hull became the architect of free of the Democratic Party, FDR appointed Hull trade and the post–World War II trading pacts, as secretary of state, even though Hull lacked such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and foreign-affairs experience. His physical appear- Trade (GATT). He believed that economic ance—white hair, tall height, and three-piece cooperation promoted peaceful relations among suits—added the diplomatic patina he needed nations. to look the part, although FDR himself Hull was also a key figure and principal expected to dominate the role. As a subordinate spokesman of the New Deal’s approach to Latin American affairs. He supported FDR’s Good Neighbor policy, which discouraged the earlier William McKinley–THEODORE ROO- SEVELT–Woodrow Wilson policy of unilateral U.S. intervention in Latin American nations. The Good Neighbor policy instead promoted inter-American cooperation, which is still viewed today by Latin Americans as the high mark in U.S.–Latin American relations. FDR and Hull agreed to withdraw troops from Cen- tral American nations and to disavow the Platt Amendment, which had made a mockery of Cuba’s sovereignty. As a result of these policies, Hull became one of the most popular Democrats in the United States, and he traveled across the coun- try campaigning for FDR’s reelection in 1936. The White House staff, however, and espe- cially HARRY HOPKINS, saw Hull as a rival to FDR, so despite the urgings of some Demo- cratic Party leaders, he was denied a vice-pres- idential bid. Nonetheless, he helped to ease Cordell Hull (Library of Congress) U.S. isolationism, found ways to circumvent 128 Hull, Cordell

the congressional neutrality acts, and worked organization. He supported the Dumbarton for U.S. military aid to Great Britain and other Oaks conference in Washington, D.C., on nations fighting the Axis powers. He cooper- August 21, 1944, by delivering an opening ated with FDR in providing old destroyers to address there. Even after he left the State the British through the Lend-Lease Act and Department in late 1944, he accepted the denounced Nazi and imperial Japanese aggres- honorary title of senior delegate to the UN sion in Europe and Asia. conference in San Francisco in mid-1945. Although he worked to achieve FDR’s Later that year, he won the Nobel Peace goals, Hull had to fight bureaucratic battles, pri- Prize for his work toward that end. Some marily over FDR’s desire to control the State credit him as the father of the United Department and foreign policy through his own Nations, though FDR deserves to share that lieutenants. FDR’s foreign trade adviser, honor. GEORGE PEEK, was forced to resign, just as RAY- Working for someone who preferred to be MOND MOLEY resigned as assistant secretary of his own secretary of state took its toll on Hull. state after FDR tried to run foreign policy by He endured many of the interferences because circumventing his secretary of state. Hull suc- he wanted to run for the presidency in 1940, cessfully blocked Undersecretary of State SUM- until FDR decided to break the two-term tra- NER WELLES, Vice President HENRY WALLACE, dition. When Hull was finally forced to resign and Secretary of the Treasury HENRY MOR- because of his tuberculosis and other medical GENTHAU, JR., from interfering in what Welles complications, FDR at first refused the resig- considered his own turf. Most of these contro- nation and asked him to be his running mate versies involved FDR’s inclination to want to act in 1944. Hull declined but waited until the as his own secretary of state, which reflected his November election before stepping down as style of not relying on anyone except himself. secretary of state. He remained a loyal south- As a Wilsonian liberal internationalist, erner until his death on July 23, 1955, in Hull backed the creation of a United Nations Washington, D.C. I w

Ickes, Harold Leclair practicing law and handling civil liberties (1874–1952) secretary of the interior, Public cases pro bono. Works Administration, director Armed with journalistic, political, and legal skills, the independent Republican Ickes sup- Born on March 15, 1874, in Hollidaysburg, ported Charles Merriam in his 1911 campaign Pennsylvania, Harold Ickes was the son of a for mayor on a platform of clean and good mother who died while he was a teenager and government. In 1912, though, he joined an alcoholic father who abandoned him. He THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s unsuccessful Bull was sent to live with relatives in Chicago, Moose third-party candidacy to regain the where he graduated from high school in 1892 White House. Ickes served as the party’s Cook as senior class president and valedictorian. County campaign manager and delivered the Insecure and sensitive to criticism, he was a vote for Roosevelt. He remained the leader of tireless worker and a champion of minorities. the Progressive Party in Illinois until 1916, In 1896, he graduated from the University of when he backed Supreme Court justice Chicago and began working as a local newspa- CHARLES EVANS HUGHES for president. Dur- per reporter, which taught him about urban ing World War I, Ickes served overseas with political corruption. But he was also exposed to the YMCA. In the 1920s, he joined the law the social-reform movement led by political firm of DONALD RICHBERG, and he fought scientist CHARLES E. MERRIAM, Jane Addams conservative Republicans who had achieved of Hull House, and others. He was among the political power both in Chicago and Washing- later New Deal participants influenced by the ton, D.C. He had openly endorsed the 1920 Social Gospel movement of service to one’s Democratic Party ticket of James Cox as pres- community. ident and Franklin Roosevelt as vice president. Ickes’s entry into the political world grew By the end of the decade, he had developed a from his work and volunteerism in settlement reputation for conservation and good-govern- houses. In 1903, he was hired to manage the ment reform in the mold of Teddy Roosevelt. campaign of an unsuccessful Republican may- Ickes’s association with FDR began in early oral candidate. The next year, he returned to 1932 when he was asked to head a Western the University of Chicago for his law degree, Republican Committee for Roosevelt. After he which was awarded in 1907. He was soon lobbied for it, the progressive Republican Ickes

129 130 Ickes, Harold Leclair

Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes handing the first constitution issued under the Indian Reorganization Act to delegates of the Confederated Tribes of the Flathead Indian Reservation (Library of Congress)

was named to head the Interior Department in year program on 19,000 public works projects FDR’s first cabinet. During his 13-year reign in in one of the first major unemployment pro- that position, he set an unequaled standard, grams of the New Deal. He lived up to his rep- partly by enlarging his turf and partly by work- utation for integrity. Meticulous in dispensing ing harder than anyone else. He advocated funds for this agency, which had been created conservation and national planning to develop by the National Industrial Recovery Act of natural resources as well as controls on private 1933, Ickes proved indefatigable and incor- power companies. He also desegregated public ruptible. He also made sure that African Amer- facilities in the department and hired Robert icans received a fair share of construction jobs. Weaver, an African American, as an adviser. Ickes’s lifelong insecurities manifested In June 1933 Ickes’s work paid off after themselves in conflicts with Vice President FDR gave him a second, simultaneous job as HENRY WALLACE, presidential confidant HARRY director of the Public Works Administration HOPKINS, and even First Lady ELEANOR (PWA), which spent $5–6 billion during the six- ROOSEVELT.These often grew out of FDR’s Ickes, Harold Leclair 131 characteristic vagueness in administrative mat- was the first person in the administration to ters. Ickes needed constant reassurance from speak out in favor of FDR’s third term and FDR, who gave it with a certain bemusement, campaigned for him in each election, serving recognizing his talent, loyalty, and insecurities. as a colorful stump speaker. Despite his loy- His pugnacious personality also encouraged alty to FDR, he denounced the internment of FDR to undertake the unsuccessful so-called Japanese-American citizens during World purge of 1938 against conservative Democrats War II. in Congress. Ickes resigned from the cabinet after a dis- In 1939, Ickes helped Eleanor Roosevelt pute with President HARRY S. TRUMAN.There- arrange MARIAN ANDERSON’s Easter Sunday after he wrote a political column for the New concert at the Lincoln Memorial and person- Republic until he died on February 3, 1952, in ally introduced the singer to the audience. He Washington, D.C. J w

Jackson, Robert Houghwout became one of the three highest-ranked mem- (1892–1954) solicitor general, attorney general, bers of the Justice Department. He was U.S. Supreme Court justice appointed solicitor general of the United States, the so-called 10th justice of the Born on February 13, 1892, in Spring Creek, Supreme Court because the person who holds Pennsylvania, Robert Jackson was the son of a that office appears more often than any other small businessman. The family moved to west- lawyer before the high bench to represent the ern New York near Jamestown, where Jackson administration in cases. Jackson was so good at was raised. After his high school graduation, he his job that Justice LOUIS BRANDEIS remarked clerked in the law office of his cousin, who was that he deserved to be solicitor general for life. a prominent Democratic activist in Jamestown. Yet his administration service led to conflicts in After attending Albany Law School for a year, his personal life. FDR urged him to enter pol- Jackson began legal practice in Jamestown, itics, but New York State Democratic Party styling himself as a “country lawyer” and leaders ignored his aspirations after he sought becoming one of the leading trial lawyers in their backing in a bid for the governorship. western New York during his 20-year practice. Jackson’s loyalty to FDR was tested when he He practiced very briefly in Buffalo but found dutifully testified before Congress in support of the city too large. the president’s 1937 Supreme Court–packing Jackson first attracted the attention of Roo- scheme. He was better at law than politics, but sevelt, then the New York governor, when he FDR failed to name him when the next three was serving on a state commission investigating openings occurred on the High Court. Instead, New York’s judicial system. He worked in FDR’s in 1940 the president named Jackson to succeed 1932 presidential campaign and reluctantly left FRANK MURPHY as attorney general when Mur- Jamestown for Washington, D.C., where he phy was elevated to the Supreme Court. As served in several legal positions with the new attorney general, Jackson worked on the lend- administration. He led the government’s investi- lease deal involving the exchange of destroyers gation into income-tax evasion against former for military bases in Bermuda, Labrador, and secretary of the Treasury ANDREW MELLON. other British possessions. After Stanley Reed was elevated to the Jackson had been led to believe that he U.S. Supreme Court in March 1938, Jackson would be named to replace Chief Justice

132 Johnson, Hiram Warren 133

CHARLES EVANS HUGHES when he retired in of a lawyer-politician who defended the inter- spring 1941, but FDR instead elevated Justice ests of the Southern Pacific Railroad, Califor- HARLAN FISK STONE to that position and made nia’s most powerful corporation. He and a Jackson the associate justice’s replacement. The brother followed their father’s career path. problems arising from the rapid ascent of Johnson spent three years at the University of someone who was less educated about modern California at Berkeley and then dropped out in approaches to jurisprudence than WILLIAM O. 1887 to study law in his father’s office. He was DOUGLAS or HUGO BLACK, who had devel- admitted to the state bar the next year. Both oped their own unique approaches, manifested Johnson and his brother initially practiced with soon after Jackson joined the High Court. their father and helped to run his political cam- Complicating his relationship with Douglas paigns, but in 1897 the brothers opened their and Black was the fact that both harbored lin- own law office and broke with their father’s gering presidential ambitions. During the post- conservative politics. They moved their prac- war period, they would block Jackson from tice to San Francisco, and Hiram Johnson obtaining what he wanted most and thought became a political rebel; his brother died an his service merited: the chief justiceship. alcoholic in 1907. Jackson was a master stylist who sprinkled Johnson’s move into the electoral world his decisions with memorable phrases, but his grew from his work in the district attorney’s civil-liberties record was erratic. Offered the office prosecuting graft, which earned him chance to play to the crowds, the frustrated both publicity and the attention of California’s Jackson took leave from the Court to become Lincoln-Roosevelt League, an organization of the chief counsel for the United States in the progressive Republicans. With their support, prosecution of senior Nazi officials at Nurem- he won the Republican nomination for gover- berg, West Germany, in 1945–46. The results nor in the state’s first direct primary, having of the Nuremberg Trials were mixed for Jack- run on the single issue of removing the South- son and the Court. His role in them ultimately ern Pacific Railroad from influence peddling in prevented him from ever becoming chief jus- the state. A gifted orator, Johnson conducted tice. After the death of Chief Justice Stone on an energetic and spirited campaign that landed April 22, 1946, newspaper articles appeared him the governorship. He had the legislature’s that suggested HUGO BLACK’s opposition to support to enact his reform agenda, including Jackson’s elevation to chief justice. In response regulation of railroads and utility corporations; Jackson issued a public statement questioning instituting a civil-service system; implementing Black’s judicial propriety. President HARRY the use of the initiative, referendum, and recall TRUMAN avoided the controversy by nominat- for voters; women’s suffrage; labor reforms; ing his secretary of the Treasury, FRED M. VIN- conservation measures; and a variety of other SON, to succeed Stone. He died on October 9, measures that targeted partisan corruption in 1954, in McLean, Virginia. the political process. An early supporter of THEODORE ROO- SEVELT for the 1912 Republican presidential Johnson, Hiram Warren nomination, Johnson left the party after it (1866–1945) U.S. senator refused to heed Roosevelt’s primary wins. Johnson joined Roosevelt in forming the new Hiram Johnson, born September 2, 1866, and Bull Moose Progressive Party and was made raised in Sacramento, California, was the son his running mate on the losing ticket. Although 134 Johnson, Hiram Warren

they placed ahead of William Howard Taft, the He won seven of 12 primaries, yet his cam- Roosevelt/Taft split among Republicans gave paign was too disorganized and too radical for the election to Democrat Woodrow Wilson. the conservatives. He placed third in initial bal- Johnson subsequently gained popular support loting only to see his support dissipate, and in 1913 by backing anti-Asian legislation that refused requests from the three leading con- prevented Asian immigrants from owning tenders to accept the vice presidency. He property. In 1916, he returned to the Republi- sought the presidency again in 1924, but his can Party to run for the U.S. Senate after Roo- campaign was so poorly organized that he won sevelt declined to run again as a Bull Moose. As only one primary and even lost California, his CHARLES EVANS HUGHES lost California by only electoral defeat in his native state. Mean- fewer than 4,000 votes in his near presidential while, he accomplished only one significant upset over Woodrow Wilson, Johnson won by legislative measure during his first dozen years more than two to one in the first of his five suc- in the Senate. In the early 1920s, he cospon- cessful Senate elections. sored the Boulder Canyon Reclamation Pro- Johnson’s first Senate vote was to support ject, legislation to dam the Colorado River at Wilson’s declaration of war in 1917. He Boulder Canyon to prevent flooding, generate became increasingly critical of the president’s inexpensive electricity, and extend irrigation. foreign policy and its domestic equivalent, the As a result, Boulder Dam—later renamed Sedition Act of 1918, which was used to silence Hoover Dam—opened in 1928 and provided a criticism of the president’s foreign policy. The model for later New Deal projects. next year, Johnson almost obtained congres- Johnson’s introduction to Franklin Roo- sional approval to withdraw American troops sevelt came through HAROLD ICKES, a fellow from Russia that had been sent there to signify former Bull Moose Republican. Ickes urged Wilson’s opposition to the Russian Revolution. him to challenge HERBERT HOOVER’s reelec- Always an opponent of the railroads, he tion in 1932. Johnson declined and, like Ickes, favored not only their regulation but also gov- supported FDR, campaigning for him. A grate- ernment ownership. ful FDR offered Johnson the cabinet post of During the postwar era, Johnson became secretary of the interior, but he turned it down the most tireless orator of the Senate “irrecon- and recommended Ickes instead. During cilables” opposed to Wilson’s League of FDR’s first term, Johnson supported the Nations. When the president set out on his domestic New Deal. As a key member of the cross-country speaking tour to drum up popu- Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he lar support for it, Johnson shadowed him, pushed for neutrality in foreign policy. packing local halls from city to city and urging Johnson suffered a serious stroke in 1936. defeat of U.S. entrance into the League. He FDR’s Court-packing plan the next year trig- feared that it would have a European focus gered him to swing into his traditional rebel rather than address the danger of Japan’s rise in mode, opposing all further New Deal initia- Asia. Like Theodore Roosevelt, Johnson advo- tives. He joined WILLIAM BORAH (R-Idaho) in cated a stronger navy and merchant marine leading Senate opposition to FDR’s request to service. Wilson had a stroke on the campaign repeal the arms embargo provision in the whirl while Johnson secured a new reputation Neutrality Act of 1937, which the president as an isolationist. did not achieve until the Congress enacted the In 1920, Johnson was a leading contender Neutrality Act of 1939. Johnson supported for the Republican presidential nomination. military and naval funding but opposed con- Johnson, Hugh Samuel 135 scription the next year. The ranking minority brigadier general during World War I when member on the Senate Foreign Relations he worked with the Selective Service System Committee, he failed to block FDR’s lend- and served on the War Industries Board (WIB) lease proposal. However, he did vote for war as its army representative and head of its Pur- after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in chase and Supply Branch. He coordinated mil- December 1941. His rebel behavior slowed itary procurement with the WIB, the federal only because of declining health. During the agency that regulated the American economy summer of 1945, Johnson’s was the lone vote during the war and was headed by BERNARD against sending the United Nations Charter to BARUCH, who later became his business part- the Senate floor. He died on August 6, 1945, in ner. After resigning from the army in 1919, Bethesda, Maryland. Johnson became an executive with the Moline Plow Company and he soon worked with GEORGE PEEK for agricultural relief, which was Johnson, Hugh Samuel blocked by Republican presidential vetoes. (Old Iron Pants) Working with Baruch from 1927 to 1932 (1882–1942) National Recovery Administration, as his economic investigator and assistant, director, columnist Johnson gained entrée to the Franklin Roo- sevelt administration, joining FDR’s so-called Born in Fort Scott, Kansas, on August 5, 1882, Brain Trust as the “Baruch man.” In 1933, he Hugh Johnson was the son of a lawyer/rancher contributed to implementing the National who moved the family within the state four Recovery Act, which attempted to resurrect the more times for enhanced business opportunities business and government cooperation coordi- before finally settling in the newly opened nated by the WIB during World War I. That Cherokee Strip (Alva, Oklahoma) in 1893. same year, FDR chose Johnson to direct the Johnson grew up there, attended Northwest National Recovery Administration (NRA), Normal School, and gained admission to the where he worked to establish codes to prevent U.S. Military Academy at West Point in 1899. cutthroat competition. Johnson came up with Commissioned in 1903, Johnson led an adven- the NRA’s Blue Eagle symbol and its motto turous military life. His assignments included “We Do Our Part,” to show business compli- delivering disaster relief after the 1906 San ance with governmental policy. FDR was care- Francisco earthquake, serving in the Philippines ful to separate the employment side of the during THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s administra- recovery program, which HAROLD ICKES tion, and working in the national parks. He directed. It was a wise separation of duties, for turned his experiences into a lucrative part-time though Johnson was energetic and colorful, he writing career, publishing two books for juve- was more a headstrong general than a diplo- niles and many short stories about military life matic politician. The cross-pressures from that appeared in popular magazines of the era. business and labor demands triggered John- Following in his father’s path, Johnson was son’s mood swings and drinking binges, and admitted to the University of California Law market restrictions delayed the country’s recov- School, which he attended from 1914 to 1916. ery. FDR gently eased Johnson out on October He then served briefly with John J. Pershing’s 15, 1934, by replacing his position with an expeditionary force to Mexico before being administrative board. transferred to the legal staff of the Bureau of Johnson served briefly as head of the Insular Affairs. Johnson rose to the rank of Works Progress Administration in New York 136 Jones, Jesse Holman

City before channeling his abundant energy where his father purchased a large farm. Jones into a new journalism career as a syndicated left school at 14 to make money. After his columnist for the Scripps-Howard newspaper father died in 1894, he moved back to Dallas to chain with his “Hugh Johnson Says,” and as a manage his uncle’s lumber business. Four years radio commentator. By mid-1937, after the later, his uncle died, and Jones moved to Hous- failed Court-packing plan and simultaneous ton, Texas. He married in 1920 but had no chil- effort to reorganize the executive branch, dren. Jones embraced Houston and his Johnson broke with the New Deal and FDR. businesses as an adopted extended family. He He supported WENDELL WILLKIE for presi- became one of the largest real-estate develop- dent in 1940 and helped organize the isola- ers in the nation, the chairman of the largest tionist America First Committee. In response, bank in Texas, and the owner of the Houston FDR made sure that his reserve commission Chronicle. was not renewed. Johnson died on April 15, During World War I, Jones responded 1942, in Washington, D.C. to Woodrow Wilson to become the director general of military relief for the Red Cross from 1917 to 1919, and he developed a close Jones, Jesse Holman relationship with the president, who shared (1874–1956) Reconstruction Finance his southern roots. In 1928, Jones used his Corporation chairman, Federal Loan Agency connections to bring the Democratic National director, secretary of commerce Convention to Houston, showcasing his city. The next year, at the suggestion of Demo- Jesse Jones, born April 5, 1874, in Robertson cratic congressional leaders, President HER- County, Tennessee, was the son of tobacco BERT HOOVER appointed Jones as the token farmers and merchants. His mother died when Democrat among the seven directors of the he was six years old, and three years later, in new Reconstruction Finance Corporation 1883, the family moved briefly to Dallas, Texas, (RFC) (which was renamed the Small Busi- but then returned to north central Tennessee, ness Administration during the Eisenhower administration). When Franklin Roosevelt became presi- dent in 1933, he promptly elevated Jones to the head of the RFC, a post he would hold until 1945. During his tenure, the RFC made $50 billion in loans, and the agency became known as “the fourth branch of government.” As was typical of FDR, in 1939 he named Jones to serve simultaneously as director of the new Federal Loan Agency, a position he also held until 1945. However, he turned over manage- ment of the RFC to Emil Schram, considered by Jones as one of his “RFC family” members. In addition, under special congressional legis- lation that allowed him to serve concurrently as Jesse H. Jones (right) with Howard Hughes an agency head and a member of FDR’s cabi- (Library of Congress) net, Jones also served as secretary of commerce Jones, Jesse Holman 137 from 1940 to 1945. He had become the “czar” strategic raw materials. But Jones was infuri- of New Deal credit. ated by FDR’s subsequent request that he step In both his business and governmental ser- aside as secretary of commerce so that Wallace vice, Jones was a strongly controlling person could be appointed to the post as a consolation who based his trust on kinship and familial loy- after HARRY TRUMAN replaced Wallace on the alty. His congressional influence as a south- 1944 ballot. Despite FDR’s efforts to placate erner and New Dealer came to rival the him, Jones resigned all his government posi- president’s, especially during World War II. tions and returned to Houston permanently. His long-standing feud with Vice President He opposed Truman’s reelection in 1948 and HENRY WALLACE led FDR to side with Jones supported DWIGHT EISENHOWER in 1952. in 1943 on the abolition of Wallace’s Board of Jones died on June 1, 1956, in his beloved Economic Warfare, which had purchased Houston. K w

Kelly, Edward Joseph County machine, based on an ethnic immi- (1876–1950) Chicago mayor grant coalition that included African Ameri- cans and Italians. He delivered ethnically The son of an Irish policeman, Edward Kelly balanced tickets and patronage, and in return was born in Chicago, Illinois, on May 1, 1876, grateful recipients responded with votes. He and left school early to help support his parents also made deals with organized crime to over- and eight siblings. He later was able to study look gambling in exchange for annual financial civil engineering at night school at the Chicago contributions. Athenaeum. At age 18 he began working his way Kelly’s landslide electoral win in 1935 with up in the Metropolitan Sanitary District, more than 75 percent of the vote made him becoming chief engineer by 1920 during Mayor FDR’s earliest and closest urban political- Anton Cermak’s administration. Behind the machine ally. In addition to funds he obtained scenes, Kelly and Patrick A. Nash, a former from the Federal Emergency Relief Adminis- superintendent of sewers, ran the Cermak polit- tration and the Civil Works Administration, ical machine. Four years later, he was appointed the Works Progress Administration furnished president of Chicago’s South Park Board and millions of dollars more. Presidential aide became active in local Democratic Party politics. HARRY HOPKINS and National Democratic Fate intervened to propel Kelly into Committee chairman JAMES FARLEY increas- elected office in 1933. The now-wealthy Nash, ingly funneled federal money and patronage who had extensive business with the Sanitary into the Chicago machine even as it sought to District, engineered Kelly’s selection as mayor wrest control from Illinois’s New Deal loyalist by the City Council following Cermak’s acci- governor HENRY HORNER in downstate dental death during an attempted assassination Springfield. As a result, Kelly became one of of President-elect Franklin Roosevelt. The FDR’s major supporters. Great Depression had left Chicago with a 40 Kelly and Hopkins secretly orchestrated percent unemployment rate, and Kelly acted FDR’s unprecedented third-term nomination quickly through the Illinois legislature and the at the 1940 Democratic National Convention new Democratic administration in Washing- in Chicago. Hopkins became the strategist, and ton, D.C., to secure federal funding. At the Kelly worked to produce the staged draft that same time, he expanded the Chicago–Cook FDR requested. Kelly selected Chicago Sta-

138 Kennedy, Joseph Patrick 139 dium, packed the galleries with machine work- ers, and had the current superintendent of sew- ers anonymously boom out from the loudspeakers a call for FDR’s nomination, trig- gering a spontaneous hour-long demonstra- tion. The other big-city bosses (including New York’s EDWARD FLYNN, Jersey City’s FRANK HAGUE, and Kansas City’s THOMAS PENDER- GAST) reinforced the public display of support. Machine politics at its strongest manipulated its undemocratic agenda, appearing to the world to be democracy in action. After Nash’s death in 1943, Kelly turned the Chicago City Council into his rubber stamp. Ironically, it was the autocratic Kelly’s call for open housing and desegregated schools that eroded his white ethnic support. Troubled by increasing health problems, he did not seek reelection in 1947, and he died in Chicago on October 20, 1950.

Joseph Patrick Kennedy (Library of Congress) Kennedy, Joseph Patrick (1888–1969) Securities and Exchange Commission chairman, U.S. Maritime and flirted with the movie business, including Commission chairman, U.S. ambassador to Britain extramarital affairs with Hollywood actresses. He retired from the stock market before its The son of prosperous Irish parents and grand- 1929 crash, sparing him from the financial cri- son of Irish immigrants, Joseph P. Kennedy sis many others experienced. was born on September 6, 1888, in Boston, Kennedy turned to politics for acceptance Massachusetts. He learned quickly what it and became an early financial backer of New meant to be an Irish Catholic outsider in York governor Franklin Roosevelt in his bid for Protestant Brahmin Boston. He attended the presidency. Kennedy claimed credit for per- Boston High School and Harvard University, suading newspaper and Hollywood mogul graduating in 1912, and married Rose Fitzger- WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST to support FDR. ald, the daughter of Boston mayor John F. In 1932, he drafted a speech delivered by FDR “Honey Fitz” Fitzgerald, in 1914; the couple that outlined the future Securities and eventually had nine children. Building on his Exchange Commission (SEC). After the SEC father’s financial success, Kennedy became an was established in 1934 for the purpose of investor and was a millionaire by the 1920s. reforming corrupt Wall Street trading prac- He briefly moved his family from Boston to tices, FDR made the politically conservative New York in the late 1920s, in part an attempt Kennedy its first chairman. As always, the ener- to escape the discrimination against the Irish in getic Kennedy worked vigorously to accom- his native city. He dabbled in the stock market plish his mission by establishing new rules that 140 Kerr, Florence Stewart outlawed some of the very techniques that he ber 18, 1969, in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, had used to increase his own wealth. Mission the patriarch of the American equivalent of a accomplished, he resigned in 1935, creating an political dynasty. opening for his friend WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS. The next year, he published I’m for Roosevelt, arguing that FDR had saved capitalism. Since Kerr, Florence Stewart Kennedy was an investor in shipbuilding, FDR (1890–1975) assistant director, Works Progress brought him back to government service in Administration March 1937 as chairman of the U.S. Maritime Commission to revive the shipbuilding industry. Florence Stewart was born in Harriman, Ten- Ever ambitious and driven, Kennedy nessee, on June 30, 1890, and grew up in Iowa, wanted still more—social acceptance and even where her parents had moved to live with her the presidency itself. Ironically, he achieved the maternal grandmother. Along with HALLIE first when the Protestant and socially secure FLANAGAN, she became a classmate and life- FDR appointed his Irish Catholic associate as long friend with HARRY HOPKINS at progres- ambassador to the Court of St. James. sive Grinnell College, from which she Kennedy’s informal style as America’s ambas- graduated in 1912. She married Robert Y. Kerr sador to Great Britain initially pleased the three years later and taught English at her alma British. In early 1938, he sided with the mater. appeasement policy of NEVILLE CHAMBER- In 1930, Kerr became a member of the LAIN, and even after WINSTON CHURCHILL Iowa Governor’s Commission on Unemploy- assumed power two years later, Kennedy con- ment Relief that was established to deal with tinued to argue that Nazi Germany would the effects of the Great Depression. Hopkins likely win the war and that the United States recommended her in July 1935 to serve as one should remain isolationist. His Irish bias of five regional directors of the Division of against the British leaked through in snide Women’s and Professional Projects in the remarks about the king and queen, favorable newly created Works Progress Administration views of European fascism, and criticism of (WPA), which he headed. The job required her Churchill’s drinking. He resigned as ambas- to move to Chicago, and from there she over- sador in November 1940 during the German saw work relief in 13 Midwestern states. She bombings of Britain. traveled in the region, consulting with state During the postwar period, Kennedy directors and women projects directors. When became family friends with fellow Irish she was in her Chicago office, ELEANOR ROO- Catholic Joseph McCarthy, the first-term SEVELT often came to visit. Kerr visited the Republican senator from Wisconsin, who numerous sewing and library projects for would later achieve notoriety in the 1950s for unskilled women and the Federal Art, Writers, his investigations into suspected communists. and Theatre Projects for professional women. After McCarthy’s death from alcoholism, She developed the reputation of being the best Kennedy devoted his last energy and fortune to of the regional directors. assure that John F. Kennedy, his oldest surviv- In late 1938, when Ellen Woodward ing son who had entered Congress at the same resigned as Hopkins’s assistant, Kerr replaced time as McCarthy, would become the first her. Shortly after she moved to Washington, Roman Catholic president of the United States D.C., in early 1939, the WPA was reorganized in 1960. The elder Kennedy died on Novem- as the Works Projects Administration within Keynes, John Maynard, first Baron Keynes of Tilton 141 the new Federal Works Agency as a result of and his mother served as mayor of Cambridge. the Reorganization Act of 1939, which was the Keynes attended Eton and then entered King’s delayed congressional response to the 1937 College, Cambridge. After graduation, he report of the LOUIS BROWNLOW Commission. served in the India Office of the British civil In April 1939, Kerr’s division was renamed the service for two years. He then returned to Division of Professional and Service Projects. Cambridge University to write and edit the Even while WPA projects were subjected to Economic Journal, Britain’s most prestigious increasing budgetary cuts, she was able to economics journal. maintain her division’s institutional and com- In 1919, Keynes attended the Versailles munity service projects with backing from the Peace Conference as the deputy director for First Lady, who had Kerr speak at one of her the chancellor of the exchequer on the Supreme press conferences. Economic Council, but he resigned in protest With the advent of World War II, the New because he believed that reparations would Deal’s Great Depression goals shifted to wreck the German economy and trigger yet national defense. Kerr took steps to transform another chapter of military authoritarianism. women’s work relief into civilian defense. WPA The prescience of his protest and subsequent day-care centers assumed an important niche book, The Economic Consequences of the Peace in the national defense effort until they were (1919), established his international reputation. transferred to local communities under the During the 1920s, the ever-energetic and Lanham Act of 1942. Kerr was able also to talented Keynes amassed a fortune by specu- maintain clothing and food production pro- lating on the international securities market grams, public-health projects, and training for while teaching at Cambridge and continuing to housekeeping aides until the WPA closed down publish books including the Treatise on Money in 1943. The next year, Kerr was named direc- published in 1930, which critiqued the fixation tor of war public services under the Federal on gold and currency. FELIX FRANKFURTER, Works Agency, a post she held until the end of who was on an academic sabbatical as the Vis- World War II. During the postwar period she iting Eastman Professor at Oxford University left the federal government to work for North- in 1933, arranged for Keynes to meet Franklin west Airlines. She died on July 6, 1975, in Roosevelt the next year when he visited Wash- Washington, D.C. ington, D.C. While there, Keynes urged New Dealers to spend even more on relief and pub- lic projects to stimulate private investment and Keynes, John Maynard, first Baron Keynes income. of Tilton In 1936, he achieved in economics the (1883–1946) British economist equivalent to ALBERT EINSTEIN’s achievement in physics with his publication of The General Neither an American nor a New Dealer, Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money. The British economist John Maynard Keynes work undermined classical economic theory by nonetheless had a profound influence on both, arguing that deficit spending was necessary to reflecting the growing interdependency of the overcome depression. He reiterated these world in the 20th century. Born June 5, 1883, views in subsequent letters to FDR. World in Cambridge, England, he was reared in an War II government spending and deficit intellectual environment. His father was regis- financing accomplished the so-called Keyne- trar of Cambridge University for many years, sian revolution. If the United States’s material 142 Keyserling, Leon

support saved the British during World War II entered the Senate in 1909 and was chairman of and was necessary for both defeat of the Axis its Agricultural Committee. However, Keyser- powers and postwar economic recovery, ling held the position with Frank for only two Keynes provided the economic theory for both weeks before leaving. In late 1933, he became dealing with the Great Depression and the the legislative assistant to liberal Democratic generous postwar economic aid to avoid senator ROBERT WAGNER of New York. repeating the mistakes of World War I. Wagner championed much of the New After his first meeting with FDR, Keynes Deal’s reform package in Congress. He was returned to the United States several times, the instrumental in two of the landmark pieces of last trip occurring in 1945 for the Bretton congressional legislation: the National Labor Woods Conference. Keynes was made Com- Relations Act of 1935 and the Social Security mander of the Order of the Bath (C.B.) in 1917 Act of 1935. Keyserling had drafted Section 7A and Baron Keynes of Tilton in 1942. He died of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) on April 21, 1946. of 1933, which encouraged labor unions. It later became part of the Wagner Act (National Labor Relations Act of 1935) after the NIRA was Keyserling, Leon declared unconstitutional. As Wagner’s chief (1908–1987) speechwriter, assistant to Senator assistant, Keyserling prepared studies, wrote Robert Wagner, federal administrator speeches, and testified before Congress on behalf of the reform package. He also played a major Leon Keyserling, like fellow New Dealers role in the Home Owners’ Refinancing Act of BERNARD BARUCH and JAMES BYRNES, had 1933, the National Housing Act of 1934, and South Carolina roots that would prove useful the Wagner-Steagall Housing Act of 1937. later in getting congressional approval of his Because Wagner was the chairman of the Plat- program. He was born January 22, 1908, in form Committee to the Democratic National Beaufort, South Carolina, where he graduated Conventions in 1936, 1940, and 1944, Keyser- from high school at age 16. Higher education ling wrote the presidential campaign platforms was Keyserling’s one-way ticket out of a small- in those years. He also drafted occasional cam- town future. He majored in economics at paign speeches for FDR, e.g., refuting the charge Columbia University, where he came under the by Republican presidential candidate ALF LAN- influence of REXFORD TUGWELL.After grad- DON that the new Social Security system was a uating in 1928, he immediately moved to Har- fraud without the means to pay pensions. In vard, obtaining his law degree three years later. addition, he wrote FDR’s 1942 executive order He then returned to Columbia to do graduate that created the National Housing Agency. work in economics. From 1937 to 1946, Keyserling worked in After the Democrats came to power in a variety of federal housing agencies. He mar- 1933, Tugwell, then the assistant secretary of ried reform activist Mary Dublin, a former agriculture, invited Keyserling to Washington, economics professor at Sarah Lawrence Col- D.C., and urged him to join the legal staff of the lege, in 1940. During the postwar period, Sen- Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). ator Joseph McCarthy (R-Wis.) accused them JEROME FRANK, the general counsel for the both of being communists, charges that they AAA, immediately hired him when he learned successfully refuted in 1951. Keyserling’s last that Keyserling’s father was a personal friend of major governmental post was as chairman of Senator ELLISON “Cotton Ed” SMITH, who had the Council of Economic Advisers during the Knox, Frank 143

HARRY TRUMAN administration. He died on personal warmth was compensated for by his August 9, 1987, in Washington, D.C. belief in spiritualism and a shrewd sense of what was possible in Canada. In the late 1920s, King forced the British King, William Lyon MacKenzie Parliament to recognize the dominions as equals (1874–1950) Canadian prime minister within the British Commonwealth, which was formalized in the 1931 Statue of Westminster. The eldest son of a prominent judge, William King’s approach to the Great Depression and Lyon MacKenzie King was named for his mater- the dangers of European fascism lacked innova- nal grandfather, a reform leader of the failed tion, although he did nationalize the Bank of 1837 rebellion in Upper Canada. King earned Canada. He approved of British prime minister his undergraduate degree from the University NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN’s appeasement policy. of Toronto in 1895. He held a master’s degree He disliked the New Deal but liked Franklin from the University of Chicago and a doctorate Roosevelt, whose summer home was on Cam- in sociology and labor relations from Harvard pobello Island in New Brunswick. The two University. He began public service in 1900 as North American leaders met 18 times. King the deputy minister of the new Department of hoped to become the mediator between the Labor, where he helped to shape the Industrial United States and Britain. He trusted Franklin Disputes Investigation Act of 1907, which was Roosevelt more than Winston Churchill. designed to encourage voluntary reconciliation Treated as a junior partner by both, he failed in in labor disputes. He was one of Canada’s first that mission but joined with FDR in signing the politicians to urge recognition of labor unions. August 17, 1940, Ogdensburg, New York, King entered politics in 1908 when he won agreement declaring that the United States a seat in the House of Commons and was would come to Canada’s defense if threatened appointed minister of labor in the Liberal with aggression. They also signed the April Party government of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, his 1941 Hyde Park Declaration allowing for lifelong political hero. After the Liberal Party Canadian and American economic collabora- lost in 1911, King lost his House seat. He spent tion in defense production. the next decade developing an international King’s first steps to introduce a Canadian reputation as an industrial negotiator in several social-welfare state were not taken until after strikes in the United States. His philosophy is World War II, when he also recognized New- reflected in his book Industry and Humanity foundland as the 10th Canadian province in (1918). Upon Laurier’s death in 1919, King the Confederation. He strongly supported the became his successor as leader of the Liberal United Nations. Exhausted by his long tenure Party, which he rebuilt. in office, King resigned in November 1948 and King was first elected as prime minister in died on July 22, 1950, in Ottawa. 1921 and would hold that position longer than any other person in the history of the British Commonwealth, serving three terms: 1921–26, Knox, Frank 1926–30, and 1935–40. A bachelor, he viewed (1874–1944) publisher, Republican himself as a rebel—like his grandfather—on a vice-presidential candidate, secretary of the navy divine mission. He essentially favored caution, compromise, and consensus. His lack of phys- Born in Boston, Massachusetts, on January 1, ical stature, public speaking skills, and inter- 1874, Frank Knox was the son of an oyster 144 Krock, Arthur

dealer. After graduating from high school in in 1936; however, he ran as the vice-presiden- Grand Rapids, Michigan, he entered Alma tial candidate with ALF LANDON of Kansas. College in Alma, Michigan, in the late 1890s. The Republican ticket lost in a Democratic During the Spanish-American War, he joined electoral landslide. It was therefore ironic that the First Volunteer United States Calvary (the Knox’s first political success came during ), led by THEODORE ROOSEVELT, Democratic president Franklin Roosevelt’s who became his lifelong hero. later administration. His ties to Theodore After the war, Knox entered journalism as Roosevelt and his strong internationalist cre- a reporter. In 1902, he became publisher of a dentials led FDR to select him as the secretary small newspaper in Michigan. A decade later, of the navy at the same time that he made he became the founding publisher and owner Republican HENRY STIMSON, another inter- of New Hampshire’s leading newspaper. In edi- ventionist and former artillery officer, the sec- torials, he called for U.S. intervention in World retary of war. The Republican duo lent a War I. He subsequently enlisted as a private bipartisan cast to FDR’s unprecedented third- and became an artillery officer. In 1927, term campaign in 1940. WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST recruited Knox FDR’s selection proved to be a wise one. to become the general manager of his newspa- Knox backed the effort to provide destroyers per chain, a position he held for three years. In for Britain in 1940 and helped to pass the 1931, he became the publisher of Chicago’s Lend-Lease Act. He also presided over the financially troubled Daily News, one of the greatest expansion in U.S. naval history. An nation’s largest newspapers, and made it prof- energetic, blunt, and profane administrator, itable during the Great Depression. He cru- Knox relieved Admiral Husband E. Kimmel as saded against Prohibition-era criminals and the commander of the Pacific fleet after the corrupt Democratic political machine in December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor disaster. He Chicago. died on April 28, 1944, in Washington, D.C. Knox remained a Theodore who wanted clean and efficient government. In 1911, he had managed Roo- Krock, Arthur sevelt’s failed Midwest effort to wrest control of (1886–1974) journalist the party from the conservative Republicans, and for a brief period the next year, he was the The son of an accountant, Arthur Krock was leader of the short-lived Bull Moose Republi- born on November 16, 1886, in Glasgow, Ken- can Party. At the 1920 Republican National tucky. He entered Princeton University, but Convention he had been floor manager for financial problems forced him to drop out dur- former Rough Rider Leonard Wood’s unsuc- ing his freshman year. He obtained an associate cessful presidential bid. Knox’s string of polit- of arts degree at the Lewis Institute in Chicago ical setbacks had continued when he failed to in 1906, and the next year he began his lifelong win the Republican nomination for governor career in newspaper journalism by working for of New Hampshire in 1924. the Louisville Times. In 1910, he was sent to Knox did not support the New Deal Washington, D.C., as the paper’s capital corre- because he believed it placed too many bur- spondent. He returned to Louisville in 1915 to dens on businesses and that its social reforms become editor in chief, and four years later, he bordered on socialism. He sought, but did not covered the Versailles Peace Conference. Dur- win, the Republican presidential nomination ing the 1920 presidential campaign, Krock Krock, Arthur 145 served briefly as an aide to George White, chair- tradition of Thomas Jefferson and Woodrow man of the Democratic National Committee; Wilson, he was personally quite conservative this was his only direct political experience. and grew increasingly so during his career. As a A dispute with Louisville Times owner result, he distrusted executive power and the Robert W. Bingham, who supported Prohibi- growth of the federal government. Personal tion and women’s suffrage, led Krock to resign views notwithstanding, he developed a repu- in protest in 1923. Later that year, he moved to tation for journalistic objectivity. Ending the New York to work for the New York World for traditional practice of having only unsigned edi- four years until Adolph S. Ochs of the New torials, in 1933 Krock began a signed column, York Times picked him up in 1927 as a member “In the Nation,” for the New York Times edito- of that paper’s editorial board. Krock moved rial page. It became an innovative model for back to the nation’s capital in 1932 as the Times other newspapers. He eventually received four Washington correspondent and bureau chief, Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other journalist remaining there until he retired in 1966. in history. The first was for his coverage of the Krock was notably different in the world of New Deal in 1935 and the second was in 1937 reporters for his longevity with the Times, and after FDR granted him an exclusive interview he was an anomaly on the staff of a liberal news- and, in part, explained the rationale for the pro- paper at the time of the New Deal. Although he posed Supreme Court–packing plan. Krock considered himself a liberal Democrat in the died in Washington, D.C., on April 12, 1974. L w

La Follette, Philip Fox LA FOLLETTE, JR., to fill their father’s vacant (1897–1965) Wisconsin governor U.S. Senate seat. Philip then returned to private legal practice and teaching at the University of Born in Madison, Wisconsin, on May 8, 1897, Wisconsin Law School from 1926 to 1931. He Philip La Follette was the second son born to soon returned to the political arena, however, the well-known former governor and senator and won the Wisconsin governorship in 1930 as Robert Marion La Follette and his lawyer- a progressive Republican. journalist wife. Truly a second son, Philip La Taking office during the Great Depression, Follette was overlooked by his father, who was when unemployment was extremely high, and busy grooming his first son and namesake to saddled with a state legislature that refused to become his political successor. It was Philip, enact much of his programs, La Follette however, who ultimately shared his father’s became unpopular with voters. In 1932, he was personality, ambition, and career training. defeated for reelection by the same former After serving as an army officer during World Republican governor whom he had upset two War I, he received his undergraduate and law years before. Because the New Deal usurped degrees from the University of Wisconsin. His much of the traditional progressive Republi- progressive politics masked his enormous can philosophy, in 1934 he left the Republi- ambition and relative provincialism. cans and began the Wisconsin Progressive After joining his father’s law firm in 1922, Party. He then won back the governorship by La Follette was elected in 1924 as district attor- endorsing much of the New Deal. ney of Dane County, a position he held until Like Democratic Illinois governor HENRY 1927. Also in 1924, he participated in his father’s HORNER, La Follette began a “Little New independent Progressive Party campaign for Deal,” but the Wisconsin state legislature president, during which the senior La Follette defeated most of his major bills. Nonetheless, to received a larger proportion of the popular vote the consternation of local Democrats, FDR than any third-party candidate between turned over control of the state’s federal Works Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 and Ross Perot in Progress Administration to the governor, and 1992. After his father’s death the next year, Wisconsin received a disproportionately high Philip La Follette served as the manager for the share of federal relief funds compared to neigh- successful campaign of his brother, ROBERT M. boring states. In return, La Follette backed

146 La Follette, Robert Marion, Jr. 147

FDR’s reelection in 1936. Both president and February 6, 1895, in Madison, Wisconsin. He governor were easily reelected that year, but was reared in an overly political environment. their successful campaigns allowed both to be His crusading father, “Fighting Bob,” groomed blinded by hubris, and each stumbled politically. him as his successor even though he was less La Follette gained national attention as he ambitious and would have preferred a different pushed his “Little New Deal” through the state career. Health problems combined with a legislature, earning him a reputation as an auto- mediocre undergraduate record resulted in his crat as well as the moniker “Wild Man of Madi- dropping out of the University of Wisconsin. son,” especially after he dismissed the president He went to Washington, D.C., to serve as his of the University of Wisconsin. With national father’s primary senate assistant until the senior ambitions that discounted the possibility that La Follette died in 1925. Running as a Repub- FDR would seek a third term, and without con- lican, “Young Bob” La Follette won the special sulting others, La Follette launched the so-called election to fill his father’s seat, becoming the National Progressives of America Party in 1938. youngest senator since Henry Clay, just as his Its symbol was a cross in a circle, which struck father had been the youngest House member critics as being uncomfortably similar to Nazi when he first entered Congress in 1885. The Germany’s swastika. La Follette blamed FDR young senator married Rachael Young in 1930, for the Great Depression and moved left of the and they had two sons. New Deal. He lost his bid for a fourth term as La Follette championed his father’s causes governor during the 1938 national Republican and moved beyond him in advocating bold resurgence, ending his political career. action to deal with the Great Depression as he Though FDR had hoped that La Follette became one of the Senate’s most liberal mem- would return to support him, La Follette bers. Though he played a significant role in instead moved to the political right in defeat. formulating and passing New Deal economic He joined the America First Committee in measures, he also became a major administra- 1939, becoming a prominent isolationist until tion critic who found FDR too cautious. In the Pearl Harbor attack. In 1942, he reentered 1934, he reluctantly followed his younger the army, serving on the staff of General DOU- brother, PHILIP LA FOLLETTE, in bolting the GLAS MACARTHUR in the Pacific. In 1944, La Republican Party and founding the Wisconsin Follette participated in the failed effort to gain Progressive Party, and he won reelection on the Republican presidential nomination for the third-party ticket that same year. For the MacArthur, which he tried again in 1948, also rest of the 1930s, Robert La Follette served as without success. He supported DWIGHT the subcommittee chairman to the Senate EISENHOWER in 1952. La Follette died on Committee on Education and Labor, popularly August 18, 1965, in Madison. known as the La Follette Civil Liberties Com- mittee, which investigated management viola- tions of labor rights. Though this work La Follette, Robert Marion, Jr. enhanced his reputation as a hero of organized (Young Bob) labor, he disliked the New Deal’s emphasis on (1895–1953) U.S. senator catering to well-organized interest groups. Reminiscent of his father’s opposition to Amer- The older of two sons of Senator Robert M. La ican entry into World War I, La Follette Follette (R-Wis.) and his lawyer-journalist opposed U.S. entry into World War II until wife, Robert M. La Follette, Jr., was born on the Pearl Harbor attack of December 1941. 148 La Guardia, Fiorello Henry

The elder La Follette’s flamboyant behav- gressmen to serve in World War I. After he ior had alienated his Senate colleagues, but the returned from the war in Europe, he became junior La Follette’s work ethic and respect for the successor to AL SMITH as president of the the legislative process generated bipartisan Board of Aldermen of New York City. He admiration. Also unlike his father, “Young served in 1920–21, with the hope of running Bob” showed little interest in political leader- for mayor. In 1921, though, he suffered an ship outside the halls of Congress and hated to electoral loss in the Republican primary for campaign. In 1946, the Wisconsin Progressive mayor that was overshadowed by his personal Party disbanded, and he rejoined the GOP. losses—the deaths of his daughter and wife Waging only a token reelection campaign that from tuberculosis. year, he narrowly lost the Republican primary With the help of newspaper magnate to Joseph R. McCarthy. Although he had been WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST, La Guardia was trapped in a career pursued only out of loyalty reelected to Congress, this time representing to his father, he found private life even more East Harlem. He served from 1922 to 1933, frustrating without a meaningful second career. fighting for the rights of labor and cosponsor- He died from a self-inflicted gunshot wound ing with Senator GEORGE W. NORRIS (R- on February 24, 1953. Nebr.) the 1932 Norris-La Guardia Act, which prevented antilabor injunctions. He ran unsuc- cessfully for New York City mayor again in La Guardia, Fiorello Henry 1929, losing to Tammany Hall candidate (1882–1947) New York City mayor Jimmy Walker. La Guardia finally achieved his goal in his third attempt by winning the may- Born on December 11, 1882, in New York City oral election in 1933 and being reelected in to immigrant parents from southern Italy and 1937 and 1941. He became the first New York Trieste, Fiorello (“Little Flower”) La Guardia City mayor to serve three consecutive terms. experienced frequent moves during childhood Never very loyal to a political party, he was because his father was a bandmaster in the U.S. elected on more than four party tickets during Army. In 1898, his father fell ill, probably due to contaminated “embalmed beef” sold to the army by corrupt contractors. He left the army and moved his family back to Europe, where he died six years later. Subsequently, La Guardia’s mother was denied a military widow’s pension, which instilled a lifelong hatred of corruption and bureaucrats in her firstborn son. Returning to the United States, La Guardia went to law school at New York Uni- versity, following which he began practicing law and became involved in progressive Republican politics. He lost his first congres- sional bid in 1914, but he won the seat from lower Manhattan in the next election, becom- ing the first Italian ever elected to Congress. In President Roosevelt (seated) with Mayor Fiorello 1917, he resigned to become one of five con- La Guardia (Library of Congress) Landis, James McCauley 149 the course of his entire political career. He was Landis, James McCauley always in the minority. (1899–1964) federal lawyer, Securities and During the 1930s, La Guardia enjoyed a Exchange Commission chairman, Office of the larger-than-life reputation, despite his 5’2” Civilian Defense director stature, as the nation’s most dynamic, popu- lar, and incorruptible mayor. From 1936 to Born on September 25, 1899, in Tokyo, Japan, 1945, he also served as president of the to Presbyterian missionary teachers, James United States Conference of Mayors, in Landis attended Tokyo Foreign School before which role he pursued a national urban coali- arriving in the United States for the first time tion and federal assistance for cities. He in 1912 to complete his education. He entered developed close links with FDR, Secretary of Princeton University in 1916 and graduated in the Interior HAROLD ICKES, and FDR special 1921. He then entered Harvard Law School, assistant HARRY HOPKINS, obtaining an graduating in 1924. While there, he was a stu- increased and disproportionate share of fed- dent of FELIX FRANKFURTER, who arranged eral funds to finance his many initiatives to for him to clerk with Supreme Court justice rebuild the city. These included replacing LOUIS BRANDEIS in 1925–26. Landis was influ- tenements with public housing projects; enced by Brandeis’s wary views about concen- building bridges, tunnels, parkways, libraries, trated economic power and belief in market schools, the nation’s first airport, and the first competition. While conducting research for sewerage system; putting the subway under Brandeis’s dissent in Myers v. United States, city ownership; and creating parks, play- Landis discovered the legal field of federal reg- grounds, and zoos. ulation, which became his focus. He returned A tireless and a colorful public figure, La to Harvard the next year to join the law faculty Guardia broadcast a weekly Sunday radio talk and coauthored The Business of the Supreme show that was the equivalent of FDR’s occa- Court (1927) with Frankfurter. sional “fireside chat.” It is perhaps best After FDR was elected president, both remembered for his dramatic reading of Frankfurter and Landis arrived in the nation’s comic strips during a newspaper delivery capital to work on the Roosevelt administra- strike. His aggressiveness led to excesses in tion’s securities legislation. Landis, fellow abusing bureaucrats and civil liberties as well lawyers BENJAMIN COHEN and THOMAS COR- as an exaggerated sense of self-importance. CORAN, and Congressman SAM RAYBURN (D- During spring 1941, FDR appointed La Tex.) drafted the Securities Act of 1933. That Guardia as director of the Office of Civilian same year, FDR appointed Landis to the Fed- Defense, with quasi-cabinet rank, while he eral Trade Commission, which was designed retained his mayorship. Yet like Theodore to provide the first governmental regulation Roosevelt, whom he resembled in many ways over the sale of corporate stocks. The three despite their disparate backgrounds, La “Happy Hotdogs,” as the press dubbed Frank- Guardia desperately wanted an appointment furter’s former students, and Congressman to a military position during World War II. Rayburn repeated their performance in draft- When FDR failed to act, LaGuardia consid- ing the Securities and Exchange Act of 1934. ered it to be his life’s greatest disappointment. FDR then named Landis, FERDINAND PEC- Still, historians consider La Guardia to be the ORA, and JOSEPH P. KENNEDY to the New greatest mayor in American history. He died Securities and Exchange Commission. Landis on September 20, 1947, in the Bronx. succeeded Kennedy as chairman in 1935, and 150 Landon, Alf

he aimed for a pragmatic middle ground business by his interest in politics, which had between federal regulation of industry and been promoted by his politically active father. finance and outright governmental ownership. Father and son worked for THEODORE In 1937, Landis returned to Harvard as dean of ROOSEVELT’s unsuccessful 1912 presidential the law school, the youngest in its history. He bid. Alf Landon became Roosevelt’s Progres- supported FDR’s Supreme Court–packing plan. sive Party chairman in 1914 but returned to Landis’s lifelong struggle to live up to the the Republic Party in 1916. He became secre- expectations of his parents and others began to tary to the Republican governor of Kansas in take its toll on his personal life. His 10-year 1922, and two years later he became a key marriage began to fail, and he increasingly leader in the independent gubernatorial cam- turned to alcohol over the next decade. In paign of journalist William Allen White early 1942, he succeeded FIORELLO LA against the Ku Klux Klan. In 1928, he orga- GUARDIA as the director of the Office of Civil- nized the successful campaign to elect a mod- ian Defense. His public legacy was under- erate Republican governor and was chosen to mined during the postwar era when his become chairman of the Republican state alcoholism led to income-tax evasion, a brief committee. In 1930, conservative Republicans imprisonment, and disbarment. Nonetheless, ousted both the governor and Landon from he served as a special assistant to President their positions. John F. Kennedy. He accidentally drowned on Despite this, Landon’s moderation and July 30, 1964, in the pool at his home in Har- willingness to work with a broad political spec- rison, New York. trum allowed him to stage a comeback the next year, and in 1932 he became the Republican candidate for governor with the goal of uniting Landon, Alf the divided party. In a three-candidate race, (Alfred Mossman Landon) Landon won with a scant 34.8 percent plural- (1887–1987) Kansas governor, Republican ity. He championed governmental economy presidential candidate and efficiency while demonstrating his ability to work with Democrats to maintain a balanced Alf Landon was born on September 9, 1887, in budget. His shrewd dealings with Secretary of West Middlesex, Pennsylvania, the son of an the Interior HAROLD ICKES allowed the state to oil and natural gas businessman; his mother receive a disproportionate share of New Deal was the daughter of a minister. He grew up in funds in the Midwest. Marietta, Ohio, until 1904, when his family Landon became the only Republican gov- moved to Independence, Kansas. Although he ernor to win reelection in 1934. Always occu- obtained his law degree from the University of pying the golden-mean, middle-of-the-road Kansas, he never practiced law. He worked as a position between Republican conservatives and banker for three years and then began a liberals, he won the presidential bid at the June career—interrupted by brief service as an army 1936 national convention, a selection that officer during World War I—as an indepen- marked the ascendancy of younger westerners dent oil driller. When he returned to oil pro- in the Republican Party. Chicago publisher duction after World War I, he diversified his FRANK KNOX, who had also sought the nomi- business interests. Landon demonstrated sound nation, was chosen as the vice-presidential can- business acumen, but he never became wealthy, didate. Although the Republican Party in large part because he was distracted from remained divided, Landon was able to obtain Lange, Dorothea 151 the backing of former Democratic presidential during the bicentennial year of the U.S. Con- nominees John W. Davis and AL SMITH.Once stitution. His longevity was the only extreme in again, he tried to practice moderation during his otherwise moderate life. the campaign with denunciations of racial prej- udice and religious bigotry. Republicans spent $14 million on Landon’s candidacy, the most Lange, Dorothea ever spent in American history up to that time. (Dorothea Margaretta Nutzhorn) Conservative Republicans pushed him further (1895–1965) photographer right during the campaign, though neither Landon nor Democratic torchbearer Franklin Dorothea Lange, the premier photographer of Roosevelt turned their heated campaigns into the New Deal, portrayed the grim reality of personal vendettas. Lacking FDR’s oratory the Great Depression in her work just as skills, patronage, organization, name recogni- Franklin Roosevelt, the premier politician of tion, and platform, Landon was buried in the the New Deal, instituted programs that would Democratic landslide that gave FDR every improve life and restore hope to Americans. state except two. The election also reduced Born Dorothea Margaretta Nutzhorn on May Republicans to a mere 89 seats in the U.S. 25, 1895, in Hoboken, New Jersey, Lange was House of Representatives and 16 in the U.S. the daughter of a lawyer who abandoned the Senate. Landon and FDR remained cordial family when she was about 12 years old. Her after the election. mother worked first as a librarian to support Landon chose not to seek public office the family and then became a social worker in again, although he remained an active head of New York City, where Dorothea spent her girl- the Republican Party until 1940. He received hood and was educated. A bout with polio left credit for the Republican resurgence in the 1938 her with a lifelong limp and sensitivity to out- elections, including the defeat of an anti-Semitic siders. Deciding to become a photographer at Republican senatorial nomination. He also age 18, she served a series of apprenticeships became the only major-party politician to defend and briefly attended the Clarence White the right of Socialist Party leader NORMAN School of Photography. THOMAS to speak after Mayor FRANK HAGUE’s In 1918, Lange moved to California, Jersey City machine blocked him from doing so where she married western artist Maynard there. That same year, FDR named Landon vice Dixon; the marriage lasted 15 years. The chairman of the U.S. delegation to the Inter- Great Depression changed Lange’s life. She American Conference in Lima, Peru. Picking up believed that photographs were better than on political scientist Harold Lasswell’s warning written or spoken words to capture the tragedy about the danger of the United States becoming that resulted from the Great Depression. Her a garrison state, Landon became a loyal Repub- work was viewed by Paul Schuster Taylor, a lican critic during World War II. professor of agricultural economics at the Uni- A politician educated in the law, Alf Lan- versity of California at Berkeley and begin- don was born during the centennial of the U.S. ning in 1934 an employee of FDR’s State Constitution and help to uphold its democratic Emergency Relief Administration (SERA). values. He had the satisfaction of seeing his Their relationship ultimately resulted in mar- similarly moderate Republican daughter, riage in 1935, the same year he hired her at Nancy Landon Kassebaum, elected to the U.S. SERA. Together they documented a pea har- Senate in 1978. He died in Topeka, Kansas, vest in Nipomo, California, and brought 152 Leahy, William Daniel

During World War II, Lange pho- tographed the internment of Japanese Ameri- cans, but the War Relocation Authority purposely prevented release of the images for fear that her photographs would elicit a sym- pathetic backlash. The State Department recruited her to record the founding of the United Nations Charter in 1945. Lange was one of the founders of Aperture, a photography magazine, but ill health then forced her into an early retirement. Lange died from cancer on October 11, 1965, in Berkeley.

Leahy, William Daniel (1875–1959) naval officer; Puerto Rico governor; ambassador to Vichy, France; chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff; presidential chief of staff

Born in Hampton, Iowa, William Leahy was the son of a lawyer and politician who moved his family to Wisconsin in 1882. Leahy entered the U.S. Naval Academy in 1893. He gradu- ated in the lower third of his class in 1897 and then served in the Spanish-American War, the This classic photograph, “Migrant Mother, Nipuma, Boxer Rebellion intervention in China, and California” (1936), was taken by Dorothea Lange for several interventions in Latin America. His the Resettlement Administration. (Library of introduction to Franklin Roosevelt came dur- Congress) ing the Woodrow Wilson administration while he was an aide to Secretary of the Navy Jose- national attention to the plight of immigrant phus Daniel and FDR was assistant secretary. families, which eventually led to the first fed- Leahy obtained his first battleship command in eral camps with sanitary facilities for farm 1926, and in 1933 FDR appointed him chief of workers. From 1936 to 1938, Lange and Tay- the Bureau of Navigation, which permitted lor documented how farm mechanization and him the opportunity to advance the careers of bad weather drove farmers from the South and fellow battleship officers. Four years later, the Midwest to California. As a result, Congress president named him chief of naval operations, enlarged the Resettlement Administration in and he served in that position until he reached 1937 into the enlarged Farm Security Admin- mandatory retirement age in 1939. istration, which commissioned more photog- In 1940, Leahy was appointed governor of raphers to use Lange’s and Taylor’s approach. Puerto Rico, and later that year, FDR asked In all of her New Deal photographs, Lange him to become ambassador to Vichy, France. considered families as a metaphor for the Leahy held the ambassadorship until May 1942. larger community in crisis. His most important posts came through his Lehman, Herbert Henry 153 next assignment as chairman of the newly cre- sonal secretary and accompanied him to Warm ated Joint Chiefs of Staff and FDR’s personal Springs, Georgia, instead of ELEANOR ROO- chief of staff. In those positions, he helped to SEVELT, who disliked the racial segregation in moderate tensions between the army and navy, the South. LeHand also accompanied FDR and generally supported GEORGE C. MAR- during cruises on his houseboat, Larooco, which SHALL, the army chief of staff. For example, he Eleanor preferred to avoid. backed Marshall’s plan for an early cross-channel After FDR’s election to the governorship invasion of France and then DOUGLAS of New York in 1928, LeHand moved into the MACARTHUR’s plan to retake the Philippines. executive mansion at Albany. In addition to Leahy also served on the British-American supervising the household, she paid the bills as Combined Chiefs of Staff. He participated in a de facto bookkeeper, occasionally presided as the 1943 Tehran and 1945 Yalta conferences. official hostess at dinner parties, played poker Both FDR and Marshall valued his indepen- with FDR, and helped him sort stamps in his dent advice. In 1944, he became the first naval philatelic collection. Her employment at the officer to be awarded a fifth star with the rank governor’s mansion freed Eleanor Roosevelt to of fleet admiral. Leahy’s final retirement, in teach part-time at the Todd Hunter School in March 1949, was forced by poor health. New York City. Nonetheless, he was able to complete a memoir After FDR’s election to the presidency, of his wartime service. He died on July 20, LeHand moved into a room in the White 1959, in Bethesda, Maryland. House and prepared his daily appointments. A member of his inner circle, she joined FDR for cocktail hours, which the First Lady eschewed. LeHand, Missy LeHand often arranged dinner parties and (Marguerite Alice LeHand) other social gatherings for FDR, including the (1898–1944) private secretary of the president selection of guests, with the result that those who wanted presidential access cultivated her. Officially, Missy LeHand was the private sec- LeHand suffered a major stroke in the retary to President Franklin Roosevelt, but she early summer of 1941 and received treatment was also his unofficial hostess. She had served at Warm Springs, but she remained an invalid. as the ’s housekeeper, and the FDR saw to it that her medical bills were cov- Roosevelt children had bestowed her nickname ered, and he provided in his will for her care. on her. Unmarried, she was a loyal family She died on July 31, 1944, at her sister’s home. employee, and readily provided the social com- panionship that the only-child FDR craved throughout adulthood. Lehman, Herbert Henry Born on September 13, 1898, in Potsdam, (1878–1963) New York governor; head, Office of New York, LeHand suffered childhood Foreign Relief and Rehabilitation Operations; rheumatic fever. After she graduated in 1917 director general, United Nations Relief and from Somerville High School in Mas- Rehabilitation Administration sachusetts, she went to secretarial school. She worked at the national Democratic Party The son of prosperous German Jewish immi- headquarters and on FDR’s unsuccessful 1920 grants, Herbert Lehman was born on March vice-presidential campaign. After he contracted 28, 1878, in New York City. He was well edu- polio the next year, LeHand became his per- cated, earning his undergraduate degree from 154 Lemke, William Frederick

Williams College in 1899. He soon joined the 1946 he lost a bid for the U.S. Senate, the only investment banking firm of Lehman Broth- election loss of his career. In 1949, he was ers, which his father had helped to found. As appointed to the senate seat vacated by soon as his business success was secured, he ROBERT WAGNER, and then the next year he turned to philanthropic and government ser- defeated John Foster Dulles for a full six-year vice. During World War I, he served as a mil- term. He remained in the senate until 1957, itary officer with the General Staff Corps in when he retired from politics. Lehman died Washington, D.C. on December 5, 1963, in New York City. Governor AL SMITH brought Lehman directly into the political arena after they met in 1922. Lehman served in Smith’s political Lemke, William Frederick campaigns for half a dozen years, and in 1928, (1878–1950) U.S. congressman, third-party Smith backed Lehman for lieutenant governor presidential candidate and Franklin Roosevelt for governor. When FDR ran for the presidency in 1932, Lehman William Lemke was born in Albany, Min- ran for New York governor and was elected in nesota, on August 13, 1878, to prosperous pio- a record landslide. Reelected in 1934, 1936, neer farmers and raised in Towner County, and 1938, he became New York’s longest-serv- North Dakota. He graduated from the Uni- ing governor. versity of North Dakota in 1902 and remained Lehman was humorless, colorless, and a there to complete his first year of law school poor speaker, traits that seemed to work to his before transferring to Georgetown University advantage as a nonpartisan leader concerned and later to Yale University, where he com- not with himself but with the welfare of the pleted his law degree. He entered law practice state and its less-well-off citizens. As governor, in Fargo, North Dakota. he lobbied the legislature successfully to enact An idealist and champion of farmers, the “Little New Deal” of relief and reform Lemke purchased land in Mexico to establish measures between 1933 and 1938 that resem- a socialist utopia, but he was left with failed bled FDR’s New Deal. He was respected for plans and financial catastrophe by the Mexican his character and leadership. Revolution (1910). He became associated with During World War II, Lehman accepted North Dakota’s major farm groups, until he FDR’s offer to head the Office of Foreign became a leader of the small-farm Nonparti- Relief and Rehabilitation Operations, created san League, which a group of discontented in late 1942 within the U.S. Department of farmers had started in 1915. The league State to assist liberated nations during the war gained control of the state’s Republican Party until international efforts were available. In the next year, and Lemke became party chair- late 1943, 44 nations established the United man. In 1920, he was elected the state attorney Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administra- general, but as a result of a banking scandal, he tion (UNRAA), and its council elected was defeated along with the governor in a Lehman director general. (This was the role recall election the following year. He lost bids that the Roosevelts had hoped HERBERT for the governorship in 1922 and the U.S. HOOVER would assume, but he refused.) The Senate in 1926. UNRAA provided relief to 16 nations. After returning to his law practice, Lemke Lehman resigned from the position in early reentered the political arena in 1932 with his 1946 and soon reentered electoral politics. In election to the U.S. House of Representatives. Lewis, John Llewellyn 155

He promoted bankruptcy and mortgage legis- lost the race for the mayorship of Lucas, Iowa. lation to help desperate farmers and small-busi- Shortly afterward, the entire Lewis family ness owners. Initially he was a strong supporter moved to the new coal-mining town of of Franklin Roosevelt but turned against the Panama in south-central Illinois. By 1910, president when the administration opposed the Lewis had been elected as president of the Frazier-Lemke Farm Bankruptcy Act of 1934, union local, one of the largest in the area. The which was subsequently struck down by the next year, he became a field representative for Supreme Court. It was reenacted in revised the American Federation of Labor (AFL), form in 1935 to liberalize bankruptcy proceed- which allowed him to travel across the coun- ings for debt-ridden farmers. After FDR try. Six years later, he became vice president of rejected the Frazier-Lemke Farm Refinance the UMWA, and by 1920 he was its president. Bill, Lemke turned to radical fringe leaders The UMWA was the largest union in the offering similar inflationary panaceas for the AFL, and he held the presidency until he Great Depression, including Father CHARLES retired 40 years later. COUGHLIN,Dr. FRANCIS TOWNSEND, and Lewis remained in power partly through GERALD SMITH.He reluctantly agreed to be ruthless suppression of his opponents, consol- the presidential candidate in 1936 for their new idating power in his own hands. He was a life- Union Party. long Republican who found the New Deal However, the short, bald, heavy set Lemke, useful to his ambitious agenda. He successfully whose face was covered with freckles and pock- marks from childhood smallpox and who had lost an eye in a childhood accident, was hardly an attractive, charismatic leader. His limita- tions as a public speaker made him an ineffec- tive voice for the angry dispossessed. He diverted less than 2 percent of the vote from the FDR landslide. In 1940, he was again defeated in a second close race for the U.S. Senate, but he returned to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1942 and served there until his death on May 30, 1950, in Fargo.

Lewis, John Llewellyn (1880–1969) national union leader

John L. Lewis was born in 1880 in Cleveland, Ohio, to immigrant Welsh parents who sub- sequently moved to Iowa. There Lewis dropped out of high school to follow his father into the coal mines. In 1901, he became a charter member of the local United Mine Workers of America (UMWA). His 1907 attempt at elective public office failed when he John L. Lewis (left) (Library of Congress) 156 Lewis, Sinclair lobbied for the right to organize and bargain Lewis, Sinclair collectively that was recognized in the National (1885–1951) novelist Industrial Recovery Act of 1933. By 1935, his desire to organize mass-production workers The son of a physician father and a mother into an overall industrial union, contrary to the who was a former teacher, Sinclair Lewis was AFL’s preference for separate craft unions, had born on February 5, 1885, in Sauk Centre, caused a split. His supporters included SIDNEY Minnesota. He received his undergraduate HILLMAN, president of the Amalgamated degree from Yale University in 1908 and began Clothing Workers (ACWA). The Committee working as a journalist. Between 1912 to 1920, for Industrial Organization (CIO) emerged he began his prolific fiction career, writing a from this effort and came to dominate Ameri- children’s book, novels, and short stories dur- can labor during the next five years. ing that period. Known for his trademark eyebrows and Lewis peaked as a writer in the 1920s with bellowing voice, Lewis established unions in five best-selling novels. The first, Main Street the automobile, steel, rubber, and appliance (1920), was an exposé of small-minded, small- industries. In 1936, he helped to create labor’s town life in the Midwest; the second, Babbitt Non-Partisan League, which contributed (1922), exposed the sham life of a businessman; more than half a million dollars in UMWA- the third, Arrowsmith (1925), was a critique of CIO funds to Roosevelt’s reelection cam- the medical profession; the fourth, Elmer paign. In late 1938, the CIO was renamed the Gantry (1927), attacked the hypocrisy of a trav- Congress of Industrial Organizations, for- eling evangelist; and the fifth, Dodsworth mally splitting from the AFL. While Hillman (1929), brought his work full circle by dealing and others hoped to reconcile with the AFL with another businessman who finds himself. and remained New Dealers, Lewis soon split The first two of these novels were runners-up with FDR also. Perhaps partly due to his for the Pulitzer Prize, and when his next novel, Welsh background, Lewis feared being drawn Arrowsmith, received the award, Lewis refused into World War II because of the British, and the prize. In 1930, he became the first Ameri- as a result he supported Republican presiden- can to win the Nobel Prize in literature. tial candidate WENDELL WILLKIE in 1940. Lewis’s best-known novel of the Great Two years later, Lewis pulled the UMWA out Depression era, It Can’t Happen Here (1935), of the CIO. Though he endorsed the war was his commentary on the rise of a fascist effort after the December 1941 Pearl Harbor leader in the United States. The inspirations attack and organized labor’s No Strike for these books were ADOLF HITLER’s takeover Pledge, Lewis nonetheless led a series of of Germany’s first democratic government strikes in 1943. FDR ordered strikers back (the Weimar Republic) and the emergence of to work. Near universal condemnation of Louisiana’s HUEY LONG with his Share Our the strike led Congress to enact the Smith- Wealth movement. Franklin Roosevelt con- Connally Act of 1943, which subjected unions sidered Long to be one of the two greatest to stricter regulation. threats to American democracy; General DOU- By the time Lewis retired as UMWA pres- GLAS MACARTHUR was the other. It Can’t Hap- ident on January 1, 1960, the union was cor- pen Here depicts a newspaper editor’s struggle rupt, in large part because of his authoritarian against a charismatic fascist leader and his personality. He died on June 11, 1969, in American fascist supporters. The novel was Washington, D.C. adapted into a play that in 1935 was staged Lilienthal, David Eli 157

to Europe. Always an outsider, he died in Rome, Italy, on January 10, 1951.

Lilienthal, David Eli (1899–1981) Tennessee Valley Authority executive

Born in Morton, Illinois, on July 8, 1899, David Lilienthal was the son of a Czech immi- grant merchants. He became a light-heavy- weight boxer at De Pauw University in Greencastle, Indiana, where he received his undergraduate degree in 1920. That fall he entered Harvard Law School, where he encountered FELIX FRANKFURTER, who influ- enced his interest in natural resources conser- vation. Ultimately, he would become one of the Roosevelt administration’s “Happy Hot- dogs,” as the press dubbed Frankfurter’s former pupils whom he placed in government service. First, however, after graduation from Harvard in 1923, Lilienthal practiced law in Chicago with DONALD RICHBERG.His handling of a telephone rate case before the Supreme Court impressed liberals, including Wisconsin gov- ernor PHILIP LA FOLETTE, who appointed Lilienthal to the Wisconsin State Utility Poster for the theatrical staging of Sinclair Lewis’s Commission in 1931. It Can’t Happen Here (1935) (Library of Congress) In 1933, as a result of Frankfurter’s rec- ommendation, FDR appointed Lilienthal as a director of the new Tennessee Valley Author- simultaneously in 18 cities across the United ity (TVA), the Depression-era project to States by the Federal Theater Project of the improve living standards in a neglected region Works Progress Administration. Lewis him- through flood control and inexpensive electric self played the lead role of Doremus Jessup in power. Government workers cleared 175,000 the New York City production. Metro-Gold- acres of land and built more than 20 dams on wyn-Mayer (MGM) bought film rights to the the Tennessee River. FDR appointed three novel but later dropped the project. Conser- directors to the TVA, and its first chairman vatives cited this play among the productions was ARTHUR MORGAN, an engineer in charge that they considered evidence of leftist and of dam construction. HARCOURT MORGAN communist control of the Federal Theatre was the director in charge of fertilizer produc- Project. tion, and Lilienthal was in charge of electric Lewis continued to churn out novels, but power. The philosophies of Morgan and he also began to drink heavily and finally fled Lilienthal clashed. Morgan preferred national 158 Lindbergh, Charles Augustus

economic planning through business-govern- Lindbergh, Charles Augustus ment cooperation, so he wanted to maintain (1902–1974) aviator close ties with the existing utilities companies. Lilienthal was more influenced by Supreme Born on February 4, 1902, in Detroit, Michi- Court justice LOUIS BRANDEIS’s suspicion of gan, Charles Lindbergh was the son of a pro- concentrated economic power, especially in gressive Republican lawyer-congressman the utility empire, so he advocated power father and science-teacher mother. From an offered at a cheaper rate to area municipalities. early age he wanted to fly airplanes, but he was The conflict escalated, and FDR fired Arthur too young during World War I to become a Morgan and replaced him with Harcourt pilot. He enrolled in engineering at the Uni- Morgan as TVA chairman in 1938. Part of the versity of Wisconsin but dropped out his sec- conflict was due to the underlying change in ond year to become an airline pilot. He the New Deal from national planning to favor- purchased his first plane in 1923, enlisted in the ing more antitrust legislation and greater eco- Army Air Service, and then became a captain in nomic competition. the Missouri National Guard. He persuaded a Lilienthal’s second political round was with St. Louis businessman to finance an airplane so WENDELL WILLKIE, who at the time was pres- that he could compete for a $25,000 prize ident of the huge Commonwealth and South- offered to the first person to fly nonstop from ern Corporation, the major public utility in the New York to Paris. He claimed the prize in Tennessee Valley. Willkie claimed the TVA late May 1927, after a 33 1/2-hour flight. Gar- would force his utility out of business through nering international celebrity status, he was unfair competition. Despite harsh Republican awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. criticism in Congress, Lilienthal survived. The Two years later, Lindbergh married Anne TVA simply bought the Commonwealth and Spencer Morrow, daughter of the U.S. ambas- Southern Corporation in 1939, and Lilienthal sador to Mexico, and they eventually had six was named vice chairman of the TVA; he was children. They also found that the publicity named chairman on September 15, 1941. The showered on them prevented a normal exis- TVA continued to expand during World War tence. In 1932, their first child, Charles Jr., was II by producing ammunition and other war- kidnapped and murdered. The subsequent trial related material for the government. At the end and execution of Bruno Richard Hauptmann of the war, it was the leading producer of elec- kept the Lindberghs in the public spotlight. As tric power in the nation. a result, they retreated to Europe in 1935. Lilienthal prospered during HARRY TRU- While there, they toured the German air MAN’s presidency. He and Secretary of State industry, and Lindbergh was decorated by the DEAN ACHESON developed the plan for the Nazi regime. While he advocated avoidance of Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to provide war, he urged Britain, France, and the United civilian control of the army’s large atomic- States to increase military aviation preparation. energy programs. Truman named Lilienthal the The Lindberghs returned home in spring first chairman of the AEC, and in April 1947 the 1939. Acting on a request from General Senate finally confirmed him after three months HENRY ARNOLD, the Army Air Corps chief, of hearings, during which he was unjustly Lindbergh assisted in promoting American air accused of being a communist sympathizer. He preparations. resigned from the AEC in 1950. Lilienthal died Along with isolationist senator GERALD on January 14, 1981, in New York City. NYE (R-N.Dak.) and General Robert Wood, Lippmann, Walter 159

Lindbergh formed the America First Commit- York, to work for the new socialist mayor there. tee in April 1941, becoming its leading cru- That summer he wrote A Preface to Politics, the sader for nonintervention in World War II. He first of his nearly two dozen books, combining also resigned his commission in the Air Corps ideas from William James, Sigmund Freud, Reserve. After the Pearl Harbor attack on and Henri-Louis Bergson. His book caught the December 7 later that year, the America First attention of THEODORE ROOSEVELT, Lipp- Committee dissolved and he volunteered for mann’s political idol, as well as Roosevelt’s the Army Air Force but was prevented from friend, Herbert Croly, who was launching the regaining his military commission. Nonethe- weekly magazine New Progressive to promote less, he assisted the war effort as a civilian by TR’s “New Nationalism.” Croly made Lipp- testing military aircraft. He never apologized mann its first editor of the publication that or retracted his prewar views. debuted in late 1914. During the postwar period, President That same year, the persistently energetic DWIGHT EISENHOWER restored Lindbergh’s Lippmann published his second book, Drift commission in the Air Force Reserve and pro- and Mastery, in which he terminated his links to moted him to brigadier general. His autobiog- socialists and instead advocated a scientifically raphy The Spirit of St. Louis (1953) won a managed society run by a public-minded elite. Pulitzer Prize. Lindbergh secretly sired a big- It was an elitist philosophy that he retained for amous family in Germany. He died on August the rest of his life. Like many intellectuals of 26, 1974. the time, Lippmann favored America’s inter- vention in World War I, and he forged close ties with Colonel Edward House and the Lippmann, Walter Woodrow Wilson administration. But by the (1889–1974) journalist end of the war and the peace process, he had grown disillusioned. Born on September 23, 1889, into a prosperous During the 1920s, Lippman left the mag- Jewish family, Walter Lippmann attended pri- azine world and became a syndicated newspa- vate schools, including Harvard. There he was per columnist, a career that lasted 36 years. His influenced by the pragmatist philosophy of “Today and Tomorrow” column appeared in William James, the detachment of George more than 250 newspapers in the United States Santayana, and the British socialist Graham and 25 nations around the world. He became Wallas. Since the New Deal was essentially an an international figure who tried to interpret ad hoc experiment rather than a grand the meaning of the news for his readers from blueprint for an ideal society, some suggest that his elitist perch. Although he was the nation’s William James had also influenced Franklin first serious political columnist and an elegant Roosevelt, who was a student at Harvard seven writer, he could be inconsistent and commit years before Lippmann. occasional blunders. His most famous was his Lippmann left Harvard shortly before he 1932 comment about Franklin Roosevelt’s would have received his master’s degree in presidential bid: “He is a pleasant man who, 1910. He started work as a reporter for a without any important qualifications for the socialist newspaper in Boston, and seven years office, would like very much to be President.” later, he became the assistant to Lincoln Stef- It was a view shared by other intellectuals of fens, one of the nation’s first muckrakers. In the day, including HEYWOOD BROUN, 1912, Lippmann moved to Schenectady, New Edmund Wilson, and BERNARD BARUCH. 160 Long, Huey Pierce

Lippmann supported the New Deal for its A political pied piper luring the vulnerable with first two years and was one of the first Ameri- promises of shared wealth, Long would later cans to champion the economic approach of attempt to turn the plight of the millions of JOHN MAYNARD KEYNES.He never feared that Great Depression victims into his stepping- FDR would become a dictator, but he disliked stone to the U.S. presidency. Unlike other what he viewed as the president’s “devious southern demagogues of the era, his appeal was methods,” which he feared would provoke a more to class than to race. backlash harmful to progressive reform. He Born on August 30, 1893, in Winn Parish especially objected to how FDR handled his tax (county), Louisiana, to a relatively prosperous bill in 1933 and the Court-packing plan of 1937. farm couple, Huey Long was always a man After his divorce and remarriage, Lipp- with the gift of gab who was in a hurry. Draw- mann moved to Washington, D.C., in 1938. ing on high-school debate skills and a brief During World War II, he became a realist in law-school training, he became a lawyer with- international relations, always believing that it out a degree, starting his law practice in 1915. was best to negotiate from strength. His heroes Long only wanted a law background to open in international affairs were CHARLES DE the doors to politics for him. Within three GAULLE and WINSTON CHURCHILL.He basi- years, he had won election to the Louisiana cally agreed with FDR’s goals, but the New Railroad Commission, forerunner of the Pub- Deal’s inconsistency bothered him. However, lic Service Commission, and he held that posi- he was conveniently able to ignore not only his own inconsistent views but also that he and FDR both were essentially the kind of prag- matists who would have drawn approval from William James. Lippmann died in New York City on December 14, 1974.

Long, Huey Pierce (The Kingfish) (1893–1935) Louisiana governor, U.S. senator

Even before the oppressive Great Depression, white farmers and others in Louisiana had struggled against similar economic conditions that resulted from the stranglehold on state politics by a conservative white oligarchy in alliance with large corporations. Fueled by political ambition, the charismatic Huey Long emerged from the piney woods of rural central Louisiana riding populist sentiments that pro- pelled him first to the governor’s seat and then to the U.S. Senate. Louisiana’s impoverished environment created the climate in which Long’s demagoguery took root and flourished. Huey Pierce Long (Library of Congress) Long, Huey Pierce 161 tion for eight years. In 1924, he was defeated in paign to return Arkansas senator HATTIE the governor’s election, but he won it in 1928, WYATT CARAWAY to her seat. Long did most of with his greatest support coming from voters in the talking, not only to show his strength poor rural parishes. beyond his home-state boundaries but also to As governor, Long put thousands of citi- assist a progressive ally and to embarrass the zens to work. “The Kingfish,” as he was nick- Senate leadership. In the Senate, he criticized named, built roads, bridges, and schools, in President HERBERT HOOVER and advocated a addition to building up and taking personal redistribution of the nation’s wealth to end the interest in Louisiana State University in Baton Great Depression. Rouge (including a sports facility and medical In 1932, Long energetically supported school). He built an airport in New Orleans, Franklin Roosevelt’s presidential bid at the a new capitol, an improved public-health sys- Democratic National Convention and during tem, and a school-bus system, and he began the fall campaign. But by the end of the next providing free textbooks for students in both year, he was disillusioned with the New Deal, public and private schools. There were huge considering it too conservative. He obstructed increases in both state spending and state debt the administration’s bills in the Senate with col- under Long. He financed his statewide orful filibusters. The White House retaliated by political machine through the “deduct box,” rewarding federal patronage in Louisiana to his the name for the system of automatic cash opponents and withholding public-works funds. deductions from the salaries of all state Upping the ante, Long focused on build- employees, who depended upon his patron- ing a national movement for a presidential bid age for their jobs. in 1936. On February 23, 1934, he announced Long’s political ambition, like his energy, the “Share Our Wealth Society,” designed to was boundless. In 1930, he defeated the long- tax the rich to aid the poor. Poverty, Long time senator from upstate Louisiana, Joseph E. asserted, would be eliminated by guaranteeing Ransdell, a Catholic with a relatively progres- a minimum family income of $5,000 and by sive record that included cofounding what providing old-age pensions, cancellation of would become the National Institutes of personal debt, and free public education Health. Long refused to take his Senate seat through college. The society advocated high until after the 1932 gubernatorial election had taxes on inherited fortunes greater than $1 mil- installed his handpicked puppet, O. K. Allen. lion as well as limiting any individual’s annual He continued to run the state political machine income to a maximum of $1 million. By 1935, from his Senate seat, as reflected in an annual more than 7 million members had signed up in report of one of the state’s charity hospitals. one of the 27,000 “Share Our Wealth Society” The report contained a full-page portrait of clubs across America. That same year, Long Long with the caption “Senator Huey P. Long, wrote and published My First Days in the White The Master Builder,” with “Governor O.K. House, which outlined what he would do as the Allen, his able assistant” on the next page. chief executive. He appealed to the discon- Long was a showman in the Senate who tented during the Great Depression via radio loved to grandstand. He resigned from Senate addresses, his own newspaper, and propaganda committees and challenged Democratic major- sent through the mail. ity leader JOSEPH ROBINSON from neighboring His adversary FDR once dubbed Long as Arkansas. Ever flamboyant, he pioneered the one of the “two most dangerous men in Amer- use of the sound truck in his whirlwind cam- ica.” (The other was DOUGLAS MACARTHUR.) 162 Longworth, Alice Lee Roosevelt

Long epitomized the charismatic political her mother and her paternal grandmother leader. He had the ability at least to get people died. A politician who later liked to lecture on to watch him, especially the dispossessed who morality, Teddy Roosevelt became an absentee had previously been politically passive. His father, essentially deserting his daughter and appeal to the dispossessed is best captured in letting his sister Anna Roosevelt raise her until Robert Penn Warren’s classic novel All the she was three years old, when he remarried. King’s Men (1946). He was probably the most After his second marriage, Roosevelt did not serious threat to FDR’s reelection bid in 1936. speak with his daughter about her deceased He tended to become more autocratic and was mother, and her stepmother assumed responsi- increasingly consumed by a need for power, bility for her upbringing. which was more important to him than the A member of the Oyster Bay rather than accumulation of material wealth or his own the Hyde Park Roosevelts, Alice Roosevelt was family, which he seldom saw. By the end of part of the Roosevelt clan physically, socially, 1935, he had basically eliminated local govern- and intellectually, but not emotionally. As a ment in Louisiana and created almost total girl, she was shy and wore leg braces because of dependence on the state government, with polio. ELEANOR ROOSEVELT is typically cited repercussions that persist into the 21st century. as the proverbially ugly ducking of the clan, Another by-product of his quest to rule but when they were youngsters, Alice envied Louisiana was the compromising of Louisiana’s her cousin’s looks. The only child of her judiciary branch. His power in the state was father’s first marriage in a family of half-sib- nearly unchecked. lings, Alice was as much of an outsider as On September 8, 1935, Dr. Carl Austin Eleanor, who was orphaned as a child and Weiss shot Long, who was in the hallway of the taken in by relatives. Although Alice was Baton Rouge state capitol outside his old gov- bright, she refused to attend school and instead ernor’s office. Long died two days later, but his became an autodidact (self-taught). Never political machine survived him, perpetuating quite fitting in, she rebelled to attract attention. the state’s Long and anti-Long factions well Rebelling became her trademark. after his death. During her father’s presidency, the politi- cally sophisticated “Princess Alice” was allowed to make goodwill tours abroad for her father. Longworth, Alice Lee Roosevelt She could be diplomatic, but she also enjoyed (1884–1980) daughter of Theodore Roosevelt, shocking others to gain attention. She smoked celebrity in public, bet on horses, and drove her own car, conduct bordering on scandalous for a lady The life of Alice Lee Roosevelt Longworth of her position and time. foreshadowed the media phenomenon of the In 1906, Alice Roosevelt married Republi- later 20th century in which personalities with- can U.S. representative Nicholas Longworth out much substance became famous for being of Ohio. Her White House wedding to the famous. At the same time, she was a constant prominent politician who was 14 years her reminder of the political legacy of her father. senior cemented her international celebrity sta- Born in New York City on February 12, 1884, tus as well as her role in politics. Longworth she was the only child born to THEODORE was unfaithful and she followed suit. In 1925, ROOSEVELT and his first wife, Alice Hathaway she gave birth to her only child, fathered by Lee. When she was only two days old, both U.S. senator WILLIAM E. BORAH (R-Idaho). Lorentz, Pare 163

Longworth died in 1931. Rejecting tradition budget and with support from film director by declining to run for her deceased husband’s King Vidor and photographer DOROTHEA congressional seat, Alice Longworth instead LANGE, he wrote, directed, and edited The Plow wrote her autobiography, Crowded Hours That Broke the Plains, with musical score by (1933). She campaigned for HERBERT HOOVER Virgil Thomson. Filmed on location across the in 1932 against her distant cousin FDR, who Great Plains and the Texas Panhandle, the film had married her cousin Eleanor. She criticized premiered in May 1936 to critical acclaim. FDR’s New Deal and she served as a delegate However, Hollywood studios saw the govern- to the 1936 Republican National Convention. ment-sponsored project as a commercial threat Still, the White House Roosevelts went out of and refused to let it be shown in their theaters their way to invite her to functions, and she across the nation. continued to attend the national conventions of The Farm Security Administration soon both political parties. recruited Lorentz to document the effects of Like most other Republicans of the time, flooding along the Mississippi River and the Alice Longworth was a strong isolationist in need for flood control. During the filming, the foreign policy. She supported the 1940 and Ohio River flooded in January 1937, allowing 1944 presidential bids of ROBERT TAFT and Lorentz to capture the impact on entire com- served as an officer on the national committee munities. He again hired Virgil Thomson to of the America First organization as well as compose the musical score, blended with folk director of its Washington, D.C., chapter in songs and hymns, to evoke the mood and the 1940s. For the next 40 years she resided in accent the theme of the film. The River won the nation’s capital as a local celebrity with a many awards, including first prize at the 1938 caustic tongue. She died on February 21, 1980, Venice International Film Festival. After FDR in Washington, D.C. saw it, he appointed Lorentz as director of the U.S. Film Service, which was established in 1938 to produce documentaries about press- Lorentz, Pare ing social problems. (1905–1992) filmmaker, U.S. Film Service director In 1940, in response to FDR’s suggestion that he make a documentary showing the rela- Born in Clarksburg, West Virginia, on Decem- tionship of childbirth mortality to unemploy- ber 11, 1905, Pare Lorentz was the son of a ment and slums, Lorentz made The Fight for printer. He studied at West Virginia Wesleyan Life, filmed in the Chicago Maternity Center. College and the University of West Virginia Its controversial nature angered many law- until he moved to New York City in 1924. makers who subsequently terminated the U.S. From 1925 to 1934, he reviewed films for Film Service by refusing to fund it. It was reor- Judge, a humor magazine, and he also was a ganized under the Federal Security Agency and film critic for a variety of popular magazines. the Office of Education. Lorentz supported the New Deal from its During World War II, Lorentz became an start. In 1934, he published The Roosevelt Year: officer in the Army Air Corps, and he made 1933, in which he tried to capture the spirit of briefing films for American pilots. During the the New Deal through a survey of people, sit- postwar era, he became chief of the film section uations, and issues. The next year, he was hired of the War Department’s Civil Affairs Divi- by the Resettlement Administration to film a sion, resigning his post in 1947. He died on documentary about the Dust Bowl. On a small March 4, 1992, in Armonk, New York. 164 Luce, Henry Robinson

Luce, Henry Robinson many ways the precursor to modern television. (1898–1967) publisher Ultimately, he proved to be his father’s son, becoming a lay missionary who used his mag- Henry Luce was born on April 3, 1898, in Teng- azines as his pulpit. An internationalist, he was chow, China, to a missionary-educator father quick to support China’s resistance to the and a mother who was a former social worker. Japanese invasion. He mistrusted FDR but ini- Growing up with a strong work ethic but a weak tially backed the president’s foreign-policy sense of humor, Luce spoke with a stammer, aims, especially conscription and the lend-lease which led him to focus on the written word proposal to aid Great Britain. By 1940, how- instead of oral communication. His parents sent ever, Luce turned to Republican WENDELL him back to the United States for his education WILLKIE, supporting his presidential bid in an at the Hotchkiss School in Connecticut effort to move the Republican Party from iso- (1913–16). He then entered Yale University, lationism to internationalism. He also helped where he helped edit the campus newspaper. He to turn Madame CHIANG KAI-SHEK into a enthusiastically supported entry of the United national celebrity during her 1943 visit to the States into World War I, but by the time he United States while ignoring warnings from received his ROTC commission in late 1918, it his own staff about the corruption and incom- was too late for him to serve abroad. He returned petence of the Chiang regime. to Yale and graduated in 1920, then went on to During the postwar era, Luce championed study at Oxford University before beginning DWIGHT EISENHOWER’s 1952 presidential bid work at newspapers in Chicago and Baltimore. and launched Sports Illustrated for a public with Luce launched the first mass-circulation new leisure time. He resigned as editor in chief newsmagazine, Time, in 1923. It featured short of Time in 1964 and died on February 18, 1967, news reports for people with limited time who in Phoenix, Arizona. were eager to understand the political world. He paid his staff well and motivated them by his own intense work ethic. His lifelong hero Ludlow, Louis Leon was THEODORE ROOSEVELT, and the maga- (1873–1950) U.S. congressman zine favored progressive Republican themes. By 1929, Luce had become a millionaire. Born in southeastern Indiana on June 24, 1873, Despite the Great Depression, Luce launched Louis Ludlow began his journalism career at Fortune the next year, selling it for $1 per issue; age 18 in Indianapolis. In 1901, he moved to it made him a force on Wall Street. In 1931, he Washington, D.C., to become the capital cor- began the radio series The March of Time, respondent for the Indianapolis Sentinel. Popu- which in 1935 became the newsreel series of lar with his colleagues, he was president of the the same name that was shown in theaters national press club in 1927. Always energetic, worldwide. The next year, he divorced his first Ludlow wrote three of his five books in the wife to marry Clare Boothe Brokaw, an aspir- 1920s. His autobiography, From Cornfield to ing playwright who sought the personal pub- Press Gallery (1924), was first, followed by In the licity Luce shunned. She served two terms in Heart of Hoosierland (1925) and Senator Solomon the U.S. House of Representatives (1943–47), Spiffledink (1927). where she echoed his political views. After 37 years of writing about politicians, In 1936, Luce began the photo magazine Ludlow became one when he was elected to the Life, which, with its emphasis on images, was in U.S. House of Representatives in 1928; he rep- Ludlow, Louis Leon 165 resented the Indianapolis area until 1949. He writing letters and articles in newspapers and supported both antilynching and equal rights magazines, and publishing his fifth book, Hell or for women legislation, but he opposed the Heaven (1937). His media campaign worked to repeal of Prohibition. Ludlow became known the degree that he was able to achieve popular for his opposition to a more powerful executive support for his amendment in opinion polls, branch of government. His fourth book, Amer- and his House colleagues considered a dis- ica Go Bust: An Expose of the Federal Bureaucracy charge petition to force the bill from the House and Its Wasteful and Evil Tendencies (1933) judiciary committee to the floor of the House reflected his disdain for big government. How- for a vote by the entire body. Ultimately the ever, he received the most attention two years House voted 209-188 against considering the later by proposing a war-referendum amend- bill on January 10, 1938. ment that would have required a national vote As the threat of World War II in Europe prior to a declaration of war, except following a escalated, popular interest in the Ludlow direct attack on or invasion of the United amendment waned. During the postwar era, States. The House Judiciary Committee held he favored an international war referendum hearings on the Ludlow amendment bill in June and the creation of a Department of Peace and 1935, but it died in committee. During the next Good Will. The increasingly one-issue con- two years, he drummed up support for the leg- gressman died in Washington, D.C., on islation by giving speeches and radio addresses, November 28, 1950. M w

MacArthur, Douglas who were protesting for early government pen- (1880–1964) army chief of staff, commander of sions, from the Anacostia Flats section of Southwest Pacific Theater army forces Washington, D.C. The House of Representa- tives had responded favorably to the veterans’ Douglas MacArthur was born in Little Rock, request, but the Senate had refused. Hoover Arkansas, on January 26, 1880. His father was assumed responsibility for the actions of his a Civil War veteran who went on to become overly eager army chief of staff. one of the highest-ranking officers in the U.S. Although Franklin Roosevelt considered Army. Consequently, MacArthur was a “mili- MacArthur to be one of the two most dangerous tary brat” reared on army posts in Texas and men in America (HUEY LONG was the other), the Southwest. He graduated at the top of his the two men worked together in establishing West Point class and became an officer in the FDR’s pet New Deal program, the Civilian engineering corps, assigned to posts in the Conservation Corps. After he stepped down as United States, the Philippines, and Panama, army chief of staff, MacArthur became the mil- and he served during the brief U.S. occupation itary adviser to the Philippine Commonwealth of Vera Cruz (1914) during the Mexican civil headed by Quezon. For the next half-dozen war. He also served in France during World years, he was assisted by Major DWIGHT EISEN- War I and briefly was among occupying forces HOWER. He retired from the U.S. Army in in the German Rhineland after the war. During December 1937, but he continued to work pri- the interwar period, he became the reforming vately as a military adviser to Quezon. superintendent of West Point (1919–21) and In late July 1941, MacArthur was recalled served two tours of duty in the Philippines, to active duty. Many critics were surprised by where he became a friend of future Philippine the U.S. military’s lack of defensive prepared- President Manuel Quezon. ness as, nine hours after the December 7, 1941, In 1930, President HERBERT HOOVER attack on Pearl Harbor, the Japanese destroyed appointed MacArthur as army chief of staff most of the American air force around Manila (1930–35). In July 1932, he committed his first in the Philippines. Equally shocking was that dramatic act of ill-advised independent judg- MacArthur initially supported Quezon’s plan ment by using force to remove the Bonus to negotiate a truce with Japan and his accep- Marchers, unemployed World War I veterans tance of a $500,000 payment from Quezon.

166 MacArthur, Douglas 167

General of the Army Douglas MacArthur on Luzon, the Philippines, 1945 (Library of Congress)

Despite this, FDR made MacArthur comman- During the following three presidential der of the Southwest Pacific Area Theater, one elections (1944, 1948, 1952), MacArthur of two Pacific theaters of operation during encouraged Republicans to promote a presi- World War II. The president even approved dential bid for him. He had always been adept awarding MacArthur a Congressional Medal at using good public relations within the army, of Honor, mostly to counter calls for a “Pacific with the notable exception of the Bonus March first” rather than a European strategy for veterans, but his efforts to be president failed, World War II. After MacArthur departed Cor- in part because he had spent so many years liv- regidor for Australia in early 1942, he spent ing outside of the United States. His greatest the following 30 months fulfilling his vow “I service to the nation may have been as occupa- shall return” to free the Philippines. His effort tion commander in Japan, and his autocratic was launched in New Guinea by the summer of tendencies may have contributed to his success 1942 and continued with successful amphibi- in that environment. Both HARRY TRUMAN ous operations during the next two years. and MacArthur agreed to preserve a modified 168 MacDonald, Ramsey

emperor system. HIROHITO’s survival and sup- first secretary of the Labour Representation port for the occupation gained crucial support Committee (LRC). By 1906, he had united from the Japanese people. The Korean War with 28 other LRC members to successfully emphasized both his talents and limitations as wage campaigns for seats in the House of a general. President Truman, after obtaining Commons. That same year, the LRC became the agreement of most of his senior military the Labour Party, and in 1911 MacDonald was and political advisers, fired MacArthur on April selected as chairman of the party’s parliamen- 11, 1951, in order to uphold the American tary coalition. He was reelected to Parliament principle of civilian supremacy. After DWIGHT from Leicester in 1910, but because of his EISENHOWER assumed the presidency, opposition to British entry into World War I, MacArthur faded from public life. He made he was forced to resign his chairmanship on occasional speeches but focused on completing August 5, 1914. He was narrowly defeated in his memoirs. He died on April 5, 1964, in the 1918 parliamentary election. Washington, D.C. The ever-resilient MacDonald came to support the war effort and the wartime coali- tion of Prime Minister David Lloyd George. MacDonald, Ramsey Public sentiment had turned against George’s (1866–1937) British prime minister politics by 1922, and MacDonald easily won his comeback election that year as Labour Ramsey MacDonald was born out of wedlock became the second-largest party in the House on October 12, 1866, in Lossiemouth, Moray- of Commons. In 1924, he became the first-ever sluve, Scotland, to a domestic servant. His Labour Party prime minister. His government mother and grandmother raised him under granted diplomatic recognition to the Soviet very modest circumstances, and he attended Union and helped U.S. banker CHARLES the parish school at Drainie. Later he moved to DAWES to deal with the German financial cri- Bristol, where he worked as a student-teacher. sis that allowed Germany to repay its repara- He subsequently moved to London, where he tions from World War I with loans from the obtained a clerkship to Thomas Lough, a United States. However, MacDonald’s party politician. A bright and energetic man deter- turned against him after he arranged a trade mined to improve himself, MacDonald pur- agreement with the Soviet Union, and the sued his education, taking evening classes until Conservatives returned to power in late 1924. he finally graduated from the British equivalent MacDonald became prime minister again of high school in 1885. He immediately joined in 1929 after the Labour Party won the general the Social Democratic Federation, and the fol- election, and he therefore presided during the lowing year he joined the socialist Fabian Soci- onset of the Great Depression. That same year ety. By 1894, MacDonald was a member of the his government revised the Old Age Pension new Independent Labour Party. The next year, Act, broadened the Unemployment Insurance he married Margaret Gladstone, a distant rel- Act, and passed a Coal Mines Act. Nonetheless, ative of British prime minister William Glad- the government was unable to reach consensus stone. The marriage brought not only financial about policies to address the serious financial independence but also entrée into the elite problems faced by Great Britain. In 1931, social strata and personal happiness. MacDonald offered his resignation but Believing that a labor party needed trade changed his mind and, with a few other mem- union support, MacDonald in 1900 became the bers of his own party, broke away to form a MacLeish, Archibald 169 coalition government that was dominated by by one year of military service during World the Conservatives. MacDonald continued as War I. After a brief stint as editor of the New prime minister under the new arrangement, Republic, MacLeish began a successful three- but many Labourites viewed him as a traitor. year law practice in Boston, but he then quit so The public, however, vindicated him in the that he and his wife could move to Paris to general election of October 1931. pursue his ambition of becoming a poet. He MacDonald remained in office through found his niche in poetry, and the MacLeishes 1935. He appointed NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN returned to the United States in 1928 and as his finance minister and took Britain off the bought a Berkshire farm in Conway, Mas- gold standard while cutting government expen- sachusetts, that was their home for the rest of ditures and raising tariffs. Despite continued their lives. high unemployment, overall the economic Because MacLeish always needed the rein- reforms seemed to work during the Great forcement of external approval, he was pulled Depression. The constant pressures of his office between the private and public realms. HENRY took a toll on his health, however, prompting LUCE recognized his talent and recruited him MacDonald to agree to exchange cabinet posts for his new magazine, Fortune, to write about with STANLEY BALDWIN, lord president of the American and international affairs. During that council. MacDonald resigned from that posi- period, MacLeish wrote his long poem Con- tion soon afterward. He died on November 9, quistador (1932), which brought him the first of 1937, while on a trip to South America. three Pulitzer Prizes. It was during this period that he concluded a poet should be involved in society, perhaps an echo of his mother’s influ- MacLeish, Archibald ence, and that America lacked a cultural vision, (1892–1982) poet; Librarian of Congress; but a poet could furnish one. He was con- director, Office of Facts and Figures; assistant demned by many modernist poets for wanting director, Office of War Information; assistant to write “public poetry,” and he was also secretary of state for cultural and public affairs attacked by both conservatives and liberals for his political views. He came to admire Franklin Sometimes referred to as the “Poet Laureate Roosevelt and the New Deal. of the New Deal,” Archibald MacLeish was MacLeish joined the Roosevelt adminis- born on May 7, 1892, in Glencoe, Illinois. His tration in 1939 as the Librarian of Congress, father was a prosperous but emotionally dis- which led New Jersey Republican conservative tant Scottish businessman. His mother was a congressman J. Parnell Thomas to coin the former educator who tried to inculcate in him term fellow traveler, a condemnation of both a sense of social responsibility. MacLeish was FDR and MacLeish as communists. The term the third of their five children, caught in the would later reemerge during the McCarthy era middle of his siblings and between his parent’s to condemn other liberals. During the next five differing wishes of what they wanted him to do years, MacLeish also wrote speeches for FDR with his life. Throughout his life, he craved and served as director of the Office of Facts approval and success. He attended Hotchkiss and Figures, then as assistant director of the in Connecticut from 1907 to 1911 and Yale Office of War Information from 1942 to 1943. University, where he majored in English, from He resigned from the administration in 1944 1911 to 1915. His studies at Harvard Law to return to private life. However, FDR School from 1915 to 1919 were interrupted brought him back one final time as assistant 170 Mao Zedong

secretary of state for cultural and public affairs, of the Chinese Communist Party, which a position he held until 1945. worked with Sun Yat-sen’s Kuomintang (Chi- During the postwar period, MacLeish nese Nationalist Party; Guomindang) to sub- served as the Boylston Professor of Rhetoric due warlords and expel imperialist influence and Oratory at Harvard from 1949 to 1962, from China. After the death of Sun Yat-sen, and it was during this time that he won his sec- who had been influenced by the writings of ond and third Pulitzer Prizes for his Collected Abraham Lincoln, a split developed between Poems 1917–1952 (1952) and the poetic J.B. the Nationalists and the Communists. (1958). If his creative work is not as highly In 1927, CHIANG KAI-SHEK (Jiang Jieshi), regarded today as the work of the American Sun Yat-sen’s successor, decided to launch the writers who were expatriates with him in Paris, first of his several attempts to crush the Com- such as E. E. Cummings, F. Scott Fitzgerald, munists located in urban areas, forcing them to and his friend ERNEST HEMINGWAY, it may be flee initially to southeastern China. Ironically, because he never realized his literary vision for the campaign worked to reinforce Mao’s identi- Americans because he was trying to achieve fication with peasants and brought out his pop- success in his “public poetry.” The critical view ulist leanings, positioning him to emerge as the of MacLeish is that although he was immensely eventual political leader of the Chinese Com- talented, he was too conventional. He died on munist Party in the mid 1930s. Soviet leader April 20, 1982, in Boston. JOSEPH STALIN’s support for a different faction at this time made Mao the first and only leader of a Communist Party without Stalin’s support. Mao Zedong The New Deal era in the United States (Mao Tse-tung) coincided with China’s Yenan era, named for (1893–1976) Chinese revolutionary and the remote northwest area where Mao staged Communist Party leader the Chinese equivalent of the British with- drawal from Dunkirk in the early part of World Mao Zedong was born in Hunan province, War II. It began after Chiang started his “anni- China, on December 26, 1893. While his hilation campaign” of 1934, forcing the Com- father, a prosperous self-made grain dealer, was munists to flee Jianxi (Kiangsi) and leading to a harsh disciplinarian, his mother was kinder the so-called Long March. The march not only and more sympathetic to him. Mao attended precipitated Mao’s emergence as the main local schools until he was 10, refusing to con- leader of the Communists but also elevated the tinue after he encountered a teacher who also lengthy retreat to Yenan into an instant leg- was a rigid disciplinarian. In 1918, he gradu- end. Until the end of World War II, Mao ated from Hunan First Normal School, located maintained his popular support among the in Changsha, Hunan province’s urban capital peasantry of north China by treating them near his village. He then moved to Peking (Bei- well. By 1936, Nationalist generals finally jing), the ancient imperial capital, to work as a forced Chiang to abandon his annihilation librarian’s assistant at Peking University, campaign against the Communists and to China’s leading university. His lowly position replace it with an alliance forged with them to and southern dialect made Mao an outsider at repel the Japanese invasion of China. In 1937, the status-conscious institution. By summer Mao divided his forces into smaller groups 1920, he had embraced Marxism. The next simultaneously to combat the Japanese and year, he became one of the founding delegates continue to build support among peasants. Marcantonio, Vito Anthony 171

Both the Communists and the Nationalists candidate for Congress. Immediately after his were receptive to postwar mediation efforts by graduation in 1921, Marcantonio became GEORGE C. MARSHALL in 1945–46, maneuver- acquainted with FIORELLA LA GUARDIA, then ing their troops to the greatest advantage during serving on the New York City Board of Alder- the talks. Mao’s strategy proved more successful. men, who became his surrogate father. Mar- Nationalism, modernization, and the appeal of cantonio enrolled in New York University Law equality trumped Karl Marx, V. I. Lenin, and School and graduated in 1925, the same year Adam Smith. Despite the numerically superior he married Mariam Sanders, whom he had met armies of Chiang’s Nationalists that controlled at the Harlem House, a settlement house for urban areas, Mao controlled the countryside and immigrants. Their marriage was childless. had the support of the peasantry. Finally, in La Guardia was elected to Congress in 1949, his peasant soldiers “liberated” the urban 1922. When the Republican Party denied him working class, which had retreated into political the party nomination in 1924, he chose to run passivity after Chiang’s brutal 1927 campaign. independently and selected Marcantonio as his The People’s Republic of China was declared reelection campaign manager. Marcantonio, on October 1, 1949. For the first time in a cen- who was multilingual like La Guardia, selected tury, mainland China was unified, based on the the Haarlem House with its immigrant con- notion of equality (for example, ending the feu- stituency as the base for a La Guardia Political dal custom of primogeniture), and would rapidly Club. It grew to more than a thousand mem- transform itself from an agrarian into a modern bers and also served as an informal organization industrial giant, extracting a tremendous human independent of Democrats and Republicans. cost in the process. La Guardia won his campaign, and Marcanto- Mao would outlive the trio of other polit- nio ran his local office, which provided maxi- ical giants of his time: Franklin Roosevelt, mum constituent service. By 1930, when Joseph Stalin, and Chiang Kai-shek. In final Marcantonio was appointed an assistant U.S. twists of irony, his mausoleum in Beijing was district attorney, the 20th Congressional Dis- modeled after the Lincoln Memorial in Wash- trict was the largest Italian-American commu- ington, D.C., and he died on September 9, nity in the nation. 1976, as the United States celebrated the La Guardia was defeated in the 1932 elec- bicentennial year of its independence. tion that swept Franklin Roosevelt into the White House. However, the next year he ran successfully for election as mayor of New York Marcantonio, Vito Anthony City, freeing Marcantonio to seek La Guardia’s (1902–1954) U.S. congressman former congressional seat. With backing from the new mayor, Marcantonio became one of Often considered one of the most radical only 123 Republicans to win in the off-year members of Congress during his terms of ser- congressional election. However, he lost his vice, Vito Marcantonio was born on December seat in 1936 because he was unwilling to 10, 1902, in East Harlem, New York City, to an denounce communist support. He ran for American-born, carpenter father and an Ital- another congressional seat in 1938 on the ian-born mother. Among his teachers at the American Party ticket, won it, and remained in local schools he attended was a history teacher Congress for six terms. at DeWitt Clinton High School who was a Marcantonio joined MAURY MAVERICK of teachers’ union organizer and former Socialist Texas and Ernest Lundeen of Minnesota in 172 Margold, Nathan Ross

pressing for a more radical approach to the the faculty, but law school dean Roscoe Pound Great Depression than was offered under the initially supported FRANKFURTER; however, New Deal. In foreign affairs, he advocated U.S. after two years of pressure, he acquiesced to support for the Loyalists during the Spanish the president, and Margold returned to his civil war, yet he remained a pacifist during the New York law practice in 1928. Between his early years of World War II, changing his return to New York and the beginning of the stance after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet New Deal, Margold also served as a special Union in June 1941. After that event, he counsel for the New York Transit Commission became a major supporter of FDR’s war policy. in 1928–29, and in 1930 he was the legal Marcantonio’s association with American adviser on Indian affairs with the Institute for communist leaders led to his marginalization in Government Research. Congress, where he was relegated to the least- Ever industrious, Margold also wrote arti- important committees. During the postwar cles for law journals and coedited Cases on period, his continued support for the Soviet Criminal Law. At Frankfurter’s suggestion, the Union grew out of fashion, and he was defeated National Association for the Advancement of for reelection in 1950. He resumed his law Colored People (NAACP) recruited Margold practice until his death on August 9, 1954, in as a special counsel in 1930, and he served in New York City. that capacity until 1933. In 1931, he wrote a book-length report that outlined a legal strat- egy for the NAACP to use to desegregate pub- Margold, Nathan Ross lic schools in the South. It became the (1899–1947) federal solicitor, chairman of blueprint that culminated in Brown v. Board of Petroleum Administrative Board and Petroleum Education (1954). Labor Policy Board, special assistant attorney At the beginning of the New Deal, Mar- general, federal judge gold left the NAACP to become one of Frank- furter’s many “Happy Hotdogs,” the term used Nathan Margold was born on July 21, 1899, in to describe former Frankfurter students Ias¸i, Romania. His parents immigrated to the brought into the new administration. Both United States in 1901, and he was raised in Frankfurter and Justice LOUIS BRANDEIS rec- Brooklyn, New York. After his graduation in ommended Margold to FDR’s new secretary 1919 from the City College of New York, he of the interior, HAROLD ICKES.Ickes hired him entered Harvard Law School, where he was as the solicitor for the department in 1933, and editor of its law review and where FELIX he remained in that role until 1942. First nam- FRANKFURTER developed his interest in social ing him as chairman of the Petroleum Admin- reforms and the rights of workers. After he istrative Board after the National Recovery graduated in 1923, he returned to New York Administration (NRA) developed the code for City to practice law. He was the assistant U.S. the industry, Ickes then appointed Margold as attorney for the Southern District of New York chairman of the Petroleum Labor Policy from 1925 to 1927. He married Gertrude Board, which administered the code, from Weiner in 1927, and the couple had one son. 1933 to 1935. However, the Supreme Court The same year that Margold married, declared Section 9(c) of the National Indus- Frankfurter recruited him to teach criminal law trial Recovery Act, which had delegated at Harvard. Harvard president A. Laurence petroleum code-making authority to the pres- Lowell objected to another Jewish reformer on ident, unconstitutional in Panama Refining Marshall, George Catlett, Jr. 173

Company v. Ryan (1935). Margold also acted as army chief of staff in April 1939. Marshall had a special assistant attorney general from 1933 impressed both the President and HARRY HOP- to 1935. KINS, even though his manner was very formal In return for his loyalty and legal expertise, in comparison to FDR’s style. FDR named Margold as a judge of the Munic- During early 1942, Marshall reorganized ipal Court for the District of Columbia, where the War Department and became the leader of he served from 1942 to 1945, when he was the new U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff and Anglo- moved to the U.S. District Court in the Dis- American Combined Chiefs of Staff, gradually trict of Columbia. He served on that bench emerging as FDR’s key military adviser. His until his death on December 16, 1947. North-South links and military-civilian diplo- macy made him effective with Congress as well as one of FDR’s most trusted advisers. Mar- Marshall, George Catlett, Jr. shall had the opportunity to lead the Nor- (1880–1959) army chief of staff mandy D-Day invasion, but he emulated George Washington’s precedent of self-denial George C. Marshall, Jr., was born on December and selected his protégé, DWIGHT EISEN- 31, 1880, in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. His suc- HOWER, for the assignment. In 1944, Congress cessful father, a coal merchant, was distantly made him a five-star general with the title of related to John Marshall, the great Supreme General of the Army. Court justice who had fought with George Washington’s army during the American Revo- lution. George Marshall attended the Virginia Military Institute from 1897 to 1901. During and after World War I, he was one of General John J. Pershing’s top aides. Among his many assignments was service with the 15th Infantry Regiment in Tienstin, China, from 1924 to 1927. Afterward, he returned to Washington, D.C., to serve briefly as an instructor at the naval War College before heading the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia, from 1927 to 1932. There he created what would become the U.S. High Command during World War II. From 1932 to 1936, Marshall commanded army posts in Georgia and South Carolina and he worked to organize some camps for Franklin Roosevelt’s pet project, the Civilian Conserva- tion Corps. He was promoted to brigadier gen- eral and afterward took command of the 5th Infantry Brigade in Washington State from 1936 to 1938. He returned to Washington, D.C., in 1938 to head the War Plans Division of the army general staff. Despite Marshall’s General George Catlett Marshall, Jr. (Library of relative lack of seniority, FDR made him the Congress) 174 Martin, Joseph William, Jr.

In late 1945, HARRY S. TRUMAN named lican seat in the state legislature in 1911 and Marshall as a special presidential envoy to served three one-year terms in the Mas- China in an effort to help avoid a civil war sachusetts house before moving to the state between the Chinese Nationalists and Com- senate, where he had a similar length of service. munists. Although the mission failed a year While in the senate, he came into contact with later, Truman named Marshall his secretary of Calvin Coolidge, then serving as Massachusetts state in early 1947, and he became the first pro- Senate president. In 1924, Martin challenged fessional soldier to occupy that position. Dur- an incumbent for a U.S. congressional seat and ing his two-year tenure, he obtained both lost. Six months later, however, the incumbent public and Republican support for the Euro- died, and Martin won the special election to fill pean Recovery Program, better known as the the vacancy. He went on to serve in the U.S. Marshall Plan, which economically revived the House of Representatives from 1925 to 1967. war-torn continent. It also contributed to an At the request of Coolidge, by then president integrated Western Europe, including West of the United States, Martin supported the Germany, a direct contrast to the treatment of 1925 bid by Ohio’s Nicholas Longworth to Germany after World War I. Despite his brief become Speaker of the House. A friendly, low- tenure in the cabinet post, scholars rank Mar- key, and shrewd team player, Martin was shall among the top five secretaries of state in appointed to the powerful House Rules Com- American history. He became the first career mittee (“the traffic cop committee”) in 1929. military person to earn the Nobel Peace Prize, Following Longworth’s death and the loss of which he received in 1953. Marshall died on the Republican majority in the House in 1931, October 16, 1959, in Washington, D.C. Martin became friends with JOHN NANCE GARNER, the new Democratic Speaker. Martin served as the assistant minority whip from 1931 Martin, Joseph William, Jr. to 1933 and was the minority whip from 1933 (1884–1968) U.S. congressman, Republican to 1939. minority leader Martin personally liked Franklin Roo- sevelt, but his new leadership position made The second of eight children of an Irish black- him a strong opponent of the New Deal. He smith and his wife, Joseph Martin was born in was an economic conservative representing North Attleboro, Massachusetts, on November small-town businessmen and the Republicans’ 3, 1884. He attended local public schools, grad- Old Guard. In 1939, he was elected House uating from North Attleboro High School in minority leader, and he held that position 1902. After he completed high school, he began throughout the remaining New Deal years as working as a local newspaper reporter and play- well as during World War II. A congressional ing semiprofessional baseball. By 1908, he and technician, Martin drew on his whip experi- several local businessmen had jointly purchased ence to forge the bipartisan conservative coali- one of the city’s newspapers, and he became its tion that emerged after 1937 and allowed publisher and editor. A decade later, he pur- southern Democrats and Republicans to defeat chased an insurance agency, and in 1924 he liberal legislation in two-thirds of the votes. bought a weekly newspaper in Massachusetts. Martin supported most of the New Deal Martin became acquainted with local pol- relief measures, but he battled the Agricultural itics through his newspaper work and soon Adjustment Act, Reciprocal Trade Agreements became involved in politics. He won a Repub- Act, and the Tennessee Valley Authority in par- Maverick, Maury, Sr. 175 ticular. On the other hand, he supported the participated in local relief programs. His first Roosevelt World War II policies despite the elective office was in 1929, when he became fact that he had sided with the isolationists the tax collector of Bexar County; he was before Pearl Harbor. In the 1940 presidential reelected in 1931. In 1934, he won a seat in the campaign, FDR had lampooned Martin and U.S. House of Representatives with support fellow isolationists Bruce Barton and HAMIL- from Mexican Americans. Reelected in 1936, TON FISH as “Martin, Barton and Fish” to the he allied himself in the House with other lib- cadence of “Winkin, Blinkin and Nod.” In eral Democrats as well as progressive Republi- 1940, Martin served as WENDELL WILLKIE’s cans, participating in the Progressive Open presidential campaign manager. Forum Discussion Group. The media named During the postwar period, Martin was Maverick as the group’s chief, mainly because twice elected Speaker of the House (1947–49 of his colorful personality, while others called it and 1953–55). He was minority leader from “Maury’s Mavericks.” 1955 until 1959, when Charles A. Halleck from Unlike most southerners, Maverick sup- Indiana defeated him for reelection to that ported civil rights for minorities and voted position. He remained in the House for eight against racist poll taxes while he championed more years and in 1966 was defeated in the antilynching legislation and backed striking Republican primary. Martin died a bachelor on workers. He was virtually alone in backing March 6, 1968, in Hollywood, Florida. Franklin Roosevelt’s Court-packing plan in 1937. He had become a pacifist after World War I but changed his position to support Maverick, Maury, Sr. FDR’s foreign policy. His consistent and out- (Fontaine Maury Maverick) spoken support for FDR and the New Deal (1895–1954) U.S. congressman, San Antonio angered Vice President JOHN NANCE GARNER mayor, federal administrator and other conservative Texas Democrats, and this led to Maverick’s defeat in the 1938 pri- Born on October 23, 1895, to a San Antonio, mary. Shifting gears, Maverick was elected Texas, real-estate investor and his wife, Maury mayor of San Antonio the next year, but when Maverick had deep Texas roots. His grandfa- he sought reelection in 1941, he was again ther had not only been a mayor of San Antonio blocked by conservatives. but had also signed the Texas Declaration of Because of his loyal support of FDR, the Independence in 1835. Maverick entered the president appointed Maverick to several federal Virginia Military Institute in 1912 but soon positions during the remainder of World War transferred to the University of Texas, where II. In 1941, he became a member of the Office he spent the next three years. In 1916, he of Price Administration (OPA), and after the began practicing law. As a loyal son of the OPA was transformed in April 1942 into the South, he enlisted in the army the next year, War Production Board, Maverick was made and during World War I he earned both a Pur- vice chairman in charge of the division of gov- ple Heart and Silver Star. His crippling wounds ernment requirements. From January 1944 to made it impossible for him to raise his hands. 1946, he headed the Smaller War Plants Cor- After practicing law for two more years, poration, whose aim was to secure more war the ever-restless Maverick changed to the con- contracts for small businesses. struction business, became active in local poli- During the postwar years, Maverick tics as an opponent of the Ku Klux Klan, and returned to San Antonio to practice law and 176 McAdoo, William Gibbs

made several unsuccessful attempts to return wing of the Democratic Party. He wanted the to elected office. He died in San Antonio on 1920 presidential nomination, but Wilson June 7, 1954. stubbornly failed to endorse McAdoo’s bid because he harbored a fantasy that the party would turn to him again as its candidate. Dur- McAdoo, William Gibbs ing the 1924 presidential race, McAdoo tried to (1863–1941) U.S. senator position himself as the successor to William Jennings Bryan. His reputation was marred in William McAdoo was born in Marietta, Geor- early 1924 when he was implicated in the gia, on October 31, 1863. His father had been Teapot Dome Scandal because he had provided active in Tennessee politics before the Civil legal work for one of the parties involved and War and was a Confederate officer in Georgia also because he refused to disavow his associa- during the war. His mother wrote and pub- tion with the Ku Klux Klan for fear of losing lished several romantic novels of the Old his southern support. He ultimately lost his South. McAdoo shared his father’s interest in opportunity to be the presidential candidate. politics, but at the national level. He became a With characteristic energy and resilience, lawyer in 1883 and was counsel for a Tennessee McAdoo ran for the U.S. Senate in 1932 and railroad that soon built one of the nation’s first was swept into office with the Franklin Roo- electrified city railways. In early 1892, he sevelt landslide. He had played a key role at moved to New York City, where he was the Chicago Democratic convention, heading responsible for completion of the first tunnel the California delegation and participating in under the Hudson River and won an urban the switch of support from JOHN NANCE GAR- reputation as a progressive manager of a pub- NER’s presidential bid to a Roosevelt-Garner lic utility (the Hudson and Manhattan Railway ticket. McAdoo became a loyal New Deal sup- Company). porter. He was defeated for reelection to his McAdoo soon became active in the Demo- Senate seat in 1938 by Sheridan Downey, who cratic Party and was a booster of Woodrow ran on an old-age pension platform. McAdoo Wilson’s bid for the presidency in 1912. Wil- died on February 1, 1941, in Washington, D.C. son appointed McAdoo to the influential post of secretary of the Treasury, which he ran as efficiently as his railway. His first wife died in McCarran, Patrick Anthony 1912, and in 1914 he married Eleanor Wilson, (1876–1954) U.S. senator the president’s daughter. During World War I, he backed creation of the U.S. Shipping Board The only son of Nevada sheep ranchers who to assure efficient transatlantic traffic. In 1918, were Irish Catholic immigrants, Patrick Wilson appointed McAdoo as director general McCarran was born on August 8, 1876, during of the nation’s railroad to coordinate freight the nation’s centennial year. He attended the shipments. Just as when he was a private rail- University of Nevada, where he excelled in way executive, McAdoo established a progres- debate. He quickly developed an interest in sive record regarding the welfare of employees local politics and in 1902 won a house seat in under his jurisdiction. the Nevada legislature. He sought a state sen- After the November 1918 armistice, ate seat in 1904 but was defeated. Studying on McAdoo returned to private life, moving to his own, McCarran passed the state bar exam California to align himself with the progressive in 1905 and in 1906 was elected as a county dis- McCormack, John Williams 177 trict attorney. He was always ambitious and leagues, Franklin Roosevelt, or HARRY TRU- aimed next for the U.S. House of Representa- MAN, who did not endorse him in his reelec- tives, challenging an incumbent Democrat in tion campaigns in 1938, 1944, or 1950. the 1908 election. He lost, and thereafter he During the postwar period McCarran was turned his energy to law, becoming one of the a vehement anticommunist. He joined Senator state’s leading defense attorneys (1909–12, Joseph McCarthy (R-Wis.), a fellow Irish 1919–32), specializing in criminal defense and Catholic, in his attacks on alleged communists, divorce cases. McCarran’s popular acclaim, and he stalled, and finally opposed, the even- never matched by members of the bar or the tual congressional censure of McCarthy. In Democratic Party, allowed him to win a spot 1952, McCarran’s close links to Nevada’s gam- on the Nevada Supreme Court, where he bling interests were exposed. He died in served from 1913 to 1918. He attempted to Hawthorne, Nevada, on September 28, 1954. win national office again in 1916, running Only one of his fellow Democratic senators against the incumbent Democrat for a U.S. attended his funeral. Senate seat, and was defeated soundly. As a result, he lost his own bid for reelection to the Nevada Supreme Court in 1918. He ran again McCormack, John Williams for the U.S. Senate in 1926 and lost again. (1891–1980) U.S. congressman McCarran was finally successful in his third attempt, riding Franklin Roosevelt’s coat- John McCormack, born on December 21, tails to a narrow victory in 1932. He became 1891, in South Boston, Massachusetts, was the the first Nevada-born candidate elected by the son of an Irish Catholic bricklayer. He quit state to the U.S. Senate. Because of Nevada’s school at age 13 following his father’s death to small population, McCarran was able to main- help support his mother and two younger tain personal relationships with voters and built brothers. Like many other ambitious young up the strongest political machine in the state’s men of the time, he studied law in a private history. He demanded complete loyalty in office. He was admitted to the bar in 1913 and return for the patronage he distributed from began his own law practice. In 1917, McCor- his growing seniority in the U.S. Senate. His mack turned to politics as his path for advance- political opponents learned that he could be ment and won a slot as a delegate to the state’s very vindictive. constitutional convention. During World War Only a nominal Democrat, McCarran I, he resigned his delegate position to enlist as soon became part of the emerging conservative an army private but was stationed stateside. coalition that opposed much of the New Deal After the war, he won three consecutive one- legislation. He was a vocal critic of FDR’s year terms to the Massachusetts legislature, Court-packing plan, opposed FDR’s seeking a beginning in 1919. In 1920, he married Harriet third term, and also opposed the president’s Joyce, a South Boston Irish Catholic, who interventionist policies toward Germany and abandoned her opera career for marriage. The Japan. Although he was an administration couple had no children. adversary, McCarran’s seniority gained him the In the same year as his marriage, McCor- chairmanship of the Judiciary Committee in mack won election to the state senate, moving 1943, and he was a high-ranking member of up through the ranks to become the Demo- the powerful Appropriations Committee. He cratic majority leader in 1925–26. Later in was a loner and he was not well liked by his col- 1926, he unsuccessfully challenged James A. 178 McCormick, Robert Rutherford

Gallivan, the veteran incumbent Democrat in leader, which was successful. With his election the South Boston–Dorchester–Roxbury U.S. as majority leader, McCormack became the congressional district. He eventually gained the first New Englander to hold a Democratic seat in a 1928 special election by defeating leadership position in the House in more than eight competitors after Gallivan’s death. It was a century; he held the post from 1940 to 1947. the last time he ever faced serious opposition He remained generally supportive of the New during his long congressional career. McCor- Deal, staying in the background during Ray- mack continued to make friends in his district burn’s cumulative long reign as Speaker. and within Congress. One of his most impor- McCormack acted more as a party facilita- tant early friendships was with Democratic tor than someone with a legislative agenda of leader JOHN NANCE GARNER of Texas. The his own; no major bills carry his name. Late in pair shared party loyalty and a love for playing the postwar period, in January 1962, he became poker. McCormack’s appointment to the pow- the first Roman Catholic Speaker of the House erful House Ways and Means Committee in and served for nine years, his tenure length sec- 1931 signified that he not only was a man to ond only to Rayburn’s. He retired from watch but that his relationship with Garner was Congress in 1970 to care for his ill wife, who cemented. died the next year. He died on November 22, In 1934, McCormack was made chairman 1980, in Boston. of the Special Committee on Un-American Activities. Although Democrat Samuel Dick- stein of New York, who sponsored the bill, had McCormick, Robert Rutherford intended the committee to undertake investi- (1880–1955) newspaper publisher gations of Nazi and anti-Semitic organizations, McCormack turned its focus to the Commu- Born on July 30, 1880, in Chicago, Illinois, and nist Party. It was a shrewd way for him to raised in an atmosphere of privilege, Robert showcase his own American patriotism during McCormick was the son of a diplomat. His a period when Irish Americans were put in a mother was the daughter of Joseph Medill, edi- difficult situation because Ireland hoped to stay tor and publisher of the Chicago Tribune, and neutral in any future world war. Most credit his illustrious family members included his McCormack with conducting an efficient great-uncle Cyrus McCormick, the inventor of investigation that avoided massive abuse of civil the mechanical reaper and founder of the liberties. The committee’s 1938 report resulted McCormick Reaper Company, now Interna- in the requirement that all agents of foreign tional Harvester. Sent first to England to attend powers in the United States had to register Ludgrove, a preparatory school, McCormick themselves. later attended Elstree. He graduated in 1899 McCormack’s conservative ties to Texas as from the Groton preparatory school in Mas- well as to conservative southern candidates in sachusetts, where his schoolmates included the Democratic caucus led to his support in Franklin Roosevelt. early 1937 for Texan SAM RAYBURN as House McCormick continued his education at majority leader. Three years later, after Ray- Yale University, graduating in 1903. He burn had become Speaker of the House and returned briefly to Illinois to attend North- after the death of WILLIAM BANKHEAD, the western University Law School but then tem- Democrat from Alabama, Roosevelt supported porarily dropped the law for politics, winning McCormack’s bid to become House majority a term as an alderman on the Chicago City McCormick, Robert Rutherford 179

Council in 1904. The next year, he won the opposition to American military preparedness, Republican bid for the Chicago Sanitary Dis- and when he accused Ford of threatening his trict presidency, and he served a five-year term. employees’ jobs if they left to defend the Although he did not earn a law degree, he was nation’s border, Ford responded with a libel admitted to the bar in 1908 and simultaneously suit. Although Ford won the suit, he was practiced law while he also engaged in politics. awarded six cents in damages instead of the $1 In 1910, after the death of his uncle million he had sought. It was McCormick who Robert W. Patterson, Jr., McCormick and his emerged victorious from the legal battle, hailed cousin took over the Chicago Tribune. Ever the as a champion of the First Amendment. conservative, McCormick became president In 1917, McCormick supported President of the Chicago Tribune Company the next year Wilson’s entry into World War I. He volun- and headed the business department. His teered again, and he again served with Pershing, cousin, Joseph Medill Patterson, a socialist, rising to the rank of colonel and receiving a coedited the paper. Within half a dozen years, Distinguished Service Medal. In 1919, he the unusual team built the paper’s circulation launched the New York Daily News, which even- from third to first among the eight Chicago tually became the domain of his socialist cousin, dailies. To save money, McCormick acquired who also had served with him in France during paper mills in Quebec and Ontario, Canada. World War I. The Daily News became the most It was during this time that “The World’s successful newspaper in the nation at the same Greatest Newspaper” was added to the paper’s time that under McCormick’s guidance the masthead. Chicago Tribune broke the 1 million–reader The year 1915 proved to be a fateful one in mark to become the best-selling standard-size McCormick’s life. He turned from his legal and newspaper. Using his newspaper’s powerful political interests to devote full attention to the voice, he championed Prohibition, small gov- Tribune. His family connections allowed for the ernment, and isolationism during the 1920s. In governor to make him a colonel in the Illinois 1924, he began Chicago radio station WGN, National Guard, giving him a military title the call letters taken from the initials of the Tri- when he traveled to Europe to cover World bune’s claim of “World’s Greatest Newspaper.” War I as a news correspondent. That same McCormick’s Tribune became a leading year, he published the first of his half-dozen advocate for archconservatism and midwestern books, With the Russian Army, based on his isolationism during the 1930s. He labeled firsthand experiences abroad. It was also in Franklin Roosevelt a communist and pro- 1915 that he wed Amie Irwin Adams; their nounced HERBERT HOOVER as “the greatest marriage was childless. state socialist in history.” He wrote public let- McCormick had opposed American ters to his former Groton schoolmate, address- involvement in the war, but in 1916 he changed ing FDR as “Dear Frank.” He opposed his position after Mexican bandits violated organized labor and considered the New Deal America’s southern border. He supported to be totalitarianism, expressing greatest oppo- Woodrow Wilson’s plan to invade Mexico with sition to the National Recovery Administration. General John J. Pershing in command and vol- McCormick also condemned American unteered for the First Illinois Cavalry, a efforts to become involved in Europe and Asia. National Guard unit that was called to the bor- He blamed FDR personally for maneuvering der. That year, he was also elected as Chicago’s the United States into World War II. He was mayor. McCormick criticized HENRY FORD’s against every congressional effort, including 180 McIntyre, Marvin Hunter

the Lend-Lease Act of 1941, to aid the British the navy. McIntyre liked FDR from the first and others in the battle against Nazi Germany time they met. and Japan. The Tribune released a secret gov- During FDR’s vice-presidential campaign ernment report on military preparedness just in 1920, McIntyre acted as his general assistant prior to the December 1941 Pearl Harbor for publicity. He left government employment attack, which many criticized as a treasonous in 1922 and until 1932 was the East Coast rep- act. McCormick’s denouncements continued resentative for several motion picture newsreel until after Pearl Harbor. During World War II, companies. During the 1932 presidential cam- he stuck with the Republican Party’s candidates paign, he rejoined the Roosevelts, serving as who challenged FDR, supporting WENDELL FDR’s business manager and publicity repre- WILLKIE in 1940 and THOMAS DEWEY in sentative. After his election, FDR made McIn- 1944. tyre an assistant secretary to the president in In 1944, five years after the death of his first charge of appointments. After LOUIS HOWE’s wife, he remarried. His second wife was an old death in 1936, McIntyre replaced him but family friend, Maryland Mathison Hooper, and never exerted the level of influence that Howe theirs was also a childless marriage. The postwar had. He died on December 13, 1943. years were not conducive to McCormick’s polit- ical views either. His nadir may have been after HARRY TRUMAN won election in 1948, when McNary, Charles Linza the jubilant new president posed holding the (1874–1944) Senate minority leader, Republican Chicago Tribune with its “Dewey Defeats Tru- vice-presidential candidate man” banner headline. The photograph became famous and seemed to capture McCormick’s Born to farmer parents on June 12, 1874, in legacy of misplaced predictions over the previ- Salem, Oregon, Charles McNary was orphaned ous 20 years. He died on April 1, 1955, in at age nine. From his work as a farmhand and in Wheaton, Illinois. a tree nursery, he developed a lifelong appreci- ation of trees and the outdoors. He eventually developed two new trees, the American filbert McIntyre, Marvin Hunter and the Imperial prune. (1878–1943) assistant secretary and secretary After completing local public schools, to the president McNary attended Stanford University for one year and then read law in his older brother’s Born in LaGrange, Kentucky, on November law office until he gained admission to the bar 27, 1878, Marvin McIntyre briefly attended in 1898. He practiced the law with his brother Vanderbilt University. Between 1901 and and operated his family’s old farm but also 1908, he handled public relations for several developed an interest in local politics. After railroads. He then switched to the field of serving as dean of Willamette University Law journalism, working as a reporter for several School from 1908 to 1913, he was appointed newspapers during the next decade. During by the Democratic governor as an associate Woodrow Wilson’s administration, he justice to fill a vacancy on the Oregon became special assistant to the secretary of Supreme Court. In 1914, he lost the Republi- the navy, returning to public relations as a can primary election for a full term on the press liaison for the Navy Department while court by a single vote. Two years later, he Franklin Roosevelt was assistant secretary of became the Republican state chairman and McNutt, Paul Vories 181 manager of CHARLES EVANS HUGHES’s presi- McNutt, Paul Vories dential campaign in Oregon. (1891–1955) Indiana governor, U.S. high McNary’s lengthy career in the U.S. Sen- commissioner to the Philippines, Federal ate began unexpectedly in May 1917 with an Security Agency director, War Manpower appointment to fill a vacancy caused by the Commission chairman death of incumbent Harry Lane. McNary won a full term in 1918 and was reelected four times Born in Franklin, Indiana, on July 19, 1891, to with little campaign effort on his part. He was a father who was a lawyer and a homemaker a moderate, pragmatic, flexible, progressive mother, Paul McNutt was raised in Mar- middle-of-the-roader. Throughout his political tinsville, Indiana. In 1913, he graduated from career he retained the support of organized Indiana University and entered Harvard Law labor as well as both wings of the Republican School, graduating in 1916. McNutt served Party. In time he also had support from stateside during World War I and achieved the Franklin Roosevelt and his vice presidents, rank of major. He married Kathleen Timolat in HARRY TRUMAN, ALBEN BARKLEY, and HENRY 1918, and the couple had one daughter. WALLACE.McNary’s ability to forge personal Energetic and handsome, McNutt was also relationships, maintain his word, and reach a political. He had become a law professor at compromise were characteristics central to Indiana University’s law school in 1917 and his success. resumed teaching there after the war. By 1925, McNary first gained national prominence he was dean of the law school. An ambitious in the mid 1920s as the leader of the Senate Democrat, he used the American Legion as his farm bloc. Despite opposition from HERBERT springboard into state politics. He was com- HOOVER, he was elected Senate majority mander of the Legion’s Indiana Department in leader, and after the 1932 Democratic land- 1927, and the next year he became the national slide, he was unanimously elected minority commander. After the onset of the Great leader. He supported most of the early New Depression, the number and strength of the Deal initiatives, including the Tennessee Valley Indiana veterans propelled him into statewide Authority. FDR rewarded him by authorizing consideration for the governorship. the Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River in McNutt’s game plan worked, and after Oregon. He kept Senate Republicans unified declaring his candidacy for the governorship after the controversial Court-packing plan, in early 1932, he coasted to an easy victory over allowing conservative Democrats to attack it his Republican opponent in the November instead. general election. His ambition cost him in the To balance the 1940 Republican presiden- long run, however, after his belated endorse- tial ticket headed by WENDELL WILLKIE, ment of Franklin Roosevelt at the National McNary reluctantly accepted the 1940 nomi- Democratic Convention. He led an uncom- nation for vice president. He campaigned non- mitted delegation from Indiana and managed chalantly for a job he did not really desire. to infuriate FDR’s campaign advisers. It later After FDR’s reelection, he turned down offers proved to have been a strategic blunder for the to become a cabinet member and later declined otherwise “platinum-haired knight,” whose the offer of a Supreme Court seat. Instead he higher political ambitions were obvious. chose to remain in the Senate until he died Nevertheless, McNutt was an important from a brain tumor on February 25, 1944, in New Dealer in Indiana during his single four- Fort Lauderdale, Florida. year term as governor. He was credited with 182 McReynolds, James Clark

instituting a state income tax, welfare laws, and President HARRY S. TRUMAN returned state pensions. His governmental reorganiza- McNutt to the Philippines as high commis- tion plan reduced the number of ever-increas- sioner in the postwar period, and in 1946 he ing departments to only eight, eliminating debt was named as the first U.S. ambassador to the so that by the time he left office, there was a newly independent Philippines. The following surplus in the state treasury. On the other year, he ended his government service and hand, liberals criticized his use of state troop- returned to his law practice until his death on ers to control labor disturbances, and conser- March 24, 1955, in New York City. vatives blasted the requirement for state employees to donate 2 percent of their salaries to the Hoosier Democratic Club. McReynolds, James Clark Barred by the Indiana constitution from (1862–1946) U.S. Supreme Court justice seeking a second term, McNutt was appointed by FDR in 1937 to serve as the U.S. high James McReynolds was born on February 3, commissioner to the Philippines. He held that 1862, in rural Elkton, Kentucky. His father post until 1939, when FDR named him as the was a physician of Scots-Irish descent who first director of the Federal Security Agency was able to send his son to private educational (FSA), which had been established by the institutions. While at Vanderbilt University, Reorganization Act of 1939, a diluted form of McReynolds spent additional time studying the recommendations from LOUIS BROWN- natural history and geology. He graduated in LOW’s committee. The FSA consolidated a 1882, and the next year he earned his law dozen organizations, agencies, and boards, degree from the University of Virginia. He including the Social Security Board, the Public returned to Nashville in 1884 and for the next Health Service, U.S. Office of Education, the two decades not only practiced law but also National Youth Administration, the Civil Con- emerged as a successful businessman. For a servation Corps, the Food and Drug Adminis- few years, he taught at Vanderbilt, and he tration, the U.S. Employment Service, and served briefly as Senator Howell Jackson’s others. McNutt remained at FSA, where he secretary prior to Jackson’s appointment to was effectively co-opted or politically neutral- the U.S. Supreme Court. One of Nashville’s ized, until 1942, when FDR named him to leading figures, McReynolds unsuccessfully chair the War Manpower Commission. ran for Congress in 1896 as a “Gold Demo- McNutt continued to harbor presidential crat,” who wanted to retain the gold standard, ambitions, and “McNutt for President” clubs unlike the Democratic Party’s candidate, began emerging in early 1940. However, FDR’s William Jennings Bryan, who favored a silver decision to run for his unprecedented third standard. term ended that possibility. Rivals in the Roo- It was THEODORE ROOSEVELT who opened sevelt administration instigated an investigation the door to Washington for McReynolds, by the Treasury Department into McNutt’s recruiting him as U.S. attorney general. It was a finances, which left a cloud over his candidacy low-paying position that McReynolds, a bache- for the presidency or even the vice-presidential lor of means, could afford to accept. From 1903 spot. He was forced to withdraw his name from to 1911, he actively pursued trust-busting, but he consideration at the 1940 National Democratic resigned from office over the settlement against Convention and FDR choose HENRY WALLACE the American Tobacco Trust because he consid- to be his running mate. ered it too lenient. Personally, McReynolds so Mellon, Andrew William 183 despised the use of tobacco that he forbade any- Mellon, Andrew William one from smoking in his presence. Following his (1855–1937) financier, industrialist, art collector resignation, he reentered law practice in New York City for two years until he was recruited by The son of a lawyer-banker, Andrew Mellon was Woodrow Wilson, who shared southern roots, born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on March 24, to be his first attorney general. Returning to 1855. He attended local public schools before Washington, McReynolds resumed his trust- entering Western University of Pennsylvania, busting efforts, but only for 18 months. He now the University of Pittsburgh. He dropped proved to be such an irritant to Wilson’s cabinet out of college in 1872 shortly before graduation that the president nominated him to become an to begin work in the business world. In 1880, he associate justice on the Supreme Court as soon as traveled with industrialist Henry Clay Frick to the first opening occurred. Despite vocal oppo- Europe, where he developed what would sition from Senator GEORGE NORRIS (R-Nebr.), become his lifelong interest in collecting art. McReynolds was confirmed by a 44-6 vote. His father made him president of the family As expected from his Jeffersonian/Jack- bank in 1882, and he was so successful in sonian southern perspective, McReynolds expanding it that by the end of the decade, his believed in states’ rights and remained suspi- father had made him the virtual owner of all the cious of distant concentrations of power that family properties. At the same time that Mellon might threaten individual liberty. He was at continued to build the family fortune, he also odds with legal realism and sociological built his art collection. In 1900, he married jurisprudence, which sought to adapt the U.S. Nora May McMullen, an Englishwoman 23 Constitution to changing conditions. Prior years his junior. They had two children before to 1937, he was part of the conservative his deeper commitment to business resulted in majority that repeatedly struck down New the couple’s divorce in 1912. Deal legislation. He became the most con- By then Mellon had become a powerful servative of the so-called Four Horsemen— financial force within the Republican Party. An who included WILLIS VAN DEVANTER, archconservative, he contributed to the presi- GEORGE SUTHERLAND, and PIERCE BUT- dential campaign of CHARLES EVANS HUGHES, LER—the High Court bloc hostile to who nearly defeated Woodrow Wilson in his Franklin Roosevelt’s legislation to deal with 1916 bid for reelection. Mellon also helped the Great Depression. finance the effort to defeat American partici- McReynolds was personally autocratic, pation in the League of Nations. With his especially in dealings with his household maid, financial pockets filled with politicians, espe- butler, and numerous legal secretaries. He was cially the Pennsylvania delegation, Mellon was arrogant, abrasive, and rude to those whom he appointed secretary of the Treasury by Warren disliked, which included African Americans, G. Harding. He held that position through the Jews, and women, especially female lawyers. subsequent administrations of Calvin Coolidge There were no regrets expressed by his and HERBERT HOOVER, despite the fact that brethren when he retired from the bench in Hoover considered Mellon’s economic views 1941. He died on August 24, 1946, in Wash- too extreme. Mellon wanted to lower corporate ington, D.C., and none of his former brethren taxes to encourage growth. His economic poli- attended his funeral—an early indicator that cies as the most powerful presidential adviser in his personal shortcomings would overshadow the 1920s may have encouraged stock-market his professional legacy. speculation. Even after the stock-market crash 184 Mencken, Henry Lewis in 1929, Mellon rejected Hoover’s voluntary Mencken—better known by his initials H. L.— approach to help resolve the bank crisis. Dur- was born on September 12, 1880. His father ing his last year in office, Hoover finally rid was a cigar manufacturer, and his mother was a himself of his Treasury secretary by appointing housewife. He attended a private German him ambassador to Great Britain. school during his younger years but went to While Mellon was serving as ambassador, high school at Baltimore Polytechnic. After his the Congress began an unsuccessful effort to high-school graduation, Mencken longed to hold hearings on him for allegedly violating become a newspaper reporter but instead conflict of interest. Mellon returned home with worked in his father’s growing cigar factory for the end of the Hoover administration and two years that he considered the worst of his resumed the presidency of his Pittsburgh bank. early life. When he was 18, his father died, In 1934, the Roosevelt administration alleged freeing him to pursue his dream of becoming a that Mellon had failed to pay the proper amount newspaper reporter. of income tax in 1931. He was cleared of that Within three months after his father died, charge after many appeals. In the meantime, he Mencken was a cub reporter for the Baltimore followed through with his intent from the late Herald. In six years, he worked his way up the 1920s to donate his art collection to the federal ranks from reporter to city editor to managing government. He had already contributed to the editor to editor. In 1906, he moved to the Bal- beautification of the nation’s capital while serv- timore Sun to become its Sunday editor, and he ing in Washington, D.C. He ultimately pro- garnered local attention as a columnist and edi- vided not only his art collection but also funds to torial writer. He soon began his part-time build and maintain the National Gallery of Art career as a prolific book author as well as a full- on the National Mall. Near the end of his life, time editor from 1908 to 1923 for Smart Set, a he participated in the architectural planning of New York monthly, and columnist for the Bal- the largest granite building in the nation, which timore Evening Sun. He became one of the would house his personal collection. most influential social critics of the 1920s. Mellon died on August 26, 1937, in In 1923, Mencken cofounded the American Southampton, New York. The following year, Mercury, which he would edit for the next his estate paid a token settlement on technical decade. Favoring literary naturalism in which grounds to resolve his income-tax violation of humans are primarily viewed as victims of an 1931. Ironically, the man intensely disliked indifferent environment, he published the fic- while in public office—second only to Herbert tion of Theodore Dreiser, SINCLAIR LEWIS,F. Hoover—redeemed his disastrous economic Scott Fitzgerald, Sherwood Anderson, and oth- policies, his family’s name, and his personal ers. He was an agnostic who disliked literary reputation through the donation of his art col- romanticism and sentimentality. Though he lection, which preserves his better side in the disdained the American South for backward- public memory. ness that he called “the Sahara of the Bozart,” in 1930 he married Sara Haardt, a writer from Montgomery, Alabama. It was a happy mar- Mencken, Henry Lewis riage, but she died five years later at age 37. (1880–1956) journalist, editor During World War I, Mencken had favored Germany. He called himself a monar- The eldest among four children of a German chist who disliked mass democracy, Anglo-Sax- couple in Baltimore, Maryland, Henry Louis ons in general, and Great Britain in particular. Merriam, Charles Edward 185

He held bureaucrats and labor leaders in con- of political science academics, the American tempt. Especially during the early 1930s, his Political Science Association. From 1904 to approach fell out of favor. Mencken also had a 1919, he was a progressive Republican and particular dislike for Franklin Roosevelt, whom active in city government, serving as an alder- he viewed not only as a betrayer of his social man and city councilman. He unsuccessfully class but also as a duplicitous politician. FDR, ran for mayor twice; HAROLD ICKES served as in return, often satirized Mencken. The his campaign manager for his first campaign in enlarged edition of Mencken’s The American 1911. Because Merriam favored efficiency in Language in 1936 helped to restore his popu- local government, Senator ROBERT LA FOL- larity, as did the trilogy of autobiographical LETTE (R-Wis.) would dub him “the Woodrow works, Happy Days (1940), Newspaper Days Wilson of the West.” (1941), and Heathen Days (1943). Returning to Merriam’s academic work led him to pro- his anti-British views during World War II, mote an empirical rather than a strictly nor- kept his political writing silenced. He con- mative approach in studying politics. He would fessed that the Germany that he once admired eventually be considered the father of the no longer existed. behavioral movement in political science. After The postwar years were even more unkind playing a major role in the creation of the to Mencken and his reputation. In the late Social Sciences Research Council (SSRC) in 1940s he suffered a series of strokes. He died 1923, he served as its first president from 1924 on January 29, 1956, in Baltimore. to 1927. The SSRC aimed to link academic social science with governmental policy mak- ing. Merriam was able to forge a funding Merriam, Charles Edward alliance with the Rockefeller Foundation and (1874–1953) National Resources Planning recruited faculty to build his new department, Board member, President’s Committee on which became known as the “Chicago School” Administrative Management member of political science. During the HERBERT HOOVER administration, he helped to create The son of a merchant-postmaster father and and was vice chairman of the President’s schoolteacher mother, Charles Merriam was Research Committee on Social Trends born on November 15, 1874, in Hopkinton, (1929–33), an initiative funded by the Rocke- Iowa, where he grew up in a Republican house- feller Foundation. hold. He attended Lenox College in his home- It was his old tie to Ickes that brought town before entering the University of Iowa, Merriam into the New Deal on July 7, 1933, as where he graduated in 1895. By then his inter- a member of the National Resources Planning ests had changed from the law to the emerging Board (NRPB), created under Title II of the field of political science, and he pursued a doc- National Industrial Recovery Act. The NRPB torate at Columbia University from 1897 to endeavored to link academic research and pub- 1900. While there, he was active in local poli- lic policy, and Merriam became the academic tics and spent a year studying in Germany. philosopher of New Deal planning. He In 1900, Merriam became the first political believed that industrialization and urbaniza- scientist faculty member at the University of tion resulted in new, organized pressure groups Chicago, where he remained until his retire- that replaced individuals as activists. He also ment in 1940. In 1903, he became a founding believed political parties should mediate coop- member of the main professional organization eration among these groups. Conservative 186 Mitchell, Wesley Clair

Democrats and Republicans increasingly the first economic studies based on statistical attacked the NRPB after 1939, fearful of accounting. “socialist” planning agencies. It was terminated After he completed his doctorate in 1899, during spring 1943. Mitchell worked briefly for the U.S. Census Merriam’s more enduring legacy to the New Bureau before returning the next year to the Deal and the presidency itself resulted from his University of Chicago to begin his teaching encouraging FDR to establish the President’s career. After three years, he transferred to the Committee on Administrative Management in University of California at Berkeley, remain- 1936. Merriam collaborated with LUTHER ing there until 1912. That same year, he mar- GULICK and LOUIS BROWNLOW to issue the so- ried Lucy Sprague, the university’s dean of called Brownlow Report. Recommendations women. His bride had inherited a fortune were delayed as well as diluted by the dissent from her Chicago mercantile family, which arising from the Supreme Court–packing plan, afforded the academic couple greater inde- but the report eventually led to the Reorganiza- pendence than most educators. They eventu- tion Act of 1939, which created the Executive ally had four children. Office of the President and the White House After they married, Mitchell and his wife Office. The Bureau of the Budget was trans- moved to New York City to become part of the ferred from the Treasury Department to the faculty at Columbia University in 1913. He left Executive Office. He retired from the University in 1919 but returned in 1922 and remained until of Chicago in 1940, and died on January 8, 1953, 1944. Mitchell soon became associated with in Rockville, Maryland. economic historian Edwin Gay, who persuaded him to move to Washington, D.C., where Gay was the director of the Central Bureau of Plan- Mitchell, Wesley Clair ning and Statistics of the War Industries Board (1874–1948) economist, member of National during World War I. Mitchell eventually Planning Board and National Resources Board became the head of the Price Division of the War Industries Board. Economic data con- Wesley Mitchell was born on August 5, 1874, vinced him of the utility of national economic in Rushville, Illinois, to parents who had been planning. After World War I, Mitchell and Gay abolitionists. His father had been a surgeon in established the National Bureau of Economic the 4th U.S. Colored Infantry during the Civil Research, with Mitchell serving as the research War. Mitchell’s family moved throughout Illi- director from 1920 to 1945. nois numerous times during his childhood. Mitchell also was a founder of the New Mitchell entered the University of Chicago School for Social Research (1919–22). In 1921, and was part of its first graduating class in HERBERT HOOVER, then secretary of com- 1896. While studying there, he was heavily merce, tried unsuccessfully to recruit Mitchell influenced by several of the university’s as the department’s economic adviser. Hoover renowned faculty, including philosopher John shared Mitchell’s quantitative obsession with Dewey and economists Thorstein Veblen and economic data, and after the onetime engineer J. Laurence Laughlin. He chose to study eco- became the 31st U.S. president, he appointed nomics, and his 1903 dissertation—the first of Mitchell to chair his President’s Research his prolific publications in the field—sought to Commission on Social Trends. Mitchell con- link the use of greenbacks to the success of the ducted a comprehensive survey of American Union Army in the Civil War. This was one of society, which resulted in the publication of Moley, Raymond 187

Recent Social Trends in the United States in 1933. farmers and opposing U.S. involvement in Although it failed to predict the Great Depres- both world wars. Moley was influenced by the sion, that study, along with his earlier Recent populist tradition and admired “the Great Economic Changes (1929), established Mitchell’s Commoner” William Jennings Bryan. He also reputation as the leading expert on economic was influenced by the work of Henry George cycles in American society, but it was an exper- (1839–97), especially Progress and Poverty tise markedly lacking in policy recommenda- (1879), which critiqued concentrated economic tions. Nonetheless, its political neutrality power. The career of fellow political scientist allowed Mitchell to receive an appointment in Woodrow Wilson also influenced Moley. Franklin Roosevelt’s Public Works Adminis- Between 1919 and 1923, Moley served as tration, first as a member of its National Plan- the director of the Cleveland Foundation, the ning Board and then on its National Resources nation’s first community trust for civic- Board in 1934–35. improvement projects, which reflected the During the postwar period, Mitchell con- reform spirit of mayor NEWTON DIEHL tinued his prolific economic writings. He BAKER.It was also the vehicle that brought worked with Arthur Burns, the husband of national recognition to Moley. In 1922, the Social Security advocate EVELINE BURNS,on foundation sponsored the Cleveland Crime Measuring Business Cycles in 1946. Mitchell died Survey, which became a model for other cities in New York City on October 29, 1948. and for which he recruited Roscoe Pound and FELIX FRANKFURTER of Harvard Law School. The next year, he moved to Columbia Univer- Moley, Raymond sity, remaining there until he retired in 1954. (1886–1975) speechwriter, assistant secretary Moley’s work on the judicial process of state, economic adviser, editor brought him to the attention of LOUIS HOWE, who as executive secretary of the National Raymond Moley was born on September 27, Crime Commission appointed him as research 1886, in Berea, Ohio. His father was a local director of the New York State Crime Commis- businessman, and he grew up in a traditional sion in 1926. Howe persuaded him to work on Democratic family in Olmstead Falls. He grad- Franklin Roosevelt’s 1928 bid for the governor- uated from Cleveland’s Baldwin-Wallace Col- ship. As a political scientist, Moley recognized lege in 1906 and then immediately returned to that FDR would likely become the Democratic Olmstead Falls to be a teacher and superinten- presidential candidate, so he volunteered his ser- dent of schools until 1910. After suffering a vices to FDR’s campaign in January 1932. His bout of tuberculosis, Moley began teaching writing skills, academic credentials, and tacitur- high school in Cleveland in 1912, and in 1913 nity prompted Judge SAMUEL ROSENMAN to he obtained his M.A. degree in political sci- have Moley draft FDR’s April 7, 1932, “Forgot- ence at Oberlin College. He went on to earn ten Man” speech that blamed rural poverty and his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1918, collapsed commodity prices as causes of the while he was teaching at Western Reserve Uni- Great Depression. Rosenman also had Moley versity (1916–19). His dissertation adviser was assemble FDR’s “Brain Trust”—sometimes the renowned economic historian Charles A. referred to as the “Brains Trust”—of academic Beard, another midwesterner who became his advisers. Moley recruited colleagues REXFORD lifelong friend. The pair shared similar politi- TUGWELL and ADOLF BERLE, along with Basil cal views, agreeing that easterners exploited O’Connor, FDR’s law partner. Moley served as 188 Morgan, Arthur Ernest

the de facto leader for the group that met dur- was reared in St. Cloud, Minnesota. His father ing 1932 for discussions and rejected the was also a surveyor and taught those skills to Woodrow Wilson–LOUIS BRANDEIS emphasis his son, which influenced Morgan to become on antitrust activity in favor of governmental an engineer. In 1905, he took over his father’s regulation of the economy. The Brain Trust dis- small surveying business. Two years later, he banded after the election. moved to Washington, D.C., to work for the From 1932 to 1935, Moley drafted most Office of Drainage Investigations in the of FDR’s speeches and fireside chats. He Department of Agriculture (1907–10). Despite served as assistant secretary of state from his lack of a university degree, he operated his March 4 to early September 1933. He was also own engineering firm in Memphis, Tennessee, FDR’s principal economic adviser at the June from 1910 to 1913. He became a certified 1933 World Monetary and Economic Confer- member of the American Society of Civil Engi- ence held in London. Secretary of State neers and was elected as its vice president in CORDELL HULL, a free trader, forced Moley’s 1927. resignation after the conference because, con- In 1913, Morgan was appointed chief trary to Hull’s wishes, Moley had announced engineer of what became the Miami (Valley) publicly that the United States would support Conservancy District, headquartered in Day- global currency stabilization. ton, Ohio. It consisted of five dams, the largest After leaving the administration, Moley flood-control project of its time. In 1921, he became the founding editor of Today maga- assumed the presidency of the bankrupt Anti- zine, which later merged with Newsweek. Ini- och College, which had been founded in 1853 tially supportive of the New Deal, Moley by educational reformer Horace Mann. By began to perceive FDR as a captive of Frank- the time he left the presidency in 1936, he furter’s anticorporate views as well as too had turned the financial condition of the col- responsive to the labor movement. His formal lege around as well as introduced work-study break with the administration in 1937 resulted programs. from the Supreme Court–packing plan, which Although Morgan had voted for fellow he denounced. He became a Republican the engineer HERBERT HOOVER in 1932 and did next year, developed an enduring friendship not know Franklin Roosevelt, in May 1933 with HERBERT HOOVER, endorsed WENDELL FDR appointed him as chairman of the new WILLKIE in 1940, and then grew to oppose the Tennessee Valley Authority’s (TVA) three- eastern internationalist wing of the GOP. In member board of directors. The president also 1974, Moley published his final book, a biog- approved Morgan’s recommendations for the raphy of his hero, Irish patriot Daniel O’Con- two other board members, DAVID LILIENTHAL nell. He died on February 18, 1975, in and HARCOURT MORGAN.Unfortunately, it Phoenix, Arizona. proved to be a combustible trio. Morgan’s ide- alistic nature and engineering background made him favor regional planning and the Morgan, Arthur Ernest elimination of poverty, not just the pursuit of (1878–1975) Tennessee Valley Authority board cheap power. The older Harcourt Morgan was chairman more conservative than Arthur Morgan, and the younger Lilienthal viewed the chairman as Born on June 20, 1878, in Cincinnati, Ohio, to a tool of the utility companies. By 1936, Arthur Baptist schoolteacher parents, Arthur Morgan Morgan had begun criticizing his colleagues in Morgenthau, Henry, Jr. 189 public, and FDR finally fired him in 1938. As neer. The chairman, suspicious of wealthy with Hoover, Morgan’s supposedly apolitical landowners, favored large-scale planning, engineering values proved too inflexible in the which brought Arthur Morgan into conflict political arena. with Harcourt Morgan, a longtime resident of Nonetheless, his implementation of the the Tennessee Valley. The more conservative original dams and recruitment of the project Harcourt Morgan was equally suspicious of staffs led to the TVA’s early success. Ironically, bureaucratic planning, instead advocating his original idealistic vision is viewed more “grassroots democracy” that would not disrupt sympathetically in retrospect since the TVA the local consensus. evolved into a huge bureaucracy in the decades After Arthur Morgan tried to oppose after World War II. Morgan outlived many of Lilienthal’s reappointment to the board in his critics, dying on November 15, 1975, in 1936, Harcourt Morgan joined with Lilienthal Xenia, Ohio. to oppose the chairman, who began to criti- cize his colleagues publicly. As a result, FDR fired Arthur Morgan in 1938. Harcourt Mor- Morgan, Harcourt Alexander gan, who served on the board until 1948, (1867–1950) Tennessee Valley Authority board replaced Arthur Morgan as chairman in 1938 director; director and chairman and held the chairmanship until 1941, when Lilienthal became chairman. He retired in Harcourt Morgan was born on August 31, 1948 at the age of eighty. Harcourt Morgan 1867, in Strathroy, Ontario, Canada. He grad- died on August 25, 1950. uated from the University of Toronto in 1889 and pursued graduate work in science at Cor- nell University from 1891 to 1898. While Morgenthau, Henry, Jr. employed as an entomologist and horticultur- (1891–1967) Federal Farm Bureau chairman, ist at Louisiana State University in Baton Farm Credit Administration governor, secretary Rouge from 1889 to 1894, Morgan worked of the Treasury with parish extension agents and the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s experimental sta- Henry Morgenthau, Jr., born on May 11, 1891, tions. He later became affiliated with the Uni- in New York City, was the only son of affluent versity of Tennessee, first as director of its Jewish parents. The vast success of his business- Agricultural Experiment Station from 1905 to man father caused him to suffer insecurities 1913 and then as dean of the College of Agri- about his own abilities. His father’s success culture from 1913 to 1919. In 1919, he became extended to national politics: the senior Mor- president of the University of Tennessee. genthau served as the financial head of the Morgan’s 1933 appointment by FDR to Democratic National Committee in 1912 and the three-person board of the Tennessee Valley 1916 and was Woodrow Wilson’s emissary to Authority, which was backed by commercial Turkey. The junior Morgenthau entered farmers, marked the beginning of his involve- Phillips Exeter Academy in 1904 but left after ment with the New Deal. He supervised fertil- two years and completed his college prepara- ization production and agricultural policy tion at the Sachs Collegiate Institute in New while chairman ARTHUR MORGAN oversaw York City. The pattern was repeated in his dam construction, education, and rural life, and less-than-impressive college performance: he DAVID LILIENTHAL was public-policy engi- entered Cornell University but never graduated. 190 Murphy, Frank

While in Texas recovering from typhoid his assistance in creating the War Refugee fever in 1911, Morgenthau developed an inter- Board to assist refugees from Nazi Germany. est in agriculture. Two years later, his father Although he helped to keep the dollar sound helped him to purchase a large cattle and apple while financing America’s participation in farm in southern Dutchess County, New York, World War II, Morgenthau is sometimes 15 minutes from Franklin Roosevelt’s Hyde faulted in the recession of 1937–38. At the 44- Park estate. Within two years, gentlemen nation Bretton Woods conference in July 1944, farmers Morgenthau and Roosevelt had devel- he helped to establish the International Mon- oped what would become a lifelong friendship, etary Fund and World Bank. On the other and in FDR the younger Morgenthau found a hand, he advocated the so-called Morgenthau substitute father figure. Plan for postwar Germany, under which Ger- In 1916, Morgenthau married Elinor Fat- many would have become an agricultural soci- man, whose maternal grandfather had been a ety. FDR initially had favored the idea at the founding partner in the banking house of second Quebec conference in 1944 but had Lehman Brothers, and whose uncle was HER- come to reject it by the time of the February BERT LEHMAN.Morgenthau’s wife and ELEA- 1945 Yalta conference. Morgenthau resigned NOR ROOSEVELT also became close friends. after FDR’s death. The Roosevelts and the Morgenthaus became The Morgenthaus became the Roosevelts’ especially close after FDR contracted polio in closest Jewish family friends, and Henry Mor- 1921. They spent countless hours playing genthau was the only Jew in FDR’s cabinet. board games and discussing farm issues and When Elinor Morgenthau died on September local politics. After FDR was elected governor 21, 1949, Eleanor Roosevelt delivered the of New York in 1928, he appointed Morgen- eulogy at her funeral. In 1951 he married Mar- thau as chairman of the Agricultural Advisory garet Puthon Hirsch, and spent the remainder Committee and then as commissioner of con- of his life primarily as a philanthropist. Mor- servation in 1930. In that role, Morgenthau genthau died on February 6, 1967, in Pough- worked closely with HARRY HOPKINS to keepsie, New York. accomplish a major state reforestation project. After FDR was elected president, he appointed Morgenthau chairman of the Fed- Murphy, Frank eral Farm Bureau. He also became the gover- (1890–1949) Detroit mayor, governor-general of nor of the new Farm Credit Administration, the Philippines, U.S. high commissioner to the helping farmers refinance their mortgages. By Philippines, Michigan governor, U.S. attorney 1934, he was the secretary of the Treasury and general, U.S. Supreme Court justice eventually served longer in that position than all his predecessors except ANDREW MELLON. Frank Murphy was born on April 13, 1890, in He was more conservative than FDR, and he what is now Harbor Beach, Michigan. His lacked media skills—Roosevelt sometimes father was a Canadian-born Irish-Catholic would refer humorously to him as “Henry the lawyer who in his youth had been jailed for Morgue”—but Morgenthau was also honest, Fenian (Irish Republican) sympathies; his compassionate, hardworking, and efficient, as great-grandfather had been hanged by the well as totally loyal to FDR. His basic decency British as an insurrectionist. Murphy attended was also reflected in his opposition to the relo- local public schools, and although he hated cation of Japanese Americans in 1941 as well as exams he was an enthusiastic debater during Murphy, Frank 191

the urban political base he needed, he aban- doned his previous “law and order” record and became a progressive judge who won local acclaim for his stance on the rights of labor and blacks. In 1930, the politically ambitious and artic- ulate Murphy was elected mayor of Detroit, and he won reelection in 1931. He became the first president of the U.S. Conference of May- ors. He was an early supporter of Franklin Roosevelt and campaigned for him in Michi- gan in 1932. After FDR won the presidency, he rewarded Murphy in 1933 by naming him gov- ernor-general of the Philippines, a post he held until 1936. Murphy supported the Filipino independence campaign, and during the 10- year commonwealth phase to independence, he became the Philippines’ first high commis- sioner in 1935. In response to FDR’s wishes, he returned to Michigan in 1936 and campaigned successfully for the governorship, implement- ing a “Little New Deal” in the state while he Justice Frank Murphy (Library of Congress) played to the crowds as a champion of prolabor principles. He was criticized for ignoring court both high school and college. He earned his injunctions against strikers. Mobilizing the undergraduate degree in 1912 and his law National Guard for the limited purpose of degree in 1914, both from the University of restoring order during the 1937 General Michigan. While Ireland remained neutral in Motors sit-down strike, Murphy did not allow World War I, Murphy proved his patriotism by them to remove strikers from the factories even serving with the American Expeditionary though he felt the strikes were illegal. He also Force in France, but he never experienced allowed the families of strikers to collect state combat. He briefly studied law at Lincoln’s Inn relief. Although he presided during one of the in London and Trinity College in Dublin dur- first times that state government had remained ing the postwar period. Upon his return to the neutral in a major strike and had supported United States, he served as a U.S. attorney in New Deal reforms, Murphy lost his bid for Michigan and participated in the government’s reelection in 1938. prosecution of radicals. He supported U.S. FDR appointed him as U.S. attorney gen- attorney general A. Mitchell Palmer’s failed eral the next year. Murphy investigated the presidential bid in 1920. After Murphy was THOMAS PENDERGAST machine in Kansas badly defeated in a congressional race that City with his characteristic energy, and the same year, he resigned as a federal prosecutor investigation led to its demise. He also created in early 1922 to practice and teach law. The the first civil-liberties unit in the Department next year, he won a seat on Detroit’s Recorder’s of Justice. In November 1939, against Mur- Court and was reelected in 1929. To appeal to phy’s personal wishes, FDR forced him to 192 Murray, Philip

accept the opening on the U.S. Supreme Court ethnic and religious minority that had been following the death of conservative justice subjected to discrimination, Murphy wanted PIERCE BUTLER, a Roman Catholic from Min- the Bill of Rights applied on a universal basis. nesota. The move meant it would be unlikely His best work on the Supreme Court empha- that Murphy could pursue his presidential sized a call for universal justice, and his record ambitions. of personal generosity, although he was a per- FDR got what he wanted with his fifth son of limited means, left him penniless when appointment to the Supreme Court as Mur- he died in Detroit on July 19, 1949. phy joined the liberals on the court, HUGO BLACK and WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS (and later WILEY RUTLEDGE, JR.). Accused of “voting his Murray, Philip heart,” he may have been the most liberal jus- (1886–1952) national union leader tice ever to serve on the bench. Justice FELIX FRANKFURTER came to view Murphy as part of The son of Irish-Catholic parents who had the judicial “Axis” that would not loyally follow recently moved from Ireland, Philip Murray his governmental conformity during World was born on May 25, 1886, in New Glasgow, War II, and as a result it may have been Frank- Scotland. His father had relocated to Scotland furter who sarcastically characterized Murphy’s to find work in coal mines there, and he tendency to moralize his jurisprudence as became the head of a local coal-miners union. “tempering justice with Murphy.” Murray went to work in the coal mines with his During World War II, Murphy stunned father when he was 10 years old. When he was his brethren by volunteering for military ser- 16, his family immigrated to the United States, vice and undergoing infantry training at Fort where both Murray and his father found jobs in Knox in 1942. Perhaps influenced by the the coal mines near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. legacy of his father and great-grandfather, Although he had left school, Murray managed Murphy stood up against those in power for to complete his education through correspon- what he believed, and he seemed to have dence courses. matured while on the Supreme Court. For In 1904, Murray triggered an unsuccessful example, he sided with protection of the rights strike after he accused a company official of of Jehovah’s Witnesses even though they cheating him. He lost that battle but went on attacked the Catholic Church. As mayor of to win the local presidency of the United Mine Detroit, as a criminal court judge, and during Workers of America (UMWA). Murray’s his brief army stint in southern states, Murphy energy, charm, and egalitarian style assisted his had witnessed racism and hated it. He became climb up the union ranks. In 1910, he married the only liberal on the Court to dissent in Kore- Elizabeth Lavery, and they subsequently matsu v. U.S. (1944), insisting the majority adopted a son. decision against Japanese Americans was a Murray was elected to the international “legalization of racism.” He developed one of executive board of the UMWA in 1912. Four the strongest civil-liberties records ever on the years later, he was president of District 5, bench. He supported the right to picket and which included Pittsburgh. During World War the rights of conscientious objectors, Native I, he served as a member of the War Labor Americans, and suspects, in addition to imple- Board and the National Coal Production menting a constitutional standard for the Committee. In 1920, JOHN L. LEWIS appointed Tokyo War Crimes Trials. As a member of an him vice president of the union after Lewis Murrow, Edward R. 193 became its president. Murray demonstrated through the National Labor Relations Board both loyalty to Lewis and an ability to resolve finally achieved success in 1941. disputes using his persuasive skills. He also After the more belligerent and inflexible aided Lewis in purging radicals from the union. Lewis resigned as president of the CIO in 1940 During the 1930s, Murray used the with FDR’s third-term victory, Murray was National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) to elected to replace him. As Murray became a build up union membership. After the U.S. close adviser to FDR and supported the presi- Supreme Court invalidated the NIRA in May dent’s war policies, tensions increased between 1935 (Schechter Poultry Corporation v. U.S.), Lewis and Murray. In 1942, Lewis led the Murray became a board member of the UMWA out of the CIO, and SWOC became National Recovery Administration and aided in the United Steel Workers of America. Murray the drafting of the Guffey-Snyder Bituminous demonstrated his patriotism by agreeing to a Coal Stabilization Act of 1935. The bill nar- “no-strike pledge” for the duration of the war, rowly passed the Congress, and Franklin Roo- although his native country remained neutral sevelt signed it into law on August 30, 1935, in World War II, as it had in World War I. only to have the Supreme Court declare it Murray supported the CIO’s participation in unconstitutional the next year. Following the National War Labor Board. In 1943, he FDR’s landslide reelection in 1936, Congress organized the CIO’s Committee on Political passed the Guffey-Vinson Bituminous Coal Act Education to mobilize voter registration drives of 1937, which FDR signed on April 26, 1937, among union members. During the postwar and which reenacted most of the provisions that period, he sought to remove communist-led had been in the Guffey-Snyder version. unions from the CIO. Murray died on In 1935, Murray, Lewis, and SIDNEY HILL- November 9, 1952, in San Francisco. MAN of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers formed the Committee for Industrial Organi- zation, later renamed the Congress of Industrial Murrow, Edward R. Organizations (CIO), breaking from the Amer- (Egbert Roscoe Murrow) ican Federation of Labor, which remained com- (1908–1965) broadcast journalist mitted to only organizing unions by craft. In May 1936, Murray was appointed the head of Edward R. Murrow became America’s most the Steel Workers Organizing Committee important radio broadcaster of the 20th cen- (SWOC) and led one of the most successful tury. He was born in the Deep South, raised in industrywide mass-production strikes in Amer- the Northwest, and worked in the Northeast. ican history. By spring 1937, Murray had nego- His trans-American experiences would be cru- tiated a contract with United States Steel, cial for his pioneering broadcasts from Europe which recognized SWOC as the bargaining during World War II, which brought his agent for the company’s employees. U.S. Steel trusted voice into homes across the nation. He thereby avoided the sit-down strikes that had was born Egbert Roscoe Murrow on April 25, occurred at General Motors during the same 1908, in Polecat Creek, near Greensboro, time. Though Murray was less successful in his North Carolina. His father was a farmer and actions against the “Little Steel” corporations, railroad man, and his mother was a teacher. and a series of strikes culminated in the The family moved to Washington State near “Memorial Day Massacre” in South Chicago, Blanchard, where he attended high school and his persistence in seeking legal sanctions then worked his way through Washington 194 Mussolini, Benito

State College. His natural leadership ability the newsmagazine, and investigative reports emerged in high school and in college, where like his critique of Senator Joseph McCarthy he majored in speech but also studied political (R-Wis.) in 1954. Frustrated by CBS’s prefer- science and international relations. There he ence for profits from entertainment programs changed his first name from Egbert to Edward. over serious news, Murrow accepted the posi- After he completed college, Murrow tion as the director of the United States Infor- became the assistant director of the Institute of mation Agency in 1961. Due to lung cancer, he International Education. In 1934, he married resigned three years later. He died on April 27, Janet Huntington Brewster, also a broadcast 1965, in Pawling, New York. journalist, and the couple had one son. It was in 1935 that he began his career with Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), then one of the Mussolini, Benito nation’s two major radio networks. In 1937, (1883–1945) Italian dictator Murrow was sent to London as the network’s European director. The next year, he traveled Benito Mussolini was born on July 29, 1883, to to Poland when ADOLF HITLER invaded Aus- a socialist father and schoolteacher mother. His tria, and in the first of what would be 5,000 birthplace was Predappio in the east-central career broadcasts, he covered the so-called Romagna region of Italy known for its poverty Anschluss, or union of Germany and Austria. as well as its political radicalism. An unruly stu- He went on to cover the Munich Conference, dent, he was expelled from several boarding at which the appeasement-seeking British schools. He obtained a certificate as a prime minister NEVILLE CHAMBERLAIN schoolteacher in 1902 and spent the next acceded to Hitler’s demand to annex the Sude- decade as an itinerant teacher, journalist, and tenland of Czechoslovakia. socialist activist in Switzerland, Austria, and Murrow became a household name in the Italy. He was imprisoned briefly several times United States during his coverage of the Battle for advocating violence against employers. In of Britain in 1940. His resonant voice, vivid 1915, he married Rachele Guidi, and they style, and the dramatic backdrop of bomb eventually had five children. His oldest daugh- explosions and sirens captured the immediacy ter, Edda, married Count Galeazzo Ciano, who of the situation for listeners back home. The would become his foreign minister in 1936. broadcasts also persuaded many that Nazi Ger- Mussolini’s entry into politics came about many’s actions justified American support for in 1912 through his editorship of the Social- the British. Murrow helped to create interna- ist Party’s paper, published in Milan. His tional on-the-scene global broadcast reporting, views on World War I changed from his initial which attracted talented print journalists to the argument against nationalism and Italy’s entry field, including Charles Collingwood, Eric into the war to the opposite view, which Sevareid, William Shirer, and Howard K. resulted in his dismissal and expulsion from Smith. the party. In 1914, he became editor of his Murrow made the successful transition own pro-war newspaper, which eventually from radio to television news during the post- became the voice of the fascist movement. war period. With his trademark cigarette in When Italy entered World War I, Mussolini hand, he interviewed ELEANOR ROOSEVELT, served briefly in the army as a sharpshooter. film stars, and politicians as well as scholars In 1917, he was wounded, and upon his return and scientists. He pioneered in-depth features, from the front, he denounced socialism and Mussolini, Benito 195 founded the Fascist Party in Milan on March Europe. In 1929, the Lateran Pact resolved a 23, 1919, with support from war veterans and long-standing dispute with the Vatican, and in others. July 1934, Mussolini forced ADOLF HITLER to Middle-class fears of a socialist revolution back down when he attempted a coup in Aus- led to the May 1921 election of Mussolini and tria. He was furious after Britain and France other fascists to the parliament as a coalition refused to help Austria. against the socialists. Disillusioned with In 1935, Mussolini launched a successful democracy, Mussolini wanted to become the attack against Ethiopia, the last independent dictator who would restore order and grandeur kingdom in Africa, in large part to compen- to Italy. The next year, the fascists planned a sate for the 1869 Ethiopian defeat of Italy. In coup d’état after the pugnacious bluffer threat- 1936, following German remilitarization of ened to have his Blackshirt followers “march the Rhineland and failure by Britain and on Rome.” Caving in to his threat, King Victor France to stand up to Hitler, Mussolini moved Emmanuel III asked Mussolini to form a new closer to Hitler despite the German leader’s government. As a result, Mussolini became the dismissal of him in 1934 as a funny little man youngest prime minister in Italian history on of no consequence. After the League of October 30, 1922. The next month, the Italian Nations condemnations against Mussolini parliament granted him unlimited authority to failed to include an oil embargo, Italy pulled restore order. In January 1925, he declared a out of the League in 1937. By abandoning dictatorship, calling himself Il Duce. Italy’s traditional role as a balancer of power Mussolini played on the disappointment between the West and the Soviet Union, he that many Italians felt toward Woodrow Wil- fundamentally doomed himself by siding with son and the Allies for not meeting their terri- Hitler. After a series of military defeats during torial expectations after World War I. After World War II, the fascist Grand Council quashing the strikes and riots that had plagued voted no-confidence in him, and the king the country, he launched massive public-works deposed him on July 26, 1943. The Nazis projects to put many Italians back to work. He came to his aid and installed him as the pup- venerated the state and wanted a hierarchical pet head of the Italian Social Republic at Salo society with himself at the top. Only 5’7” tall on Lake Garda until the collapse of the Third but a charismatic bully, Mussolini came to Reich. Attempting to flee Switzerland with believe he was infallible. Initially he had many his mistress, Claretta Petacci, Mussolini was diplomatic successes. Italy was among the first captured by Italian partisans who executed the to recognize the Soviet Union in 1924, and the couple on April 28, 1945. Their bodies were next year the Locarno Treaty allowed for col- strung up by the heels in dishonor and lective security in the Rhineland and eastern exposed to public view in a Milan piazza. N w

Nelson, Donald Marr In 1944, Nelson was forced out of office (1888–1959) federal administrator when he lost a major battle with the military, which opposed early gradual reconversion of Born the son of a locomotive engineer on the economy to civilian production in order to November 17, 1888, in Hannibal, Missouri, maintain full employment. FDR then assigned Donald Nelson chose to become an engineer him to missions in the Soviet Union and China of a different kind, obtaining his degree in as compensation. He left government service chemical engineering at the University of Mis- after the war and died in Los Angeles, Califor- souri in 1911. He began his 30-year career with nia, on September 29, 1959. Married five Sears, Roebuck and Company in 1912, work- times, he had no children. ing his way up the corporate ladder to execu- tive vice president by 1939. In contrast to most businessmen who Niebuhr, Reinhold opposed Franklin Roosevelt and the New (1892–1971) theologian, religious leader Deal, Nelson was a liberal who supported organized labor. As a result, FDR recruited Born on June 21, 1892, in Wright City, Mis- him in 1940 to assist in mobilizing the souri, Reinhold Niebuhr was the son of an nation’s economy for wartime. He initially immigrant German preacher, a minister of the headed the National Defense Advisory Com- German Evangelical School of North America. mittee in June 1940, switching in January His mother worked as parish assistant and 1941 to head the Division of Purchases of the church organist. One of four children, Niebuhr Office of Production Management. In July grew up in Missouri and Illinois. From his time 1941, he became head of the Supply, Priori- in Illinois, he was influenced by Abraham Lin- ties, and Allocation Board. An able adminis- coln, who became his political hero. Appropri- trator, Nelson was appointed by FDR in ately enough, the Niebuhr family moved when January 1942 as head of the War Production he was 10 years old to Lincoln, Illinois, a city Board, which dealt with all aspects of eco- with a large German-American population. He nomic mobilization, the economic conversion completed the ninth grade at Lincoln High to wartime production, and the allocation of School and then attended boarding school at materials. the German-Evangelical Synod’s preseminary,

196 Niebuhr, Reinhold 197

Elmhurst College near Chicago, graduating in In 1928, Niebuhr left the pulpit and 1910. Intending to follow his father into the Detroit to teach at the Union Theological ministry, Niebuhr went to the Synod’s Eden Seminary in New York. He became the most Theological Seminary near St. Louis. After he influential Protestant theologian during the received his divinity degree in 1913, he was Great Depression. The following year, he ordained as a minister. Neibuhr’s failure to joined the Socialist Party, whose leaders obtain a regular Bachelor of Arts degree from included NORMAN THOMAS, also a Protestant a liberal arts college made him question his minister. In 1930, Niebuhr became the party’s academic and scholarly background. During candidate for the New York state senate from that same spring, his father died unexpectedly, the Upper West Side of Manhattan, but he lost and he subsequently served briefly as interim badly. In 1931, he married Ursula Keppel- pastor of his father’s church. Compton, a theology student from England Niebuhr moved to the East Coast in the with whom he had two children. fall of 1913 to attend Yale Divinity School. He Although he had lost the state senate race, received his second B.D. degree there in 1914 Niebuhr ran for Congress from the same dis- and the next year earned his master of arts trict in 1932 but fared no better in that race. degree. After he completed his education, he After the 1932 election, one of his most impor- was ordained a minister of the Evangelical and tant books was published. Moral Man and Reformed Church (now part of the United Immoral Society reflected his “Christian real- Church of Christ). From 1915 to 1928, he ism” philosophy. In his view, a pluralist society served as the pastor of Bethel Evangelical consisted of conflicting power blocs so that Church in Detroit, which would be his only large groups had to champion just causes. It congregation. was that position that, by 1940, had led him to As a theologian, Niebuhr downplayed turn from the Socialist Party because of its dogma and ritual in favor of magnanimity in belief in pacifism. The rise of European fascism one’s personal and social existence. However, caused Niebuhr to turn from his pacifist beliefs during World War I, he was less forgiving to denounce ADOLF HITLER and BENITO MUS- when he purged the German-Evangelical SOLINI.In 1941, he founded a new magazine, Synod of pro-German views, crusading against Christianity and Crisis, as an alternative to the “disloyalty” within the church and banning pacifism of the Christian Century. He also German-language services. chaired the Union for Democratic Action Niebuhr developed a reputation as a great (UDA), which was composed of former Social- orator. In 1922, he became a contributor and ists who had grown frustrated with that party’s editorial writer for the Christian Century. He isolationism. The UDA stood for promoting defined politics as “seeking justice in an unjust labor rights but was both anticommunist and world,” and wanted to build a labor party like antifascist. RAMSEY MACDONALD’s in Britain. He cam- Niebuhr supported the lend-lease pro- paigned against the Ku Klux Klan in 1925 by gram and traveled to England on behalf of the supporting the successful Catholic candidate Office of War Information to support the in Detroit’s mayoral race. He also campaigned British public and Allied troops. He also against HENRY FORD’s industrial policy, which chaired a new group, the American Friends of in his view undermined workers. Niebuhr German Freedom, to promote German wanted to combine religious belief with polit- democrats. He lobbied the Roosevelt adminis- ical action to achieve justice in the world. tration to allow Jewish emigration to the 198 Norris, George William

United States. In 1944, he supported the progressives. He first attracted national atten- founding of the Liberal Party of New York. tion when he participated in the 1910 St. He remained a liberal anticommunist during Patrick’s Day coup against the Speaker of the the postwar period, and in 1947 he helped House, Joseph Cannon, the powerful conser- found the Americans for Democratic Action, vative Republican from Illinois whose power which grew out of the UDA. was greatly reduced as the result of an alliance Perhaps Niebuhr’s most enduring legacy between progressive Republicans and from the 1940s is his “Serenity Prayer,” later Democrats. The Speaker’s previous over- adopted by Alcoholics Anonymous. By 1952, whelming power was divided among the chair- he had suffered a series of strokes that left him men of the permanent committees. partially paralyzed. Still, he continued to teach During the 1920s, Norris’s support for the at the Union Theological Seminary until 1960, Republican Party continued to erode because when he retired. He died on June 1, 1971, in of his belief that the Warren Harding, Calvin Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Coolidge, and HERBERT HOOVER administra- tions were too much under the influence of corporate wealth. In 1925, after the death of Norris, George William Wisconsin senator Robert M. La Follette, Sr., (1861–1944) U.S. senator Norris became the de facto leader of the con- gressional progressives. The conservatives The 11th of 12 children in an Ohio farm fam- struck back in 1930 after Norris’s public ily, George Norris experienced the effects of endorsement of AL SMITH for president in war throughout his life, which began with his 1928. They found another George Norris and birth on July 11, 1861, during the Civil War ran him unsuccessfully against Norris in the and ended during World War II. In 1864, his Republican primary. The courts blocked the father died from pneumonia and an older political ploy. brother was killed in the Civil War. Norris In the 1932 presidential election, Norris attended local schools before entering Ohio’s not only endorsed Franklin Roosevelt publicly, Baldwin University in 1877. He left in 1878 but also campaigned for the Democratic can- and subsequently taught school for a year and didate. Consequently the two became political then graduated in 1880 from Northern Indiana allies as well as personal friends. Norris was Normal School. He graduated from its law the principal author of the Tennessee Valley school in 1883. After teaching school for two Authority Act in 1933. He sponsored the Rural years in Ohio and Washington, he moved in Electrification Act of 1936, the Farm Forestry 1885 to Nebraska and began his law practice. Act of 1937, and a “little TVA” program for By the early 1890s, Norris was involved in Nebraska. In keeping with the philosophy of local politics. In 1892, he won election as a progressives to eliminate politics from the county prosecutor. Three years later, he won a political process, Norris played a major role in district judgeship. His congressional career converting the bicameral Nebraska legislature began in 1902 when, as a Republican he was into a unicameral body. In 1936, with FDR’s elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, support, he ran successfully for a fifth Senate where he remained for a decade. He was then term as an Independent Progressive rather elected to the U.S. Senate and served for 30 than as a Republican. years. Although he was a conservative when he Norris became the only leading Senate iso- entered politics, he gradually sided with the lationist to abandon his former foreign-policy Nye, Gerald Prentice 199 position to support most of FDR’s prewar pro- supported most of the New Deal. In 1934, he posals. He became the first member of became the chair of the seven-member Senate Congress to denounce publicly J. EDGAR Special Committee Investigating the Muni- HOOVER, the director of the Federal Bureau of tions Industry, which had grown out of the dis- Investigation. At age 81, Norris sought reelec- illusionment with U.S. involvement in World tion to a sixth term, running again as an Inde- War I. From September 1934 through Febru- pendent Progressive, but lost. Despite FDR’s ary 1936, the colorful and articulate chairman offers of various positions in the administra- of the so-called Nye Committee hearings tion, Norris declined and opted for retirement attracted sensational national media coverage. due to declining health. He completed his Testimony came from nearly 200 witnesses, autobiography shortly before his death on including business and financial giants J. P. September 2, 1944, in McCook, Nebraska. Morgan and the du Ponts. The committee rec- Post–World War II polls of scholars rank Nor- ommended governmental regulation of the ris among the top five greatest U.S. senators in munitions industry to lessen the likelihood of American history. American involvement in foreign wars. It also suggested a link between business and the exec- utive branch (war, navy, and state departments) Nye, Gerald Prentice in promoting the armaments race and war. (1892–1971) U.S. senator Though the Nye Committee failed to enact the legislation it proposed, it contributed to the Gerald Nye, the son of a progressive Republi- enactment of neutrality legislation from 1935 to can newspaper publisher, was born on Decem- 1937. FDR initially supported the Nye Com- ber 19, 1892, in Hortonville, Wisconsin. He mittee until war became likely. Nye first broke grew up in Wittenberg, Wisconsin, and grad- with FDR during the controversy over the uated from high school there in 1911. Instead Court-packing plan in 1937. Two years later, he of attending college, Nye began his career as a became one of the leading opponents of FDR’s newspaper editor on small-town newspapers in attempt to repeal the neutrality acts. From 1940 Wisconsin and Iowa before moving to North until the December 1941 Japanese attack on Dakota in 1916. There, in 1925, he was Pearl Harbor, Nye was one of the leading ora- appointed as a progressive Republican to fill tors for the America First Committee, which the vacancy caused by the death of an incum- opposed American entry into World War II, bent U.S. senator. He won a full term in 1926 charging that FDR was going to use interven- and was reelected in 1932 and 1938. tion in the European war to cover the failure of Nye considered the American farmer to be the New Deal to end the Great Depression. the backbone of the nation and was suspicious Nye was defeated for reelection in 1944 and of what he considered favoritism toward urban quickly faded from national attention. He died business interests. In the 1930s, he initially on July 17, 1971, in suburban Maryland. O w

Olds, Leland From 1931 to 1939, Olds was the executive (1890–1960) member of federal commissions, secretary for the newly established New York chairman of Federal Power Commission Power Commission. It was during this period that he developed a strong belief in national eco- Born on December 31, 1890, in Rochester, nomic planning. In 1937, Franklin Roosevelt New York, Leland Olds was the son of an appointed him to the Commission to Study Amherst College mathematics professor. In Cooperative Enterprise Abroad. Olds wrote the 1912, he graduated from Amherst College, commission’s report, “Inquiry on Cooperative Massachusetts, where his father, who had Enterprise in Europe.” On June 22, 1939, FDR become the chair of the mathematics depart- rewarded Olds’s work with an appointment to a ment in 1891, would become president in five-year term on the Federal Power Commis- 1924. Olds pursued graduate work in eco- sion (FPC). He was made chair the next year and nomics and sociology at Harvard University reappointed in 1944. HARRY TRUMAN reap- and then at Columbia University. He engaged pointed him again in 1949, but senators from in social work in Boston’s South End, which gas-producing states used the opportunity to red- led him to study for two years at Union The- bait him, and the Senate rejected his confir- ological Seminary. Afterward, he served mation by a vote of 53 to 15. In reality, the briefly as a minister in a poor section of opposition grew from senators representing gas- Brooklyn. producing state who did not want the FPC to During World War I, Olds worked for the regulate wellhead prices for natural gas. Lyndon Council of National Defense, the Shipbuilding Johnson, the Texas Democrat, played a major Labor Adjustment Board, and the National role in Olds’s defeat. Olds died from a heart War Labor Board. From 1920 to 1922, he attack in Bethesda, Maryland, on August 3, 1960. served as head of the American Federation of Labor’s research bureau. He next worked as industrial editor for the Federated Press, a Olson, Culbert labor news agency. In 1924, he married Maud (1876–1962) California governor Agnes Spear. The couple, who had four chil- dren, lived in Northbrook, Illinois, until 1929 Born to Scandinavian immigrant parents on and then moved to New York. November 7, 1876, Culbert Olson was a native

200 Olson, Floyd Bjornstjerne 201 of Millard County, Utah. He attended Brigham ular state attorney general Earl Warren, who Young University and then became a newspaper decisively defeated him by running a less parti- reporter and city editor in Ogden, Utah. A san campaign that supported FDR’s war policy. Democrat, he admired William Jennings Bryan. It was Olson’s final political campaign. He died After his cousin, William H. King, a Utah two decades later on April 13, 1962. Democrat, was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1897, Olson moved to Wash- ington, D.C., to serve as his secretary. While liv- Olson, Floyd Bjornstjerne ing in the nation’s capital, Olson earned his law (1891–1936) Minnesota governor degree from Columbian University, later George Washington University. He returned to Utah in Floyd Olson was born on November 13, 1891, 1901 to practice law and became active in local in , Minnesota, the son of an immi- politics. He won a seat in the Utah legislature in grant railroad worker, and brought up in the 1916, the same year his cousin was first elected to poor section of North Minneapolis. In high the U.S. Senate, where King served until 1941. school he earned a name for himself as a debater In 1920, the progressive Democrat Olson and actor. He entered the University of Min- moved his family to Los Angeles, California, nesota in 1910, majoring in pre-law, but had to where he began his law practice. The move was drop out of college in 1911 due to financial dif- in large part Olson’s reaction to the conservative ficulties. For a short time afterward, he was an political culture in Utah. By 1932, he had itinerant worker in Alaska, Canada, and Wash- become the president of the Los Angeles Demo- ington, where he briefly joined the “Wobblies,” cratic Club, and he campaigned for Franklin as the Industrial Workers of the World were Roosevelt that year. Two years later, he won a called. After he returned to Minneapolis in seat in the California senate and became the state 1913, he worked as a legal clerk while complet- Democratic chairman. Olson was a liberal who ing his law degree at night during two years at viewed the author UPTON SINCLAIR’s campaign Northwestern Law College. After he graduated, for the governorship favorably, in contrast to the he joined a local law firm. more conservative WILLIAM MCADOO, who had Olson entered the political world in 1919 been elected to the U.S. Senate on FDR’s coat- when he was appointed as the assistant county tails during the 1932 landslide. While in the attorney for the state’s most populous county. Republican-controlled California state senate, The year before, he had unsuccessfully sought Olson remained a progressive. the Democratic nomination for Congress. In In 1938, Olson became the first Democrat 1920, he again failed in his bid for Congress, elected governor of California since 1894, easily but that same year he was appointed the county defeating Republican Frank Merriam. Olson attorney following impeachment of the incum- was then 62 years old, tall with a slender build, bent. He was reelected to that position in 1922 white hair, and Scandinavian fair skin and blue and 1926. During his tenure as county attor- eyes. He looked the part of a governor, and he ney, he developed a reputation for pragmatism, ran on a progressive reform platform. However, honesty, generosity, and hard work. His speak- by the time he took office, the reform era in ing ability, first exhibited in high school, California politics had largely ended. In 1942, attracted public attention. although he asked FDR to campaign for him, In 1924, Olson narrowly lost the Min- the president stayed out of the campaign. Olson nesota gubernatorial election as the candidate had the misfortune of running against the pop- of the new Farmer-Labor Association, but after 202 Owens, Jesse

the Wall Street crash in 1929, he easily won the unless his relief measures were passed. In 1934, 1930 election and served as governor until he upset state employees by declaring martial 1936. He was the first Minnesota governor to law after the strikers agreed to mediation of a win on that ticket. Although the Farmer-Labor trucker’s strike that had shut down Minneapo- Party never controlled the legislature, he was lis. He initiated a campaign for the 1936 U.S. able to pass bills for public-works projects, reg- Senate election, but died of pancreatic cancer ulation of securities, conservation of natural on August 22, 1936, at the Mayo Clinic in resources, and worker cooperatives, imple- Rochester, Minnesota. menting a “Little New Deal” for Minnesota. Olson was a leftist critic of the New Deal who thought it should promote socialism, but Owens, Jesse he admired Franklin Roosevelt and supported (1913–1980) U.S. Olympic track champion him in 1932 and 1936. In 1933, Olson himself attracted national attention by threatening to Even before the military clash between democ- declare martial law and seize private property racy and fascism in World War II, the theoret-

Jesse Owens winning the 220-yard low hurdles and setting a world record at the Big Ten meet in Ann Arbor, Michigan, on May 25, 1935 (National Archives) Owens, Jesse 203 ically apolitical world of Olympic sports record-breaking 400-meter relay, and he tied became a politically charged symbol of these the Olympic record for the 100-meter sprint. opposing forces, a foreshadowing of the ulti- His triumph, witnessed by Hitler, provided a mate outcome of the battle between the rivals. severe blow to the self-proclaimed racially Ironically, African Americans from the Deep superior Nazis and an inspiration to African South who had personally endured racism— Americans. sports legends Joe Louis and Jesse Owens— The world of art became enmeshed in the struck the initial blows for democratic worlds of sports and politics through the superiority. Olympics. Leni Riefenstahl (1902–2003), con- Owens was born to sharecroppers on demned as “Hitler’s filmmaker” due to the pro- September 12, 1913, in Oakville, Alabama, lit- paganda she produced for the dictator through erally and figuratively a world away from the her work, made Owens the hero of her 1936 global stage he would occupy in Germany dur- documentary of the event, Olympische Spiele, ing the 1936 Olympics. His family became part despite Hitler’s racial prejudice. of the largest internal migration in history after Always a Republican, Owens received a World War I by leaving the South for the financial stipend from Republican presidential North with its opportunities for a better life in candidate ALF LANDON in 1936 to campaign Cleveland, Ohio. There Owens attended local for black votes in the fall election. Later that schools and was a track star in secondary year, he was voted Athlete of the Year by the school. In 1932, he narrowly missed winning a Associated Press. place on the U.S. Olympic team. Before begin- During World War II, Owens became a ning Ohio State University, he won several supervisor of black workers at the Ford Motor track events at the 1933 National Interscholas- Company in Detroit following several short tic Championships. assignments for the government. During the The stage was set for the Olympics in early postwar period, he became a successful public August 1936. Owens stole the show by win- speaker. In 1974, he was enshrined in the Track ning four gold medals at the Olympic Games and Field Hall of Fame, and he was presented in Berlin, intended by ADOLF HITLER to show- the Medal of Freedom by Republican presi- case the new Nazi Third Reich. Owens broke dent Gerald Ford in 1976, the nation’s bicen- the world record in the 220-meter sprint, the tennial year. Owens died on March 31, 1980, in long jump, and the final leg of the U.S. team’s Tucson, Arizona. P w

Patman, Wright soldiers’ bonus bill enacted in 1936. The next (1893–1976) U.S. congressman year, he became a member of the Banking and Currency Committee and helped to enact fed- The child of tenant farm parents, Wright Pat- eral credit unions. During World War II, he man was born on August 6, 1893, in Patman’s helped to create a special committee on small Switch in northeastern Texas. He attended local business, which he then chaired. As a champion public schools and in 1913 began a correspon- of small businesses, he helped to establish the dence law course while working as a tenant Smaller Plants Corporation, which was farmer. Subsequently he went to Cumberland designed to make loans to encourage small University in Lebanon, Tennessee, and gradu- businesses to change to war production. ated with his law degree in 1916. He returned Patman finally attained the chairmanship to Hughes Springs, Texas, where he had of the Banking and Currency Committee in attended high school, and opened a law prac- 1963. His tendency to hog committee time tice. Later that year, he became an assistant eventually led to the five-minute rule for ques- county attorney but left that position in July tioners in the House. His autocratic style 1917 to enter the U.S. Army, serving as a nearly led to a committee rebellion in 1965, machine-gun officer until 1919. After his tour but it was not until a decade later, in January with the army ended, he began another law 1975, that liberal reform Democrats defied the practice in Linden, Texas, until he was elected seniority system and unseated Patman as well as a Democrat to the Texas legislature in 1920. as the other three oldest committee chairmen In 1923, he was appointed district attorney, from their chairmanships. Patman died on leaving to serve in the U.S. House of Repre- March 7, 1976, in Bethesda, Maryland. sentatives after he won election in 1928. He served in Congress for 47 years. Patman was a 20th-century populist, usu- Patton, George Smith ally loyal to the New Deal and always loyal to (1885–1945) army general veterans and poor farmers. Suspicious of banks, railroads, and corporations, he sponsored George Patton was born the son of an attorney antitrust action. Despite FDR’s veto, which the in San Gabriel, California, on November 11, Congress overrode, Patman saw a compromise 1885. His paternal grandfather had been a

204 Patton, George Smith 205

Confederate colonel who had died during the 1920 to 1922. The next year, he graduated Civil War; his maternal grandfather was a from the Cavalry School at Fort Riley, and in rancher, military hero, and politician. Raised 1924 he completed the Command and General on his grandfather’s ranch, Patton did not Staff School there. In 1931, he attended the begin formal school until he was 12 years old, Army War College, and in 1932 he served yet he was a reader. He spent one year at the under General DOUGLAS MACARTHUR in Virginia Military Institute before he entered quashing the Bonus Army veterans in Wash- the U.S. Military Academy at West Point in ington, D.C. These were veterans from World 1904. Math was hard for him, and it took him War I who were camped in the capital seeking five years to graduate; he ranked 46th in a class early payment of promised pensions. Patton of 103 graduates. In 1910, following his grad- also wrote many articles for military journals uation from West Point, he married Beatrice during this period. Ayer. The couple had three children. In 1940, Patton was made a brigade com- Patton entered the cavalry, and he spent mander of the newly formed 2nd Armored his first years at Fort Sheridan, Illinois. The Division at Fort Benning, Georgia, and pro- athletic Patton competed in the pentathlon at moted to brigadier general. By the end of the the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm and year, he was a major general and the division then spent six weeks at the French cavalry commander. He became commander of the I school in Saumur, France. After his next tour of Armored Corps in early 1942 and trained his duty at Fort Myer, Virginia, he returned to troops at Desert Training Center in California. Saumur for another summer. An expert with Later that year, he was selected as the com- the saber, he was appointed as an instructor in mander of the Western Tank Force of Torch swordsmanship at the Mounted Service School for the invasion of northwest Africa. General in Fort Riley, Kansas. DWIGHT EISENHOWER reassigned Patton in Patton became an aide to General John J. 1943 and gave him the task of rebuilding II Pershing during the army’s unsuccessful Corps after it had been badly mauled by the 1916–17 expedition to Mexico to capture Pan- Nazis in Tunisia. After Patton restored the cho Villa. In 1917, Pershing promoted Patton unit, Omar Bradley assumed command, and to captain and again made him an aide and Patton was promoted to lieutenant general. He headquarters commandant with the American then commanded the U.S. Seventh Army, Expeditionary Forces in World War I. In which, along with the British Eighth Army November 1917, Patton became one of the under General Bernard Montgomery, invaded first American officers to be assigned to tanks. Sicily in July 1943. Promoted to major, he organized the American After the successful 38-day Allied cam- Tank Center in Langres, France. Early in 1918, paign in Sicily, Patton was visiting hospitalized he became a lieutenant colonel and was named soldiers who had been wounded in the combat the commander of the 304th Tank Brigade. when he lost his temper and verbally abused Wounded in late September of that year, he two soldiers who were not physically wounded was promoted to colonel and received the Dis- but had complained of battle fatigue. He struck tinguished Service Cross. one of them across the face with his glove, a During the interim between World War I blow that galvanized public attention. Sud- and World War II, Patton was briefly at Camp denly the hero lionized for his ability to gain Meade, Maryland, in 1918–19 before joining ground on the battlefield and deliver victories the 3rd Cavalry at Fort Myer, Virginia, from against foreign enemies was under public 206 Pecora, Ferdinand

attack in the press. Eisenhower required Patton tant district attorney in New York County, to apologize publicly and relieved him from serving from 1918 to 1922 until he became active fighting for nearly a year. Nonetheless, chief assistant district attorney, a position he Eisenhower recognized Patton’s military held from 1922 to 1930. He returned to pri- strength and quietly gave him command of the vate law practice in 1930. Pecora had sup- Third Army in England, which did not become ported Theodore Roosevelt’s 1912 presidential operational until August 1, 1944. comeback bid, but he became a Democrat Though Patton was now subordinate to afterward. Omar Bradley, who had served under him in Pecora’s entrance to the administration of Sicily, he accepted the role reversal without Franklin Roosevelt came through congressional complaint. GEORGE C. MARSHALL now had his action that followed 1929 stock-market crash winning team of EISENHOWER, Bradley, and and the onset of the Great Depression. Even Patton together again for the invasion of before FDR assumed the presidency, Senator France. Patton’s Third Army arrived a month Peter Norbeck, a Republican from New Jersey after D-Day and quickly moved across France, who was chairman of the Senate Banking and but he was often in conflict with the more Currency Committee, had hired Pecora to methodical British field marshal Montgomery. serve as chief legal counsel for the committee’s By April 1945, Patton had received his fourth investigation into banking and securities fraud star. He was appointed the military governor in after the previous two counsels had failed. Pec- Bavaria, but his outspoken nature led to his ora concluded that more hearings were needed removal, and he became the commander of the before he could prepare the committee’s final Fifteenth Army, a largely ceremonial post. report. When the new Democratic administra- Patton was fatally injured in an automobile tion took over the Senate in March 1933, Sen- accident near Mannheim in early December ator Duncan U. Fletcher of Florida, the new and died on December 21, 1945, in a Heidel- committee chairman, deferred to the remark- berg hospital. He was buried near Hamm, able chief counsel so much that the hearings, Luxembourg. which lasted from February 1933 to June 1934, became known as the “Pecora Wall Street Investigation.” It proved to be a virtuoso per- Pecora, Ferdinand formance by Pecora. (1882–1971) chief counsel to the Senate The investigation led to the resignation of Banking and Currency Committee, Securities the president of National City Bank in New and Exchange Commission member, New York York; revealed that J. P. Morgan, Jr., had paid Supreme Court justice no income taxes in 1930–31; and caused Chase Manhattan Bank to separate its banking and Born in Nicosia, Cyprus, on January 6, 1882, securities activities. It also contributed to the Ferdinand Pecora came from a family of cob- Glass-Steagall Banking Act of 1933, which blers. He immigrated to the United States separated commercial and investment bank- with his family when he was five years old and ing; the Securities Act of 1933, which required grew up in New York City. After studying at corporations to provide accurate information St. Stephen’s College and the City College of to stock purchasers; the Securities and New York, he went to New York Law School Exchange Act of 1934, which regulated the and received his degree in 1906. He practiced stock exchange; and the Public Utility Hold- law for several years before becoming an assis- ing Act of 1935. Peek, George Nelson 207

Because he was so involved in the investi- Department of Commerce, which was gation, Pecora did not have time to campaign designed to cushion price declines during for the New York County district attorney demobilization. However, Peek resigned the position, and he lost it in 1933. After serving six next month in a dispute over rail tariffs. It was months on the new Securities and Exchange the first of several disputes in which the strong- Commission, he resigned in January 1935 to willed Peek would become embroiled while accept appointment by Governor HERBERT working with bureaucracies. From 1919 to LEHMAN to the New York Supreme Court. He 1923, he served as president and general man- was elected later that year to serve a 14-year ager of the Moline Plow Company, but in 1923 term and was reelected in 1949. He resigned he fought with its vice president, his former the next year to make an unsuccessful bid to WIB colleague General HUGH JOHNSON. become mayor of New York City. Pecora then Peek resigned but later won a large lawsuit returned to private law practice. He died on against the company for violation of his man- December 7, 1971, in New York City. agement contract. A lifelong Republican, Peek endorsed AL SMITH in his failed presidential bid, heading Peek, George Nelson the Smith Independent Organization after the (1873–1943) head, Agricultural Adjustment Republican national convention of 1928, but Administration, special adviser to the president he did not support Smith’s agriculture pro- on foreign trade; president, Export-Import Bank posals. In 1932, Peek campaigned for Franklin Roosevelt, who named him the first head of George Peek, born November 19, 1873, in the Agricultural Adjustment Administration northern Illinois, was the son of a livestock in May 1933. Peek next clashed with Secre- merchant who was also a local sheriff. A dozen tary of Agriculture HENRY WALLACE and his years later, the family moved to a farm near chief counsel, JEROME FRANK, who favored Oregon, Illinois. After attending Northwestern production controls, which he opposed. FDR University in 1891 for a year, Peek began finally had to replace him on December 6, working for the Plow Company. In 1933. To assuage Peek’s ego, he was made a 1901, he moved to Omaha, Nebraska, to special presidential adviser on foreign trade become general manager of the company, and and president of the government’s Export- in 1909 he helped convert the firm into Deere Import Bank. However, he soon came up and Company. He moved to the company against Secretary of State CORDELL HULL, headquarters in Moline, Illinois, in 1914 as vice who advocated a most-favored-nation trade president in charge of sales. policy instead of bilateral trade agreements. Peek began his government service during After Peek negotiated a cotton barter with World War I with an appointment as the Nazi Germany, FDR criticized it, and Peek industrial representative on the War Industries resigned from his government posts. Board (WIB), which oversaw the conversion For the rest of his life, Peek criticized the from peacetime manufacturing to war produc- New Deal and FDR’s farm program. In 1936 tion. After BERNARD BARUCH became WIB and 1940, he supported Republican presiden- chairman, he made Peek commissioner of fin- tial candidates, and in 1940, he joined the iso- ished products. In February 1919, W. C. Red- lationist America First Committee. Peek died field, the secretary of commerce, appointed on December 17, 1943, in Rancho Santa Fe, Peek as chairman of the Industrial Board of the California. 208 Pegler, Westbrook

Pegler, Westbrook Enough,” established his national reputation (Francis Westbrook Pegler, James Westbrook as a conservative reactionary. He dubbed Pegler) Franklin Roosevelt “Little Lord Fautleroy” (1894–1969) syndicated newspaper columnist and “Moosejaw” and harpooned ELEANOR ROOSEVELT as “La Boca Grande”—the big A journalist’s son born on August 2, 1894, in mouth—and later “the Widow.” He was Minneapolis, Minnesota, Francis Westbrook aggressively pro-lynching, anti-HEYWOOD Pegler later changed his first name to James. He BROUN, and antiunion. Still, the “True Cru- attended grade school in Excelsior near Min- sader” of the press, as he modestly called him- neapolis until his family moved to Chicago when self, won a Pulitzer Prize in 1941 for the he was 10 years old. Because he failed to do well investigation of labor racketeers in Hollywood. in grade school, Pegler was placed in a technical During World War II, Pegler created a school to learn a trade. In 1910, he worked for a column using fictional characters that permit- year as an office boy in the United Press (UP) ted him to inject venom into his articles while bureau in Chicago while attending Loyola protecting his publishers from lawsuits. After Academy, a Jesuit preparatory school from which he attacked one of the syndicate’s publishers in he earned his high-school diploma. His experi- print, however, his contract was not renewed. ence with UP motivated him to become a jour- He then joined the Hearst Corporation’s King nalist like his father, and he rejoined UP in 1913. Features Syndicate, which distributed his col- He subsequently worked in UP offices in Des umn “As Pegler Sees It.” A prolific journalist, Moines, St. Louis, New York, and Dallas. Dur- he remained popular among readers as well as ing World War I, he served as a UP foreign cor- his colleagues. respondent in England and France until he ran Pegler’s postwar years were not good ones. into trouble with military censors. He then He supported Senator Joseph McCarthy’s anti- enlisted in the U.S. Navy and served in England communist witch hunt. His wife died in 1955, until the war ended. and he remarried four years later only to After the war, Pegler resumed his career divorce the following year and remarry almost with the UP in New York, writing a sports col- immediately to his longtime secretary Maude umn under the byline of Westbrook Pegler for Towart. Those marriages, too, were childless. the first time instead of using his initials. He In the early 1960s, Pegler’s attack on the often wrote stories for other sections of the Hearst Corporation led to the dissolution of paper as well. In 1922, he and newspaper that contract, and he then moved to the jour- reporter Julia Harpman married but the couple nalistic fringes with American Opinion, the was childless. From 1925 to 1933, though he monthly magazine of the right-wing extremist lived in New York, he was a sportswriter for the John Birch Society. Even that periodical ended Chicago Tribune, owned by archconservative its contract with him as he became even more ROBERT MCCORMICK.Once again his stories paranoid than the John Birchers. He died on branched into areas beyond sports, suggesting June 24, 1969, in Tucson, Arizona. he still had not found his niche. When the New Deal began, Pegler hit his Pendergast, Thomas Joseph stride as a journalist after he became a daily (1872–1945) Kansas City Democratic Party boss columnist in the New York World-Telegram and other newspapers in the Scripps-Howard and Born to Irish immigrant parents on July 22, United Features syndicates. His column, “Fair 1872, in St. Joseph, Missouri, Thomas Pen- Pepper, Claude Denson 209 dergast moved to Kansas City in the early Pepper, Claude Denson 1890s. There he began working for his shop- (1900–1989) U.S. senator, U.S. congressman keeper brother, who was an alderman repre- senting the poor section of town. In 1896, The son of farmers, Claude Pepper was born Pendergast, who had developed a reputation in Dudleyville, Alabama, on September 8, as a good street fighter, was appointed deputy 1900. When he was 10 years old, his family city marshal, a post he held until 1900. He moved to Camp Hill, Alabama, and he gradu- was elected county marshal in 1902 and ated from high school there in 1917. He served until 1904. The short and ever-ener- taught school for a year before entering the getic politician was appointed as street com- University of Alabama. Like many southern missioner twice, 1900–02 and 1908–10. He students, Pepper enrolled in the Student Army began his last elected office in 1910, serving Training Corp to become eligible for veter- as an alderman until 1915. After his brother ans’ benefits. After he graduated from the died in 1911, he took over his brother’s orga- University of Alabama, he used a Veterans nization and expanded it into a citywide Administration program for financially disad- Democratic machine. By the late 1920s, he vantaged students to gain entrance to Harvard controlled not only Kansas City but also most Law School. His southern background com- of surrounding Jackson County. He ran the bined with his lack of financial means or fam- city and county as if they were his own per- ily pedigree made him an outsider at the elitist sonal business. institution. In 1924, he earned his law degree, Pendergast’s influence expanded under the and he then taught for a year at the University New Deal, and he acquired federal patronage of Arkansas Law School. in the state. He replaced the Republican state Pepper, a gifted orator, moved next to Perry, director of federal reemployment with HARRY Florida, where in 1928 he was elected as a TRUMAN; the machine sent Truman to the Democrat to the Florida House of Representa- U.S. Senate in 1934. Postmaster General tives. His liberal views led to his defeat when he JAMES FARLEY and presidential assistant HARRY ran for reelection, so he moved to Tallahassee in HOPKINS allowed Pendergast to control Works 1930 to practice law. He served on the state Progress Administration (WPA) jobs and fed- board of public welfare in 1931–32 and on the eral contracts for WPA projects. Because Pen- state board of law examiners in 1933. The next dergast controlled Missouri’s electoral votes, year, he ran for the U.S. Senate, nearly unseat- FDR chose to ignore local corruption as long ing the incumbent. In 1936, both of Florida’s as the urban machine remained in control. U.S. Senators died, and he was elected without Pendergast’s decline began during FDR’s opposition to one of the unexpired two-year second term after a new governor, Lloyd C. terms. That same year, he and Mildred Webster Stark, decided to appease reformers by having were married. They had no children. the U.S. Treasury Department investigate Pepper became an ardent New Dealer and crime in Kansas City. Despite Truman’s objec- one of the most liberal members of the Senate, tion, FDR allowed the investigation to pro- except in racial matters. By 1939, he had ceed. In May 1939, Pendergast pled guilty to become vocal about the threat of ADOLF two counts of federal income-tax evasion. HITLER at a time when the Congress was isola- While he served a year in prison, his political tionist. He was the only member of the Senate machine collapsed. He died on January 26, Foreign Relations Committee to vote in May 1945, in Kansas City. 1940 in favor of the lend-lease proposal to aid 210 Perkins, Frances Coralie

Great Britain. Isolationists picketed him, and he was hung in effigy for his unpopular view. With active support from Franklin Roo- sevelt, Pepper easily won reelection to a full six-year term in 1938 in a race against a single conservative opponent. However, in 1944, Pepper drew opponents in the Democratic primary. He won with 52 percent of the vote, although big business considered Pepper too liberal, as did arch-segregationists. At the 1944 National Democratic Convention, Pepper led an unsuccessful effort to keep HENRY WAL- LACE as the vice-presidential candidate. Both Wallace and Pepper advocated closer ties with the Soviet Union. After World War II, Pepper continued to move further left, blaming HARRY TRUMAN for the cold war and even praising JOSEPH STALIN. In the 1950 Democratic primary, he lost to Rep- resentative George A. Smathers in one of the most vicious campaigns in politics to that time. Dismissed as the “Red Pepper,” he never again won a statewide election, although he ran again in 1958. Four years later, after the creation of a new congressional district that included liberal Miami and other parts of Dade County, Pepper Frances Perkins (Library of Congress) become one of only a few former senators to be elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. earned a degree in chemistry and physics at Although he was a sharp critic of Truman, Mount Holyoke College. While at college, in Pepper came to share at least one trait with him: keeping with her belief in the Social Gospel they outlived their opponents so that their rep- aspect of the progressive movement in which utations were transformed from that of the most Protestants demonstrated their faith by helping unpopular politicians of the early 1950s into folk the poor, she established a chapter of the heroes. Pepper’s popularity was reflected by his appearance on the front cover of Time in 1938 National Consumers League, which worked to and again 45 years later in 1983. He developed abolish sweatshops and child labor. After her lung cancer and died on May 30, 1989, in Wash- graduation in 1902, she taught in Connecticut, ington, D.C., while still serving in the House. Massachusetts, and Illinois; she also worked at Jane Addam’s Hull House settlement in Chicago. In 1907, she became secretary of the Perkins, Frances Coralie Philadelphia Research and Protective Associa- (1880–1965) secretary of labor tion, which assisted immigrant girls as well as African Americans from the South. During this Born to a Boston, Massachusetts, businessman same time, she studied economics and sociol- and his wife on April 10, 1880, Frances Perkins ogy at the University of Pennsylvania. Pittman, Key 211

With a fellowship from the Russell Sage neering tenure as secretary of labor. She Foundation, Perkins moved to New York City resigned on July 1, 1945, and HARRY TRUMAN in 1909 to study at the New York School of appointed her later that year to the Civil Ser- Philanthropy. She received her master’s degree vice Commission where she served until 1953. in sociology from Columbia University the She then taught at the Cornell School of next year and then became the executive secre- Industrial Relations from 1958 until her death tary of the New York City Consumers’ League on May 14, 1965, in New York City. and taught at Adelphi College. The Triangle Shirtwaist Company’s fire on March 25, 1911, killed 146 garment workers Pittman, Key and propelled Perkins into state politics. She (1872–1940) president pro tempore of the U.S. left her position with the Consumers League to Senate become the executive secretary of the commit- tee investigating the fire. Her work brought her A native of East Carroll Parish in extreme into the political careers of AL SMITH, ROBERT northeast Louisiana, an area of rural poverty, WAGNER, and trade unionist Samuel Gompers. Key Pittman was born on September 12, 1872. When Smith became governor, he named her His father, an attorney, was a Confederate Civil to New York’s Industrial Commission in 1919. War veteran. His mother, whose maiden name She became the first woman to hold the post was Key, died when he was eight, and his father and received the highest salary for a state died when he was 11. Pittman had been raised employee in the nation. That beginning served in Vicksburg, Mississippi, but he went to live as her entrée to Franklin Roosevelt, who with relatives in Afton, Louisiana, when he was appointed her head of the New York State labor orphaned. He attended Southwestern Presby- department following his election as governor. terian University in Clarksville, Tennessee, They often rode together on the train from from 1887 to 1890 but did not graduate. After New York City to the state capital. he left college, he moved to Seattle, Washing- After FDR’s election to the White House, ton, where he clerked in a law office and was he appointed Perkins as secretary of labor, the admitted to the state bar in 1892. He moved to first woman ever to hold a cabinet post. She Alaska in 1897 and eventually became the city served as labor secretary from 1933 to 1945, attorney in Nome. Three years later, he mar- holding the post longer than anyone else in its ried Mimosa Gates, who had been a prospector history. Though organized labor was initially in the Klondike gold mines. Their marriage lukewarm about her nomination because she was childless. favored social justice legislation rather than After the Nevada gold fields were discov- unionization to help workers, she was con- ered in 1901, the Pittmans moved the next year firmed easily. She organized the group that to Tonopah, Nevada, where he practiced law wrote the Social Security Act of 1935 and also and became active in Democratic politics. assisted in development of the Fair Labor Stan- Pittman’s first bid for the U.S. Senate in 1910 dards Act of 1938, which established a federal failed, but two years later he won a seat fol- minimum wage and a maximum work week of lowing the death of an incumbent. He easily 40 hours. won reelection in 1916, 1922, and 1928. His Perkins’ lifelong honesty, efficiency, and reelection campaigns in 1934 and 1940 were competence, as well as deliberately conserva- unsuccessfully challenged by the PATRICK tive dress worked in her favor during her pio- MCCARRAN faction of the state Democratic 212 Pressman, Lee

Party. As a loyal Democrat, Pittman supported ing the vacant Senate seat, although the younger Woodrow Wilson’s domestic and foreign poli- Pittman later became Nevada’s governor. cies, but he ultimately voted against the League of Nations. As a native southerner who spent his adult Pressman, Lee life out west, Pittman was generally well liked (1906–1969) federal government legal counsel, and often called on to mediate factional differ- national union legal counsel ences in the Democratic Party. He supported Franklin Roosevelt’s presidential bid in 1932, Lee Pressman, born on July 1, 1906, was the and after the Democrats captured control of son of immigrant Russian parents who lived on the Congress, he became president pro tem- New York City’s Lower East Side. In 1926, he pore of the Senate. Pittman supported the vast graduated from Cornell University, where he majority of the New Deal and became the de had developed an interest in labor issues during facto leader of the Senate’s silver bloc to pro- an economics course. He went on to attend tect the silver-mining industry. He was selected Harvard Law School, where he became one of as a delegate to the London Monetary and FELIX FRANKFURTER’s best students and edited Economic Conference in 1933, persuading the Harvard Law Review. From 1929 to 1933, FDR to ratify the Silver Agreement that Pressman practiced law in New York City in emerged from it as well as to sign the Silver the prestigious Wall Street firm of Chad- Purchase Act of 1934. In 1937, Pittman backed bourne, Stanchfield, and Levy. During this FDR’s Court-packing plan. period, he developed expertise in corporate Pittman also served as the chairman of the reorganization, and he married Sophia Plat- Senate Foreign Relations Committee from nick in 1931. The couple had three children. 1933 to 1940. Even though he authored the In 1932, Pressman became a member of measure to permit export of goods and arms on the International Juridical Association, which a cash-and-carry basis in 1937, he was the first included Marxists and liberal lawyers with an Senate leader to back FDR’s request to repeal interest in labor law. The following year, a it in January 1939. He was also a leader in con- senior member of his law firm, JEROME FRANK, demning Japanese aggression in China and recruited Pressman to come with him to the called for economic sanctions in 1937. By fall nation’s capital to become assistant general 1940, the State Department supported this counsel to the Agricultural Adjustment Admin- position. istration (AAA). Pressman joined the Commu- Unfortunately, Pittman had a series of nist Party in 1934 but left it the following year. financial and marital problems during his Senate He worked closely with Frank, who was the years and developed a serious alcohol-abuse AAA’s general counsel, and in 1935 both were problem. He was ill during his fall 1940 reelec- fired by Secretary of Agriculture HENRY WAL- tion campaign and required hospitalization on LACE because they sought to have the AAA the eve of his election victory. Five days later, he support sharecroppers. Pressman went on to died on November 10, 1940, in Reno, Nevada. become general counsel to the Works Progress His funeral was the largest in the state’s history. Administration and the Resettlement Adminis- Despite Pittman’s enormous popularity in life, it tration, serving from 1935 to 1936. was not enough after his death to offset McCar- In 1936, Pressman briefly returned to pri- ran’s political strength. McCarran was able to vate practice, but he was soon recruited by block Pittman’s youngest brother, Vail, from fill- JOHN L. LEWIS, the president of the United Pressman, Lee 213

Mine Workers of America, to work first for the SWOC and U.S. Steel, a contract that served new Committee of Industrial Organizations, as the model for other CIO recognition agree- then as general counsel to the new Steel Work- ments. He also successfully litigated the case ers Organizing Committee (SWOC), and ulti- for reinstating strikers who participated in the mately as general counsel to the national 1937 strike and awarding them back pay. In Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), 1940, he drafted the CIO resolution that sup- the successor to the Committee of Industrial ported the Lend-Lease Act and condemned Organizations. Lewis wanted Pressman and totalitarian government. The next year, he other radicals to help him build a union from drafted the contract with the Little Steel For- among the unorganized mass-production mula, which for the first time linked wages and workers, who were ignored by the more con- prices to inflation in a contract. servative American Federation of Labor (AFL). The postwar years were less positive for Both Lewis and PHILIP MURRAY used Press- Pressman. After Murray moved to rid the CIO man’s legal talent, but he lacked a personal of communists, Pressman was forced to resign power base within the union. His mission-ori- in 1948. That same year, he lost his bid for ented personality worked to his disadvantage, election to the House of Representatives on making him feared both inside and outside of the Progressive Party ticket and was called the union. Although he had severed his rela- before the House Un-American Activities tionship with the Communist Party after a Committee (HUAC) as a witness in the inves- short time, he retained a narrow ideological tigation of Alger Hiss. Pressman, who had outlook. Instead of taking a convivial approach worked with Hiss at the AAA, took the Fifth with others, he acted as a hired gun of the CIO. Amendment. In 1950, he was again called Pressman demanded financial compensation at before the HUAC. To the consternation of a level appropriate to his background and skill. both anticommunists and communists, he In 1937, Pressman obtained the lifting of named only individuals in the Department of court injunctions on sit-down strikers in Flint, Agriculture who already had been identified as Michigan. Knowing how to use the law for the communists by several witnesses. His public benefit of workers, he made the sit-down life was ended, and he returned to the practice strikes a union tool. That same year, he was of law in New York City. He died in Mount responsible for the first contract between Vernon, New York, on November 19, 1969. R w

Randolph, Asa Philip the National Negro Congress. Two years (1889–1979) labor and civil-rights leader, later, the Pullman Company signed a contract National Negro Congress president with the nation’s first African-American union, earning Randolph the title of “Mr. Born in Crescent City, Florida, on April 15, Black Labor.” Influenced by the sit-down 1889, Philip Randolph was the son of an itin- strike of the labor movement and Mahatma erant preacher father. He was sent to the Gandhi’s nonviolence, Randolph proposed a Cookman Institute in Jacksonville (later march on Washington in 1941 to promote Bethune-Cookman College), graduating in defense jobs for African Americans, who were 1907, but rejected parental pressure to blocked from them by racial discrimination. become a minister. Instead, he moved to New The threat of such a march on the segregated York City in 1911, and two years later he mar- national capital prompted FDR to create a ried beauty-shop owner Lucille Campbell temporary wartime Fair Employment Prac- Green, a widow six years his senior who would tices Committee, chaired by FIORELLA LA support his labor and civil-rights work. In GUARDIA.The La Gaurdia committee recom- 1925, he was asked to organize the 10,000 mended an executive order on nondiscrimi- Pullman train sleeping-car porters, consid- nation, which FDR issued on June 25, 1941, ered an elite group of African-American creating the Fair Employment Practices workers with a near-monopoly on the occu- Commission (FEPC). Randolph rejected an pation. Within a year, more than half of them offer to serve on the FEPC, and he declined had joined the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car to run for Congress in 1944. Porters (BSCP). During the postwar era, Randolph helped As a result of Franklin Roosevelt’s encourage HARRY TRUMAN to integrate the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of military in July 1948. In 1955, after the merger 1933, there was a resurgence of membership of the AFL with the Congress of Industrial in the BSCP, which had decreased in the late Organizations (CIO), Randolph became a vice 1920s. In 1935, the BSCP received a charter president in the organization. He retired as from the American Federation of Labor president of the BSCP in 1968 due to failing (AFL) and Randolph became the president of health and died on May 16, 1979.

214 Rankin, John Elliott 215

Rankin, John Elliott Therefore, like SAM RAYBURN, he championed (1882–1960) U.S. congressman workers and farmers. Rankin served as the leader of the public-power bloc in the House John Rankin was an economic liberal and social and, with Senator GEORGE NORRIS (R-Nebr.), reactionary from the Deep South whose con- cosponsored the Tennessee Valley Authority gressional career represented those contending (TVA) Act of 1933. Although Tupelo was populist tensions during the New Deal and into located outside the Tennessee River basin, the postwar era. The son of a schoolteacher, he Rankin persuaded DAVID LILIENTHAL, the first was born on March 29, 1882, in Itawamba TVA director, to include his entire district County, Mississippi, and attended local schools within the agency’s jurisdiction. Tupelo became in Itawamba and Lee counties before going to the first municipality in the nation to receive the University of Mississippi, where he received TVA-generated electricity, and Rankin greeted his law degree in 1910. Rankin first practiced FDR there in 1934 to commemorate the his- law in West Point, Mississippi, but moved to toric introduction by hydroelectric power. Tupelo to practice with a partner in a new firm. Rankin was also the key congressional sponsor By 1912, he was the prosecuting attorney for in 1936 of the Rural Electrification Adminis- Lee County, a position he held for four years. tration (REA), which enabled farms across the He then made three unsuccessful runs for elec- country to have inexpensive electrical power. In toral office, once for district attorney and twice 1939, the REA was reorganized as a division of for the Democratic nomination for Congress. the U.S. Department of Agriculture. During World War I, Rankin enlisted as a As a southern populist and World War I private in the U.S. Army and was assigned to veteran, Rankin championed bonuses for fel- field artillery, but he had served only a short low veterans of that war. As chairman of the time when the war ended. He returned to House Veterans Committee from 1931 Tupelo, where he edited a weekly newspaper. onward, he led the fight to override FDR’s In 1919, he married Annie Laurie Burrous, veto of the bonus bill. During World War II, with whom he had one child. The next year he he sponsored legislation to more than double made his third attempt to win a seat in the U.S. military base pay. He also supported FDR’s Congress and was elected. He went on to win decision to relocate Japanese Americans; in reelection to 15 consecutive terms, facing only fact, he favored moving them all to concen- minimal opposition in any contest. During his tration camps. A white supremacist to the long tenure, he focused on public-power pro- core, Rankin believed segregation was neces- jects, veteran benefits, white supremacy, and sary for different races to survive. He anticommunism. The first two issues earned opposed all antilynching and antipoll-tax bills him a progressive reputation and improved the as well as any legislation that might enhance lives of his mostly white rural constituency in the status of African Americans. (It was per- northeastern Mississippi; the latter two haps the ultimate irony that John Rankin was brought out the bigot and bully in him. the name of a prominent Ohio abolitionist Rankin began as an ardent Democratic reputed to have been the most active “con- supporter of Franklin Roosevelt in 1932. As a ductor” on the Underground Railroad of the southern populist, he was highly suspicious of previous century.) concentrated economic power, especially that During the postwar period from 1945 to held by banks, railroads, and public utilities. 1950, Rankin confirmed his reputation for 216 Raskob, John Jakob

bigotry by his membership on the House Un- 1915, he joined the board of the General American Activities Committee (HUAC). He Motors Corporation, and du Pont became used his seniority and parliamentary skills to board chairman. During World War I, Raskob make the HUAC a permanent committee with directed the company’s expansion and then enlarged membership. Rankin bullied wit- resigned his position after the war to become nesses and ranted about a Jewish-communist chairman of its finance committee. While serv- conspiracy against American government to ing in that capacity, he began the General such a degree that even newspapers in his Motors Acceptance Corporation (GMAC) to home state rebuked him. In 1948, he lost a sen- provide credit to automobile dealers and pur- atorial bid, and in 1952 he lost his congres- chasers. He also initiated the same modern sional seat after it was redistricted. When he accounting methods that du Pont was already left office in January 1953, he held the record using in its own operations. for longevity in Congress up to that point. He In 1920, ALFRED P. SLOAN, JR., was returned to Tupelo to resume his law practice brought in to manage General Motors. Raskob and died there on November 26, 1960. became a multimillionaire and began to write about finance in the popular press, which made him a business celebrity. He advocated install- Raskob, John Jakob ment purchases and the five-day work week. (1879–1950) industrialist Despite the fact that he had voted for Calvin Coolidge in 1924, he developed a friendship A native of Lockport, New York, John Raskob with fellow Catholic AL SMITH, who named was born on March 19, 1879, to a cigar manu- Raskob as chairman of the Democratic facturer. He attended Clark’s Business College National Committee (DNC) during the in Lockport and then moved to Lorain, Ohio, Smith’s presidential bid in 1928. Smith and in 1899. The next year, he became the personal Raskob helped to move the party to enlarge its secretary to Pierre S. du Pont, a real-estate and base from its traditional rural ties by forming street-railway executive. In 1902, du Pont per- ties to the offspring of millions of immigrants suaded Raskob to relocate with him to Wilm- who lived in the nation’s largest cities. Raskob ington, Delaware, to help operate the family remained active in Democratic politics after firm, E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company. Smith’s electoral loss that fall by establishing Raskob pioneered the use of statistical analysis the DNC’s first permanent headquarters in the in making management decisions. After a series nation’s capital. of mergers and stock acquisitions, the business Raskob tried to prevent Franklin Roosevelt, was transformed into a major gunpowder and whom he considered too radical, from captur- dynamite maker. He married Helena Springer ing the party’s 1932 presidential nomination. Green of Galina, Maryland in 1906, and the He went on reluctantly to back FDR during couple had 13 children. the presidential campaign, urging him to say as Within a decade of working for the com- little as possible about what he would do if pany, Raskob had taken over his former boss’s elected. It was advice that FDR largely heeded. position, and in 1914 he was formally named Raskob also recommended a national sales tax the company’s treasurer. Intrigued by the to help balance the budget. Though he appre- emerging automobile industry, Raskob bought ciated how FDR saved the nation’s banks in stock in the new General Motors Corporation 1933, Raskob disliked the public-works pro- and persuaded du Pont to invest in it as well. In grams and other New Deal proposals. Rayburn, Sam 217

After Smith’s 1928 electoral disaster, NER, who would mentor Rayburn for the next Raskob, Smith, and others had joined to build two decades. Rayburn became chairman of the and manage the Empire State Building. In Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee 1934, he again joined Smith and other conser- in 1931, coinciding with Garner’s rise to Speaker vatives in openly breaking with FDR to form of the House. When Garner ran for the presi- the Liberty League, an organization of busi- dency in 1932, his faithful protégé Rayburn ness executives disgruntled with the New Deal. served as campaign manager and represented Along with Smith, Sloan, and others, Raskob his mentor in the negotiations that resulted in believed that the New Deal would lead the Garner’s becoming Franklin Roosevelt’s vice- country to ruin. He never regained his promi- presidential candidate. nence in the postwar political or business From 1933 to 1937, Rayburn worked worlds and died on October 15, 1950, at his closely with New Deal lawyers BENJAMIN farm near Centerville, Maryland. COHEN and THOMAS CORCORAN to draft and enact some of FDR’s most important initia- tives: the Emergency Railroad Transportation Rayburn, Sam Act of 1933, the Truth in Securities Act of (1882–1961) U.S. congressman, Speaker of the 1933, the Stock Exchange Act of 1934, the House Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935, and the Rural Electrification Act of 1936. He The eighth of 11 children, Sam Rayburn was was a workhorse in the House and brought the born on January 6, 1882, in Roane County, bacon home to his district. Whenever he Tennessee, to poor farmer parents. Five years later, the family moved to northeast Texas and settled near Bonham. Rayburn attended coun- try schools before enrolling in East Texas Nor- mal College; he graduated in 1903 with a degree in education and then taught for three years. Rayburn’s interest in politics grew from watching Joseph W. Bailey, his local state sen- ator. An observant student of politics, Ray- burn was first elected in 1906 to the Texas House of Representatives, where he served three terms, and was Speaker during his final term. Short, stocky, balding, and always ener- getic, Rayburn took courses at the University of Texas Law School. He passed the bar exam in 1908 and then became a member of a law firm in Bonham. Rayburn’s entrance on the national political stage came in 1912 with his election to the U.S. House of Representatives during Woodrow Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn sits as Wilson’s landslide. He soon became a friend of Madame Chiang Kai-shek addresses the House in fellow Texas congressman JOHN NANCE GAR- 1943. (Library of Congress) 218 Reed, Stanley Forman returned there, he dressed like a farmer and was soon elected to the state legislature, serving maintained an open-door policy toward his two consecutive terms from 1912 to 1916. He constituents. continued his legal practice until 1929, except After Speaker Henry T. Rainey died in for during his brief service in the army during 1934, Rayburn challenged heir-apparent World War I. JOSEPH BYRNS for the slot and was overwhelm- Reed’s entry into national politics occurred ingly defeated for the coveted position. But Ray- during the HERBERT HOOVER administration. burn learned from his political mistakes, and Because he had been the general counsel for after Byrns died in 1936, he did not challenge the Farm Cooperative, Reed was appointed WILLIAM BANKHEAD, who moved up to the top general counsel to the Federal Farm Board in leadership rung. Instead, Rayburn won the post 1929. In 1932, he was appointed general coun- of majority leader, and after Bankhead died in sel to the Reconstruction Finance Corpora- 1940, he was elected Speaker. As Speaker, Ray- tion, where he eventually worked closely with burn used his personality and reputation for fair- THOMAS CORCORAN.Franklin Roosevelt first ness, loyalty, honesty, and integrity—along with named Reed as a special assistant to Attorney his knowledge of House rules—to bind col- General HOMER CUMMINGS when the “gold leagues to him. His friendships and astute par- cases” came before the Supreme Court. The liamentary skills won the extension of the so-called gold cases involved four that chal- military draft by one vote in August 1941. lenged the constitutionality of the 1933 Emer- Rayburn had a fierce temper, but he was gency Banking Act, and the Joint Resolution of never an autocrat. He was a democrat who June 1933, which repudiated the gold clause in knew how to work with others without seeking private and government obligations. CHARLES credit or publicity. He grew more progressive EVANS HUGHES upheld these congressional as he aged. The longest-serving Speaker of the actions. Later in 1935, FDR named Reed as U.S. House of Representatives, he had served the U.S. solicitor general. In this role, Reed nearly 49 years as a congressman when he died won 11 of the 13 cases in support of federal on November 16, 1961, in Bonham. regulation of the economy that he argued before the U.S. Supreme Court. One of the two cases that he lost was the 1935 “sick Reed, Stanley Forman chicken case” (Schechter Poultry Corporation v. (1884–1980) U.S. solicitor general, U.S. Supreme U.S.), in which the Court unanimously held Court justice that the National Industrial Recovery Act was unconstitutional. During his three-year tenure Stanley Reed was born the son of a physician with the Department of Justice, Reed also on December 31, 1884, in Minerva, Kentucky. recruited a talented pool of young New Deal He attended local private schools and received lawyers that included ROBERT JACKSON, Alger undergraduate degrees from Kentucky Wes- Hiss, Charles Wyzanski, and Paul Freund. leyan College in 1902 and from Yale University After GEORGE SUTHERLAND, one of the in 1906. He then studied law at the University four most conservative justices on the Supreme of Virginia, Columbia University, and the Sor- Court, retired in 1935, FDR picked Reed as his bonne but never obtained a law degree. replacement. Reed was the president’s second Regardless, he was admitted to the bar and appointment to the nation’s highest tribunal, began practicing law in Kentucky. Always and he performed as FDR anticipated the interested in Democratic Party politics, Reed rural, border-state appointee would. He was Reuther, Walter Philip 219 liberal on economic matters but more conser- the use of bank holidays, the euphemistic term vative on civil liberties and civil rights. During for closing banks to prevent runs on them. the postwar period, Reed was the last justice to Reno believed both major parties were join the Court’s unanimous decision in Brown corrupt and that direct action was necessary. v. Board of Education (1954). He retired from In August 1932, he called for a peaceful strike the Court three years later but went on to live among Iowa farmers that quickly escalated into longer than any other justice in Supreme Court a national strike by desperate farmers in several history, dying at age 95 on April 3, 1980, in states. Reno soon called a truce and then used Huntington, New York. the NFHA councils to intervene in disputes over farm rents and mortgages. Marches on state legislatures led to the passage of mort- Reno, Milo gage moratorium legislation. (1866–1936) union leader At the urging of Minnesota governor FLOYD OLSON, Reno called off a strike in May The son of farmers, Milo Reno was born on 1933. On May 13, Congress passed the Agri- January 5, 1866, in Agency, Iowa. He attended cultural Adjustment Act (AAA), but it did not local public schools before briefly attending include a cost-of-production plan. By that fall, William Penn College, a Quaker school in Reno was denouncing New Deal legislation Oskaloosa, Iowa, with the intent of becoming a that emphasized controlling overproduction minister. However, he left college to become a rather than underconsumption. As a result, salesman in South Dakota and California. He both he and Secretary of Agriculture HENRY returned to Iowa in the late 1890s and for two WALLACE developed a mutual animosity. Reno decades was a farmer near his birthplace as well had doubts about the incorporation of Exten- as a popular rural Campbellite minister. He sion Service (county) agents into the AAA since soon learned to combine politics and fiery ser- he viewed them as allies of the American Farm mons, preaching social justice for farmers and Bureau Federation, which was the main rival of other underdogs in society. He joined the fra- the NFU. His call for a strike in the fall of 1933 ternal organization called the Grange, champi- soon fizzled, and the NFHA’s demise quickly oned the Populist Party, and ran unsuccessfully followed. As it was, most farmers were willing for the Iowa legislature. to give the New Deal a chance, especially after In 1918, Reno’s new cause became the cash payments were made to them in return National Farmers’ Union (NFU), which he for their pledges to reduce their planted joined that year; he was elected secretary-trea- acreage in 1934. Reno subsequently turned to surer two years later. He was president of its supporting other panaceas such as Dr. FRANCIS Iowa branch by 1921 and held a leadership TOWNSEND’s old-age pension plan. He died position in the NFU until his death. His guid- on May 5, 1936, in Excelsior Springs, Missouri. ing principle was to “secure for the farming industry the cost of production plus a reason- able profit.” To achieve that, he endorsed AL Reuther, Walter Philip SMITH’s bid for the presidency in 1928. In May (1907–1970) United Auto Workers executive 1932, 3,000 Iowa farmers met in Des Moines board member and elected Reno as head of the National Farm- ers’ Holiday Association (NFHA). He had The son of immigrant German parents, Walter selected inclusion of the word holiday to mock Reuther was born on September 1, 1907, in 220 Richberg, Donald Randall

Wheeling, West Virginia. Reuther’s father had Roosevelt. Reuther called the First Lady “my been a socialist, and at age 11, Walter had secret weapon.” accompanied him to visit Socialist Party leader During the postwar period, Reuther won Eugene Debs in prison. One of five children, the presidency of the UAW in 1946. He sur- Reuther attended local public schools but vived an assassination attempt two years later, dropped out at age 16 to begin working. He and in 1952 he became the head of the moved to Detroit in 1927 to take advantage of Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). the high wages and five-day workweek at Ford He was instrumental in the CIO’s 1955 merger Motor Company. He became one of Ford’s with the AFL. Unlike other labor leaders, highest-paid mechanics and completed his Reuther maintained a modest lifestyle. He also high-school education while working the night was a persistent supporter of black civil rights shift. He then enrolled in Detroit City Col- and desegregation. On May 9, 1970, he and lege along with two of his younger brothers. his wife were among six persons killed in the The Great Depression politicized the crash of a plane en route to Detroit. Reuther brothers. During the 1932 presiden- tial campaign, Walter Reuther traveled exten- sively to campaign for Socialist candidate Richberg, Donald Randall NORMAN THOMAS.In 1933, he quit his job to (1881–1960) National Recovery Administration tour Europe, including Nazi Germany, with a chief counsel and acting director brother. For two years, he worked in the Ford- equipped auto factory in Gorky, USSR. After Born on July 10, 1881, in Knoxville, Tennessee, he returned home in 1935, he channeled his Donald Richberg was the son of prosperous abundant energy into organizing labor. The professional parents. He graduated in 1901 from next year, the United Auto Workers (UAW) the University of Chicago, and after completing became independent from the American Fed- Harvard Law School in 1904, he joined his eration of Labor (AFL), and Reuther was father’s Chicago law firm and became involved elected to the UAW’s executive board. In in local politics. Encounters with political cor- December 1936, he helped to conduct a suc- ruption led him to advocate municipal reform cessful sit-down strike at the Kelsey-Hayes and the progressive movement. Richberg cam- Wheel Company in Detroit. He helped plan paigned for THEODORE ROOSEVELT in 1912 the 1937 sit-down strike at the Ford plant in and for the next two years was the chairman of Flint, Michigan, and in the ensuing conflict he the National Legislative Reference Bureau was beaten by company thugs but survived. of the Progressive Party. Like Roosevelt, who This event transformed him into a national left the Republican Party in 1912, Richberg labor leader. Membership in the UAW, swelled deserted the Progressive Party in 1916 when it and it became the nation’s largest union. endorsed CHARLES EVANS HUGHES—who was After he broke his ties with communists endorsed by Roosevelt, although he labeled and socialists in 1938, Reuther supported FDR Hughes “the bearded iceberg.” Richberg instead during the 1940 and 1944 campaigns. In 1939, campaigned for Woodrow Wilson’s reelection. he became the UAW’s vice president in charge During World War I and the 1920s, Rich- of the General Motors Division. During World berg served as Chicago’s special counsel, prac- War II, the youthful, idealistic, and honest ticed law, and was chief counsel for the railway Reuther became a friend of ELEANOR ROO- brotherhoods. Specializing in labor law, he was SEVELT, who shared his ideas with Franklin the principal draftsman of the Railway Labor Rivera, Diego 221

Act of 1926. In 1928, he supported AL SMITH’s lowing year, he received a grant to study in presidential bid, and in 1932 he worked with Europe, where he spent the next 14 years and Senator GEORGE NORRIS (R-Nebr.) in support- came under the influence of the impressionists. ing Franklin Roosevelt’s presidential bid. He Rivera’s first mural, Creation (1922), was also helped RAYMOND MOLEY to draft speeches painted for the Bolivar Amphitheater at the Uni- on labor relations during the 1932 campaign. versity of Mexico. It is widely considered the first Richberg’s entry into the FDR administra- great mural in the Americas during the 20th cen- tion came through HUGH JOHNSON, who tury. His subsequent murals in the 1920s chron- recruited Richberg to help draft the National icled Mexican history and culture. His frescoes Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, particularly its appeared in the Ministry of Education Building labor clauses. Johnson, who was director of the in Mexico City, in the auditorium of the National Recovery Administration (NRA), National School of Agriculture in Chapingo, and named Richberg as its chief counsel. After in the Palace of Cortés in Cuernavaca. Johnson’s negative personality led to his retire- In 1929, Rivera married fellow painter Frida ment in 1934, Richberg served acting director Kahlo. The next year, he traveled to the United of the NRA until the Supreme Court declared States, where his bold murals influenced a nation it unconstitutional on May 27, 1935. He then mired in the Great Depression. He first painted returned to private practice in Washington, murals for the New York Stock Exchange Lun- D.C., and remained a supporter of FDR. Rich- cheon Club and the California School of Fine berg basically wanted labor and management Arts. In 1932, the Museum of Modern Art in to resolve their differences without govern- New York City staged an exhibit of his works. ment intervention once labor gained the right During the early New Deal years of 1932–33, he to bargain collectively and to strike. During painted Detroit Industry, a cycle of 27 murals that the postwar period, he wrote and spoke against depicted the history of the automobile industry “labor union monopoly,” believing that the at the indoor court of the Detroit Institute of nation was on the road to the welfare state and Fine Arts. The murals reflected his belief in socialism. He died on November 27, 1960, in material progress and technology, themes he Charlottesville, Virginia. incorporated with Mexican mythology. While in Ford’s automotive and aeronautical plants, he was at times accompanied by his wife. Rivera, Diego In 1933, Nelson Rockefeller, art collector (1886–1957) Mexican muralist and heir to the family oil fortune, commis- sioned Rivera to paint a mural for the RCA Born in Guanajuarto, Mexico, on December Building in New York City. Rivera’s portrayal 8, 1886, Diego Rivera was 10 when he began of Soviet May Day celebrations proved too studying art at Mexico City’s National School controversial for his patron, but he refused to of Fine Arts with Andrés Rios, Felix Parra, paint out the portrait of Vladimir Lenin in the Santiago Rebull, and José Maria Velasco. mural’s center to make it acceptable. As a Rivera exhibited an independent, if not rebel- result, Rockefeller destroyed the mural. That lious, streak from an early age. When he was 13 event, coupled with the artistic expression in he rebelled against his parents’ demands that THOMAS HART BENTON’s most famous mural he attend a military academy and instead at the Missouri state capitol, resulted in loss of attended the Academy of San Carlos, where commissions for their fellow New Deal mural- his first exhibition was held in 1906. The fol- ists for the next decade. 222 Roberts, Owen Josephus

While in New York, Rivera created fres- town Academy. He graduated in 1895 from the coes for the Independent Labor Institute. University of Pennsylvania and then entered Painted on movable panels, these frescoes cap- its law school. During law school, he became tured the American spirit. Rivera also painted an associate editor of the American Law Regis- an anti-Nazi mural in 1933 for the newspaper ter. After completing law school in 1898, office of The Workers Age. After he returned to Roberts simultaneously joined a Philadelphia Mexico City, Rivera replicated the destroyed law firm and began teaching at the University RCA Building mural at the Palace of Fine Arts of Pennsylvania Law School. His career as a in 1934. His frescoes at the National Palace law-school professor continued for 22 years. depicting Mexican history culminate in a sym- From 1903 to 1905, he served as the first assis- bolic image of Marx. tant district attorney for Philadelphia, an expe- Rivera’s artistic, political, and private life rience that led to his appointment by President were turbulent. He married four times, and he Calvin Coolidge as special deputy U.S. attor- was expelled from the Communist Party sev- ney during World War I. He returned to fed- eral times. After the Russian revolutionary and eral service in 1924 to help prosecute the communist theorist Leon Trotsky was forced Teapot Dome and Elk Hills oil-reserve scan- into exile by JOSEPH STALIN, Rivera hosted the dals, which had occurred during the Warren political exile in his home briefly until they Harding administration. His work resulted in split over differences. Shortly thereafter, Stalin national attention. had Trotsky assassinated in Mexico City. The lifelong Republican was President Some of Rivera’s works were controversial HERBERT HOOVER’s second-choice nominee in in Mexico, as well. Four movable panels that he June 1930 to fill the U.S. Supreme Court painted for the Hotel Reforma in 1936 caused vacancy created by the sudden death of associ- such controversy that they were removed. In ate justice Edward T. Stanford. Roberts joined 1940, he returned to the United States to paint the court at the same time that Hoover nomi- a mural for a junior college in San Francisco. nated CHARLES EVANS HUGHES as chief justice His theme fused Latin American art with the to fill the vacancy caused by the death of industrial ingenuity of the United States. Dur- William Howard Taft. ing the postwar period, the Palace of Fine Arts Along with the new, moderate chief jus- held a half-century retrospective of Rivera’s tice, Roberts became a “swing vote” on the work. During the McCarthy era, his murals in court during the New Deal years. Both the United States had to be protected by armed Hughes and Roberts sided with their liberal guards. He continued painting and participat- brethren to uphold emergency economic reg- ing in left-wing politics until his death on ulations (Home Building and Loan Association v. November 25, 1957, in Mexico City. Blaisdell, 1934) placing a moratorium on the foreclosure of home mortgages in Minnesota. But in February 1935, Roberts wrote the 5-4 Roberts, Owen Josephus conservative majority opinion that invalidated (1875–1955) U.S. Supreme Court justice; chair, the Railroad Retirement Act of 1933, which Presidential Commission on Pearl Harbor had provided pensions to railroad employees (Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton). He also The son of a hardware merchant, Owen sided with the conservatives in the “sick Roberts was born on May 2, 1875, in German- chicken” case (Schechter v. United States, 1935), town, Pennsylvania, and attended German- which invalidated the National Industrial Robeson, Paul 223

Recovery Act, and he wrote the majority opin- ion for Butler v. United States (1936), which invalidated the first Agricultural Adjustment Act. Critics called the opinion an example of the “mechanical jurisprudence” that cloaked the Court’s judicial activism. By late 1936, however, Roberts had become the “switch in time that saved nine.” He voted with the liberal majority of five justices on the mid-1937 deci- sions that upheld the National Labor Relations Act (NLRB v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Corp.) and the state minimum-wage legislation (West Coast Hotel v. Parrish). On December 18, 1941, FDR appointed Roberts to head the first of eight groups empaneled to investigate the nation’s inade- quate precautions before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The Presidential Commission on Pearl Harbor, better known as the Roberts Commission, reported on January 24, 1942. Roberts’s record was generally liberal in economic cases, but his record on civil rights Paul Robeson (Library of Congress) and civil liberties was more divided. He wrote the majority opinion in Betts v. Brady (1942), which limited the right to counsel and was later His mother died when he was six years old. reversed in Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), but dis- Robeson won a statewide scholarship to attend sented in the forced relocation of Japanese Rutgers College in 1915 and was the only black Americans during World War II (Kormatsu v. student enrolled. Academically and athletically United States, 1944). When liberals sought to exceptional, the 6’3”, 215-pound Robeson extend civil-liberties protections, Roberts was excelled in debate and was named an All-Amer- caught between the court’s liberal and conserva- ica football player in both 1917 and 1918. After tive factions. Frustrated, he retired in June 1945, receiving his undergraduate degree in 1919, he the final pre-Roosevelt justice to depart from moved to Harlem Preparatory before entering the bench. He died on May 17, 1955, in West Columbia University Law School in 1920. He Vincent Township, Chester, Pennsylvania. helped to pay for law school by playing for the Akron Pros and Milwaukee Badgers football teams from 1920 to 1922. After he earned his Robeson, Paul law degree in 1923, he joined a New York City (1898–1976) singer, actor law firm. But Robeson lacked passion for either Paul Robeson was born on April 9, 1898, in football or the law, and in 1920 he began acting Princeton, New Jersey. His father, a Protestant in local theatrical productions. Four years later, minister, had been a runaway slave who had before even taking the bar exam, he quit his law fought in the Civil War with Union troops. practice to pursue a full-time stage career. In 224 Robinson, Joseph Taylor

1925, he became the first soloist at Carnegie fered, and he attempted to commit suicide. He Hall to devote an entire concert to Negro spir- died on January 23, 1976, in Philadelphia. ituals. He achieved international success in London in 1930 as one of the first blacks to play Othello. During his career, he made more Robinson, Joseph Taylor than 300 vocal recordings. He combined his (1872–1937) U.S. senator, Senate majority singing and acting talents in several musicals leader from the late 1920s through World War II. He was best known for his rendition of “Ol’ Man Born near Lonoke, Arkansas, on August 26, River” in Show Boat, released as a 1936 film. He 1872, Joseph Robinson was the son of a physi- appeared in 10 other motion pictures. cian and Baptist minister. Although he had lit- Robeson became involved in politics in tle formal schooling, he began to teach in rural 1928 after playwright George Bernard Shaw schools near his hometown in 1889. He introduced him to the universal ideas behind attended the Industrial University of Arkansas socialism. Because of the racism that Robeson at Fayetteville for two years and then returned had endured during his academic, athletic, and home to study law with a local judge before acting experiences in the United States, he enrolling in the University of Virginia Law spent most of the 1930s in Europe. After a con- School. Even before he received his law degree cert tour of the Soviet Union in 1934, he began in 1895, he had won a seat in the Arkansas state to spend more time in Moscow, learned Rus- legislature (1894–96). After graduation from sian, and came to oppose fascism, imperialism, law school, Robinson returned to Lonoke to and racism. During his years in Britain, he practice law and complete his statehouse term. became interested in African culture and took In 1902, he won election to the U.S. House of courses at the University of London. He Representatives and served in Congress for a became active in the West African Students decade before winning the Arkansas governor- Union and met future African liberation lead- ship. Shortly after becoming governor, he won ers, including Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and a seat in the U.S. Senate on January 28, 1913. Kwame Nkrumah from the Gold Coast He was subsequently reelected to the Senate (Ghana). In 1938, he went to Spain to entertain for four terms. the Republican troops fighting FRANCISCO Conservative on fiscal and states’ rights FRANCO’s fascists in the Spanish civil war. He issues, Robinson was a progressive on eco- returned to the United States the following nomic issues. His support for religious rights year and became active in the national union- earned him a national reputation. As a south- ization movement. erner, he defended Woodrow Wilson’s foreign Robeson achieved a career milestone in policy. He became Senate minority leader in October 1943 when he became the first black the 1920s and chafed under Republican poli- actor to portray Othello in the United States. cies. Nonetheless, when he became the first During the postwar anticommunist years, like elected Senate majority leader, he maintained many other actors and actresses Robeson was cordial relations with Republican presidents labeled a communist and communist sympa- Calvin Coolidge and HERBERT HOOVER.He thizer by the House Un-American Activities served as chairman of the Democratic National Committee. As a result, he was blacklisted as an Convention in 1920, 1928, and 1936 and was a entertainer. After enduring more than a dozen presidential contender among the Democrats years of political harassment, his health suf- in 1924. He was the vice-presidential candi- Rockwell, Norman Perceval 225 date selected by AL SMITH for the 1928 presi- venue to gain acceptance among his classmates. dential race. At age 14, he knew he wanted to be an illustra- Robinson used his influence as Senate tor, so he left Mamaroneck High School to majority leader to serve Franklin Roosevelt’s study at the Chase School, also in New York goals, even though his relationship with the City, for two years. After that, he was a student president was more formal than personally at the National Academy of Design in New friendly. Always the loyal Democrat, he muted York City and then studied at the Art Students his conservatism to implement the New Deal. League, where he developed his signature FDR benefited greatly from Robinson’s ora- style, which combined details with an element torical and legislative skills, his party loyalty, of mirth. and his close ties to southern Democrats. Rockwell’s first important job came in fall Robinson’s most significant personal legislative 1913 when he became an illustrator and art initiative was the Federal Anti-Price Discrimi- director for Boy’s Life, the Boy Scout magazine. nation Act of 1936, cosponsored with WRIGHT It was the start of his lifelong association with PATMAN in an effort to protect small merchants the Boy Scouts, as well as with Abraham Lin- against chain stores. coln, the Boy Scout’s adopted role model for Promised a spot on the U.S. Supreme good character. In 1915, he moved from New Court by FDR, Robinson championed passage York City to New Rochelle to be among other of the Judiciary Reorganization Act of 1937— illustrators there. For a time, he shared a studio the president’s so-called Court-packing plan. with an artist and cartoonist whom Rockwell But on July 14, 1937, during Senate debate on later credited for his characteristic humorous the bill, Robinson suffered a fatal heart attack. treatment of children with their families. He His death freed senators from their personal married Irene O’Connor in 1916, the same commitment to him that they would vote for year that he began his long and important asso- the measure, effectively killing the bill. ciation with the Saturday Evening Post, illus- trating its cover for the first time. Over the next half-century, his illustrations appeared on Rockwell, Norman Perceval 321 covers, linking Rockwell’s name with the (1894–1978) illustrator magazine for two generations of Americans. After World War I was declared, Rockwell Norman Rockwell was born in New York City enlisted and served one year in the U.S. Navy. on February 3, 1894. While he was growing He was stationed in Charleston, South Carolina, up, his business manager father moved the where he was art editor of the base publication. family frequently to different Manhattan Snobbish art critics loved to dismiss Rock- neighborhoods. Summers were spent in rural well as a mere illustrator, but he took pride in upstate New York. Neither Rockwell nor his his work and kept pace with changes in the older brother had a good relationship with printing process. He also maintained a healthy either their aloof father or their self-indulgent appreciation for both the classic painters and mother. Instead, Rockwell identified with his contemporary ones, including Pablo Picasso. maternal grandfather, a painter who loved to Many of his paintings depict small-town Amer- capture scenes from the natural world. Rock- icana, but Rockwell was personally cosmopoli- well would come to paint idealized scenes of tan and made a number of trips to Europe in imagined family warmth. A skinny, pigeon- the 1920s and 1930s. Moreover, he was a seri- toed youth, he used his drawing skills as his ous worker who devoted seven days a week to 226 Rogers, Will

his illustrations. By 1926, he was painting in his family had moved to Arlington, Vermont, color rather than using just black and white. which, like New Rochelle, contained a com- In contrast to the mounting success in his munity of illustrators. professional life with Boy’s Life, the Saturday Though he was not a partisan figure, Evening Post, Life, Literary Digest, and Country Rockwell painted at least six U.S. presidents. Gentleman, Rockwell’s personal life was disin- His first illustration was of “The Young tegrating. His childless marriage ended in Lawyer” Lincoln in 1927. His most famous divorce in 1930, and he remarried that same work may have been his series of four posters in year to Mary Barstow, with whom he had three 1943 that illustrated the “four freedoms” sons. Rockwell hit his stride as an illustrator referred to in the FDR’s famous “Four Free- during the 1930s and 1940s. In addition to his doms” speech before Congress on January 6, magazine art, he began doing commercial art 1941, which outlined what eventually became for many companies, including Hallmark and the goals of American participation in World Ford Motor Company, and in 1935 he received War II. The four illustrations were featured in a commission from Heritage Press to illustrate the Saturday Evening Post and became symbolic Mark Twain’s classic novels. By 1939, he and of democracy and decency: freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. These four paintings were reproduced as posters distributed by the Office of War Information and also were used in the campaign to raise war bonds. The postwar period was anticlimactic for Rockwell. His wife underwent treatment for depression before her death in 1959. He under- went psychiatric therapy and two years later married a retired school teacher, Mary “Molly” Punderson. Rockwell, by now an American icon, in 1977 received the nation’s highest peacetime honor, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, from Gerald Ford, who had been an Eagle Scout. For the nation’s 1976 bicentennial, Rockwell had painted his 50th and final Boy Scouts of America calendar. He died on Novem- ber 8, 1978, in Stockbridge, Massachusetts.

Rogers, Will (William Penn Adair Rogers) (1879–1935) entertainer, humorist, social commentator

Blessed with instinctive intelligence and biting Poster displaying the Norman Rockwell paintings wit, Will Rogers served as a transitional enter- depicting the four freedoms (Library of Congress) tainment figure who mirrored American life as Rogers, Will 227 it evolved after the Civil War with the closing of celebrity roast was born when Wilson joined in the American frontier and the onset of the the laughter. Rogers had found his public voice Great Depression. Rather than offering ideo- as a humorous commentator on current event logical panaceas, Rogers honed a persona of a and political affairs. He performed with the simple cowboy who used humor to navigate Follies in 1916–18, 1922, and 1924–25. His successfully the emerging modern urban life cowboy humor was recorded in two small and its associated traumas. Moderate biparti- books published in 1919 by Harpers that con- san humor from a seemingly frontier naïf tained his incisive comments on World War I played well when juxtaposed with Franklin and Prohibition. Roosevelt’s more elegant and sophisticated In the early 1920s, Rogers expanded his upbeat confidence. entertainment routines into a good-natured The son of ranchers of part-Cherokee her- newspaper column. He covered the national itage, Rogers was born on November 4, 1879, presidential nominating conventions for the near Oologah, Oklahoma, in what was then McNaught Syndicate from 1920 to 1932. By Indian Territory. His father played a major role 1926, he had launched a daily newspaper fea- in Oklahoma politics before and after its state- ture, “Will Rogers Says,” that reached 40 mil- hood in 1907. Rogers grew up in a comfortable lion readers daily at its peak. He became a household. Always spirited, he was sent to the contributor to the Saturday Evening Post, which Kemper Military School in Missouri to have often featured cover illustrations by NORMAN discipline instilled, but he ran away in 1898 to ROCKWELL, whose visual commentary on become an independent cowboy, with financial American life also contained humor. Rogers help from his prosperous father. was sent as a foreign correspondent to Europe After four years of working as a cowboy in 1927 and to the Far East in 1934. He and ranch hand, Rogers left the United States endorsed democratic values at home and advo- in 1902 to ride with the gauchos in Argentina. cated avoidance of foreign entanglements He then joined a circus as part of its Wild West abroad, but he favored a strong military, espe- Show and toured South Africa, Australia, and cially an air corps. His flying friends included New Zealand. Representing the romantic General William “Billy” Mitchell and fellow image of the American cowboy abroad, he Oklahoman and pilot Wiley Post. appealed to an earlier, simpler era of bygone The energetic and talented Rogers man- days. He returned to the United States and con- aged to parlay his popularity into a Hollywood tinued to travel with Wild West shows while acting career while he toured and wrote. This slowly transforming his trick-roping act into career began in 1918, and he made nearly 50 one that also spotlighted his distinctive Okla- silent comedies and travel films featuring his homa twang. He married in 1908 and had three persona as a wise innocent who could pierce sons and one daughter with wife Betty Blake. the pretensions of the self-designated sophisti- In 1916, Rogers joined the Ziegfeld Follies, cates. His first sound film, They Had to See and his folksy cowboy routine was transformed. Paris, premiered in 1929 and elevated him to During a program in Baltimore, Maryland, Hollywood star status. He starred in A Con- with President Woodrow Wilson in the audi- necticut Yankee in 1931. In 1933’s State Fair, he ence, Rogers had the self-confidence and bold- was a down-to-earth farmer, and he played the ness to poke fun at General John J. Pershing’s lead role in another 1933 release, David unsuccessful recent raid into Mexico to cap- Harum, about a small-town banker; Rogers’s ture Pancho Villa. The forerunner of the own father had been the first local banker in 228 Roosevelt, Eleanor

their area. The next year he starred in Judge Eleanor Roosevelt pioneered a new political Priest, playing a rural politician, again like his dimension for the First Lady. At times, she father had been. Many of Rogers’s films were acted as an equal partner in fulfilling the pres- directed by the legendary John Ford. ident’s role and served—as FDR acknowl- The resourceful Rogers also turned his tal- edged—as his “spur.” ents to radio in the 1930s. He exploited his Born into a life of material privilege on written work and spontaneous wit during his October 11, 1884, in New York City, Anna Good Gulf Show, which aired from 1933 to Eleanor Roosevelt was psychologically deprived 1935, and a dozen radio programs for the E. R. from infancy. Her mother was a beautiful Squibb drug company that focused on person- socialite who married the alcoholic younger alities such as CHARLES LINDBERGH, HERBERT brother of THEODORE ROOSEVELT.Eleanor’s HOOVER, AL SMITH, and HENRY FORD. mother openly criticized her daughter’s physical Rogers’s popularity was so great that he appearance and was emotionally unavailable for was offered the Democratic nomination for her. Her father, in contrast, was emotionally governor of Oklahoma, but he declined. How- available but often physically absent. Com- ever, he did serve as the mayor of Beverly Hills, pounding her childhood difficulties were the California. His most famous political line was deaths of her parents, her mother when she was that he was “not a member of any organized eight and her father two years later. The 10-year- party; I’m a Democrat.” He campaigned for old Eleanor was left in the care of her maternal Franklin Roosevelt in 1932. He found flaws in grandmother, who met only her physical needs. FDR’s New Deal, especially his “brain trust,” At age 15, Roosevelt was sent to the and chastised the Supreme Court for its role in Allenswood School in England, run by Marie blocking efforts to regulate the economy. He Souvestre, the liberal founding headmistress expressed hope that the experimental New and daughter of a radical French philosopher. Deal’s deficit spending might work to restore Under Souvestre’s tutelage and attention, Roo- the economy. sevelt began her slow transformation from a Rogers and his friend Wiley Post died in a self-conscious teenager into a young woman plane crash in Alaska that occurred on August 15, with a social conscience. After three years 1935, while they were en route to the Far East. abroad, she returned to New York City to make her requisite social debut. Roosevelt never attended college, but her Roosevelt, Eleanor Allenswood background equipped her with (Anna Eleanor Roosevelt) the skills needed to teach. She soon demon- (1884–1962) First Lady of the United States strated her penchant for helping the under- privileged by teaching at the Rivington Considered by scholars to be America’s great- Settlement House and working for social est First Lady, Eleanor Roosevelt expanded reform. Unlike most of her debutante peers the nonconstitutional role of the president’s who were merely status conscious, Roosevelt wife from that of ceremonial hostess to a pub- was already exhibiting the strong sense of lic figure whose political clout at times rivaled noblesse oblige that was her trademark that of the president. Not content to be the throughout her activist life. traditional political wife who remained unob- In late 1902, shortly after her return from trusively in the background and served solely England, Eleanor began seeing Franklin Delano as a helpmate and hostess for her husband, Roosevelt, her childhood playmate and distant Roosevelt, Eleanor 229

When the socially prominent couple mar- ried in 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt gave away the bride. They had six children, five of whom survived infancy. In the tradition of the wealthy, the Roosevelt offspring were reared largely by servants, and until Sara Delano Roosevelt died, she ruled as the family’s matriarch. In contrast to many wives who found the political world of their husbands stifling, Eleanor Roosevelt found politics liberating. First, FDR was elected to the New York legis- lature, allowing them to move to Albany. The distance between Albany and Hyde Park loos- ened the grip that Eleanor’s mother-in-law had on her. FDR next was appointed as assistant secretary of the navy in the Woodrow Wilson administration, requiring them to relocate to Washington, D.C., and giving Eleanor the opportunity to resume her volunteer work with Navy Relief and the Red Cross during World War I. It was during this period that she dis- covered her husband’s infidelity, which ended their physical intimacy but not their marriage, which would evolve into a political partner- ship. That partnership was reinforced during Eleanor Roosevelt (National Archives) FDR’s seven-year struggle with polio, which necessitated Eleanor’s assuming a more active role in the political arena to keep her husband cousin. The somewhat diffident and still socially politically viable. insecure Eleanor contrasted with the supremely Her incredible energy matched his. Roo- outgoing and serene Franklin. On the surface, sevelt’s organizational talent led to her involve- they appeared to be an unlikely pair, but Eleanor ment with the League of Women Voters, the shared certain key traits with Franklin’s adored Women’s Trade Union League, the Women’s mother, Sara Delano Roosevelt. Both women City Club, and the Women’s Division of the were bright, energetic, and empathetic to the New York State Democratic Committee. She less fortunate. For Franklin, Eleanor possessed networked with activist women and helped buy still another attraction: she was the favorite the Todhunter School for Girls in New York niece of his political hero, Theodore Roosevelt, City, where she taught government and litera- and FDR was painstakingly emulating TR’s path ture. In 1926, FDR built Val-Kill, a house for to politics. Further, at the time that FDR and her near their Hyde Park estate. For FDR, the Eleanor were seeing each other, Eleanor was residence provided only a pool in which to more attractive than TR’s only daughter, who exercise, but for Eleanor it provided a sense of was jealous of her cousin. home away from her mother-in-law. 230 Roosevelt, Elliott

After FDR’s election as New York gover- Roosevelt, Elliott nor in 1928, Eleanor continued to support (1910–1990) third son of Eleanor and Franklin D. social reform and champion the appointment Roosevelt of women to governmental positions. She would continue this work in the White House Born on September 23, 1910, in New York City, after FDR won the presidency in 1932. She was the fourth of six children worked especially closely with MARY DAWSON, born to Franklin and ELEANOR ROOSEVELT;he director of the Women’s Division of the was named for his mother’s beloved father. From Democratic National Committee. In 1935, 1923 to 1929, he attended Groton School in Roosevelt began writing her popular “” Connecticut, as his father had done, and he then newspaper column as well as magazine articles attended Hun School in Princeton, New Jersey, that advocated support for New Deal policies. in 1929–30. Instead of following family tradition She also instituted regular White House press by going to Harvard, Roosevelt entered the conferences for women reporters only in an world of business. From 1930 to 1932, he era when newsrooms were dominated by men. worked with advertising firms, and he was avia- As the New Deal developed, her scope of inter- tion editor for the Los Angeles Examiner from est broadened beyond the feminist agenda. She 1933 to 1935 during his father’s first presidential became an advocate for black civil rights and term. He continued his career in journalism, for the poor and others who had no political working from 1936 to 1940 for Hearst newspa- voice and were powerless. Her efforts helped to pers and radio networks in the Southwest. humanize both the New Deal and the subse- Roosevelt once again bucked family tradi- quent war effort. tion during World War II by joining the Army The president and First Lady were viewed Air Corps instead of the U.S. Navy. He served as favorably as a political partnership by most of a successful reconnaissance pilot over the North the public. Eleanor Roosevelt became increas- Atlantic. Both he and his brother, FRANKLIN ingly political, and in 1940 FDR sent her to DELANO ROOSEVELT, JR., who was four years the lectern at the Democratic National Con- younger, served as presidential aides to their vention, where she successfully quelled the father at three of his most important confer- protest against HENRY WALLACE as his vice- ences: the Atlantic Charter Conference with presidential running mate. Though her brief WINSTON CHURCHILL in August 1941, the service as assistant director of the Office of Casablanca Conference in January 1943, and the Civil Defense was unsuccessful, her unflag- Cairo-Tehran Conference in November 1944. ging support for the New Deal reforms some- During his military career, Roosevelt flew times made her more popular than FDR. She 300 combat missions, and he participated in set the benchmark against which other First the invasions of North Africa, Sicily, and Nor- Ladies are measured, acting sometimes as the mandy. Wounded twice, he was a highly deco- conscience for her spouse and sometimes rated brigadier general when he left the service. goading him. His military performance was an outstand- During the postwar years, Roosevelt’s con- ing success, but Roosevelt’s personal life was just tinued work at the United Nations, especially the opposite. He married five times. His first the UN Declaration of Human Rights enacted marriage, to Elizabeth Donner in 1932, pro- in 1948, won for her the title “the First Lady of duced one child. He married his second wife, the World.” She died in New York City on Ruth Googins, in 1932, and they had three chil- November 7, 1962. dren. His third marriage, to actress Faye Emer- Roosevelt, Franklin Delano 231 son, took place in 1944 and was childless. He After FDR graduated from Harvard in married his fourth wife, Minnewa Bell, in 1951, 1904, he enrolled at Columbia University to and they had no children. In 1960, he married study law but found it dull and failed two his fifth wife, Patricia Peabody Whitehead, and courses. After he passed the New York bar in he adopted her four children. 1907, he dropped out in his third year. By then, During the postwar years, Roosevelt he was already married, having wed his fifth returned to his writing and published several cousin, ELEANOR ROOSEVELT, of the Republi- books. Although he never attempted to follow can Oyster Bay Roosevelts and niece of in his father’s footsteps in national elective pol- Theodore Roosevelt, on St. Patrick’s Day in itics, he was mayor of Miami from 1965 to 1905. He had married her despite his mother’s 1969 and was on the Democratic National initial objection. The marriage ultimately pro- Committee. He bred Arabian horses in Portu- duced six children; their third child, Franklin gal during the early 1970s, and he also wrote a Delano, Jr., died in infancy, and several years series of popular mysteries that featured later another son was named FRANKLIN Eleanor Roosevelt as a detective. He died on DELANO ROOSEVELT, JR.Their other children October 27, 1990, in Scottsdale, Arizona. were Anna Eleanor, James, ELLIOTT ROO- SEVELT, and John. Roosevelt, the young husband and father Roosevelt, Franklin Delano who had found law school boring, joined one of (1882–1945) president of the United States New York City’s elite law firms and worked in its admiralty division. He proceeded to follow The 32nd president of the United States was in Theodore Roosevelt’s footsteps with a born on January 30, 1882, at Hyde Park, New resolve to exceed his hero’s accomplishments York. Franklin Delano Roosevelt was the sec- and become the greatest American president of ond son of , vice president of the 20th century. As an initial step, he passed the Delaware and Hudson Railroad. The elder the New York State bar exam, which Theodore Roosevelt and his much-younger second wife, had not done. FDR possessed the same leg- Sara Delano, the strong-willed daughter of a endary high-energy level of his distant cousin, wealthy businessman, doted on their only child. and he channeled it into a successful bid for the Secure in the total love of his parents, young New York State Senate in 1910, the same year Franklin enjoyed a privileged, serene childhood that Woodrow Wilson was elected governor of despite his father’s delicate health. Initially New Jersey. FDR was reelected in 1912, and tutored privately, Roosevelt attended Groton Wilson was elected president, having squeaked Academy, a Massachusetts preparatory school into the White House only because of the 1912 that he did not enter until later than his peers. Republican Party split that had resulted from He attended the school from 1896 to 1900, and Teddy Roosevelt’s Bull Moose third-party chal- while there he learned to debate. In 1900, he lenge. FDR parlayed his ambition and name entered Harvard University, where the young, into an appointment by Wilson as assistant sec- athletic, and handsome student became editor retary of the navy—the same job that Teddy of the Crimson, the school newspaper. Inter- Roosevelt had held in the McKinley adminis- ested in politics and keenly aware that his dis- tration—from 1913 to 1920. In 1920, he con- tant cousin THEODORE ROOSEVELT had tinued to follow TR’s political development and enjoyed academic and social success at Harvard, became the 1920 vice presidential running mate Franklin proved to be a rather average student to Ohio governor James M. Cox. Although the unable to match his cousin’s standard. Cox/FDR team lost to Warren G. Harding and 232 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano

Calvin Coolidge, FDR’s political star was still in Representatives, his vice-presidential running its ascendancy. mate. On the fourth ballot, FDR won the At the same time, however, Roosevelt’s per- Democratic nomination. The “” sonal life was less stellar. By August 1921, when that Theodore Roosevelt had espoused was he contracted polio while vacationing at Cam- appropriated and modified into FDR’s “New pobello, Newfoundland, FDR and Eleanor’s Deal for the American people.” The 1929 marriage had become hollow. In 1918, Eleanor stock-market crash and subsequent Great had learned of his unfaithfulness with Lucy Depression had assured a Roosevelt landslide, Mercer (later LUCY MERCER RUTHERFORD), despite FDR’s contradictory and vague—but but the resolution of the marital crisis was a strenuous—campaign. The Roosevelt-Garner decision not to divorce and to maintain a pub- ticket carried 57 percent of the vote, won all lic facade of wedded harmony. Ironically, his but six states, and carried overwhelming con- polio served to strengthen their bond of politi- gressional majorities with it. FDR’s ebullience cal partnership, as Eleanor worked to keep his and winning smile convinced the nation that career viable while he struggled against the better days were just around the corner, just as polio. Even under such tragic circumstances, his inner optimism kept him from letting his Teddy Roosevelt—who had almost died of paralysis dominate his life. asthma in his youth—served as FDR’s model. The Democratic Congress acceded to When he was stricken with polio, FDR FDR’s initial 100 days of executive activism that already had an established a network of loyal introduced into the nation’s vocabulary a host of supporters, and Eleanor and LOUIS HOWE new alphabet agencies created to regulate and worked to keep their support while he recov- reform the national economy. Some of the leg- ered. Although the paralysis left him unable to islation passed during that period may be traced walk, a condition that he masterfully concealed to Teddy Roosevelt’s radical 1912 presidential from the public, FDR never abandoned his campaign. Even more of it can be traced to the presidential ambition. He twice nominated AL lasting influence on TR and FDR of Harvard SMITH for president, first in 1924 with his professor William James, founder of the unique “Happy Warrior” speech and then again in American brand of philosophy known as prag- 1928. Meanwhile, Smith recruited FDR to run matism. The Civilian Conservation Corps, one as his successor as New York governor in 1928. of the few pieces of legislation that FDR initi- FDR won that election and was reelected in ated, owed much to America’s first conserva- 1930. While governor, he initiated what would tion president, Theodore Roosevelt. The most become his trademark “fireside chats” to lis- radical piece of legislation, the Tennessee Valley teners on the radio. His second term, espe- Authority Act, helped to transform an entire cially, proved to be a training ground for his impoverished region. During FDR’s first term, eventual presidency in terms of experience in two landmark acts, among the most significant providing emergency relief, public works, and pieces of legislation to be passed in the history unemployment compensation. of the Congress, were enacted. These were the Armed with the magical Roosevelt name Social Security Act of 1935, which established and well known as governor of the nation’s the basis of the modern welfare state, and the most populous state, FDR was ready to seek National Labor Relations Act of 1935, known the 1932 presidential nomination. Aided by as “Labor’s Magna Carta.” many former Bull Moosers, FDR’s team struck The president was easily renominated in a deal with the Texas delegation to make JOHN 1936 and achieved the greatest electoral victory NANCE GARNER, Speaker of the U.S. House of among his four elections by winning 61 percent Roosevelt, Franklin Delano 233 of the vote and carrying all but two states; the blunder of declaring after his initial election that Republican ticket of ALF LANDON and FRANK he would not seek another term. At his political KNOX carried only Maine and Vermont. The zenith, FDR simply rigged the Democratic con- battle against the “economic royalists” that vention in 1940. He used HARRY HOPKINS and resulted in this landslide victory also spawned Chicago Mayor ED KELLY to manipulate it so the hubris that caused FDR to make one of his that FDR appeared to have received a popular two greatest blunders in office. On February 5, draft. However, the results of the 1940 election 1937, without engaging in his characteristic showed that his public support had slipped. He consultation of others before acting, he pro- and running mate HENRY WALLACE drew only posed his Supreme Court–packing plan as a 55 percent of the vote to beat WENDELL means to quell the judicial activism of conserva- WILLKIE and CHARLES MCNARY, and the tive justices who had struck down key pieces of Democratic team carried only 38 states. New Deal legislation. Despite the Court sud- In his third term, FDR continued to pre- denly beginning to reverse itself and supporting pare his isolationist nation for war. The Pearl the New Deal legislation by a one-vote margin Harbor attack on December 7, 1941, unified the instead of rejecting it by one vote, FDR suffered nation behind him. His wartime leadership was his first major legislative defeat when the Court- exemplified on the world stage as he worked to packing plan failed to win congressional maintain relations with Great Britain and the approval. It was the opening for which conser- Soviet Union. The “invalid” president who flew vative Democrats and Republicans who opposed to the historic Tehran conference in November him had been waiting. His legislative defeat was 1943 with WINSTON CHURCHILL and JOSEPH compounded by his subsequent failed attempt in STALIN displayed the same vigor that his out- 1938 to purge those he considered anti–New doorsy “Uncle Ted” had exhibited as he charged Deal Democrats from the party. FDR’s mis- judgment resulted in a backlash that increased the number of Republicans in the House of Representatives from 88 to 170 and from 17 to 25 in the U.S. Senate in the midterm elections. Nevertheless, Roosevelt had inspired the American people during their greatest internal crisis since the Civil War. At his best, FDR never lost sight of the ball within the international arena. He adjusted to his physical limitation and relaxed with his hobby of philately as he kept track of world politics. He faced the reality of the Fascist threat in Europe and the Japanese mili- tarists in Asia at a time when most in post–World War I America had retreated into isolationism. On the domestic front, FDR confronted the issue of a third term in an era when opponents perceived him as a rising dictator because of his attempted Court–packing plan. Ever the student of Theodore Roosevelt, This 1941 photograph shows President Roosevelt FDR learned from his distant cousin’s mistakes asking Congress to declare war on Japan the day as well as his successes and avoided TR’s costly after Pearl Harbor. (Library of Congress) 234 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, Jr.

up San Juan Hill. FDR signed the third most 1909. Following family tradition, FDR Jr. important piece of legislation of his administra- graduated from Groton School in Mas- tion, the GI Bill, in June 1944 during the Nor- sachusetts in 1933 and Harvard University in mandy invasion. 1937. He graduated three years later from the Consummately adaptable, FDR ran with University of Virginia Law School, and his HARRY S. TRUMAN against THOMAS E. DEWEY father gave the commencement address. He and JOHN W. BRICKER in 1944. His fourth term practiced law only briefly before he began his was secured with only 53 percent of the vote, military service in March 1941 in the Naval FDR’s smallest margin of victory; he carried Reserves. By the end of World War II, he had 36 states. Although the grueling war effort had risen through the ranks from ensign to lieu- sapped his strength and health, FDR flew to tenant commander and received many awards, Yalta in January 1945 to meet with Churchill including the Purple Heart. He and his older and Stalin. Roosevelt, who was planning for a brother ELLIOTT ROOSEVELT served during United Nations that would avoid the mistakes the war as presidential aides to their father at made by Woodrow Wilson after World War I, three of his most important international con- then left Washington for his vacation home in ferences: the Atlantic Charter Conference with Warm Springs, Georgia, with its therapeutic WINSTON CHURCHILL in August 1941, the waters. While there, the 63-year-old president Casablanca Conference in January 1943, and suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and died on the Cairo-Tehran Conference in November April 12, 1945. 1944. As he set out to do, FDR had eclipsed the Like Elliott, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr., presidential record of his distant cousin. He married five times. In 1937, he married his first left the greatest American democratic legacy wife, heiress , with whom he had since Abraham Lincoln. Not only had he been two children. He married Suzanne Perrin in elected four times, but he had successfully con- 1949, and there were two children born to that fronted the Great Depression and the Axis marriage. In 1970, he and third wife Felicia powers of World War II. His active and flexi- Schiff Warburg Sarnoff, were married; they ble personality had allowed him to transform had no children. Patricia Oakes became his the nation’s capital, the institution of the pres- fourth wife in 1977, and they had one son. His idency, and the nation itself. Franklin Delano fifth and final marriage was to Linda Stevenson Roosevelt had made the United States the Weicker in 1984, and it was childless. world’s preeminent modern democratic nation. FDR Jr.’s good looks caused him to be dubbed early on as the “glamour boy” of the family, and he was considered most likely to Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, Jr. follow in his father’s political footsteps. He (1914–1988) fourth son of Eleanor and looked and sounded like FDR, and he tried to Franklin D. Roosevelt live up to his father’s legacy in the postwar period but failed. He became actively involved Born on Campobello Island, New Brunswick, in the liberal American Veterans’ Committee Canada, on August 17, 1914, Franklin Delano and used it as his springboard for becoming a Roosevelt, Jr., was the fifth of six children born political contender. In 1947, HARRY TRUMAN to Franklin and ELEANOR ROOSEVELT.He was made FDR Jr. vice chairman of his Committee the second son to be named Franklin Delano on Civil Rights. Two years later, Roosevelt Roosevelt, Jr.; the first had died in infancy in became the Liberal Party’s candidate for the Roosevelt, Theodore 235

20th Congressional District of New York. He father bought his way out of active military ser- was elected as the Democratic Party’s candidate vice during the Civil War in deference to TR’s and served in Congress from 1949 to 1955. Georgia-born mother, whose brothers were In 1954, Roosevelt sought and lost his bid Confederates. Young Theodore was the anti- for the Democratic nomination for New York thesis of the robust adult, a physical outsider governor, a post that his father had held early among his childhood peers: frail, sickly, and in his career. Instead, he was nominated for the nearsighted. Nonetheless, he was determined state’s attorney general post, but lost in the that strong will could triumph over a weak general election. His support for John body, and as a teenager he embraced the phys- Kennedy’s presidential bid in 1960 led to his ical regimen that his father set out. It became appointment as undersecretary of commerce his first step along what would be a lifelong in 1963. Two years later, Lyndon Johnson journey down the road of the “strenuous life” appointed FDR Jr. the first chairman of the that he used to compensate for his earlier defi- Equal Opportunity Commission. After his ciencies, which at the same time transformed failed second attempt to gain the governorship him into a model of physical fitness. of New York, he quit politics. He died on his After being privately tutored for his pri- 74th birthday, August 17, 1988, in Poughkeep- mary and secondary education, Theodore sie, New York. Roosevelt entered Harvard University in 1876 as the United States celebrated its centennial. Not only a good student, he was also an ener- Roosevelt, Theodore getic equestrian, boxer, and marksman. He (1858–1919) president of the United States graduated in 1880, ranked 20th in his class of 171. Despite learning that year that asthma and Two dozen years and partisan loyalties divided exercise had strained his heart, he defied med- the Oyster Bay and Hyde Park Roosevelts ical advice to adopt a sedentary life by keeping before the clans were bridged by the 1905 mar- his medical condition secret and pressing on riage of distant cousins ELEANOR ROOSEVELT with his active—even strenuous—activities. and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Even before Exercise became a form of play for him for the that union, however, FDR had already begun remainder of his life. applying his even greater personal flexibility Roosevelt entered Columbia University and learning curve with the intention to emu- Law School in fall 1880 and married Alice late his older fifth cousin’s political success and Hathaway Lee that same year. Breaking with then to surpass it. Theodore Roosevelt was not tradition among his social class, he simultane- only FDR’s distant cousin, he also was his pri- ously sought—and won election to—the New mary role model as well as a major source for York Assembly, but he continued in law school. FDR’s serene political sense in facing the suc- When Columbia lengthened its requirement cessive crises of the Great Depression and to three years of study and the state changed its World War II. licensing procedure, Roosevelt quit law school. Born on October 27, 1858, in New York While later serving as vice president, he con- City to a prosperous businessman and his sidered resuming his study of the law. southern-belle wife, Theodore Roosevelt was In 1882, Theodore Roosevelt completed reared feeling the tensions from the American his first of many books, , Civil War through his parents and their differ- inspired by his Confederate naval veteran rel- ing allegiances. To TR’s later consternation, his atives. Midway through his third legislative 236 Roosevelt, Theodore term, personal tragedy struck when his wife president in American history. He was elected died in February 1884 after giving birth to to a term on his own in 1904, but on election their daughter, also named Alice. Compound- night he committed a major political blunder ing his grief was the death that same day of his that would later haunt him: he announced that mother, who had lived in the same house with he would not seek reelection in 1908. 1 the couple. He took refuge in ranching in west- During his 7/2-year administration, Roo- ern Dakota while he hunted, wrote, and main- sevelt was a model of political and personal tained his high-energy lifestyle. On his return activity. He fought for a “Square Deal” for all east, he ran unsuccessfully for the New York Americans, wanting to create a modern admin- City mayor’s seat in 1886. He soon married istrative state in which nonpartisan experts Edith Kermit Carow, a childhood friend, with would regulate corporations. He battled from whom he had four sons and another daughter. his “” against “the malefactors of In 1889, Roosevelt moved to the nation’s great wealth” at home and became the United capital for the first time after President Ben- States’s first conservation president, despite his jamin Harrison named him to the United States own party blocking his initiatives during the Civil Service Commission. He continued in last two years of his administration. He advo- that position under President Grover Cleve- cated use of the American “big stick” of power land until 1895, when he returned to New York to influence affairs abroad. For example, his City to become president of its Police Com- “” to the Monroe Doctrine mission. Two years later, he returned to Wash- meant the United States would police Latin ington after President William McKinley America. Yet despite his activist rhetoric, he appointed him assistant secretary of the navy, mediated an end to the Russo-Japanese War in the same slot that would first bring FDR to the 1905, for which he won the Novel Peace Prize nation’s capital during the Woodrow Wilson the following year. administration. During the Spanish-American On March 17, 1905, Roosevelt made time War, TR seized the opportunity to compensate to give away his brother’s daughter, Eleanor, in for his father’s lack of active military service her New York City wedding to his fifth cousin, during the American Civil War. He resigned Franklin Delano Roosevelt. TR had treated his from the Navy Department to lead the “Rough niece paternally after her parents died while Riders” to victory in Cuba and was celebrated she was still young, and he was generous in as a national hero. Just as he rode his horse up accepting FDR into the Oyster Bay branch of San Juan Hill in that fabled charge, Teddy Roo- the Roosevelts. FDR lacked TR’s multiple tal- sevelt rode public acclaim to victory as governor ents but was inspired by him to pursue politics of New York in November 1898. in an even more focused way and learned from Roosevelt entered office as an energetic TR’s political mistakes as well as his successes. reform governor, making the state Republican After leaving the presidency, Roosevelt was machine eager to rid itself of the new, young miserable out of power and sought a third term governor. The opportunity came when in the 1912 presidential election. He swept the McKinley’s vice president died in office; TR newly created state primaries, but the conserva- was virtually pushed out of the state to accept tive Republican Party bosses ignored his show- the nomination as McKinley’s running mate in ing and renominated William Howard Taft as 1900. Less than a year later, McKinley was their candidate. Roosevelt then bolted the GOP assassinated, and on September 14, 1901, and founded the Progressive Party, dubbed the Theodore Roosevelt became the youngest Bull Moose Party in his honor. His platform for Rosenman, Samuel Irving 237 that campaign was later incorporated into FDR’s him the task of assisting Smith’s handpicked New Deal. Although TR lost the 1912 election, successor, Franklin D. Roosevelt. Rosenman he was instrumental in determining its outcome became a close FDR aide and was one of the because his candidacy divided the Republican candidate’s main speechwriters. After FDR’s Party and enabled Democrat Woodrow Wilson election as governor, Rosenman was desig- to win the presidency. nated general counsel to the governor, serving On January 6, 1919, Theodore Roosevelt both as speechwriter and liaison with Tam- died in his home, , at Oyster Bay, many Hall. He played a major role in FDR’s Long Island, New York. As the Republican 1932 presidential campaign and was instru- Party grew increasingly conservative and isola- mental in establishing FDR’s legendary “brain tionist, it took fifth cousin FDR, who used trust” of academic advisers. He also coined TR’s career as his political roadmap, to carry “the new deal” phrase that Roosevelt used at on TR’s Bull Moose legacy by adapting it the 1932 National Democratic Convention in within the Democratic Party. Chicago. Before FDR left the governorship in 1932, he appointed Rosenman to the New York State Rosenman, Samuel Irving Supreme Court. Tammany Hall denied his (1896–1973) New York Supreme Court justice, nomination to a full term, but New York gov- speechwriter, special counsel to the president ernor HERBERT LEHMAN reappointed him the next year, and he then won election to a four- Samuel Rosenman was born on February 13, year term. Eventually FDR crowned him 1896, in San Antonio, Texas, the youngest of “Sammy the Rose” for his intelligence, per- four children whose parents were Ukrainian- sonality, experience, and ability to work for Jewish immigrants. His family resettled in New Lehman and serve on the bench while contin- York, and he attended public schools in Man- uing to work for FDR. In 1936, Rosenman hattan. A talented student, he graduated from became the president’s chief speechwriter, and Columbia University in 1915 and then entered the next year FDR selected him as editor for its law school. His legal training was inter- what would become the 13-volume Public rupted in the third year by his enlistment in the Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, U.S. Army during World War I. After his mil- published between 1938 and 1950. itary service, he completed his law degree and Rosenman’s influence peaked during was admitted to the New York bar in 1920. World War II, and he resigned from the bench Rosenman then turned his attention to politics, in 1943 to become special counsel to the pres- becoming part of the Tammany Hall political ident. He helped to create the Office of Pro- machine and serving in the New York Assem- duction Management, the National Housing bly from 1921 to 1926. In 1924, he married Agency, the War Manpower Commission, and Dorothy Reuben, with whom he had two chil- the Office of Economic Stabilization that was dren. His wife would become a housing expert, headed by JAMES BYRNES, with whom he had serving as chairman of the National Commit- many conflicts. In 1946, Rosenman returned to tee on Housing in 1941. private law practice in New York City but In 1926, Rosenman accepted appointment remained active in public life, serving as an to the state Legislative Bill Drafting Commis- adviser to the Truman administration and to sion, which led to his acquaintance with New Democratic governors. He died in New York York governor AL SMITH, who in 1928 gave City on June 24, 1973. 238 Ross, C. Ben

Ross, C. Ben As Idaho’s New Deal governor, Ross (Charles Benjamin Ross) favored the Agricultural Adjustment Act of (1876–1946) Idaho governor 1933, the Civilian Conservation Corps, and federal relief programs. On the other hand, he Charles Benjamin Ross was born in Parma, was openly critical of White House bureaucrat Idaho, on December 21, 1876, as the American HARRY HOPKINS, Vice President HENRY WAL- centennial was drawing to a close. His parents LACE, Secretary of the Interior HAROLD ICKES, were ranchers, and he left school after the sixth and even FDR on occasion. Often controver- grade to work on the family ranch. As a sial because of maverick stances, the “Cowboy teenager, he worked on several large ranches in Governor” spoke the farmers’ language and Oregon, and from that experience he earned conducted colorful campaigns. In 1934, he the lifelong nickname of “Cowboy” Ben Ross. received more votes than had ever been cast From 1894 to 1897, he attended business col- for an Idaho political candidate and carried leges in Boise, Idaho, and Portland, Oregon. every county. He then returned to the family ranch, which he Ross made the mistake in 1936 of chal- managed with his brother for the next 16 years. lenging WILLIAM BORAH for his U.S. Senate In 1900, he married Edna Reavis, a seat, which the Republican had held since 1907. schoolteacher and Democratic Party activist. Ross was defeated in a landslide and retired They did not have children, but they raised from politics, only to make one last comeback four foster children. effort in 1938, when he won the Democratic During the 1896 presidential election, nomination for governor but was defeated in Ross was enamored of William Jennings the fall election. Ross died on March 31, 1946, Bryan’s populist platform and abandoned his in Boise. family’s traditional Republican Party ties to become a Democrat. He was vice president of the Riverside Irrigation District from 1906 to Rutherford, Lucy Mercer 1915 and then became chairman of the Board (1891–1948) social secretary to Eleanor of County Commissioners of Canyon County Roosevelt, FDR companion from 1915 to 1921. He helped to organize the State Farm Bureau after World War I and Lucy Mercer was born on April 26, 1891, in served as its president from 1921 to 1923. It Washington, D.C., and attended private was his springboard for later statewide office. schools. Her father, who had served with Always ambitious and energetic, Ross THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s Rough Riders, and moved his family in 1921 to a farm in Bannock her independent-minded mother, who had County near Pocatello, then Idaho’s second- been married previously, separated when she largest city. Two years later, he was elected was 12 years old. Her association with the mayor, serving until 1930. He made a failed Franklin D. Roosevelt family began when she bid for the governorship in 1928 but suc- was hired as ELEANOR ROOSEVELT’s social sec- ceeded in 1930. His ideology was closer to the retary in 1914. She had been recommended for Populist Party of the 1890s than what would the position by Theodore Roosevelt’s sister, become the New Deal. Nonetheless, he who lived in the same capital-city neighbor- became the first Democrat and native son to hood near Dupont Circle and whose house win three successive terms, serving from 1931 Franklin and Eleanor rented when he was to 1937. appointed as assistant secretary of the navy Rutledge, Wiley Blount 239 during Woodrow Wilson’s administration. only later. Lucy Rutherford died of leukemia Mercer was 22 years old when she became on July 31, 1948, in New York City. Eleanor’s social secretary, and she developed a reputation for efficiency and an ability to get along with everyone, including the Roosevelt Rutledge, Wiley Blount children. Over time, she came to be regarded (1894–1949) U.S. Supreme Court justice as almost a member of the family and occa- sionally filled in as hostess when Eleanor was Born on July 20, 1894, in Cloverport, Ken- too busy. tucky, Wiley Rutledge was the oldest child of a By 1917, Eleanor had discharged Mercer fundamentalist Baptist minister and his wife. on the pretext of the need for economy during In his youth, he battled tuberculosis, the same World War I. Mercer then enlisted in the Navy disease that killed his mother when he was only Department and served in the office building nine years old. A member of the football team where FDR worked. In September 1918, at Marysville College in Tennessee, he began Eleanor discovered the true nature of the inti- an affair with his Greek instructor, Annabel mate relationship between her husband and Person. Rutledge transferred to the University former social secretary. She offered FDR a of Wisconsin, where he received a B.A. in divorce, but, responding to pressure from his 1914. He then taught high school in Indiana, at mother and close adviser LOUIS HOWE,he the same time attending Indiana University remained with Eleanor. Franklin’s infidelity Law School. The stress of doing both broke his had forever altered the nature of their rela- health, and in 1915, he entered a tuberculosis tionship and spurred Eleanor to independence. sanitarium in Ashville, North Carolina. In Eight years later, Mercer married Winthrop 1917, he married Person, with whom he had Rutherford, a wealthy Catholic widower twice three children. Later that same year, he and his her age with six children. She gave birth to a wife moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico, in daughter two years later. the hope of restoring his health. Named secre- Although their affair ostensibly had ended tary to the Albuquerque school board, he after Eleanor’s discovery, Lucy Mercer Ruther- taught high school until 1920, when he began ford remained in contact with Franklin and law school at the University of Colorado while attended all four of his presidential inaugura- again teaching school. After he earned a law tions. After more than two decades, on June 5, degree in 1922, he briefly practiced law in 1941, while Eleanor was away from the White Boulder, Colorado, until joining the univer- House, Lucy began seeing FDR again. The sity’s law faculty two years later. He moved to visits increased over time, especially following Missouri to teach law at Washington Univer- the death of her 82-year-old husband on sity in St. Louis and became dean (1931–35) of March 19, 1944. FDR always enjoyed the com- its law school. He became dean of the Univer- pany of women, and Rutherford was more will- sity of Iowa’s law school in 1935. ing to listen to him than Eleanor, who had Though born in the conservative South, pursued her own agenda since her discovery of Rutledge was a liberal who backed Franklin the affair. Rutherford was with FDR at the Lit- Roosevelt and the New Deal while he was a tle White House in Warm Springs, Georgia, resident of segregated Missouri. He also when he suffered his fatal cerebral hemor- became a vocal supporter of FDR’s Court- rhage, leaving immediately after he was packing plan in 1937, agreeing to testify on stricken. Eleanor learned the circumstances behalf of it when asked by the administration 240 Rutledge, Wiley Blount

to do so. During the next few years he was the Senate. While on the bench, Rutledge seriously considered for openings on the quickly joined the liberal bloc composed of bench that FELIX FRANKFURTER and WILLIAM HUGO BLACK, Douglas, and FRANK MURPHY. O. DOUGLAS eventually received. Instead, in He supported the administration’s efforts to 1939, Rutledge was named to the U.S. Court regulate the economy and increasingly sup- of Appeals for the District of Columbia. In ported civil liberties during his tenure. After 1943, he became FDR’s ninth and final six years on the Court, Rutledge suffered a appointee to the Supreme Court after the res- cerebral hemorrhage and died on September ignation of justice JAMES F. BYRNES.His con- 10, 1949, while on vacation in York, Maine. firmation was overwhelmingly approved by S w

Sinclair, Upton Beall, Jr. During the 1920s, Sinclair turned his ener- (Upton Bell, Sinclair, Jr.) gies to politics. He ran twice for governor of (1878–1968) novelist, reformer, politician California as a Socialist but received few votes. By 1933, he had launched a campaign for gov- Upton Sinclair was born on September 20, ernor as a Democrat, for which he penned I, 1878, in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of an Governor of California, and How I Ended Poverty: alcoholic father. He attended elementary A True Story of the Future. To the surprise of schools in New York City and graduated in many, his End Poverty in California (EPIC) 1898 from City College there. Sinclair, filled platform led to his primary win. A tireless cam- with restless energy and suffering from depres- paigner who made effective use of radio broad- sion, would be married three times. He became casts, he garnered nearly 44 percent of the vote a socialist in 1902 and embarked on a critically and gained the attention of Franklin D. Roo- acclaimed career as a novelist highlighted by a sevelt. Following his defeat in the general elec- Pulitzer Prize in 1943. tion, he wrote I, Candidate for Governor, And Sinclair’s idealism was reflected in his 1904 How I Got Licked (1935). He quickly returned historical novel Manassas: A Novel of the War, in to writing fiction to justify his political behav- which the hero meets Abraham Lincoln and ior and won his Pulitzer for Dragon’s Teeth other Civil War–era figures. A socialist maga- (1942), the third in his 11-volume Lanny Budd zine editor spurred him to write a similar novel series. Sinclair’s last work of fiction was What of the 20th century dealing with the wage slav- Didymus Did (1954), and he published his auto- ery of unregulated capitalism. As a result, The biography in 1962. He died on November 25, Jungle, an exposé of the meat-packing industry 1968, in New Jersey. in Chicago, followed in 1905 and catapulted him into international prominence. Even though THEODORE ROOSEVELT considered Sloan, Alfred Pritchard, Jr. Sinclair a “muckraker,” he invited the novelist (1875–1966) industrialist to the White House after reading The Jungle. The and the Meat The oldest of five siblings in a prosperous New Inspection Act were passed because of the pub- Haven, Connecticut, business family, Alfred P. lic reaction to Sinclair’s book. Sloan, Jr., was born on May 23, 1875. When he

241 242 Smith, Al

was 10 years old, his family moved to Brooklyn, Smith, Al New York. He became a serious student inter- (Alfred Emanuel Smith) ested in mechanics and engineering and earned (1873–1944) New York governor his undergraduate degree from the Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technology in 1895, the Al Smith was born Alfred Emanuel Smith in a youngest member of his class. He married tenement in New York City’s immigrant Lower Irene Jackson two years later; the couple was East Side on December 30, 1873. His mother childless, and she died in 1956. was an Irish Catholic, and his father, a veteran With help from his father, Sloan became of the Union Army, was a truckman. He a businessman first as a draftsman and then as attended parochial school through the eighth the general manager of the Hyatt Roller grade, but his father died when he was 12, and Bearing Company. Lacking hobbies or chil- he quit to go to work full-time. Married in dren, he became a workaholic and was a mil- 1900, he and his wife had five children. lionaire by 1916. In 1918, he became a vice The high-energy Smith possessed a gift for president of General Motors (GM), and he oratory, and he used it when he became transformed that corporation in the 1920s involved in the local Tammany political orga- using his managerial and marketing expertise. nization, moving up quickly in the Democratic He subsequently became president of GM, machine. He held several appointments before which by the late 1920s had replaced Ford winning a state assembly seat in 1903, and in Motor Company as the leader in the automo- 1913 he was elected speaker of the state assem- bile industry. Under Sloan’s leadership, GM bly. He left that office in 1915 to become sher- became the world’s largest and most prof- iff of New York. itable bureaucracy. It was the tragic fire at the lower Manhat- Despite his business success, the 1930s tan Triangle Shirtwaist Company factory on proved to be a mixed blessing for Sloan. March 26, 1911, killing nearly 150 workers, Franklin Roosevelt publicly chastised him for that turned Smith into a progressive, and he opposing unionization. He refused to talk to made a name for himself while serving on the WALTER REUTHER, United Auto Workers investigating commission. He was nominated head, after the UAW organized a sit-down as the Democratic candidate for governor in strike at GM’s Fisher Body Plant in Flint, 1918, over the opposition of WILLIAM RAN- Michigan. He unsuccessfully maneuvered to DOLPH HEARST, and won the election. He lost have Governor FRANK MURPHY use the the reelection in 1920, but regained the gover- National Guard to remove the strikers during norship in 1922 and held it until 1928. the 44-day protest. As a result, Sloan stepped Smith’s years in office were consistent with down from the presidency in favor of the GM the progressive policies that would be imple- vice president, who negotiated a settlement. mented by Franklin D. Roosevelt. Smith relied In late 1937, after the Department of the on the advice of public-policy experts as well as Treasury reported that Sloan had avoided pay- the advice of several knowledgeable women, ing nearly $2 million in taxes, he established including FRANCES PERKINS and Belle the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation. He became Moskowitz. In 1928, Smith ran for president as known as a philanthropist as well as for insti- the Democratic nominee, the first Roman tuting the concept of “planned obsolescence” Catholic to be nominated by a major political into the modern American economy. He died party. He had made a previously unsuccessful in New York City on February 17, 1966. bid for the Democratic nomination in 1924, Smith, Ellison DuRant 243 when Roosevelt placed the name of the Smith became involved in local politics and “Happy Warrior” before the Democratic con- was elected in 1896 to the South Carolina leg- vention. Smith had brought FDR back into islature, serving two terms. Influenced by the active politics after his polio-imposed absence, populists of the period, he ran for a congres- recruiting him to run as his gubernatorial suc- sional seat in 1901 but lost. He then became cessor in the 1928 campaign. In the presiden- the principal organizer of the Southern Cotton tial campaign, although Smith almost doubled Association, from which he received his nick- the popular Democratic vote from the 1924 name “Cotton Ed.” The organization was election and won the nation’s dozen largest short-lived, but Smith’s defense of cotton inter- cities, he was badly beaten by HERBERT ests remained throughout his life. HOOVER.The nation was not ready for an Smith shared the Populist Party desire to urban Irish Catholic. regulate big business and federal programs to FDR recognized the proverbial writing on help the rural South. His record on human the wall and maneuvered himself into the lib- rights issues, even in an era when they were only eral wing of the Democrats against the con- emerging, was abysmal. He opposed suffrage servatives such as Smith. The former governor for women and favored restrictive immigration. became president of the company that oper- In 1908, Smith won election to the U.S. ated the Empire State Building after he and a Senate; he was reelected five times, which was group of friends had erected it. Though he one of the longest tenure records up to that eventually supported FDR’s campaign in 1932, time in Senate history. He is best remembered Smith became estranged from the Roosevelt for championing white supremacy and the poll administration and was an outspoken critic. He tax while opposing antilynching laws, but he helped to form the anti–New Deal Liberty also was a founding member of the congres- League and even endorsed Republican presi- sional agricultural bloc. In keeping with his dential candidates in 1936 and 1940. He died racist views, he walked out of the National in New York City in 1944. Democratic Convention held in Philadelphia in 1936 after an African-American minister was asked to deliver the invocation. Smith, Ellison DuRant Smith was a progressive in opposing high (Cotton Ed) tariffs, attacking Wall Street, favoring addi- (1864–1944) U.S. senator tional antitrust legislation, supporting Wood- row Wilson’s New Freedoms, using federal aid Born on August 1, 1864, near Lynchburg, to combat the boll weevil, supporting the fed- South Carolina, to a Methodist Episcopal min- eral government’s Muscle Shoals development ister, Ellison DuRant Smith was brought up of hydroelectric facilities in Alabama, and back- on his family’s 2,000-acre cotton plantation. ing public development of the Tennessee Valley. After he graduated in 1889 from Wofford Col- Following Franklin Roosevelt’s landslide vic- lege, a Methodist institution located in Spar- tory in 1932, Smith became chairman of the tanburg, he returned home to manage the Senate Agriculture Committee. While he cotton farm. He married Martha Cornelia favored FDR’s Tennessee Valley Authority, Moorer in 1892, but she died the next year which was enacted on May 18, 1933, he after having their only child. In 1906, Smith opposed the appointment of REXFORD TUG- married Annie Brunson Farley, with whom he WELL as undersecretary of agriculture in FDR’s had four more children. administration. 244 Smith, Gerald Lyman Kenneth

By 1935, Smith had publicly broken with the had been part-time ministers in the Christian New Deal over the Public Utility Holding Com- (Disciples of Christ) Church, and Smith opted pany Act in its effort to dissolve holding compa- to become a full-time minister, serving churches nies that could not justify themselves. He went on of the same denomination in small Wisconsin to become one of FDR’s most severe critics, towns. He married Elna M. Sorenson in 1922, opposing the 1937 Supreme Court–packing plan and the couple eventually adopted a son who and fighting all minimum-wage and pro-union was named after his adoptive father. Smith’s suc- laws. In turn, he became one of FDR’s prime tar- cessful oratory and fund-raising led him to gets in 1938 when the president sought to purge larger congregations in the Midwest and then in disloyal Democrats from the party. He encour- the South after his wife contracted tuberculosis. aged South Carolina’s young Democratic gover- In 1929, Smith became a minister of the nor Olin Johnston to denounce the openly racist Kings Highway Christian Church in Shreveport, Smith, who was at that time the longest-serving Louisiana. Repeating his earlier successes in ora- member of the Senate. FDR endorsed Johnston tory and fund-raising, he nearly doubled the and withdrew federal patronage from Smith. church’s membership. He became associated Nonetheless, Smith won the Democratic primary with populist HUEY LONG, who had lived in with 55 percent of the vote, presumably due to Shreveport, after the senator helped to save voter backlash against FDR’s intervention in the mortgaged homes of Smith’s congregants from state’s politics. foreclosure. However, because of his support of Ultimately, “Cotton Ed,” born during the Long, and given the strong anti-Long sentiment Civil War, was mired in the past and unable or in much of Shreveport, Smith was forced to unwilling to move forward. Opposed to FDR’s resign as minister in 1933. This drove him into wartime-preparedness program, he increas- full-time association with Long, with whom he ingly lost touch with his constituents and lost helped to organize the Share Our Wealth Soci- his bid for a seventh term when he was ety. Following Long’s assassination in 1935, defeated for renomination in August 1944. Smith delivered his eulogy at the largest funeral Even though he had spent more than three in Louisiana’s history. Afterward, he became decades in the Senate, he left a legacy of mini- associated with a series of increasingly anti–New mal legislation and maximum reactionary Deal and reactionary movements. First he joined behavior. In failing health, he returned to his Dr. FRANCIS TOWNSEND’s national old-age pen- lifelong plantation home and died there on sion plan and then Father CHARLES COUGH- November 17, 1944. LIN’s National Union for Social Justice. Smith and Townsend backed Coughlin’s Union Party, which ran North Dakota congressman WILLIAM Smith, Gerald Lyman Kenneth LEMKE’s failed presidential bid in 1936. (1898–1976) minister, orator After moving to Detroit, Smith became a friend of HENRY FORD and helped to found the Born in Pardeeville, Wisconsin, on February 27, America First Party. An isolationist in foreign 1898, Gerald L. K. Smith was the son of a policy and supporter of fascist causes, Smith farmer/traveling salesman and a schoolteacher. made a failed bid for the U.S. Senate in 1942. He grew up in rural towns and won prizes in He ran for president on his own racist and anti- high school for track as well as oratory. In 1918, Semitic Christian Nationalist Front three times, he graduated from Valparaiso University with a beginning in 1944. Donations to his right-wing degree in oratory. Smith’s grandfather and father causes eventually made him a millionaire and Smith, Howard Worth 245 even more extreme in his political views. He January 29, 1936, “My Day” column, noting died in 1976 in Los Angeles and was buried in the importance of workers’ education, and did Eureka Springs, Arkansas, at the foot of a seven- so again on June 27, 1939. It was in 1939 that story statue of Jesus, the Christ of the Ozarks. critics began forcing cutbacks in the program, and FLORENCE KERR, who had become Smith’s supervisor, began cutting Smith’s staff. The Smith, Hilda Jane Worthington Workers Service Program was terminated (1888–1984) director, Workers Education when it was merged with the WPA War Ser- Program, Works Progress Administration vices Division. By September 1942, Smith’s work with the WPA had ended. Born in New York City to affluent parents in Smith had drafted plans for a women’s 1888, Hilda Smith received her early education alternative to the Civilian Conservation Corps in private schools. She graduated from Bryn camps for young men. Eleanor Roosevelt sup- Mawr College in 1910 and the next year ported the initiative by hosting a White House received her master’s degree from the same col- conference on Camps for Unemployed lege. She went on to complete further graduate Women that was held on April 30, 1934. work at Columbia University and what is now Rather than earning wages for physical work, the New York School of Social Work, where women remained at the camps for short stays she received her second master’s degree in and received free housing, vocational counsel- 1915. She became an active suffragette and part ing, and moral support. By 1936, 90 so-called of the Philadelphia settlement house project she-she-she camps had provided services to working with factory women. It was a back- 5,000 women. The camps were transferred in ground of social responsibility that she shared 1935 to the National Youth Administration and with ELEANOR ROOSEVELT, FRANCES PERKINS, then terminated in 1937 due to budget cuts. and HARRY HOPKINS, and they applied it to After 1942, Smith sought to create a per- social reform during the in manent Workers Education Program with the American politics. Labor Extension Service in the Federal Public Smith, who never married, became dean Housing Administration but the WPA phased of Bryn Mawr College in 1919. From 1921 to out the program in 1943. After 1943, she also 1933, she ran a summer program for female helped to found the National Committee for factory workers with support from the the Extension of Labor Education. From 1965 Women’s Trade Union League and the Young until her retirement from federal service in Women’s Christian Association (YWCA). In 1972, Smith worked as an analyst for the Office 1925, Eleanor Roosevelt visited the program, of Economic Opportunity. She died in Wash- and it was this work that led to Smith’s later ington, D.C., on March 13, 1984. involvement with the New Deal. In September 1933, Hopkins hired her as a specialist in work- ers’ education in the Federal Emergency Relief Smith, Howard Worth Administration. The next year, she began (1883–1976) U.S. congressman teacher-training programs in the Workers Emergency Program of the Works Progress Howard Smith was born in Broad Run, Virginia, Administration (WPA), and in 1935 became its on February 2, 1883, to farmer parents who lived director. Eleanor Roosevelt described a visit to on a Shenandoah Valley plantation. His cousin the White House by WEP supervisors in her was Virginia congressman John F. Rixey (served 246 Stalin, Joseph

1897–1907). Smith completed law school at the for “steel”) was the son of peasants in Gori, University of Virginia in 1903 and began prac- Georgia, an imperial colony of czarist Russia. ticing law and investing in real estate. He became He attended religious schools until he was 19, involved in Democratic Party politics and then joined the radical Bolshevik wing of the quickly rose to become a city councilman, state Community Party led by Vladimir Lenin, attorney, and judge. He married in 1913 and had who made him a member of the Central two children by his first wife, who died in the Committee and editor of the party newspaper, 1919 flu epidemic. Four years later, he married Pravda, in 1912. The next year he changed the young woman who looked after his children. his name to avoid czarist authorities and In 1930, Smith began a 36-year career as a adopted his revolutionary name, “Stalin.” congressman representing northern Virginia in Arrested several times and sent into internal the U.S. House of Representatives. “Judge exile in Siberia (1913–17), Stalin participated Smith” reached national power as a member of in the Bolshevik revolution in October 1917 the House Rules Committee. By the late 1930s, and served as a military leader during the he headed the conservative coalition of Repub- Russian civil war (1918–20). He served as licans and southern Democrats following the commissioner of nationalities (1917–25) and 1937 defeat of Franklin Roosevelt’s Court- became a member of the Politburo when packing plan. The coalition blocked social leg- he was made the general secretary of the party islation in the House for 20 years. FDR’s efforts in April 1922, a post he retained until his to purge Smith in the 1938 Democratic pri- death. mary failed. In 1940, Congress passed Smith’s Stalin was physically short (5’2”), with a first major bill, the Alien Registration Act, bet- deformed arm, and poorly educated. Enor- ter known as the Smith Act, which required mously energetic and insecure, he used his registration by and fingerprinting of all aliens political positions to eliminate potential rivals. and outlawed the advocacy of violence against He first aligned himself with Nikolai the federal government. Smith sought to pre- Bukharin. However, after Lenin’s death in vent strikes in defense industries during World January 1924, Stalin purged Leon Trotsky, War II by cosponsoring with Senator THOMAS Grigory Zinoviev, and then Bukharin. (Trot- CONNALLY the 1943 Smith-Connally Anti- sky was forced into exile in 1929 and in 1940 Strike Act, aimed at preventing wartime strikes. while in Mexico, he was assassinated by an The legislation was enacted despite FDR’s veto. ice-pick stabbed into his brain. The assassina- Smith eventually became chairman of the tion was ordered by Stalin.) House Rules Committee (1955–67), but he Like the French revolutionaries before narrowly lost his seat in the 1966 Democratic Napoleon, Stalin had an abstract belief that he primary. He died on October 3, 1976, in could create a different society. Unlike them, Alexandria, Virginia. however, he accomplished his aims, albeit through a reign of terror, transforming a backward Russia into a modern industrial Stalin, Joseph giant in a mere three decades. He collec- (Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili) tivized agriculture and deported “kulaks”— (1879–1953) Soviet leader wealthy peasant farmers—to Siberia. Ever ruthless, he assassinated his heir-apparent, Born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili on Sergei Kirvov, in December 1934, a prelude December 21, 1879, Joseph Stalin (Russian to his Great Purge of 1936–38, which Steinbeck, John Ernst, Jr. 247 included the mock “Moscow Show Trials,” budgets increased as did his paranoia. Stalin leading to the executions of Zinoviev, Soviet died on March 5, 1953. marshal Mikhail N. Tukhachevsky, and thou- sands more. Stalin had method to his madness. The Steinbeck, John Ernst, Jr. Soviets tried to maintain alliances to prevent (1902–1968) novelist invasions, of which they were historically fearful. Stalin made Maxim Litvinov his com- One of America’s best-known novelists, who missar of foreign affairs (1930–39), and the graphically captured the plight of farmers and Soviet Union established diplomatic relations migrants during the Great Depression in uni- with the United States under President versal themes, John Ernst Steinbeck, Jr., was Franklin Roosevelt, in 1933 and became a born in Salinas, California, on February 27, member of the League of Nations in 1934. 1902. The only son of a businessman father and Yet the West failed to include either the former schoolteacher mother, he grew up in the Soviet Union or Czechoslovakia when an “Salad Bowl of the Nation,” the agriculturally appeasement policy toward ADOLF HITLER fertile Salinas Valley. By age 15, he had decided was implemented in 1938. With the Soviet that he wanted to become a writer, and he spent Union left to fend for itself, Stalin dismissed seven years off and on at Stanford University Litvinov and replaced him with Vyacheslav before finally leaving in 1925 without a degree. Molotov, who worked to accommodate His factory work with migrants and itinerants Hitler. In August 1939, the Nazi-Soviet became the source of his best writing during the Nonaggression Pact was concluded. It 1930s. Three novels of this period constituted a allowed a division of Poland between the two labor trilogy: In Dubious Battle (1936), about a powers, the “Winter War,” against Finland farm strike; Of Mice and Men (1937), which was (November 1939–March 1940), and the made into the critically acclaimed Broadway annexation of the Baltic States and Bessarabia play that made Steinbeck a household name; from Romania in 1940. and The Grapes of Wrath (1939), which won both This arrangement changed after Hitler the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award. invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. The Grapes of Wrath, turned into an equally Stalin created a “Grand Alliance with the acclaimed film by director John Ford in 1940, British” and, after December 1941, with the portrayed the plight of Oklahoma farmers United States and smaller nations and exiled driven from their land by the Dust Bowl and governments. Stalin met with Franklin Roo- the Great Depression. The novel, considered sevelt and WINSTON CHURCHILL in Tehran the prototype of later “road novels,” depicted a (November–December 1943) and again at modern tale of America’s westward destiny. Yalta in February 1945. The leaders generally Always restless and energetic, as well as accepted Stalin’s territorial gains as a fait sensitive to criticism, Steinbeck married three accompli in exchange for Soviet entry into the times. He briefly met Franklin Roosevelt in war against Japan, a division of postwar Ger- 1940 and worked in several government infor- many, and agreement on the role of superpow- mation and intelligence agencies. He also ers in a postwar United Nations. He continued served as a war correspondent during World to seek the extension of Soviet influence abroad War II. He won the Nobel Prize in literature in leading to the cold war and the deterioration of 1962. Steinbeck died on December 20, 1968, in Soviet relations with the West. Soviet military New York City. 248 Stettinius, Edward Reilly, Jr.

Stettinius, Edward Reilly, Jr. named director of priorities in the Office of (1900–1949) steel executive, wartime Production. He thus brought business credi- production manager, Lend-Lease administrator, bility to the New Deal. undersecretary of state; secretary of state Stettinius next turned his attention from government efficiency to diplomacy. In 1942, Edward Stettinius was born on October 22, he became the administrator of the Lend- 1900, into a privileged Chicago, Illinois, fam- Lease Administration, winning friends abroad, ily. His father, a business partner in J. P. Mor- especially among Allied diplomats. The fol- gan and Company, had been assistant secretary lowing year, he replaced SUMNER WELLES as of war during World War I. Stettinius grew up undersecretary of state. Stettinius was respon- in Chicago and New York and was sent to the sible for organizing the August 1944 Dumbar- Pomfret School in Connecticut. He attended ton Oaks conference in Washington, D.C., that the University of Virginia, spending his under- led to the creation of the United Nations. After graduate years in social work with the Secretary of State CORDELL HULL resigned in Appalachian poor. Although he lacked an November 1944, Stettinius was easily con- undergraduate degree, Stettinius was offered a firmed as his successor. He accompanied FDR position with the Hyatt Roller Bearing Com- to the Yalta Conference in February 1945 and pany, a division of General Motors, by a family shortly afterward was named to head the U.S. acquaintance who was a General Motors vice delegation to the UN Conference on Interna- president. He married Virginia Gordon Wal- tional Organization in San Francisco. Due to lace in 1924, and the couple had three sons. his energy and diplomatic skills, the UN Char- Stettinius’s business acumen and concern ter was finally approved on June 26, 1945. for his employees led him to become the President HARRY S. TRUMAN appointed a new administrative assistant to General Motors secretary of state to replace Stettinius but president ALFRED P. SLOAN, JR.By 1931, the named him as the first U.S. representative to energetic and personable Stettinius was Gen- the UN General Assembly. Stettinius resigned eral Motors vice president in charge of indus- in June 1946 and died on October 31, 1949, in trial and public relations. The social conscience Greenwich, Connecticut. that during college prompted him to do social work with the poor later led him to do volun- teer work with the unemployed, which brought Stimson, Henry Lewis him to the attention of Franklin Roosevelt. (1867–1950) secretary of war FDR made him a liaison between the National Industrial Recovery Administration in Wash- During his reelection campaign, emulating the ington, D.C., and the Industrial Advisory actions of Abraham Lincoln, Franklin Roo- Board. sevelt instituted an outreach effort aimed at In 1934, Stettinius accepted a position with undermining isolationism and preparing the the United States Steel Corporation, where he nation for bipartisan support of World War II. engaged in reorganization, public relations, One facet of his plan to gain bipartisan and plant production as well as employee wel- approval was the appointment of Henry Stim- fare. Four years later, he was named the chair- son, a leading Republican internationalist, as man of the board of U.S. Steel. In 1940, he left secretary of war in July 1940. Stimson thus the company to become chairman of the War became the highest-ranking Republican in Resources Board, and the next year he was FDR’s administration. Stimson, Henry Lewis 249

President Franklin D. Roosevelt is seen looking on as a blindfolded Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson draws the first numbers in the Selective Service lottery. (National Archives)

Stimson, born in New York City on Septem- ing club. He was appointed U.S. attorney for ber 21, 1867, was the son of a prominent father the Southern District of New York and, in who was a surgeon and stockbroker. His mother 1910, ran unsuccessfully for New York’s gov- died when he was young, and his grandparents ernorship as a progressive Republican. The reared him. After attending Phillips Academy following year, President William Howard in Andover, Massachusetts, Stimson entered Taft appointed Stimson as secretary of war, in Yale, graduating in 1888. He then earned a mas- part to bridge the emerging gap between ter’s degree from Harvard Law School in 1890. Teddy Roosevelt and Taft. Stimson volun- After being admitted to the New York bar, he teered for military service in World War I and became a member of Elihu Root’s law firm. He served on active duty in France despite his age. had an enduring but childless marriage to Mabel He subsequently served in diplomatic posts White. during the administrations of Calvin Coolidge As a Wall Street lawyer associated with and HERBERT HOOVER, who named him sec- Root, THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s future secre- retary of state in 1929. He functioned as a liai- tary of war, Stimson became a member of TR’s son between the Hoover and Roosevelt conservation-prone Boone and Crockett hunt- administrations. 250 Stone, Harlan Fiske

To gain the desired bipartisan support for (1910–23). His former students included his foreign-policy initiatives, FDR named his WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS, who was later a col- Republican friend Stimson as secretary of war league on the Court. During his deanship, and former Republican vice-presidential can- Columbia served as a center for the new didate FRANK KNOX as secretary of the navy. jurisprudence known as legal realism, which Stimson favored instituting selective service for favored going beyond precedent to use the the military and came to work closely with best knowledge available to justify a judicial General GEORGE C. MARSHALL.He played a decision. central role in the relocation of Japanese Amer- Stone’s life changed forever after his icans on the West Coast and defended segre- Republican former classmate President Calvin gation in the military. Stimson was given Coolidge nominated him as the attorney gen- oversight of the project to develop an atomic eral to clean up the Teapot Dome scandal from bomb, and he argued effectively against Secre- the Warren Harding administration. Stone tary of the Treasury HENRY MORGENTHAU, named J. EDGAR HOOVER as head of the JR.’s proposal to reduce Germany to a postwar agency that would become the Federal Bureau agricultural society as a means to prevent of Investigation (FBI). In January 1925, another German war. He retired as secretary of Coolidge nominated Stone as an associate jus- war in September 1945 and died on Long tice of the Supreme Court to replace Joseph Island, New York, on October 20, 1950. McKenna. Stone, the first Court nominee to appear personally before the Senate Judiciary Committee to defend his record, was con- Stone, Harlan Fiske firmed on March 2, 1925, by a vote of 71 to 6. (1872–1946) U.S. Supreme Court chief justice As a justice, Stone practiced legal realism and typically deferred to the elected branches Harlan Fiske Stone became the first U.S. of government. He most often aligned himself Supreme Court justice to occupy in succession with LOUIS BRANDEIS, Oliver Wendell all nine seats on the highest bench, which are Holmes, Jr., and BENJAMIN CARDOZO, who assigned by seniority, during his tenure, which practiced similar values. His most famous deci- began in the Calvin Coolidge administration sions included a dissent in United States v. But- and ended early in the HARRY TRUMAN presi- ler (1936), when the conservative activist dency. Born October 11, 1872, in Chesterfield, majority struck down the Agricultural Admin- New Hampshire, to a farmer father and former istration Act. He also pioneered a role in pro- schoolteacher mother, Stone was one of four tecting racial, political, and religious minority children. Brought up near Amherst, Mas- rights in his famous footnote in United States v. sachusetts, he attended Massachusetts Agricul- Carolene Products Co. (1938), which established tural College for two years before being the doctrine of preferred inalienable freedoms expelled for a prank. Accepted at Amherst Col- over property rights. His lone dissent in Min- lege, he graduated in 1894 and taught for a year. ersville School District v. Gobitis (1940), forcing He entered Columbia Law School in 1895 and children of Jehovah’s Witness persuasion to graduated in 1898. The next year he married salute the flag, became the basis for the major- Agnes Harvey, with whom he had two children. ity West Virginia State Board of Education v. Bar- Stone practiced law and developed a long nette (1943), which reversed Gobitis. association with Columbia, first as a popular Franklin Roosevelt named Stone as the professor and then as dean of the law school replacement for Chief Justice CHARLES EVANS Sullivan, Mark 251

HUGHES after Hughes retired in June 1941 as tion. Stryker recruited a group of talented pho- a bipartisan unity gesture with the approach of tographers to chronicle rural conditions, world war. Stone was confirmed unanimously. including DOROTHEA LANGE, WALKER EVANS, While scholars typically rank Stone among and Ben Shahn. Two years later, Tugwell the dozen greatest justices, his five-year tenure resigned, and the Resettlement Administration as chief justice proved a disappointment since became the Farm Security Administration he was unable to mediate the differences (FSA). In 1943, the FSA was transferred to the among his hot-tempered colleagues including Office of War, and the next year its funding WILLIAM O. DOUGLAS, HUGO BLACK, FRANK was cut so that photography was used only to MURPHY, and FELIX FRANKFURTER.The document the war effort. brethren on the high tribunal became the most The most important photographic series publicly combative during this time. Stone died were the work of Evans, who traveled through on April 22, 1946, in Washington, D.C. Alabama with writer JAMES AGEE in July and August 1937. In 1941, Agee’s Let Us Now Praise Famous Men contained 31 of Evans’s pho- Stryker, Roy Emerson tographs and is considered a literary and pho- (1893–1975) director, Information Division, tographic classic. Ironically, Stryker considered Historical Section, Resettlement Administration Evans to be a “problem child” and fired him in late 1937. Roy Stryker was born on May 11, 1893, in Before Stryker left government service in Grand Bend, Kansas, to parents who were 1943, he arranged with his friend ARCHIBALD ranchers, farmers, and populists. In 1896, his MACLEISH, the Librarian of Congress, to donate family moved to Montrose, Colorado, where the 250,000 photographs that had been gath- he grew up. After he graduated from high ered during his eight-year tenure to the Library school in 1912, he attended the Colorado of Congress. The collection included a series of School of Mines and served in the infantry in photographs by Russell Lee that documented France during World War I but did not see the 1942 forcible transfer of Japanese Ameri- combat. He and his wife, Alice Frasier, married cans from their homes to temporary assembly in 1921, and they had one daughter. The new- centers and finally to “relocation camps.” lyweds moved to New York so Stryker could After his government service, Stryker study economics at Columbia University. He worked on photographic projects for private received his undergraduate degree in 1924 and industry, including Standard Oil of New Jersey then became a graduate assistant at Columbia. and the Jones and Laughlin Steel Corporation. While there, he met economics professor REX- He returned to his childhood home in Col- FORD TUGWELL, who was his mentor for orado in 1959. Stryker died on September 26, years. Tugwell assigned Stryker the task of col- 1975, in Grand Junction, Colorado. lecting photographs to illustrate his new text- book in American economics. After Tugwell became head of the Reset- Sullivan, Mark tlement Administration in 1935, he decided to (1874–1952) journalist use photography to document the need for social reform. That year he made Stryker the Mark Sullivan was born in Avondale, Pennsyl- director of the Information Division of the vania, on September 10, 1874, and received his Resettlement Administration’s Historical Sec- early education at West Chester State Normal 252 Sutherland, George

School. He entered Harvard University, where REXFORD TUGWELL, and MORDECAI EZEKIEL. he earned his undergraduate degree in 1900 By fall 1933, Sullivan’s conservative values had and his law degree in 1903. Four years later, he kicked in, and he concluded that the New Deal married Marie McMechen Buchanan, with reforms were slowing economic recovery. By whom he had four children. 1937, he was constantly critical and feared that Sullivan’s journalism career had its roots in FDR was moving in a dictatorial direction. his high-school years, and it continued to However, unlike many political commentators develop while he was at Harvard, both as an of his time, Sullivan remained a relative mod- undergraduate and as a law school student. A erate toward the policies and personalities that muckraker, Sullivan supported THEODORE he covered. ROOSEVELT, including his 1912 Bull Moose From the late 1920s to 1935, Sullivan presidential bid. From 1914 to 1917, Sullivan wrote six volumes of contemporary American was editor of Collier’s. He covered the Paris history that he had covered as a journalist. Peace Conference for Collier’s and later was the Scribner’s published the series as Our Time: The Washington, D.C., correspondent for the New United States, 1900–1925. He retired to his York Evening Post. Avondale farm during the postwar period and After HERBERT HOOVER directed the Bel- continued to write his syndicated columns until gian food relief effort from the Abraham Lin- his death on August 13, 1952. coln room in the luxurious Savoy Hotel in London and became the U.S. food administra- tor, Sullivan became his enthusiastic admirer. Sutherland, George He even joined the unsuccessful Hoover-for- (1862–1942) U.S. Supreme Court justice President effort in 1920. Following the appoint- ment of Hoover as secretary of commerce in Born on March 25, 1862, in England to Mor- the cabinet of Warren G. Harding in 1921, Sul- mon parents who subsequently recanted their livan and Hoover became close friends. When religion, Alexander George Sutherland’s family Hoover became the 31st president, Sullivan was moved to Utah when he was two. After gradu- the White House’s favorite journalist. ating in 1881 from the Brigham Young During the 1920s, Sullivan emerged as one Academy (later Brigham Young University), in of the nation’s first syndicated news columnists, Provo, Sutherland studied law for a single term so that by the 1930s his three-times-weekly col- at the University of Michigan, where he was umn ran in more than 100 newspapers across influenced by the natural rights philosophy of the United States. He ranked with ARTHUR Thomas McIntyre Cooley. Sutherland then KROCK, WALTER LIPPMANN, David Lawrence, returned to Utah where he married Rosamond and Frank Kent as the nation’s most important Lee, with whom he had three children. print commentators on political events. As a Initially, Sutherland practiced law with his progressive Republican and Hoover’s friend, he father in Provo but then moved to larger law opposed Franklin Roosevelt’s presidential bid practices. He soon became active in politics. in 1932. However, like most other journalists, In 1896 was elected as a Republican to Utah’s during the new administration’s first hundred first state legislature, and in 1900 to the U.S. days, Sullivan gave FDR and the New Deal the House of Representatives as the state’s only benefit of the doubt. Nonetheless, he remained representative. During his single congressional highly suspicious of the radicals in FDR’s term he allied himself with the politics of administration, including HENRY WALLACE, Theodore Roosevelt. In January 1905, he Sutherland, George 253 became a United States senator for two terms. Sutherland maintained cordial relations with During his Senate career he introduced a his other brethren. In United States v. Curtiss- woman suffrage amendment to the U.S. Con- Wright Export Corp. (1936), he wrote for the stitution. After losing a third term senate bid in majority that the president is “the sole 1916, he practiced law in Washington, D.C., organ” of the federal government in interna- and was elected president of the American Bar tional relations. Yet on domestic legislation Association. He became an adviser to Warren during the 1930s, as one of the so-called G. Harding, and was nominated by Harding to Four Horsemen, he became a conservative the United States Supreme Court on Septem- activist who ruled against the New Deal. He ber 5, 1922, being confirmed without discus- was the most intellectual of these justices. sion. He found the Court suitable to his Despite poor health, Sutherland remained conservative judicial philosophy with William on the high bench until the defeat of FDR’s Howard Taft as the chief justice. Court-packing scheme, retiring on January Though a conservative who favored indi- 18, 1938. He died four years later in Stock- vidual liberty and minimal government power, bridge, Massachusetts. T w

Taft, Robert Alphonso ate from 1931 to 1932. He lost his bid for reelec- (1889–1953) U.S. senator tion in the 1932 Democratic landslide, but dur- ing the subsequent 1938 Republican sweep in Robert Alphonso Taft was born September 8, Ohio, he was elected to the U.S. Senate. 1889, into a well-known and conventional polit- Although he lacked charisma and was noted ical family in Cincinnati, Ohio. He was the as a poor speaker on the campaign trail, Taft eldest son of Helen and William Howard Taft, rose quickly in the U.S. Senate, where his name the 27th president of the United States and sub- and intelligence made him a Republican presi- sequent chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. dential contender in 1940. However, he lost on His grandfather, Alphonso Taft, had served the sixth ballot to relatively unknown WEN- under President Ulysses Grant as secretary of DELL WILLKIE, the interventionist candidate, war and attorney general. Raised in Cincinnati, after Taft and THOMAS E. DEWEY had blocked Taft attended Taft School in Connecticut, fol- each other. It was the first of Taft’s three presi- lowed by Yale University and Harvard Law dential bids—the others were 1948 and 1952— School. First in his class at both institutions, he in which liberal interventionist Republicans graduated from Yale in 1910 and Harvard in thwarted his presidential ambitions. His hard 1913. In 1914, he married Martha Wheaton work within the Senate, straightforward style, Bowers, with whom he had four children. and partisan combativeness continued to inspire During World War I, Taft served with HER- his conservative base so that he became the BERT HOOVER in the U.S. Food Administration. most powerful Republican in Congress, earning Both his father and Hoover were major influ- him the nickname of “Mr. Republican” among ences on his traditional political ideas, opposing his colleagues. He died from cancer on July 31, both governmental regulation of the economy 1953, in New York City. and U.S. involvement in European political affairs. Taft quickly became involved in state pol- itics in postwar Ohio, serving six years (1920–26) Talmadge, Eugene in the statehouse and gaining a reputation for (1884–1946) Georgia governor partisanship against Democrats and insurgent Republicans as the Republican floor leader and The son of a cotton planter, Eugene Talmadge speaker. He served a single term in the state sen- was born on September 23, 1884, in Forsyth,

254 Talmadge, Eugene 255

Georgia. He attended the Hilliard Institute for South modernized, despite attempts to cling Boys and then entered the University of Geor- to the past. He also soon came to be a master of gia, where he received his undergraduate the state’s unusual county unit system of elec- degree in 1904. After Talmadge completed law toral politics which favored underpopulated school at the University of Georgia in 1907, he rural counties. In 1926, he relied on this system briefly practiced in Atlanta. However, he was and his bonding with rural voters to capture characteristically restless and moved two years the first of his three terms as state agricultural later to southern Georgia, where he married commissioner. He would dominate Georgia the recently widowed Mattie “Mitt” Thur- politics for the next 20 years, and his campaigns mand Peterson. She had one son from her first featured “Farmer Gene’s” political road show. marriage and three more children with Tal- In 1932, Talmadge used his rural base to madge. They moved to McCrae, Georgia, capture the governor’s mansion. He ran on where Talmadge developed what would be a populist panaceas and practiced conservative lifelong interest in both farmers and court- politics, preferring confrontation to compro- house politics. He served briefly as the county mise and executive decrees to legislative action. attorney before launching his first bid for elec- Reelected in 1934, he refused to institute a toral office. He lost two consecutive elections “Little New Deal” as other governors did in for the state legislature in 1920 and 1922. attempts to ameliorate the effects of the Great Talmadge’s association with rural voters Depression on their states. Instead, Talmadge allowed him to appreciate their anxiety as the ran on a platform opposing Franklin Roo- sevelt’s New Deal. He hated relief programs, the Civilian Conservation Corps, the Bankhead Cotton Control Act of 1934, and unions. FDR’s frequent trips to Warm Springs, Georgia, which had begun after he had con- tracted polio, did not make him more accept- able as president to Talmadge. Conservative Democrats backed Talmadge’s December 1935 national speaking tour that was intended to position him to challenge FDR at the 1936 Democratic National Convention. His anti- Roosevelt campaign, dubbed the Southern Committee to Uphold the Constitution, cul- minated in a convention hall in Macon, Geor- gia, on January 29, 1936. This so-called Grass Roots Convention brought together former HUEY LONG supporters, national Share the Wealth Club director GERALD SMITH, Texas oilman John Henry Kirby, and Thomas Dixon, author of The Clansman (1905). Busi- nessmen JOHN RASKOB, ALFRED SLOAN, Pierre du Pont, and others financed the con- vention. It marked the peak of Talmadge’s Eugene Talmadge (Library of Congress) political power. 256 Thomas, Norman Mattoon

The effort backfired, however. New Deal that provided a comfortable lifestyle for the Democrats united to defeat Talmadge’s 1936 bid family. to take Richard Russell’s Senate seat, and Wal- After his onetime professor-turned-presi- ter George defeated his second Senate bid in dent Wilson crushed dissent during World 1938. By 1940, Talmadge had toned down his War I, Thomas helped to found the American anti-New Deal rhetoric, but he grew increas- Civil Liberties Union, in part because his ingly racist and reactionary. In 1942, he lost the brother was a conscientious objector. He governorship to Ellis Arnall. His supporters resigned from the Presbyterian pulpit and for- then formed a Klan-like group called the Vigi- mally joined the Socialist Party in 1918, lantes that intimidated Talmadge’s opponents becoming an editor of The Nation. His wife’s during the remainder of World War II. inheritance permitted him to become a full- In 1946, Talmadge ran his last political time politician, and he ran on the Socialist campaign. His son, Herman Talmadge, man- Party ticket in presidential elections from 1928 aged his father’ racist and populist campaign to to 1948. His idealist appeal peaked in 1932, at victory, but the governor-elect died on the height of the Great Depression, when he December 21, 1946, in Atlanta, a month before won nearly 1 million votes. he would have become governor of Georgia An excellent speaker with a sense of for the fourth time. humor, Thomas was inept as an organizer among the divided radical left. Compounding that deficit, he underestimated the political Thomas, Norman Mattoon skills of Franklin Roosevelt, whose New Deal (1884–1968) Socialist presidential candidate undermined the idealism of the Socialist Party program. In 1934, on a tour of Arkansas in Franklin Roosevelt faced demagogues on the support of the Southern Tenant Farmers extreme left and right. Norman Mattoon Union, Thomas was chased out of town by Thomas was a moral leader on the left who thugs that the planters had hired. He initially competed against both FDR’s moderate spoke against U.S. entry into World War II reforms of the New Deal and a divided left. but modified his pacifism. On the other hand, Born on November 20, 1884, he was the son of he helped to persuade Franklin Roosevelt to a Presbyterian minister in Marion, Ohio, intervene on behalf of socialist leaders abroad where he grew up. He transferred from Buck- to prevent their executions by ADOLF HITLER. nell University to Princeton University as a Thomas’s qualified support for America’s war predivinity student and studied there with effort after the December 1941 Pearl Harbor political scientist Woodrow Wilson and Social attack ran counter to the patriot impulses of Gospel economist Walter Wyckoff. He was most Americans and undermined his utopian valedictorian in 1905 and for a while did social goals. He also spoke out against the Japanese- work in New York City, where he discovered American relocation camp program and advo- the plight of working families. In 1910, he mar- cated racial equality, neither stance popular in ried Frances Violet Stewart, with whom he had mainstream America. six children. In 1911, he graduated from Union The moralistic appeal of Thomas, an Theological Seminar, headquarters of Social empathetic spouse, father, and socialist, was Gospel learning, and became a Presbyterian restricted to a limited personal following and minister at a church in Harlem. A dozen years never developed into a mass organization. after their marriage, his wife inherited a trust Despite his limited success in contemporary Townsend, Francis Everett 257

America, his call for a welfare state was even- Chester Davis as director of the AAA. He was tually achieved. He died on December 19, a great architect of New Deal farm programs 1968, in Huntington, New York. but a poor administrator for the AAA, refusing to allow political considerations in farm policy. Wallace replaced him with Rudolf M. Evans, Tolley, Howard Ross and Tolley returned to the BAE as its chief (1889–1958) Agricultural Adjustment from 1938 to 1946. During World War II, Tol- Administration program planner, Bureau of ley helped found the United Nations Food and Agricultural Economics chief Agricultural Organization (FAO). He left fed- eral service in 1946 to become director of the The son of schoolteachers, Howard Tolley was FAO’s economics and statistics division, a posi- born on September 30, 1889, in Howard tion he held until 1952. In that post, he worked County, Indiana. He attended Marion Normal to increase agricultural production worldwide. College and then studied mathematics at Indi- In 1952, he began to work as a consultant for ana University, graduating in 1910. He taught the Ford Foundation, where he promoted one high-school math only briefly before he pur- of its spinoff foundation’s, the Resources for sued a more rewarding opportunity with the the Future. He died on September 18, 1958, in U.S. Interior Department’s Coast and Geode- Alexandria, Virginia. tic Survey, where he worked for three years. He married Zora Hazlett in 1912, and the cou- ple had three sons, all of whom became Townsend, Francis Everett economists. (1867–1960) pension plan creator In 1915, Tolley moved his family to Wash- ington, D.C., to work for the Department of Born near Fairbury, Illinois, on January 13, Agriculture, and he joined the Bureau of Agri- 1867, Francis Townsend was the son of reli- cultural Economics (BAE). The BAE used gious parents who were poor Midwest farmers. social-science analysis to help create the new He graduated from high school in Nebraska field of agricultural economics, which relied on and worked his way through Omaha Medical quantitative data and eventually became the College (1899–1903), then moved to South basis for econometrics. Tolley began to publish Dakota and began a family practice. In 1906, his findings in 1916, a practice that he contin- he married Wilhelmina “Minnie” Mollie ued for the rest of his career. Although by 1928 Brogue, a widowed nurse, with whom he had he was the assistant chief of the BAE, he moved two children. During World War I, he served to California in 1930 to become director of the as an army physician. In 1919, for health rea- Giannini Foundation at the University of Cal- sons, the family moved to Long Beach, Cali- ifornia and to head the agricultural economics fornia. At the beginning of the Great program there. Depression, Townsend served briefly as assis- The advent of the New Deal brought Tol- tant director of the city’s health office, identi- ley back to the nation’s capital. From 1933 to fying with the plight of older Americans like 1935, he was director of program planning in himself. the Agricultural Adjustment Administration In September 1933, Townsend began (AAA). In 1936, on the recommendation of writing a series of letters to the local newspa- Secretary of Agriculture HENRY WALLACE, per calling for Americans aged 60 and older Franklin Roosevelt named Tolley to replace to receive a monthly pension of $200 that 258 Truman, Harry S. they would be required to spend each month. Truman, Harry S. His pension panacea would be based on a 2 (1884–1972) U.S. senator, vice president of the percent tax on business transactions. Profes- United States, 33rd president of the United States sional economists ridiculed the proposal, but the Townsend Plan found a receptive public A native of Lamar, Missouri, Harry S. Truman audience at a time when only 28 states pro- was born into a family of ardent Democrats on vided any type of old-age pension. Within May 8, 1884. His father was a farmer, livestock four months, 3,000 Townsend Clubs had trader, and grain speculator, and his mother, a sprung up. After the plan was marketed by major influence on his life, was a devout Bap- Robert E. Clements, a young real-estate tist. Truman was seven when his family moved broker who was Townsend’s friend, the num- to Independence, Missouri, about 10 miles ber of clubs more than doubled during the from Kansas City. He learned to play the piano next year. and attended public schools, graduating from In 1935, John Steven McGroarty, a high school in 1901. He held a number of jobs Democratic California congressman from before he turned for a decade to farming, 1935 to 1939, introduced the Townsend Plan which he did not enjoy. in the U.S. House of Representatives. Sup- World War I changed Truman’s life. porters collected 20 million signatures, but After having served in the National Guard as New Deal opposition led to its defeat. New an artilleryman from 1905 to 1911, he Dealers countered with legislation for the resigned. When World War I was declared, Social Security Act, which may have resulted he rejoined the National Guard, where he in its quick passage in 1935 despite Town- was elected an officer. By 1918, Truman was send’s personal opposition to it. He consid- a captain and had served as a field artillery ered it a mere palliative, while economists officer in France. Returning home the next considered Townsend’s scheme of providing year, he married Bess Wallace, and they had a the elderly a monthly pension of $200 daughter, Margaret. His haberdashery in unsound. A congressional investigation began Kansas City was unsuccessful, and he went into the Townsend Club’s finances to deter- deeply into debt, but he slowly repaid his mine if Townsend was profiting from the creditors. plight of the elderly. Congress found him Truman was active in civic affairs, espe- guilty of contempt for refusing to testify cially the Reserve Officers Association and the before it, but FDR commuted the sentence in American Legion. His political career began 1937. in 1922 with his election as a Jackson County In 1936, GERALD SMITH and Townsend court judge, similar to a county commissioner, worked together in support of Father for the largest county in Missouri. He lost his CHARLES COUGHLIN’s new Union Party. reelection bid due to an intraparty conflict but However, by the fall, Townsend had split with was elected president of the county court in Coughlin and instead endorsed ALF LANDON 1926 and held that post for eight years. An for president. Townsend supported Republi- honest and serious politician who worked well can presidential candidates for the rest of his with others, he built a modern road system and life. The Social Security Act and World War traveled to Shreveport, Louisiana, to inspect II undermined the Townsend movement. He its new parish (county) courthouse, ultimately died in Los Angeles, California, on Septem- using it as a model for the new downtown ber 1, 1960. Kansas City courthouse. Tugwell, Rexford Guy 259

With the support of the THOMAS PEN- received all three of his college economic DERGAST political machine, Truman won a degrees from the University of Pennsylvania’s seat in the U.S. Senate in 1934. A consistent Wharton School. In 1914, he married Florence supporter of Franklin Roosevelt’s domestic and E. Arnold, with whom he had two children. foreign policies, he enjoyed popularity among From 1920 to 1936, he taught at Columbia his colleagues because of his work ethic, mod- University and became a prolific writer on esty, and conviviality. He won reelection to the American economic issues. Senate in 1940 while Boss Pendergast was in Tugwell’s Columbia University colleague prison, and he earned his national reputation RAYMOND MOLEY recruited him for Franklin by chairing the Truman Committee, which Roosevelt’s Brain Trust, and he soon came to investigated waste in defense production. be regarded as one of the most radical New In 1944, National Democratic Committee Dealers. He served as the assistant secretary of chairman JAMES FARLEY and others offered Tru- agriculture in 1933–34 and was director of the man as a compromise candidate to replace Resettlement Administration from 1935 to HENRY WALLACE as vice president. Truman’s 1936. In these early positions, Tugwell was a border-state ties appealed to the South and con- major contributor to New Deal legislation that servatives, while his New Deal support won aimed to bring business, labor, and government backing from labor and liberals. FDR thought together for a national recovery plan. He Truman’s popularity in Congress could be an believed that big business was inevitable and asset in ratification of treaties, thereby avoiding that it needed big government to regulate it the problems that Woodrow Wilson had faced for the common good. His bureaucratic battles during the post–World War I period. Truman’s led to the resignation of GEORGE PEEK as vice presidency lasted only 83 days before he Director of the Agricultural Adjustment assumed the presidency after FDR’s death on Administration (AAA) at the end of 1933. Peek April 12, 1945. Though FDR had kept him on had favored marketing agreements rather than the periphery during both his senatorial and his implementing the AAA’s domestic allotment vice-presidential days, Truman believed in a provisions. Two years later, Chester Davis, strong executive and soon demonstrated that Peek’s replacement, purged Tugwell’s support- philosophy as president. He was reelected pres- ers JEROME FRANK, Alger Hiss, and others who ident in 1948, famously beating THOMAS had advocated the rights of southern share- DEWEY in a close race. He left office in 1953 and croppers over those of planters. retired with his wife, Bess, to Independence. Tugwell’s support of conservation mea- When he died on December 26, 1972, in Kansas sures, especially in relation to farmland, had City, he had outlived most of his sharpest critics. favorably impressed FDR, who appointed him as the first head of the Resettlement Adminis- tration (RA), which relocated farmers from Tugwell, Rexford Guy poor land and resettled and retrained them, in (Rex the Red) addition to creating “greenbelt towns” (also (1891–1979) assistant secretary of agriculture, called “garden cities”) for industrial workers. Resettlement Administration director, Puerto Tugwell’s liberalism earned him the nickname Rico governor Rex the Red and the enmity of opponents who viewed him as too arrogant. As a result, he was Rex Tugwell, son of well-to-do upstate New too great a political liability to be allowed to York parents, was born on July 10, 1891. He actively participate in FDR’s 1936 reelection 260 Tully, Grace George campaign. He resigned from the RA at the end until LeHand’s illness. In 1941, Tully replaced of 1936. Afterward, he was blocked from LeHand as FDR’s personal secretary. She never returning to academia. His 1938 divorce from married and was admitted to Roosevelt’s inner his first wife and marriage to Grace Falke, with circle and treated as family. She handled FDR’s whom he had two children, further alienated correspondence, and he dictated his speeches to others from him. her. She was with him at Warm Springs, Geor- After Tugwell had served several years on gia, when he died on April 12, 1945. the New York City Planning Commission, Following FDR’s death, Tully became the Secretary of the Interior HAROLD ICKES executive secretary of the FDR Foundation. In brought him back in 1940 to federal service to 1949, she published her memoir, FDR—My do a study on land holding in Puerto Rico. Boss, which recounted her happy days with the FDR named Tugwell governor of Puerto Rico, Roosevelts. Tully died in Washington, D.C., and he served in that post from 1941 to 1946. on June 15, 1984. From 1946 to 1957, he taught at the University of Chicago, and then at other academic insti- tutions. He wrote The Brains Trust in 1968. Tydings, Millard Evelyn Tugwell died on July 21, 1979, in Santa Bar- (1890–1961) U.S. senator bara, California. Millard Tydings was born in Havre de Grace, Maryland, on April 6, 1890. He graduated from Tully, Grace George Maryland Agricultural College in 1910 with a (1900–1984) FDR personal assistant and degree in mechanical engineering and went on secretary to earn his law degree from the University of Maryland in 1913. The energetic Democrat Grace Tully, born on August 9, 1900, in Bay- was elected to the Maryland state legislature in onne, New Jersey, was the daughter of Demo- 1915, and he served there until 1922, except cratic Irish-Catholic parents. Her father, a during his World War I military service. He businessman, and her mother, a former won election in 1922 to the U.S. House of Rep- actress, sent her to Catholic boarding schools. resentatives and served there until 1927, when Tully’s father died while she was still young, so he was elected to the U.S. Senate, where he she took secretarial training at the Grace served until 1951. In 1935, he married Eleanor Institute in New York City, graduating in Davies Cheesborough, daughter of Joseph E. 1918. She worked for a decade in New York Davies, FDR’s second ambassador to the Soviet City for the Catholic Church and then began Union. Tydings adopted his wife’s two children working with the Democratic National Com- from her previous marriage. mittee in Manhattan. An early supporter of FDR, the colorful, Tully first worked as a secretary to fiscally conservative, and acid-tongued Tydings ELEANOR ROOSEVELT, becoming part of was an antiprohibitionist who came to oppose Franklin Roosevelt’s staff during his campaign the New Deal for its deficit spending. He for governor of New York. She was made an joined fellow Democrat BURTON WHEELER of assistant to MISSY LEHAND from 1928 to 1941, Montana in blocking FDR’s 1937 Court-pack- a career that spanned FDR’s governorship into ing scheme. His opposition to New Deal labor the presidency. LeHand and Tully became close and housing led FDR to campaign against Tyd- personal friends and worked together as equals ings’s third term by openly supporting his Tydings, Millard Evelyn 261

Democratic opponent in the 1938 primary. Ironically, for all his political prowess, The president’s attempt to purge him from the FDR had been unable to defeat Tydings’s Senate failed, and Tydings became a leader of reelection, but Republican senator Joseph the southern conservative Democrats who McCarthy of Wisconsin helped successfully to tried to block FDR’s 1940 bid for a third term prevent his reelection in 1950 after Tydings and continued to oppose the president’s had condemned his activities. Tydings died in domestic policies during World War II. Maryland on February 9, 1961. V w

Vandenberg, Arthur Hendrick Act of 1933. A Midwestern isolationist in the (1884–1951) U.S. senator 1930s, he served with GERALD NYE, the North Dakota Republican, in an investigation of the Arthur Vandenberg was born on March 22, munitions industry. However, after the 1884, into a Grand Rapids, Michigan, business December 1941 Pearl Harbor attack, Vanden- family. He graduated from public high school berg changed his position and became a cham- in Grand Rapids and attended the University pion of bipartisan international cooperation. of Michigan Law School from 1900 to 1901 As a result, Franklin Roosevelt made him the before becoming the young editor of his home- ranking Republican delegate to the April 1945 town newspaper. He and Elizabeth Watson San Francisco conference to draft the United married in 1906 and had three children before Nations Charter. He died on April 18, 1951, in her death in 1917. The next year, he married Grand Rapids. Hazel Whittaker. Although Vandenberg admired THEODORE ROOSEVELT, he supported William Howard Van Devanter, Willis Taft after TR’s 1912 third-party bid. During (1859–1941) U.S. Supreme Court justice World War I, Vandenberg supported Woodrow Wilson’s foreign policy. In the 1920s he The son of a Republican lawyer, Willis Van authored three books on Alexander Hamilton, Devanter never deviated from the traditional first secretary of the Treasury. He was family values instilled during his youth. Born appointed to the Senate in 1928 to fill an unex- April 17, 1859, in Marion, Indiana, he pired term when the incumbent died. He won attended Indiana Asbury (later DePaul) Uni- election later that year and served in the Senate versity. After graduating in 1879 from the until his death. University of Cincinnati Law School, he prac- Although he was a conservative Republi- ticed law with his father for three years. In can, Vandenberg did not become an anti–New 1883, he married Dellice “Dollie” Paige Deal leader. With Representative Henry Stea- Burhans, with whom he eventually had two gall of Alabama, he cosponsored the guaran- sons, and the next year they moved to teed bank-deposit plan that became the Federal Wyoming after his brother-in-law was made Deposit Insurance Corporation in the Banking chief justice of its territorial court. Van Devan-

262 Vinson, Frederick Moore 263 ter quickly became involved in Republican Vinson, Frederick Moore politics there. He was Cheyenne’s city attorney (1890–1953) U.S. congressman, federal judge, in 1887 and the next year began serving in the director of Office of Economic Stabilization and territorial legislature. From 1889 to 1890, he Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion was chief justice of Wyoming. Van Devanter campaigned for William Born on January 22, 1890, in a small town in McKinley in his successful bid for the presi- eastern Kentucky, a Civil War border state, dency in 1896 and the next year was appointed Vinson was the fourth and youngest child of a as an assistant attorney general in the Interior well-read mother and county jailer father. His Department. In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt grandfather was murdered when Vinson was named him to the Eighth Circuit Court of five years old, and his father devoted the next Appeals, where he served until 1910, when six years to a crusade to bring the murderer to President William Howard Taft named him as justice. Consequently, the young Vinson was an associate justice on the U.S. Supreme largely raised by his mother from age five to Court. 11. He attended local public schools in his Van Devanter would leave a legacy as one hometown of Louisa, Kentucky, including the of the least productive justices, and his opin- two-year training college from which he was ions are remembered less than his role in graduated in 1908. Always a gifted athlete, drafting the Judiciary Act of 1925. Never- Vinson also was a talented student with a theless, both Edward Douglass White and Taft, as chief justice of the Supreme Court, valued Van Devanter’s commentary in confer- ence. He supported property rights, states’ rights, and laissez-faire. During the 1930s, he joined his brethren PIERCE BUTLER, JAMES MCREYNOLDS, and GEORGE SUTHERLAND in the conservative bloc nicknamed the “Four Horsemen,” which consistently opposed New Deal legislation. Without the knowledge of the other six justices, Van Devanter and LOUIS BRANDEIS supported Chief Justice CHARLES EVANS HUGHES’s unprecedented letter to the Senate Judiciary Committee opposing Franklin Roo- sevelt’s 1937 scheme to pack the high bench with six additional justices. To further under- mine congressional approval of FDR’s scheme, Van Devanter announced his retirement from the bench on May 18, 1937. Though his retirement may have helped defeat FDR’s Court-packing plan, in ratings of Supreme Court justices, scholars generally rank Van Devanter as a failure. He died on April 8, Frederick Moore Vinson (United States Supreme 1941, in Washington, D.C. Court) 264 Vinson, Frederick Moore

near-photographic memory. He attended the Deal policy. A team player, he coauthored rev- private liberal arts Centre College in Dan- enue bills and the Guffey Coal Act of 1935. ville, Kentucky, earning his undergraduate He played a key role in passage of the Social degree in one year and his law degree two Security Act (1935), the National Labor Rela- years later. He played on the college baseball tions Act (1935), and reciprocal trade agree- team, taught history and math, and worked as ments. Vinson introduced Franklin Roosevelt’s the law librarian to help finance his legal edu- Court-packing plan in 1937, and he supported cation. Almost immediately after graduation, the Fair Labor Standards Act (1938). In return he signed a contract to play baseball for Lex- for his loyal support, his district received ington in the Blue Grass League, but his roughly half of the Civilian Conservation mother persuaded him to return home and Corps camps in his state. practice law instead. His career continued for As further reward for Vinson’s loyalty, in the next decade, interrupted by brief military May 1938 FDR appointed him to the second service near the end of World War I. most important national tribunal, the U.S. Vinson’s love for baseball competed with Court of Appeals in Washington, D.C. Vinson his legal career for the first five years of his stepped down in May 1943 to serve in a series practice, and he played shortstop for Louisa’s of economic positions in the administrations semiprofessional team during that time. In of poker pals FDR and HARRY TRUMAN.That 1913, he won the office of city attorney and year, he became the director of the Office of held the position for only one year, but through Economic Stabilization, where he successfully it he found in politics a substitute for baseball. worked to control inflation. In March 1945, He reentered elective office in 1921 as district FDR named him the federal loan administrator attorney. In 1923, he married Roberta Dixon, and then a month later used him as the replace- with whom he had two children. He won elec- ment for JAMES BYRNES as director of the tion to the U.S. House of Representatives in Office of War Modernization and Reconver- 1924, but he managed AL SMITH’s presidential sion. By then Vinson had become a household campaign in 1928 and subsequently went down name. in defeat with his candidate. It was Vinson’s In July 1945, after Truman became presi- only electoral defeat. He regained his seat in dent, he named Vinson as secretary of the 1930 after the Great Depression hit. Treasury and the next year appointed him as The congenial border-state politician with chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court to fill a gift for numbers quickly won over House the vacancy left by the unexpected death of leaders JOHN NANCE GARNER and SAM RAY- HARLAN FISKE STONE.By this time the once- BURN and led to his appointment to the influ- thin natural athlete was an overweight chain ential Ways and Means Committee. This was smoker who ridiculed the notion of exercise. followed quickly by chairmanship of its tax sub- He died unexpectedly of a heart attack on committee, enabling him to help shape New September 8, 1953, in Washington, D.C. W w

Wagner, Robert Ferdinand chairmanship of the Committee on Banking (1877–1953) U.S. senator and Currency, and he became the second-rank- ing member on the Foreign Affairs Commit- Members of both houses of Congress played a tee. He drafted the National Industrial significant role in the development of the New Recovery Act of 1933, which guaranteed labor’s Deal, as illustrated by the U.S. Senate career of right to bargain collectively. After the U.S. Robert F. Wagner. He was born in Nastatten, Supreme Court struck down the legislation in Germany, on June 8, 1877, to working-class par- 1935, Congress passed the historic National ents who immigrated to New York in 1886. He Labor Relations Act, popularly known as the graduated in 1898 from City College of New Magna Carta of Labor. Also referred to as the York and from New York Law School in 1900. Wagner Act, it established the National Labor In 1908, after he had converted to Catholicism, Relations Board, which Wagner chaired. he married Margaret Marie McTague, and the Wagner also was one of the sponsors of the couple had one child before she died in 1919. Social Security Act of 1935. In 1937, he helped Wagner mixed his Upper East Side law to create the U.S. Housing Authority. Ill health practice with Tammany Hall politics. He forced his retirement in 1949, and he died of served in the New York legislature (1904–05, heart disease on May 4, 1953, in the New York 1906–18), where he was a floor leader in 1913 City home of his namesake son, who served in and president pro tempore of the senate at the the New York State Assembly (1937–41) and same time that his friend AL SMITH was major- later in 1953 became mayor of New York City. ity leader of the assembly. Both were reformers and served on the Factory Investigating Com- mission that investigated the deadly Manhattan Wallace, Henry Agard Triangle Shirtwaist Company factory fire, (1888–1965) secretary of agriculture, vice which had killed 150 workers in March 1911. president of the United States, secretary of Wagner was elected in 1919 to the New commerce York State Supreme Court, where he upheld progressive legislation. In 1926, he won elec- Born on October 7, 1888, near Orient, Iowa, tion to the U.S. Senate and easily won reelec- Henry Wallace was brought up in a staunch tion three times. Seniority gained him the Republican family. His father was a professor at

265 266 Wallace, Henry Agard

the University of Iowa and also edited a family- Wallace’s service in the Agriculture Depart- run farm journal. His grandfather had served ment was loyal to the New Deal but turbulent. on THEODORE ROOSEVELT’s Country Life His assistant secretary was REXFORD TUGWELL, Commission. In 1912, the two elder Wallaces and together they helped to prepare the Agri- supported Roosevelt’s third-party bid for the cultural Adjustment Act of 1933. Two years presidency. During the Warren Harding and later, Wallace purged JEROME FRANK from the Calvin Coolidge administrations, Wallace’s department after Frank and other radical liberal father was secretary of agriculture. lawyers tried to aid tenant farmers who had been Henry Wallace graduated in 1910 from hurt when southern landowners reduced their Iowa State College and worked with his father crops in exchange for government benefits. The on the family farm journal. A successful plant actions of the radical lawyers threatened to undo geneticist, he made the first hybrid seed corn the New Deal congressional coalition. for commercial use in 1923 and three years later Nonetheless, Wallace assisted in the passage of founded the Hi-Bred Seed Company, serving as the Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenancy Act of 1937. its president until 1933. He broke with the Wallace also struggled with GEORGE PEEK, Republican Party in 1928 and went on to sup- the first administrator of the Agricultural port Franklin Roosevelt’s successful presidential Adjustment Administration (AAA). FDR was bid in 1932. The next year, FDR made him sec- forced to give Peek a new position in 1933, but retary of agriculture, and he became the first Peek was a vocal critic of the New Deal when son to follow his father in that position. he left the administration two years later. The

This photograph shows retiring vice president John Nance Garner administer the oath of office to his successor, Henry A. Wallace, as President Roosevelt and others observe, at the U.S. Capitol, Washington, D.C., January 20, 1941. (Library of Congress) Welles, Sumner 267

Supreme Court declared the AAA unconstitu- starred the woman who would become his first tional in early 1936, but Wallace gained pas- wife, Virginia Nicholson. After acting in bit sage of the Soil Conservation and Domestic parts in Ireland, Welles formed the Mercury Allotment Act, which used crop reduction as a Theater company with John Houseman in the conservation measure. This was followed by United States, serving as actor, director, and passage of the second Agricultural Adjustment writer and working with a talented company of Act in early 1938, which established the suc- actors that included Agnes Morehead, Joseph cessful idea of the “Ever-Normal Granary.” Cotton, and Houseman. In 1938, the Mercury The next year he began food-stamp and Theater’s broadcast of H. G. Wells’s classic school-lunch programs. story “War of the Worlds” created panic across Wallace’s liberal positions appealed to the country when thousands of radio listeners FDR, who liked to consider himself a gentle- were frightened into believing that the United man farmer, and the president forced through States was in imminent danger of invasion by his choice of Wallace as his running mate in Martians. 1940, against the wishes of the leaders of the While this broadcast led to a Hollywood urban political machines and Southern wing of contract, Welles’s greatest accomplishment, the the Democratic Party. Though FDR won a film Citizen Kane, almost ended his movie third term with Wallace as his vice president, career before it began. Made in 1941, the film by 1944 the urban bosses and Southern was loosely based on the life of newspaper Democrats were able to exert enough pressure mogul WILLIAM RANDOLPH HEARST and his on him to substitute HARRY S. TRUMAN for mistress Marion Davies, and it was boycotted Wallace on the ticket. Wallace was made sec- by the vast Hearst media empire. retary of commerce in 1945 to appease him. Welles seemed to have peaked at age 36 Wallace was bright and idealistic, and he after these successes. He made other movies, called for “the century of the common man,” but with his penchant of editing and reediting, but he was not a natural politician and failed to going vastly over budget and disappearing dur- establish a political base for his ideas. Truman ing production, studio bosses lost interest in finally replaced him as his commerce secretary the former boy genius who never seemed to in September 1946. Wallace made a subsequent fulfill the promise of his early successes. failed bid for the presidency in 1948 on the new Toward the end of his life, hugely obese, he Progressive Party ticket. Defeated, he returned could be seen on television hawking a variety of to private life and died on November 18, 1965. products including wine, hot dogs, and mail- order degrees. He died of a heart attack on October 10, 1985, at age 70. Welles, Orson (George Orson Welles) (1915–1985) actor, writer, director Welles, Sumner (Benjamin Sumner Welles) Born in Kenosha, Wisconsin, on May 6, 1915, (1892–1961) assistant secretary of state, under- to talented parents—his father was an inventor secretary of state and his mother a concert pianist—Orson Welles was considered a “boy genius.” He The son of wealthy parents, Benjamin Sumner made his first film while a student, at the Todd Welles was born in New York City on October School for Boys in Woodstock, Illinois. It 14, 1892. Related to former abolitionist senator 268 Wheeler, Burton Kendall

Charles Sumner from Massachusetts, he pre- near Newfoundland, and he helped to draft the ferred to be known by his middle name. The Atlantic Charter. Welleses and the Roosevelts were friends, and Welles was eased out of the State Depart- Sumner Welles roomed with ELEANOR ROO- ment at the end of September 1943, and he SEVELT’s brother in boarding school; he carried returned to his writing. His marriage to his her wedding-gown train at her marriage to first wife had produced two sons before they Franklin Roosevelt in 1905. A bright student divorced, and he had married twice more. He who avoided athletics as well as social endeav- died on September 24, 1961. ors, Welles graduated from Harvard University in 1914 and, heeding the advice of his friend FDR, began pursuing a foreign-service career. Wheeler, Burton Kendall Welles served two years in Japan and then (1882–1975) U.S. senator began to specialize in Latin American affairs, becoming fluent in Spanish. He often seemed Born in Hudson, Massachusetts, on February vindictive toward others, was considered by 27, 1882, Burton Wheeler worked his way many to be vain, and frequently drank to excess. through college and received his law degree He would resign three times from the Depart- from the University of Michigan in 1905. He ment of State during his diplomatic career, and moved to Butte, Montana, to practice law, and during periods of unemployment he wrote in 1907 he married Lula M. White, with whom books on foreign affairs. The first, published in he had six children. Wheeler soon turned to 1928, was on the history of the Dominican Democratic politics, serving one term in the Republic. FDR liked it and made Welles his Montana legislature (1910–12). Woodrow Wil- main adviser on Latin American affairs. son appointed him as U.S. district attorney for After FDR was elected as president, he Montana in 1913 and he held that position until made Welles assistant secretary of state. Welles 1918, while at the same time protecting civil became a major formulator of the Good liberties during the hysteria of World War I. In Neighbor policy, and in 1934 he successfully 1920, Wheeler won the Democratic bid for negotiated the treaty terminating the Platt governor but lost the race badly after he was Amendment, which had allowed the United labeled as “Bolshevik Burt” by his more con- States to intervene in Cuba’s foreign affairs. servative opponents. He championed the inter- Two years later, he persuaded FDR to convene ests of farmers and workers against big business. the inter-American peace conference in Two years later, he won election to the U.S. Buenos Aires to end the Chaco War between Senate and subsequently served four terms. Paraguay and Bolivia, establishing a precedent Wheeler first won national attention for for collective consultation in Latin America. bringing corruption charges against President FDR promoted Welles to undersecretary Warren Harding’s attorney general, Harry M. of state in 1937, but Secretary of State Daugherty. He served as prosecutor during the CORDELL HULL resented Welles’s close rela- subsequent Senate investigation, which forced tionship with the president. In February 1940, Daugherty’s resignation. In 1924, he became FDR dispatched Welles to Europe to demon- the running mate of ROBERT M. LA FOLLETTE strate the administration’s desire for peace and on the Progressive Party presidential ticket. to stall an expected Nazi attack on the Allies. In Wheeler was the first national figure to August 1941, Welles attended the first confer- support Franklin Roosevelt’s presidential bid ence between FDR and WINSTON CHURCHILL in 1932. He initially favored most of the early Wickard, Claude Raymond 269

New Deal legislation but broke with FDR in White promoted the work of African- 1937 over the Supreme Court–packing plan. American writers and artists and was himself Wheeler led the opposition to the Court-pack- the author of two novels published in the mid- ing bill, which resulted in Roosevelt’s first major 1920s. He also wrote the classic investigative legislative defeat. Some argue that Wheeler’s study of lynching, Rope and Faggot: A Biogra- life became the model for Jefferson Smith in phy of Judge Lynch (1929). He helped with pas- FRANK CAPRA’s classic 1939 film Mr. Smith Goes sage of antilynching legislation in 1922, 1937, to Washington. and 1939 in the U.S. House of Representa- Wheeler also opposed FDR’s foreign policy tives, but the Senate blocked it each time. and led the opposition to the Lend-Lease Act of Nonetheless, White assisted with establish- 1941. Both he and his wife actively supported ment of the NAACP Legal Defense and Edu- the America First Committee, although he sup- cation Fund, which challenged discrimination ported the war effort after the December 1941 in the law. During the 1930s, he fought com- attack on Pearl Harbor. Wheeler was defeated petition from the Communist Party to repre- in the 1946 Democratic primary, despite his sent the needs of African Americans. That endorsement by President HARRY TRUMAN, struggle led to his later anticommunist posi- with whom he had worked closely in the Sen- tion during the cold war. ate. After leaving politics, he practiced law with White became an important member of a his son, Robert, in Washington, D.C., until his group of prominent African Americans in death on January 6, 1975. Washington, D.C., including MARY MCLEOD BETHUNE and Robert Weaver, who associated with leading New Deal liberals such as White, Walter Francis HAROLD ICKES, AUBREY WILLIAMS, and (1893–1955) executive secretary, National ELEANOR ROOSEVELT.He built a variety of Association for the Advancement of Colored coalitions to fight racial discrimination and People contributed to the establishment of the 1941 Fair Employment Practices Committee, which Born in Atlanta, Georgia, on July 1, 1893, to a was set up to promote equal hiring practices in mail-carrier father and teacher mother, Walter defense industries during World War II. White was one of seven children whose skin White died on March 21, 1955, in New was light enough for them to pass as white; York City. however, they regarded themselves as African American. He graduated from Atlanta Univer- sity in 1916 and then worked briefly for Stan- Wickard, Claude Raymond dard Life Insurance Company. White helped (1893–1967) federal agricultural administrator, to establish the Atlanta branch of the National secretary of agriculture Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and in 1918 was recruited by Born near Flora, Indiana, on February 28, James Weldon Johnson, NAACP field secre- 1893, Claude Wickard attended a local high tary, to serve as his assistant in New York City. school and then entered Purdue University in White kept that position until 1929, when he 1910. He graduated in 1915 with a degree in was made the association’s acting secretary. In agriculture and a strong belief in scientific 1931, he was made the permanent executive farming. He took over the family farm and was secretary, and he held that position until 1955. granted an occupational deferment during 270 Williams, Aubrey Willis

World War I. In 1918, he married Louise Eck- Williams, Aubrey Willis ert, with whom he had two daughters. (1890–1965) federal programs administrator Wickard mixed Democratic Party politics with his farmwork when he was elected to the The son of working-class parents, Aubrey presidency of the local county Farm Bureau. Williams was born in Springville, Alabama, on In 1932, he was elected to a senate seat in the August 23, 1890, six months before his family Indiana legislature, and by the next year he moved to Birmingham. He and his six siblings had been tapped as the assistant to the chief of quit after elementary school to go to work and the Corn Hog Section of the federal Agricul- help support their family. Williams was 21 tural Adjustment Administration; he became years old before he entered Maryville College the section’s chief in 1935. In 1937, HENRY in Tennessee. After five years, he transferred to WALLACE, the secretary of agriculture, made the University of Cincinnati in 1916, and in him head of the North Central Division of the 1918 he joined the army while in Europe dur- Department of Agriculture. Wicker admired ing World War I. He returned to the Univer- Wallace’s views, including those on parity, the sity of Cincinnati in 1919 and graduated in “Ever-Normal Granary,” and acreage reduc- 1920. That same year, he married Anita tion. Wicker’s loyalty to those concepts led Schreck, and the couple had four children. Wallace to appoint him as undersecretary of Williams served as executive director of agriculture on March 1, 1940. Six months the Wisconsin Conference of Social Work later, Wickard was named secretary of agricul- from 1922 until 1932, when he became a field ture to replace Wallace after he became consultant for the Reconstruction Finance Franklin Roosevelt’s 1940 vice-presidential Corporation. He established relief administra- running mate. tions in several states, including Mississippi and Wickard loyally supported FDR’s shift to Texas. In 1933, HARRY HOPKINS recruited wartime preparedness and the corresponding Williams first as a field representative for the changes in agricultural policy necessary to Federal Emergency Relief Administration and effect the shift. He essentially became the then as his deputy administrator in Washing- president’s food administrator during the early ton, D.C. The two, who soon became close years of World War II. Despite his loyalty, he friends, helped with the Civil Works Adminis- was heavily criticized, and FDR responded by tration, and in 1935 they administered the appointing a separate war food administrator Works Progress Administration (WPA). in early 1943. Nonetheless, Wickard cooper- Williams also administered the National Youth ated with the new “food czars” and remained Administration (NYA). Through his work he as agriculture secretary until after FDR’s became friends with ELEANOR ROOSEVELT and death. HARRY S. TRUMAN then appointed him Lyndon B. Johnson, the Texas NYA adminis- as the head of the Rural Electrification Admin- trator. Williams also appointed MARY MCLEOD istration (REA) following refusal by the U.S. BETHUNE to the NYA staff. Senate to confirm the more controversial Nevertheless, Williams’s passion for the AUBREY WILLIAMS.Wickard remained with underdog had made him so controversial that the REA until after the 1952 election. He then Franklin Roosevelt was unable to make him returned to his Indiana farm but remained head of the WPA after Hopkins was named politically active until his death in an automo- commerce secretary in 1938. The NYA was sep- bile accident on April 19, 1967, while traveling arated from the WPA, and Congress finally ter- to Indiana. minated it in 1943. Southern Democrats then Wood, Grant DeVolson 271 blocked Williams’s nomination as director of the popular vote to the FDR-Wallace team’s 55 Rural Electrification Administration in 1945. percent, it was the best showing for a Republi- Williams returned to Alabama for more can in two decades. than a decade, where he was active in the civil Willkie was soon cooperating with rights movement. In ill health he moved back Franklin Roosevelt through his active support to Washington, D.C., in 1963 and died there of the Lend-Lease Act of 1941. By 1943, he on March 3, 1965. had written a best seller, One World, which argued against colonialism and imperialism. He promoted civil rights and counted WALTER Willkie, Wendell Lewis WHITE among his friends. Willkie sought the (1892–1944) business executive, Republican Republican nomination in 1944 but had to presidential candidate drop out of the race after his poor showing in the Wisconsin primary, dominated by isola- Wendell Willkie, the son of lawyers, was born tionist voters. Six months later, on October 8, on February 18, 1892, in Elwood, Indiana, and 1944, he died in New York City. attended local schools. A lifelong avid reader, he graduated from Indiana University in 1913 and its law school in 1916. He married Edith Wood, Grant DeVolson Wilk, a librarian, before serving with the army (1891–1942) painter in France during World War I. The couple had one child. Born near Anamosa, Iowa, on February 13, A Wilsonian Democrat, Willkie moved 1891, Grant Wood was the son of farmers. from Indiana to Akron, Ohio, in 1920 to work After his father died in 1901, the family moved on the legal staff of the Firestone Tire and to Cedar Rapids, Iowa, where a decade later Rubber Company. In 1929, he moved to New Wood studied metalwork and jewelry at the York City to become a corporate lawyer for the Minneapolis School of Design and Handicraft newly formed Commonwealth and Southern and Normal Arts. In addition, he took art Corporation, a utilities holding company, classes at the University of Iowa, Iowa City, becoming vice president in 1933. After the pas- and in 1913 he enrolled at the Art Institute of sage of the Public Utilities Holding Act of Chicago. During World War I, he entered mil- 1935, he became a critic of Franklin Roosevelt itary service but remained stateside. He and the New Deal. Willkie’s utility company returned to Cedar Rapids after his military ser- battled the Tennessee Valley Authority, which vice and taught in elementary and high schools finally had to buy out the utility in 1939 in a there. $78 million settlement. That same year, he Upon Wood’s return to Cedar Rapids, he became a registered Republican. His attacks on became the town’s de facto artist, living with FDR’s New Deal, coupled with his personality his mother in a studio apartment above a and speaking skills, made him popular with funeral parlor that was owned by his major businessmen as well as ordinary Republican patron. It also served as a quasi Latin Quarter voters. On the sixth ballot, he became the in Cedar Rapids where artists and writers could Republican Party’s dark-horse nominee for spend time together. During the 1920s, Wood president in 1940. Despite the loss of Willkie made several trips to Europe to study art. By and his vice-presidential running mate, 1927, his regionalist art style had emerged as CHARLES MCNARY, who took 45 percent of the an original American approach to painting. His 272 Wright, Richard Nathaniel

works ignored contemporary social and politi- In 1935, Wood married Sara Sherman cal reality by focusing on the imagined sim- Maxon, who not only was older than he but plicities of earlier times. already a grandmother when they wed. The Wood’s most famous painting was created couple struck some as a real-life parody of in 1930. Entitled American Gothic, it appears at American Gothic. Wood and his new wife first glance to depict a dour midwestern married bought a house in Iowa City, where they lav- couple standing in front of their farmhouse. In ishly entertained visitors to the university cam- actuality, the two subjects are an Iowa farmer pus, including poets Robert Frost and Carl and his spinster daughter, modeled after Wood’s Sandburg. They had no children during their dentist and his own sister, Nan Wood Graham. marriage, which ended in divorce in 1939. Noted for Wood’s incorporation of subtle In 1940, Wood’s portrait of FDR’s secretary humor and satire into his paintings, American of agriculture, HENRY WALLACE, was repro- Gothic captures old-fashioned midwesterners duced on the front cover of Time. He was with Victorian-era attitudes. However, some appointed the following year as the first faculty critics perceive it as a satire of close-minded, member to hold a special chair as University small-town morality—a canvas version of Sher- Professor of Fine Arts at the University of Iowa. wood Anderson’s Winesburg, Ohio. American He died from liver cancer on February 12, 1942. Gothic won an award at the 1930 Art Institute of Chicago’s annual exhibit of American paintings, and the Institute purchased it for $300. Wright, Richard Nathaniel In 1931, Wood painted a similar satirical (1908–1960) novelist work, Birthplace of Herbert Hoover, which poked fun at Iowa’s first president and his campaign Richard Wright was born in rural Mississippi that stressed his “humble beginnings.” During between Roxie and Natchez on September 4, the summers of 1932 and 1933, as Franklin 1908, to an illiterate sharecropper and his Roosevelt’s national momentum accelerated, schoolteacher wife. When Wright was five Wood helped to run an art school in Stone years old, his father abandoned the family, forc- City to celebrate the state’s and the region’s ing his mother to take domestic jobs. For a Midwest identity. He became the Iowa director time, he and his brother were sent to an of the Public Works of Art Project (PWAP), orphanage, and after his mother suffered a which provided work relief and art production, stroke when he was about 12 years old, he went holding the position for six months until the to live with his maternal grandparents. They program was terminated in June that year. The were very religious but illiterate and kept books PWAP was the first national art project spon- out of their house. Although Wright managed sored by the federal government among the to graduate from junior high school in 1925, he New Deal programs that emerged. dropped out of high school almost immediately. Wood then became an associate professor The same year he completed junior high of fine arts at the University of Iowa. The school, he moved to Memphis, where he December 24, 1934, issue of Time showcased worked as a dishwasher and delivery boy and the regionalist art movement in its lead story, began reading contemporary American litera- elevating it to nearly a household term. ture as well as commentary by H. L. MENCKEN. THOMAS HART BENTON, Wood, and others In December 1927, he boarded a train to were portrayed as rejecting modern abstrac- Chicago and left the South for good, cutting his tion in favor of regionalist art. ties to his early identity. Wyzanski, Charles Edward, Jr. 273

Wright spent a decade in Chicago working had for the second time in his life cut his ties to at the post office and a variety of other jobs. the group with which he had identified. During the Great Depression, he joined the Wright collaborated in writing a stage John Reed Club in 1932 and the Communist adaptation of Native Son the same year it was Party the next year. By 1935, he had found published. Produced by John Houseman and temporary professional work with the Federal staged by ORSON WELLES, the play opened for Negro Theater in Chicago, part of the Federal its Broadway run in spring 1941. Wright’s Writers’ Project in the Works Progress Admin- autobiography, Black Boy, was published in istration. Although he wrote short stories and 1945, giving him another best seller and Book- a novel during this period, they were not pub- of-the Month Club selection. lished until after his death. Wright’s first brief marriage had taken In 1937, the restless and active Wright place in 1939 when he wed Dhimah Rose migrated to New York City, where he was the Meadman, a Russian-Jewish ballerina. He Harlem editor of the Daily Worker and also divorced her the next year, and in 1941 he mar- worked on other leftist publications. His big ried Ellen Poplar, who was white and a Com- break occurred in 1938 when his short-story munist Party member. The couple had two collection, Uncle Tom’s Children, garnered first daughters. In 1947, the family moved perma- prize in the Story magazine contest for best nently to Paris, France, and they never book-length manuscript, a competition open returned to the United States. Wright had to authors in the Federal Writers’ Project. The again cut ties to his former life. New Deal, in essence, had launched his literary In 1953, Wright published an existential career. Also in 1938, Harper’s published a novel, The Outsider, which captured the author’s Wright manuscript, Uncle Tom’s Children, that personal views of life. Though he continued to related the effects of racism on American soci- publish and travel to developing nations, he ety. The volume, supplemented by more of his found himself in the same situation as many stories, was reissued in 1940. That same year, leaders of newly independent African nations Wright published Native Son, which holds the who had left colonial Africa to be educated distinction of dual “firsts.” It was the first best- abroad and then returned home to lead their selling novel by an African-American as well as nations to independence, only to become the first Book-of-the-Month selection by an marginal outsiders in the process. In Wright’s African-American author. Most critics consider case, the move to Europe had served to alien- Native Son to be Wright’s masterpiece. It also ate him from African Americans, while at the made him the wealthiest African-American same time he was never fully accepted by native writer in the nation up to that time. The book’s Africans. He died in Paris on November 28, protagonist, Bigger Thomas, was presented as 1960, from a heart attack. a product of a racist nation. In Native Son, Wright faulted the Commu- nist Party for failing to help the very people it Wyzanski, Charles Edward, Jr. relied on for support. Disillusioned with the (1906–1986) federal lawyer, National Defense party, he quit it in 1942, relating his experience Mediation Board member, U.S. district judge in an article, “I Tried to be a Communist,” for the Atlantic Monthly in 1944. The article was Born on May 27, 1906, in Boston, Mas- part of The God That Failed, published in 1949 sachusetts, Charles Wyzanski was the son of a by disenchanted former communists. Wright real-estate developer. He was raised in the 274 Wyzanski, Charles Edward, Jr. upper-middle-class suburb of Brookline and ration (1937), and he helped to prepare a attended Phillips Exeter Academy. He entered defense of the Social Security Act of 1935. Harvard University, graduating in 1927, and Wyzanski was infuriated by Franklin Roo- then enrolled in Harvard Law School, where sevelt’s Court-packing plan of 1937 but he served on the law review. His professors remained silent and returned to private prac- included JAMES LANDIS and FELIX FRANK- tice in Boston at the end of that year. In 1941, FURTER, who recommended him following his he returned to the federal government as a 1930 graduation for clerkships on the United member of the National Defense Mediation States Court of Appeals for the Second Cir- Board, resigning that position later in the year cuit. Wyzanski served clerkships with Augustus to accept FDR’s nomination as U.S. district Hand in 1931 and Learned Hand in 1932. The judge for Massachusetts. He held that position next year, he became a “Happy Hotdog” after for 45 years, declining the opportunity in 1943 Frankfurter endorsed him as the solicitor of to move to the federal court of appeals. He the Department of Labor with FRANCES married Gisela Warburg in 1943, and they had PERKINS, even though Wyzanski had voted for two children. HERBERT HOOVER in 1932. In 1965, Wyzanski became the chief judge of Wyzanski was a social liberal and a consti- the U.S. District Court for Massachusetts. He tutional conservative. As Perkins’s top lawyer, served in that capacity until 1971, when he he helped to draft the public works and labor assumed senior status on the court. An extremely portions of the National Industrial Recovery able and well-read judge, in the eyes of scholars Act of June 16, 1933. He opposed New York he became the judicial equal of not only Augus- senator ROBERT WAGNER’s Labor Disputes Act tus and Learned Hand, for whom he had clerked of 1934, and he helped to draft the charter of years earlier, but also of Oliver Wendell Holmes, the International Labor Organization. He also Jr., who had recommended to him that he worked to modernize immigration law. Perkins become a lawyer, and of justices LOUIS BRAN- transferred him to the Justice Department in DEIS and Frankfurter, his former teacher and 1935, and he successfully defended several mentor. Wyzanski helped to shape the law on the New Deal court cases, especially National Labor bench, like fellow judge JEROME FRANK, until Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corpo- his death on September 3, 1986, in Boston. CHRONOLOGY w

1882 1904 January 30—Roosevelt is born at Hyde Park, September—FDR enters Columbia Law School, New York, the only child of Sara Delano Roo- New York City. sevelt, second wife of James Roosevelt, becom- ing his second son. 1905 1884 March 17—Marries Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, the niece of Theodore Roosevelt and FDR’s October 11—Anna Eleanor Roosevelt is born in own fifth cousin once removed, in New York New York City. City.

1896 1906 September—FDR enters Groton School in Groton, Massachusetts May 6—Anna Eleanor, the first child of Eleanor and Franklin, is born. 1899 June—FDR graduates from Groton. 1907 Spring—FDR is admitted to the bar, New York 1900 City. September— FDR enters Harvard University, December 23—James, the second child of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Eleanor and Franklin, is born. December 8—James Roosevelt, his father, dies at age 72. 1909 March 18— 1903 Franklin Delano, Jr. (lst), the third child of Eleanor and Franklin, is born. June 24—FDR graduates from Harvard Uni- versity. November 8—Franklin Delano, Jr. (lst) dies.

275 276 The FDR Years

1910 1917 September 23—Elliott, the fourth child of March—FDR attempts to enlist in the navy. Eleanor and Franklin, is born. April 6—The United States enters World War I. November 8—FDR is elected to New York State Senate. 1918 1912 July–September—FDR tours Europe, including the western front of the war and contracts September—FDR becomes ill and asks Louis influenza. McHenry Howe to take over his political cam- paign for reelection to the state senate. Eleanor Roosevelt discovers evidence of her husband’s affair with Lucy Mercer. November 5—FDR is reelected state senator with 62 percent of the vote. July 6—FDR is nominated for vice president at the Democratic National Convention held in San Francisco, California. 1913 August 6—FDR resigns as assistant secretary of March 17—FDR is appointed assistant secretary the navy. of the navy by President Woodrow Wilson. November 2—In a landslide Republicans War- April—Franklin and Eleanor move to Wash- ren Harding and Calvin Coolidge defeat the ington, D.C. James Cox-FDR, the Democratic ticket.

1914 1921 August 17—Franklin Delano, Jr. (2nd), the fifth August 10—FDR contracts an anterior polio- child of Eleanor and Franklin, is born. myelitis, Campobello, New Brunswick, Canada. September 28—FDR is defeated in the Demo- cratic primary for a U.S. Senate seat from New 1924 York by Tammany Hall’s candidate, James Gerard. June 26—FDR makes nominating speech for Alfred E. Smith, dubbing him “the Happy Warrior,” at the Democratic National Con- 1916 vention held in New York City. March 13—John Aspinwall, the sixth child of Eleanor and Franklin, is born. 1927 March—FDR begins a love affair with Lucy FDR establishes the Georgia Warm Springs Mercer (Rutherford), his wife’s social secretary. Foundation to treat individuals with polio. Chronology 277

1928 only thing we have to fear is fear itself.” Frances Perkins becomes the first female cabi- June 28— FDR nominates Alfred E. Smith at net secretary in U.S. history. the Democratic National Convention, held in Houston, Texas. March 5—Congress convenes in emergency session. November 6—FDR is elected governor of New York with 50.3 percent of the vote. March 6—“Bank holiday” declared until March 13. Eleanor Roosevelt starts weekly press conferences. 1929 March 8— October—The stock market crash marks the FDR holds his first press conference, beginning of the Great Depression. agreeing to meet with the press twice weekly. He ends the written question rule that had begun in 1921. 1930 March 9—First “Hundred Days” congressional November 4—FDR is reelected governor of session continues until June 16; FDR signs the New York with 63 percent of the vote. Emergency Banking Act.

March 12—FDR delivers his first of 27 “Fire- 1932 side Chat” radio addresses. In the first, dealing July 1—FDR is nominated for president at the with the banking crisis, he reassures the coun- Democratic National Convention, held in try that the banks are safe. Chicago, Illinois. March 20—Economy Act requires balanced July 2—FDR flies from Albany to Chicago to budget (cuts government salaries and veterans’ accept the nomination. He calls for a “new deal,” benefits). and sets precedent by appearing at the conven- March 22—FDR signs the Beer Tax Act. This tion rather than waiting for the formal ceremony. act amended the Volstead Act of 1919, legaliz- ing beer and wine that contained no more than November 8— FDR defeats President Herbert 3.2 percent of alcohol. Hoover by winning 57.4 percent of the vote. March 27—Executive order creates Farm Credit 1933 Administration. February 15—Assassination attempt on FDR in March 31—FDR signs the Civilian Conserva- Miami by Giuseppe Zangara. tion Corps (CCC) Reforestation Act. It creates road construction, soil erosion, flood control, March 4—FDR is inaugurated 32nd president park, and reforestation jobs for men between of the United States. ages of 18 and 25.

He announces his “Good Neighbor policy” April 5—Executive order creates the CCC, the toward Latin America and also says “that the first of the New Deal programs. 278 The FDR Years

May 12—FDR signs Federal Emergency Relief Transportation Act. The Public Works Admin- Act (FERA), creating a national relief system istration (PWA) is established. overseen by Harry L. Hopkins, and the Emer- gency Farm Mortgage Act. July 8—Harold Ickes is named Federal Emer- gency Administrator of Public Works. May 13—FDR signs the Agricultural Adjust- ment Act (AAA) raising farm prices through July 9—Cotton Textile National Industrial cash subsidies and rental payments in exchange Relations Board created. for production limits and parity prices for basic commodities. July 11—Emergency Council (National Emer- gency Council) created. May 15—Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Act created with three-person board of directors. July 27—Central Statistical Board created.

May 18—FDR signs the Tennessee Valley Act to July 30—National Planning Board established. build dams and power plants that will sell electric power and nitrogen fertilizers in seven states. August 4—Coal Arbitration Board established.

May 27—FDR signs the Federal Securities Act August 5—National Labor Board established. requiring new securities issues to be registered with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). August 28—Petroleum Administration Board established. June 5—Abandonment of the Gold Act takes the United States off the gold standard. October 16—Commodity Credit Corporation established. June 6—National Employment Act. November 7—FDR receives Maxim M. Litvi- June 12—London Economic Conference con- nov, Soviet commissar of foreign affairs, at the venes and continues until July 28. White House.

June 13—Home Owners Refinancing Act. November 8—FDR appoints Harry L. Hopkins as head of the Civil Works Administration June 16—FDR signs the National Industrial (CWA), an emergency unemployment relief Recovery Act (NIRA), creating the National program providing jobs on federal, state and Recovery Administration (NRA), and the Bank- local projects. ing Act of 1933. The Glass-Steagall Act creates the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation November 16—The United States recognizes (FDIC), which guarantees deposits under the USSR. $5,000, separated investment from commercial banking, and broadened the powers of the Fed- November 17—National Emergency Council eral Reserve Board. FDR also signs the Farm established. Credit Act, consolidating the Farm Credit Administration, the Federal Farm Board, and December 5—Federal Alcohol Control Admin- Federal Farm Loan Board; and the Railroad istration established; Twenty-first Amendment Chronology 279 ratified, repealing Prohibition; Eighteenth February 23—Crop Loan Act enacted; Huey Amendment repealed. Long delivers “Every Man a King” speech on national radio. December 10—Public Works Art Project estab- lished. March 7—National Recovery Review Board established. December 19—Electric Home and Farm Authority, Petroleum Labor Board established. March 10—Conservation of Fish Act enacted to protect native fish from federal water develop- December 21—London Agreement on Silver of ment projects. 1933 ratified. March 12—Second Export-Import Bank established. 1934 March 24—Philippine Independence Act pro- January 1—Francis Townsend founds Old Age vides for independence in 1946. Revolving Pensions organization. March 27—Vinson Naval Parity Act permits January 3—FDR delivers his first State of the naval buildup. Union message to Congress. March 28—Independent Offices Appropriations January 8—FDR receives credentials of the first Act enacted over FDR’s veto. Election year pol- Soviet ambassador, Alexander Troyanovsky. itics forced Congress to increase salaries of gov- ernment employees and allowances of World January 27—FDR signs the Railway Labor Act War I veterans. creating a national adjustment board, uphold- ing workers rights to organize and bargain April 4—Soviet Nonaggression Pact with collectively. Poland and the Baltic States.

January 28—FDR signs the National Housing April 7—FDR signs the Jones-Connally Relief Act creating the Federal Housing Administra- Act. tion (FHA), which insured loans for new con- struction, repairs, and improvements on farms April 13—Johnson Debt Default Act forbids and in small businesses. U.S. loans to nations in default of obligations to the United States. January 30—Gold Reserve Act devalues the dollar. April 21—Bankhead Cotton Control Act passed.

January 31—Farm Mortgage Refinancing Act April 27—Home Owner’s Loan Act passed. enacted. May 2—Title I of Emergency Railroad Act February 2—Export-Import Bank established. extended.

February 9—U.S. Army begins carrying air mail. May 9—FDR signs the Jones-Costigan Sugar Act. 280 The FDR Years

May 18—Crime Control Laws enacted; Emer- July 25—FDR becomes the first president to gency Cattle Purchase Program established. visit Hawaii.

May 24—FDR signs the Municipal Bankruptcy August 19—Plebiscite gives Adolf Hitler total Act. power and title of führer.

May 31—U.S. Cuban Treaty repeals Platt August 22—Liberty League announced. Amendment. September 11—Agricultural Adjustment Act June 6—Securities Exchange Act creates five- extended. member Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Joseph Kennedy is named the first September 26—Textile Labor Relations Board chairman. established.

June 07—FDR signs the Corporate Bankruptcy October 16—Federal Tender Board established. Act. November 6—Democrats strengthen their con- June 12—Reciprocal Tariff Act for three-year trol of Congress with an increase of nine House period passed. seats; they control 69 seats in the U.S. Senate and all but seven governorships. This marks the June 18—FDR signs the Indian Reorganization first time in U.S. history that the party in the Act. White House has gained House seats in Congress since a midterm election during the June 19—First National Labor Relations Board Civil War; it will not happen again until 1978. established; Silver Purchase Act passed; Federal Communications Commission (FCC) created. December 5—FDR establishes the Federal Alcohol Administration to regulate the alcohol June 21—FDR signs the Railway Labor Act. industry. It ended after the Supreme Court invalidated the National Recovery Act (NRA) June 26—National Longshoremen’s Board in May 1935. established. December 19—Japan renounces Naval Agree- June 27—National Pension Act for Railroad ments of 1922 and 1930. Employees passed.

June 30—Industrial Emergency Committee, 1935 National Resources Board, Federal Prison Industries established. January 4—FDR delivers the Second State of the Union message to Congress, calling for July 5—National Power Policy Committee national public works projects, unemployment established. and old-age insurance, slum clearance and new housing, and improved use of natural resources. July 10—FDR becomes the first president to visit South America while in office when he January 7—In the first major Supreme Court flies to Colombia. case dealing with the New Deal, Panama Refin- Chronology 281 ing Company v. Ryan, invalidates a section of the June 15—National Labor Relations Board NIRA that gave presidential power to regulate established. petroleum shipments. June 19—FDR sends “wealth tax” proposal to January 16—FDR sends special message to Congress. Congress asking United States adherence to the World Court. June 26—National Youth Administration (NYA) established as part of the Works Progress March 16— Germany renounces clauses of Ver- Administration (WPA), to provide work relief sailles Treaty concerning disarmament. and employment for those between the ages of March 24—FDR signs Philippine Independence 16 and 25. Act. July 5—FDR signs National Labor Relations April 8—Emergency Relief Appropriation Act Act (Wagner Act) which gives labor the right to creates Works Progress Administration (WPA) organize and bargain collectively. It establishes with the largest single appropriation in U.S. a new National Labor Relations Board to history. supervise elections at employee request, certify trade unions, and issue cease and desist orders April 27—Soil Conservation Act passed, placing to employers adjudged unfair. the Soil Conservation Service on a permanent basis in the Department of Agriculture, and July 31—National Labor Relations Board establishing soil conservation districts. extended.

April 30—Resettlement Administration is estab- August 2—Federal Art Project, Federal Music lished to grant loans for the purchase of farms Project, Federal Theater Project, Federal by sharecroppers and tenants; assist in pre- Writers Project established. venting soil erosion, floods; and reforestation. August 9—FDR signs the Motor Carrier Act, May 6— FDR creates Works Progress Adminis- dramatically increasing the scope of the Inter- tration (WPA) by executive order—the most state Commerce Commission (ICC). enduring New Deal symbol. Railroad Retire- ment Board v. Alton overturns the Railroad August 12—A new Electric Home and Farm Retirement Act of 1934. Authority created. May 11—Rural Electrification Administration August 14— (REA) established to finance electricity produc- FDR signs Social Security Act tion and building light and power lines in rural establishing a federal-state system of unem- areas not served by private utility companies. ployment compensation, and an old-age pen- sion plan on the national level. May 27—Schechter Poultry Corporation v. U.S. invalidates the NIRA. August 23—FDR signs Banking Act, one of the most important pieces of banking legislation in June 7—National Resources Committee estab- United States history. lished; “Second Hundred Days” begins now and ends in August. August 24—FDR signs the Potato Control Act. 282 The FDR Years

August 26—Federal Power Commission estab- 1936 lished under Public Utility Holding Act. January 3—FDR delivers his third State of the August 27—Indian Arts and Crafts Board estab- Union message to Congress, challenging New lished. Deal critics to repeal the administration’s pro- grams if they could. August 28—FDR signs the Mortgage Morato- January 6—U.S. v. Butler invalidates the Agri- rium Act; Public Utility Holding Company Act cultural Adjustment Act of 1933 as an invasion gives SEC power to regulate public utilities. of states’ rights.

August 29—Congress passes the Federal Alcohol February 17—Ashwander v. TVA upholds the Administration Act that abolishes the Federal Tennessee Valley Authority. Alcohol Administration, replacing it with the Federal Alcohol Administration until 1940, February 29—Neutrality Act, Soil Conservation when it is transferred to the Internal Revenue and Domestic Allotment Act passed (SCDA). Service. FDR signs the Railroad Retirement Act The SCDA replaced the Agricultural Adjust- of 1935 in response to the Supreme Court inval- ment Act (AAA) by substituting payments to idating the Railroad Retirement Act of 1934. farmers practicing soil conservation.

August 30—FDR signs the Bituminous Coal March 4—FDR pushes button putting Norris Stabilization Act; Wealth Tax Act passed. Dam (TVA) at Norris, Tennessee, into opera- tion. August 31—FDR signs the Neutrality Act of 1935 prohibiting loans to belligerents and March 6—The Works Progress Administration embargoing shipments of munitions to them. (WPA) establishes an independent Federal Dance Program with Don Oscar Becque as its September 8—Senator Huey Long is shot in director. Louisiana, dies two days later. April 3—FDR increases the spending limits October 3—Italian invasion of Ethiopia. imposed on the Emergency Relief Appropria- tion Act of 1935. October 7—U.S. Supreme Court opened its first April 4— term in its new and current location across Labor Non-Partisan League announced. from the Capitol. April 20—Rural Electrification Act passed.

November 16—Historical Records Survey estab- May 1—FDR signs the Alaska Reorganization lished in the Works Progress Administration; Act. Federal Surplus Relief Corporation established. May 16—Carter v. Carter Coal Company invali- December 21—National Recovery Administra- dates the Bituminous Coal Stabilization Act of tion terminated. 1935.

December 30—Eleanor Roosevelt begins her June 1—Morehead v. Tipaldo invalidates New “My Day” newspaper column. York’s minimum-wage law for women. Chronology 283

June 2—Republican National Convention in December 30—The United Auto Workers Cleveland nominates Alf Landon for president (UAW) begin sit-down strike at the General and Frank Knox for vice president. Motors plant in Flint, Michigan.

June 15—FDR signs the Flood Control Act. 1937 June 19—Father Charles Coughlin calls for January 6—FDR delivers fourth State of the Union Party. Union message to Congress, saying a constitu- tional amendment was unnecessary to achieve June 20—FDR signs the Federal Anti-Price the goal of his administration. Discrimination Act. January 8—FDR signs joint congressional res- June 27—Democratic National Convention in olution placing an embargo on shipment of Philadelphia renominates the FDR–John Nance arms and munitions to Spain. Garner ticket. In his acceptance speech, FDR says, “This generation of Americans has a ren- January 12—FDR sends special message to dezvous with destiny.” Congress requesting legislation to reorganize the executive branch as a result of the Louis June 29—Merchant Marine Act provides for Brownlow report that stated “the president Maritime Commission and ship subsidies. needs help.”

June 30—FDR signs the Public Contracts Act. January 20—FDR inaugurated and in his address says, “I see one-third of a nation ill- August 7—The United States announces strict housed, ill-clad, and ill-nourished.” neutrality in the Spanish civil war. February 7—Supreme Court–packing plan (Judi- October 29—Alf Landon charges FDR has plan cial Reform Act) sent to Congress; controversy to “pack” U.S. Supreme Court. continues until July.

November 1—Rome-Berlin Axis formed. March 9—During a Fireside Chat FDR tries to justify the Supreme Court “packing plan.” November 3—FDR reelected in landslide (60.8 percent) over Alf Landon, the worst showing March 12—UAW sit-down strike at General for the Republican Party since 1856. Democrats Motors, Flint, Michigan, plant resolved. win 331 seats in the U.S. House of Representa- tives (89 Republicans), 76 seats in the U.S. Sen- March 29—West Coast Hotel v. Parrish decision ate (16 Republicans). reflects new voting realignment on the Supreme Court upholding New Deal legisla- November 25—Anti-Comintern Pact signed by tion; this is the so-called switch in time saves Germany, Italy, and Japan. the nine case.

December 1—FDR and Secretary of State April 12—NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. Cordell Hull attend Pan-American Conference upholds the Wagner Act. in Buenos Aires, Argentina. FDR is the first sit- ting president to tour Southern Hemisphere. April 26—FDR signs the Bituminous Coal Act. 284 The FDR Years

May 1—FDR signs the Neutrality Act of increase the number of justices on the Supreme 1937, the third Neutrality Act passed by joint Court. resolution. August 28—FDR signs the Water Facilities Act. May 18—Farm Forestry Act. September 1—Farm Security Administration May 24—Conservative justice Willis Van established by secretary of agriculture Henry Devanter announces his retirement; Supreme A. Wallace to supervise the programs of the Court upholds Social Security Act of 1935. Resettlement Administration and the farm ownership program. May 27—Columbia River Basin Anti-Specula- tion Act passed. September 2—FDR signs the Wagner-Steagall Housing Act, creating the U.S. Housing May 28—Neville Chamberlain becomes British Authority. prime minister. September 16—National Emergency Council, June 29—Emergency Relief Appropriation Act, which FDR had created on November 17, Railroad Retirement Act passed. 1933, abolished.

July 7—Outbreak of hostilities between Japan September 25—Benito Mussolini begins three- and China. day visit to Berlin.

July 14—Senate majority leader Joe Robinson October 5—FDR delivers “Quarantine” speech of Arkansas dies. in Chicago challenging isolationism.

July 22—Farm Tenancy Act passed; Senate October 12—Special session of Congress on rejects Court-packing plan in 20-70 vote. business recession.

August 5—National Cancer Institute Act passed November 9—Japanese capture Shanghai. creating a new branch of the National Institute of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. December 13—Nanjing (Nanking) falls to Japanese. August 8—Japanese take Beijing. December 24—Japanese take Hangchow. August 12—FDR nominates Hugo Black to the Supreme Court. December 27—National Emergency Council extended. August 20—Bonneville Power Administration Act passed to deal with the electric power pro- duced by the new Bonneville Dam in Oregon. 1938 August 26—FDR signs the Revenue Act, and the January 6—FDR opposes the Louis Ludlow pro- Judicial Procedures Reform Act. The Judicial posed amendment to require a national vote Procedures Reform Act was a face-saving mea- prior to the declaration of war except in the event sure after Congress rejected the proposal to of an attack on or invasion of the United States. Chronology 285

January 10—U.S. House of Representatives June 23—FDR signs the Civil Aeronautics Act narrowly defeats the Ludlow Amendment by a moving the Bureau of Air Commerce from the 209-188 vote. Commerce Department and renames it the Civil Aeronautics Authority. January 15—After Justice George Sutherland, one of the four most conservative members of June 24—FDR announces his plan to actively the Supreme Court, retires, FDR nominates participate in the Democratic primaries and to Stanley F. Reed, the solicitor general, to replace defeat conservative incumbents. The so-called him. purge fails.

January 28—FDR sends special defense arma- June 25—FDR signs the Fair Labor Standards ments message to Congress. Act setting a mandatory minimum wage and maximum work hours per week; Food, Drug, February 3—FDR signs Housing Act. and Cosmetics Act passed.

February 10—Federal National Mortgage Asso- August 13—U.S. Film Service established. ciation established. September 26—FDR appeals to European lead- February 16— A new Agricultural Adjustment ers to negotiate the Czechoslovakian crisis. Act (AAA) is passed after the first was invali- dated by Supreme Court; Federal Crop Insur- September 27—FDR appeals to Adolf Hitler for ance Act passed. a peaceful resolution. March 13—Hitler declares Austria a province of September 30—Mussolini, Neville Chamberlain, the German Reich. and Édouard Daladier give Sudetenland to Ger- many; Chamberlain proclaims Munich meeting April 16—Anglo-Italian Pact, in which British has achieved “peace in our time.” recognize Italian sovereignty over Ethiopia, is agreed. November 8—In midterm elections, Democrats May 17—FDR signs Naval Expansion Act suffer first electoral setback during FDR admin- authorizing a 10-year construction program. istration, losing 71 seats in the U.S. House, seven in the U.S. Senate, and 13 governorships. May 26—Military officers assume preeminence in Japanese cabinet. November 17—Conclusion of trade agreements among Britain, Canada, and the United States. May 27—Revenue Act enacted without FDR’s support. December 10—FDR announces plans for his eventual presidential library at Hyde Park, June 21—National Gas Act passed; FDR signs New York. the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act allo- cating $3 billion for new jobs. December 24—Declaration of Lima at the Pan- American conference adopted by 21 nations in June 22—FDR signs the Chandler Act to pro- the Americas, affirming solidarity and opposi- tect small investors. tion to foreign intervention. 286 The FDR Years

1939 July 1—Executive Branch Reorganization imple- mented; Federal Loan Agency, Federal Security January 14—Federal Real Estate Board estab- Agency, Federal Works Agency, National lished. Resources Planning Board established. January 30— Supreme Court upholds the TVA. July 6—Monetary Act passed.

February 26—Eleanor Roosevelt resigns from July 18—FDR requests revisions to the Neu- the Daughters of the American Revolution trality Act. after it denies Marian Anderson a booking in Constitutional Hall. August 2—FDR signs the Hatch Act regard- ing the political activity of classified federal March 20—After Justice Louis D. Brandeis employees. retires, FDR nominates William O. Douglas to the Supreme Court. August 4—FDR signs the Reclamation Project Act. April 1—FDR recognizes Franco Spain. August 23—Germany and USSR sign nonag- April 3—FDR signs the Administrative Reorga- gression pact in Moscow. nization Act, which had been stalled due to the Supreme Court–packing plan. It establishes the August 24—FDR appeals to Adolf Hitler and Office of the White House, institutionalizing President Ignaz Moszicki of Poland to resolve the modern presidency. differences through peaceful means.

April 7—Italian invasion of Albania. September 1—Nazi Germany invades Poland; France and Great Britain declare war two days April 9—Opera singer Marian Anderson gives later, and World War II in Europe begins. performance at Lincoln Memorial. September 5—The United States proclaims its April 14—FDR asks Adolf Hitler and Benito neutrality in European war. Mussolini not to attack or invade European and Middle Eastern nations. September 8—Bureau of the Budget estab- April 26—FDR sends special message to Congress lished in the new executive office of the pres- requesting immediate construction of additional ident. FDR issues proclamation of limited national emergency. naval bases in the United States, Alaska, Puerto Rico, and the Pacific. September 11—Title II of the Sugar Act of 1937 May 16—Food Stamp Plan implemented. suspended.

June 7–11—The first-ever visit by the king and September 21—FDR urges repeal of embargo queen of Great Britain to the United States for provisions of Neutrality Act during address to five days. Congress.

June 30—FDR signs the Emergency Relief September 29—Germany and the USSR divide Appropriation Act. Poland between them. Chronology 287

October 21—First meeting of the President’s May 31—FDR sends special message to Advisory Committee on Uranium. Congress requesting an additional appropria- tion for national defense and the authority to November 4—Neutrality Act is modified to call up the National Guard and Reserves. allow belligerent nations to buy U.S. arms on cash-and-carry basis. June 10—FDR issues proclamation of neutral- ity in war between Italy and France and Britain. November 30—Soviet army invades Poland. June 13—Congress passes the Military Supply December 1—FDR condemns Soviet invasion Act. of Finland. June 22—France signs armistice with Nazi Ger- 1940 many; Vichy government created. January 3—FDR delivers the seventh State of June 24—FDR signs the Emergency Relief the Union message to Congress warning Appropriation Act. against foreign entanglements. June 27—FDR declares national emergency. January 4—After the death of Justice Pierce Butler, one of the four most conservative jus- June 28—Congress passes the Alien Registra- tices on the Supreme Court, FDR names attor- tion Act; Republican National Convention in ney general Frank Murphy to replace him. Philadelphia nominates Wendell Willkie of New York for president and Charles McNary February 13—FDR sends special message to of Oregon for vice president. Congress calling for an immediate appropria- tion for strategic war materials. July 5—Vichy government severs relations with Britain. FDR suggests Four Freedoms during a March 30—Japanese set up puppet Chinese gov- press conference. ernment headed by Wang Ching-wei (Wang Jingwei) in Nanking (Nanjing). July 6—FDR meets with National Democratic Committee chairman James Farley and informs April 4—Winston Churchill is given general him of plan to seek third term. direction over British defense program. July 9—U.S. Senate confirms Republican April 9—Nazi forces occupy Denmark and Henry Stimson as secretary of war. invade Norway. July 10—U.S. Senate confirms Republican April 22—Thornhill v. Alabama restricts power Frank Knox, Alf Landon’s running mate in of states to interfere with right of labor to 1936, as secretary of the navy. picket peacefully. May 10—Nazi forces cross into Belgium, Hol- July 18—FDR is nominated for unprecedented land, and Luxembourg; Winston Churchill third term, with Henry Wallace for vice pres- becomes prime minister of Great Britain. ident; Eleanor Roosevelt addresses the con- vention, helping to unite the Democratic May 26—During a Fireside Chat FDR empha- Party after FDR’s advocacy of Henry Wallace sizes the need for a national defense program. on the ticket. 288 The FDR Years

July 19—Second Hatch Act passed; FDR signs December 10—FDR announces further limits the Two-Ocean Navy Expansion Act. on iron and steel exports, which deprive Japan of needed material. July 25—The United States announces it will no longer export oil and scrap metal to nations December 20—FDR names four-member outside Western hemisphere, except Great Defense Board. Britain. December 23—Anthony Eden becomes British August 18—FDR and Prime Minister William foreign secretary; Lord Halifax named British Lyon MacKenzie King of Canada set up joint ambassador to the United States. board of defense. 1941 August 22—Investment Advisers Act passed. January 6—FDR delivers his “Four Freedoms” September 3—FDR announces “destroyers-for- State of the Union address, which defines his bases” deal with Great Britain. concept of America’s role in the world.

September 16—FDR signs the Selective Service January 8—FDR appoints four-member Office Act of 1940, which creates local draft boards. of Production Management.

September 18—FDR signs the Transportation January 20—FDR is inaugurated for his third Act. presidential term.

September 22—Japanese begin occupation of February 3—U.S. v. Darby upholds the Fair Indochina. Labor Standards Act.

September 26—FDR places embargo on export March 11—FDR signs the Lend-Lease Act. of scrap iron and steel, especially aimed at Japan. June 12—After Justice George Sutherland, the September 27—Nazi Germany, Italy, and Japan last of the four most conservative justices sign the Tripartite Pact. retires, FDR names James F. Byrnes to the Supreme Court. Harlan F. Stone replaces October 16—Registration for selective service Charles Evans Hughes as chief justice, and begins. attorney general Robert H. Jackson is nomi- nated to replace Stone’s former position as a jus- October 28—Italy invades Greece. tice. Though FDR lost the so-called Supreme Court–packing plan, he wins the larger battle November 5—FDR defeats Republican Wendell to reconstitute the membership of the Court. Willkie with 54.8 percent of the vote, winning a third term in office. May 27—FDR proclaims unlimited state of national emergency because of crisis in Europe. November 20—Britain and the United States agree to partial standardization of military June 14—FDR freezes all German and Italian weapons and equipment. assets in the United States. Chronology 289

June 16—FDR closes all German and Italian October 16—Hideki Tojo becomes Japan’s new consulates in the United States. prime minister.

June 22—Nazi Germany attacks USSR (Oper- October 28—FDR establishes the Lend-Lease ation Barbarossa); U.S. extends lend-lease Administration. program. November 6—The United States extends $1 June 24—FDR promises aid to the Soviet Union. million lend-lease credit to USSR.

June 25—FDR creates the Committee on Fair November 7—FDR declares the defense of the Employment Practice, mandates the end of Soviet Union vital to the United States. racial discrimination on defense contracts and government employment. November 24—Edwards v. California invalidates California’s so-called Okie Law statute. June 30—FDR dedicates the Franklin D. Roo- sevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York. December 6—FDR sends personal appeal to Emperor Hirohito of Japan for peace. July 7—FDR announces occupation of Iceland on invitation of government. December 7—Japan attacks Pearl Harbor.

July 13—FDR sends Harry L. Hopkins to con- December 8—Congress declares war against fer with Winston Churchill in London. Japan.

July 26—FDR freezes Japanese assets in the December 11—Nazi Germany and Italy declare United States in response to the Japanese occu- war on the United States. FDR sends special pation of Indochina. message to Congress asking that a state of war be recognized between Germany and Italy and August 1—FDR stops exportation of oil and avi- the United States. ation in Western Hemisphere except for Great Britain. December 12—Japanese capture Guam.

August 9–12—FDR and Churchill meet at Pla- December 15—Congress passes appropriation centia Bay, Newfoundland, and agree to Atlantic of over $800 million for defense and lend- Charter. lease.

August 18—FDR signs bill permitting U.S. December 18—FDR appoints commission with Army to keep men in service one month longer. Owen Roberts at its head to investigate Pearl Harbor attack. September 7—Sara Delano Roosevelt, FDR’s mother, dies at age 85. December 22—Churchill arrives in Washington, D.C., for the Arcadia Conference to discuss September 22—Eleanor Roosevelt appointed war strategy with FDR until January 14; com- assistant director of the Office of Civilian bined Chiefs of Staff to coordinate Anglo- Defense (OCD). American war policy. 290 The FDR Years

December 23—Free French take possession of St. February 24—FDR establishes National Hous- Pierre and Miquelon off coast of Newfoundland. ing Agency.

December 25—Hong Kong captured by Japanese. March 8—The United States and Great Britain name General Joseph Stillwell to command an 1942 Allied force in Burma. January 1—FDR signs joint declaration of March 11—FDR orders General Douglas United Nations at the White House pledging MacArthur to leave the Philippines and go to cooperation for victory in the war. Australia to assume command of the Allied forces in the Southwest Pacific. January 2—Manila, Philippines, falls to the Japanese. March 18—FDR issues executive order estab- lishing War Relocation Authority. January 9—FDR delivers his ninth State of the Union message to Congress stating the war was April 4—U.S. War Production Board halts all started by militarists in Berlin and Tokyo. nonessential building.

January 12—FDR establishes National War April 9—Filipino and American troops surren- Labor Board with power to adjudicate labor der to Japanese on Bataan. disputes requiring mediation. April 18—Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle January 16—FDR establishes War Production leads air attack on Tokyo. Board. May 8—The Battle of the Coral Sea takes place; January 24—The Roberts Commission submits the Japanese lose many aircraft. its report on the Pearl Harbor attack. May 14—Women’s Auxiliary Air Corps autho- January 26—First American troops arrive in rized. Great Britain. June 4—The Battle of Midway Island in the January 30—FDR signs Price Control Act to Pacific is turning point for the United States in limit inflation. the Pacific.

February 1—Vidkun Quisling named head of June 9—The United States and Great Britain Nazi puppet government in Norway. pool resources and production.

February 7—FDR approves Lend-Lease aid to June 13—FDR establishes Office of Strategic China, and establishes War Shipping Adminis- Services (OSS). tration. June 18—Churchill confers with FDR at White February 15—Japanese take Singapore. House; disagreement between them on first Allied offensive. February 19—FDR issues Executive Order 9066 authorizing the removal of Japanese Americans June 30—Congress appropriates $42 million for from the West Coast. defense. Chronology 291

July 6—Argentina declares neutrality. 1943

July 16—War Labor Board decrees wage stabi- January 7—FDR delivers his tenth State of the lization plan. Union message to Congress, detailing progress on military and naval production. July 25—FDR and Churchill agree on Ameri- cans to join British Eighth Army in North January 11—After Justice James F. Byrnes Africa by an American landing behind German resigns from the Supreme Court, FDR names lines in the west; Dwight Eisenhower named Wiley B. Rutledge to replace him. It is FDR’s commander in charge. ninth and final appointee to the Court.

July 30—Women Appointed for Voluntary January 14–23—FDR and Churchill meet for 10 Emergency Services (WAVES), the women’s days at Casablanca, Morocco, Conference and branch of the navy, is established. demand unconditional surrender terms for Axis powers. August 7—U.S. Marines land in Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands in the Pacific. January 20—Japanese begin to withdraw from Guadalcanal. November 3—The United States severs relations with Vichy government. January 28—FDR and President Vargas of Brazil meet at Natal, Brazil. November 3—In midterm elections, the Demo- crats lose 55 seats in the U.S. House. February 2—Nazi troops surrender at Stalin- grad. November 7—Operation Torch begins with the landing of American forces in French North March 12—Congress extends lend-lease another Africa led by Dwight Eisenhower; they occupy year. Casablanca and Oran by November 11. April 8—FDR freezes wages and prices to com- November 12—Naval battle in Solomon Islands bat inflation. ends in U.S. victory.

December 1—With U.S. and British approval, May 1—FDR issues executive order to secretary Admiral Jean-Louis-Xavier-François Darlan is of the interior to seize coal mines after a gen- appointed head of state in French North Africa. eral strike begins.

December 2—Enrico Fermi and other scientists May 2—FDR gives fireside chat on mine seizure. at the University of Chicago achieve the first human-made atomic reactor, marking the first May 12—FDR and Churchill meet at White step in developing the atomic bomb. FDR House for the Trident Conference and secretly establishes Petroleum Administration for War. agree on May 1944 as date for invasion of France. December 4—FDR terminates the WPA with war production at full steam. May 27—FDR establishes the Office of War Mobilization to coordinate war effort in the December 24—Admiral Darlan assassinated. United States. 292 The FDR Years

May 28—President Edwin Barclay of Liberia November 9—UN Relief and Rehabilitation becomes the first chief executive of a sub-Sahara Administration established by 44 nations at African nation to address the U.S. Congress. Washington, D.C.

June 9—FDR signs a pay-as-you-go income tax November 22–24—Cairo, Egypt, conference with act with a 20 percent withholding of taxable FDR, Churchill, and Chiang Kai-shek begins; income for wage and salary earners. Allied commitment to invade Burma made.

June 23—FDR calls the action of the United November 28–December 1—FDR, Churchill, and Mine Workers (UMW) “intolerable” after the Josef Stalin meet together for the first time at third interruption of coal production. the Tehran conference and agree on the inva- sion of southern France; Stalin commits Soviet June 25—War Labor Disputes Act passed over troops against Japan after Nazis are defeated. FDR’s veto. The Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act made illegal strikes in plants seized by the December 4—The second Cairo conference is government. held with FDR, Churchill, and President Ismet Inonu of Turkey reaffirming friendship among July 10—British and American invasion of Sicily the United States, Great Britain, Turkey, and begins. the Soviet Union.

July 16—FDR establishes Office of Economic December 27—FDR orders Secretary of War Warfare. Henry Stimson to assume control of railroads until dispute between owners and unions is July 24— Italian Grand Council removes Mus- resolved. solini from power.

August 11—First Quebec conference with FDR 1944 and Churchill begins. January 11—FDR sends the eleventh State of August 25—FDR becomes the first president to the Union message to Congress, his only one visit Ottawa, Ontario, the capital of Canada. not delivered in person. He outlines an “Eco- He arrives from Quebec, where he confers with nomic Bill of Rights,” and asks for a national Churchill. service law.

September 3—Italy surrenders to the Allies. January 18—FDR opens the fourth war loan drive. October 9—Yugoslav guerrilla forces under Marshall Tito open offensive against Axis January 19—Railroads returned to private con- troops in Trieste region. trol after the owners and unions resolve issues.

October 12—Nazis withdraw to north of Naples, January 22—Allied forces land at Anzio, Italy. Italy. January 27—Argentina severs relations with October 13—Italy’s new leader, Marshall Pietro Nazi Germany and Japan after discovery of Badoglio, declares war on Nazi Germany. espionage plot. Chronology 293

March 6—U.S. bombing raids of Berlin begin. September 2—Allies liberate Belgium.

June 4—Rome becomes first occupied Euro- September 4—Morganthau Plan for Germany pean capital to be liberated. completed.

June 6—Allied invasion of Normandy begins September 11–16—Second Quebec Conference (“D-Day”). Operation Overlord, the invasion is held; Churchill and FDR discuss postwar of France, is the largest amphibious military policy toward Germany. operation in history. September 23—FDR delivers the “” speech June 12—FDR opens the fourth war loan drive. at Teamsters Union dinner in Washington, D.C. October 5—FDR calls for the end of poll taxes. June 20—Soviet offensive against Finland begins. October 13—Athens occupied by Allied forces. June 22—FDR signs the G.I. Bill of Rights (Servicemen’s Readjustment Act). November 7—FDR reelected in the closest of his four presidential bids. He defeats Thomas June 28—Republican National Convention E. Dewey. held in Chicago selects New York governor Thomas Dewey for president and U.S. senator November 27—Edward Stettinius succeeds John Bricker of Ohio for vice president. Cordell Hull as secretary of state.

July 11—The United States recognizes French December 16—Battle of the Bulge in southern Committee of National Liberation, headed by Belgium. Charles de Gaulle; FDR announces at news conference he is willing to seek a fourth presi- dential term. 1945 January 6—The largest single beach assault in July 18—General Tojo and his cabinet resign. the Pacific takes place at Lingayen Gulf, July 20—FDR is renominated for president at the Philippines. Democratic National Convention in Chicago. January 20—FDR delivers his fourth inaugural August 7—Dumbarton Oaks conference begins address, a six-minute speech, the first held at in Washington, D.C., with representatives of the White House under the South Portico. the United States, Britain, USSR, and China planning the groundwork for the United February 3—Battle for Manila begins; it takes Nations. The conference will run to October. Allied troops 20 days to capture the city.

August 11—Recapture of Guam by U.S. forces. February 4–11—Yalta Conference in the Crimea with FDR, Churchill, and Stalin. They agree August 12—Florence, Italy, taken by Allies. to occupation zones in postwar Germany, a freely elected Polish government, and a UN August 25—Allied troops liberate Paris. conference in San Francisco. 294 The FDR Years

February 19—Iwo Jima Marine assault begins; March 27—Argentina declares war on Nazi American flag raised atop Mt. Suribachi on Germany and Japan. February 23. April 1—U.S. Marines and Army invade Oki- February 21–March 8—Inter-American Confer- nawa. ence on Problems of War and Peace in Cha- pultepec, Mexico. April 5—Soviets renounce five-year nonaggres- sion pact with Japan. FDR holds his final press February 28—FDR appoints delegates to the conference at the Little White House in Warm UN conference. Springs, Georgia.

March 1—FDR addresses Congress on Yalta April 11—U.S. Ninth Army reaches the Elbe. Conference. April 12—FDR dies in Warm Spring, Georgia. March 23—American forces cross Rhine at Harry S. Truman succeeds to the presidency. Remagen. PRINCIPAL U.S. GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS OF THE FDR YEARS w

SUPREME COURT

Charles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice, Felix Frankfurter, 1939–1962 1930–1941 Robert H. Jackson, 1941–1954 Harlan Fiske Stone, Associate Justice, James C. McReynolds, 1914–1941 1925–1941; Chief Justice, 1941–1946 Frank Murphy, 1940–1949 Hugo L. Black, 1937–1971 Stanley F. Reed, 1938–1957 Louis D. Brandeis, 1916–1939 Owen J. Roberts, 1930–1945 Pierce Butler, 1923–1939 Wiley B. Rutledge, 1943–1949 James F. Byrnes, 1941–1942 George Sutherland, 1922–1938 Benjamin N. Cardozo, 1932–1938 Willis Van Devanter, 1911–1937

EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

Department of Agriculture Department of Justice Secretary of Agriculture Attorney General Henry A. Wallace, 1933–1940 Homer S. Cummings, 1933–1938 Claude R. Wickard, 1940–1941 Frank Murphy, 1939 Clinton Anderson, 1945–1948 Robert H. Jackson, 1940 Francis Biddle, 1941–1945 Department of Commerce Secretary of Commerce Department of Labor Daniel C. Roper, 1933–1938 Secretary of Labor Harry L. Hopkins, 1938–1940 Frances Perkins, 1933–1945 Jesse H. Jones, 1941–1945 Henry A. Wallace, 1945–1946 Department of State Department of the Interior Secretary of State Secretary of the Interior Cordell Hull, 1933–1944 Harold L. Ickes, 1933–1946 Edward R. Stettinius, 1944–1945 295 296 The FDR Years

Department of the Treasury Secretary of the Navy Secretary of the Treasury Claude Swanson, 1933–1939 William A. Woodin, 1933 Charles Edison, 1939–1940 Henry Morgenthau, Jr., 1934–1945 Frank Knox, 1940–1944 James Forrestal, 1944–1947 Department of War Secretary of War Bureau of the Budget George H. Dun, 1933–1936 Daniel W. Bell, Acting Director, Harry Woodring, 1936–1940 1933–1938 Henry L. Stimson, 1940–1945 Harold D. Smith, Director, 1939–1946

REGULATORY COMMISSIONS AND INDEPENDENT AGENCIES

Federal Reserve Board Securities and Exchange Commission Marriner S. Eccles, Chair, 1934–1948 Joseph P. Kennedy, Chair, 1934 Eugene R. Black, Governor, 1933 James M. Landis, Chair, 1935–1936 Charles S. Hamlin, 1933–1935 William O. Douglas, Chair, 1937–1938 George R. James, 1933–1935 Jerome N. Frank, Chair, 1939–1940 Adolph Miller, 1933–1934 Edward C. Eicher Chair, 1941–1942 M. S. Szymczak, 1933–1941 Ganson Purcell, 1941–1946 J. J. Thomas, 1933–1945 Joseph A. Broderick, 1936 Chester C. Davis, 1936–1940

OTHER AGENCIES

Agricultural Adjustment Administration Nicholas Kelley, 1934 George N. Peek, Administrator, 1933 Leo Wolman, 1934 Chester C. Davis, Administrator, 1934–1935 Board of Economic Warfare Howard R. Tolley, Administrator, Henry A. Wallace, Chair, 1942–1944 1936–1938 Rudolph M. Evans, Administrator, Bureau of Indian Affairs 1938–1941 John Collier, Commissioner, 1933–1944

Automobile Labor Board Civil Aeronautics Authority Richard Byrd, 1934 Edward J. Noble, Chair, 1938–1939 Principal U.S. Government Officials of the FDR Years 297

Robert H. Hinckley, Chair, 1939–1940 Farm Credit Administration J. Welch Pogue, Chair, 1944 Henry Morgenthau, Jr., Governor, 1933 Donald H. Connolly, Administrator of William I. Myers, Governor, 1934–1937 Civil Aeronautics, 1940–1942 F. F. Hill, Governor, 1938–1939 Harllee Branch, Chair, Civil Aeronautics Albert G. Black, Governor, 1940–1941 Board Farm Security Administration Civilian Conservation Corps Will W. Alexander, Administrator, Robert Fechner, Director, 1933–1939 1937–1939 J. J. McEntee, Director, 1940–1941 C. B. Baldwin, Administrator, 1940–1941

Civil Works Administration Federal Alcohol Administration Harry L. Hopkins, Administrator,1933–1934 Franklin Chase Hoyt, Administrator, 1935 Wilford S. Alexander, Administrator, Commodity Credit Corporation 1936–1940 Lynn P. Talley, President, 1933–1938 Carl B. Robbins, President, 1939–1940 Federal Art Project J. B. Hutson, President, 1941 Holger Cahill, Director, 1935–1941

Comptroller of the Currency Federal Bureau of Investigation J. F. T. O’Connor, 1933–1937 J. Edgar Hoover, Director, 1933–1972 Preston Delano, 1938–1941 Federal Communications Commission Cotton Textile Board Eugene O. Sykes, Chair, 1934; Member, John G. Winant, Chair, 1934 1935–1938 Marion Smith, 1934 Anning S. Prall, Chair, 1935–1936 Raymond V. Ingersoll, 1934 Frank R. McNinck, Chair, 1937–1938 James Lawrence Fly, Chair, 1939–1944 Cotton Textile National Industrial Relations Thad H. Brown, 1934–1939 Board Norman S. Case, 1934–1941 Robert W. Bruere, Chair, 1933–1934 Hampson Gary, 1934 George L. Berry, 1933–1934 George Henry Payne, 1934–1941 B. E. Green, 1933–1934 Irvin Stewart, 1934–1936 C. M. Fox, 1934 Paul A. Walker, 1934–1941 Arthur Dixon, 1934 T. A. M. Craven, 1936–1941 Frederick I. Thompson, 1939–1940 Electric Home and Farm Authority R. C. Wakefield, 1941 Emil Schram, President, 1936–1940 Paul Potter, 1945 A. T. Hobson, President, 1941 Federal Crop Insurance Corporation Export-Import Bank of Washington Leroy K. Smith, Manager, 1938–1941 George N. Peek, President, 1935 Warren Lee Pierson, President, 1936–1941 Federal Dance Project Leo Crowley, Chair, 1944–1945 Don Becque, Supervisor, 1935–1936 298 The FDR Years

Lincoln Kirstein, Supervisor, 1937, George O. Smith, 1933 resigned after one day Clyde L. Seavey, 1934–1939; Chair, Stephen Karnot, Administrative Assistant, 1937–1939 1937–1938 John W. Scott, 1937–1941 Evelyn David, Coordinator of Dance Leland Olds, 1939–1941, Chair, Activities, 1938–1939 1940–1942, 1945 Leon M. Fuquay, 1939–1941 Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Walter J. Cummings, Chair, 1933 Federal Prison Industries, Inc. Leo T. Crowley, Chair, 1934–1941 Sanford Bates, President, 1935–1941

Federal Emergency Relief Administration Federal Real Estate Board Harry L. Hopkins, Administrator, D. H. Sawyer, Chair, 1939–1941 1933–1938 John K. McKee, 1936–1941 Ronald Ransom, 1936–1941 Federal Farm Mortgage Corporation Ernest G. Draper, 1938–1941 William I. Myers, President, 1934–1937 F. F. Hill, President, 1938 Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation A. T. Esgate, Executive Vice President, Nugent Fallon, General Manager, 1939 1934–1940 J. H. Guill, Vice President, 1940–1941 Oscar R. Kreutz, General Manager, 1941

Federal Housing Administration Federal Security Agency James Moffett, Administrator, 1934 Paul V. McNutt, Administrator, 1939–1942 Stewart McDonald, Administrator, Watson R. Miller, Administrator, 1945 1935–1940 Abner H. Ferguson, Administrator, Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation 1941–1944 Chester C. Davis, President, 1935 Raymond Foley, Commissioner, 1945 Francis R. Wilcox, President, 1936 Jesse W. Tapp, President, 1937–1938 Federal Loan Agency Milo Perkins, President, 1939; Jesse H. Jones, 1939–1942 Administrator, 1940–1941

Federal Music Project Federal Surplus Relief Corporation Nikolai Sokoloff, Director, 1935–1939 Harry L. Hopkins, 1934

Federal National Mortgage Association Federal Theatre Project Sam H. Husbands, President, 1938–1944 Hallie V. Flanagan, Director, 1935–1939

Federal Power Commission Federal Trade Commission Frank R. McNinch, Chair, 1933–1936 Charles H. March, 1934–1940; Chair, Herbert H. Drane, 1933–1936 1933, 1936, 1941 Claude L. Draper, 1933–1941 Garland S. Ferguson, 1933–1941; Chair, Basil Manly, 1933–1941; Acting Chair, 1944 1934, 1938 Principal U.S. Government Officials of the FDR Years 299

Ewin L. Davis, 1933–1941; Chair, 1935, Interstate Commerce Commission 1940 Patrick J. Farrell, 1933–1934; Chair, 1933 William A. Ayres, 1934–1941; Chair, 1937 William E. Lee, 1933–1941; Chair, 1934 Robert E. Freer, 1935–1941; Chair, 1939, Hugh M. Tate, 1933–1936; Chair, 1935 1944, 1945 Charles D. Mahaffie, 1933–1936; Chair, William E. Humphrey, 1933 1936 Otis Johnson, 1933–1940 Carroll Miller, 1933–1941; Chair, 1937 Raymond Stevens, 1933 Walter M. Splawn, 1934–1941; Chair, 1938 Joseph B. Eastman, 1933–1941; Chair, Federal Works Agency 1939–1941 John M. Carmody, Administrator, William J. Patterson, 1939–1944; Chair, 1939–1941 1944 Philip B. Fleming, Chair, 1942–1945 Ezra Brainerd, Jr., 1933 Balthassal Meyer, 1933–1938 Federal Writers Project Clyde B. Atchison, 1933–1941 Henry G. Alsberg, Director, 1935–1939 Frank McManamy, 1933–1938 Claude Porter, 1933–1941 First Export-Import Bank Marion Caskie, 1935–1938 George N. Peek, President, 1934–1935 John Rogers, 1937–1941 J. Haden Alldridge, 1939–1941 First National Labor Relations Board J. Monroe Johnson, 1940–1941 Lloyd Garrison, Chair, 1934 Francis Biddle, Chair, 1935 Maritime Labor Board Harry A. Mills, 1934 Robert W. Bruere, Chair, 1938–1942 Edwin S. Smith, 1934 Louis Block, 1938–1941 Claude E. Seehorn, 1938–1941 Historical Records Survey Luther H. Evans, National Director, National Bituminous Coal Commission 1935–1939 John M. Paris, Chair, 1935 Sargent P. Childs, National Director, C. F. Hosford, Jr., Chair, 1935–1936 1940–1941 National Bituminous Coal Labor Board Home Owners Loan Corporation Judge J. D. Acuff, 1933–1935 William F. Stevenson, Chair, 1933 John M. Carmody, 1933–1935 John H. Fahey, Chair, 1934–1938 T. S. Hogan, 1933–1935 Charles A. Jones, General Manager, M. S. Johnson, 1933–1935 1939–1941 John A. Lapp, 1933–1935 Charles F. Cotter, General Manager, 1942 National Defense Advisory Commission Indian Arts and Crafts Board Edward R. Stettinius, 1940 Louis C. West, General Manager, 1936–1937 National Emergency Council Rene d’Harnoncourt, General Manager, Donald Richberg, Executive Director, 1937–1941 1934 300 The FDR Years

Frank C. Walker, Executive Director, 1935 National Steel Labor Relations Board Eugene S. Leggett, Acting Executive Judge Walter Stacy, Chair, 1934–1935 Director, 1936–1937 Dr. James Mullenback, 1934–1935 Lowell Mellett, Executive Director, Rear Admiral Henry Wiley, 1934–1935 1938–1939 National Youth Administration National Institute of Health Aubrey Williams, Executive Director, George W. McCoy, 1933–1937 1935–1941 Lewis R. Thompson, 1938–1941 Office of Civilian Defense National Labor Board Fiorello H. LaGuardia, Director, Senator Robert Wagner, Chair, 1933–1934 1942–1944 Henry S. Dennison, 1933–1934 Eleanor Roosevelt, Assistant Director, Ernst Draper, 1933–1934 1942–1944 Pierre S. du Pont, 1933–1934 William N. Haskell, Director, 1944–1945 William Green, 1933–1934 Dr. Francis J. Hass, 1933–1934 Office of Economic Stabilization Louis E. Kirstein, 1933–1934 James F. Byrnes, Director, 1943 John L. Lewis, 1933–1934 Fred M. Vinson, Director, 1944 Leon C. Marshall, 1933–1934 William H. Davis, Director, 1945 Walter C. Teagle, 1933–1934 S. Clay Williams, 1933–1934 Office of Price Administration Leo Wolman, 1933–1934 Leon Henderson, Administrator, 1941–1942 Prentiss H. Brown, Administrator, 1943 National Longshoremen’s Labor Board Chester Bowles, Administrator, Archbishop Edward J. Hanna, 1934–1935 1944–1945 Edward F. McGrady, 1934–1935 D. K. Cushing, 1934–1935 Office of Production Management William Knudsen, 1941 National Planning Board Sidney Hillman, 1941 Frederic A. Delano, Chair, 1933–1943 Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion National Recovery Administration James F. Byrnes, Director, 1944–1945 Hugh S. Johnson, Administrator, 1933 Clay Williams, Administrator, 1934 Petroleum Labor Policy Board Laurence J. Martin, Acting Administrator, Nathan R. Margold, Chair, 1933–1934 1935 Seth W. Candee, 1933–1934 H. C. Fleming, 1933–1934 National Resources Board Charles C. Jones, 1933–1934 Harold L. Ickes, Chair, 1934 R. H. Ivory, 1933–1934 Frederic A. Delano, Chair, 1935–1938 Dr. George W. Stocking, 1933–1934 R. R. Zimmerman, 1933–1934 National Resources Planning Board Dr. John A. Lapp, 1935–1936 Frederic A. Delano, Chair, 1939–1941 James P. Pope, 1939–1940 Principal U.S. Government Officials of the FDR Years 301

Public Works Administration Vincent M. Miles, 1935–1936 Harold L. Ickes, Administrator, 1933–1939 George E. Bigge, 1937–1941 Colonel E. W. Clark, Commissioner of Mary Dewson, 1937–1938 Public Works, 1939–1940 Ellen S. Woodward, 1939–1941 Maurice Gilmore, Commissioner of Public Works, 1941–1942 Tennessee Valley Authority Arthur E. Morgan, Chair, 1934–1937 Reconstruction Finance Corporation Harcourt A. Morgan, 1934–1941; Chair, Jesse H. Jones, Chair, 1933–1938 1938–1941 Emil Schram, Chair, 1939–1940 David Lilienthal, Chair, 1934–1941, 1945 Charles B. Henderson, Chair, 1941–1944 James P. Pope, 1939–1941

Resettlement Administration Textile Labor Relations Board Rexford G. Tugwell, Administrator, Judge Walker P. Stacy, Chair, 1934–1935 1935–1936 James Mullenback, 1934 Admiral Henry Wiley, 1934–1935 Rural Electrification Administration Frank P. Douglas, 1935 Morris L. Cooke, Administrator, 1935–1936 United States Employment Service John M. Carmody, Administrator, W. Frank Persons, Director, 1933–1939 1937–1938 Harry Slattery, Administrator, 1939–1941 United States Film Service Pare Lorentz, 1938–1940 Second Export-Import Bank George N. Peek, President, 1934–1935 United States Housing Authority Nathan Straus, Administrator, 1937–1942 Second National Bituminous Coal Commission C. F. Hosgood, Chair, 1937 United States Maritime Commission Percy Tetlow, Chair, 1938 Rear Admiral Henry A. Wiley, Chair, 1936 Howard A. Gray, Director, 1939–1941 Joseph P. Kennedy, Chair, 1937 Rear Admiral Emory S. Land, Chair, Second National Labor Relations Board 1938–1945 Joseph Warren Madden, Chair, 1935–1939 War Production Board Harry A. Mills, Chair, 1941 Donald M. Nelson, Chair, 1942–1944 John M. Carmody, 1935 Julius A. Krug, Chair, 1944–1945 Edwin S. Smith, 1935–1941 J. A. Keco, Chair, 1945 Donald W. Smith, 1936–1939 William Leiserson, 1939–1941 War Resources Board Edward R. Stettinius, Chair, 1939 Social Security Board Walter S. Gifford, 1939 John G. Winant, Chair, 1935–1936 John Pratt, 1939 Arthur J. Altmeyer, 1935–1941, Chair, Robert E. Wood, 1939 1937–1944 Karl Compton, 1939 302 The FDR Years

Works Progress Administration Howard Hunter, Commissioner of Work Harry L. Hopkins, Administrator, Projects, 1940–1941 1935–1938 Emory Land, Chair, 1945 Colonel F. C. Harrington, Commissioner of Work Projects, 1939

UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

73rd Congress (1933–1935) Minority Leader Speaker of the House Bertrand H. Snell (R-New York) Henry T. Rainey (D-Illinois) Majority Whip Majority Leader Patrick J. Boland (D-Pennsylvania) Joseph H. Brynes (D-Tennessee) Minority Whip Minority Leader Harry L. Englebright (R-California) Bertrand H. Snell (R-New York) Majority Whip 76th Congress (1939–1941) Arthur H. Greenwood (D-Indiana) Speaker of the House William B. Bankhead (D-Alabama) Minority Whip Sam Rayburn (D-Texas) Harry L. Englebright (R-California) Majority Leader 74th Congress (1935–1937) Sam Rayburn (D-Texas) Speaker of the House John W. McCormack (D-Massachusetts) Joseph W. Byrns (D-Tennessee) Minority Leader William B. Bankhead (D-Alabama) Joseph W. Martin (R-Massachusetts) Majority Leader Majority Whip William B. Bankhead (D-Alabama) Patrick J. Boland (D-Pennsylvania) Minority Leader Minority Whip Bertrand H. Snell (R-New York) Harry L. Englebright (R-California) Majority Whip Patrick J. Boland (D-Pennsylvania) 77th Congress (1941–1943) Speaker of the House Minority Whip Sam Rayburn (D-Texas) Harry L. Englebright (R-California) Majority Leader 75th Congress (1937–1939) John W. McCormack (D-Massachusetts) Speaker of the House Minority Leader William B. Bankhead (D-Alabama) Joseph W. Martin (R-Massachusetts) Majority Leader Majority Whip Sam Rayburn (D-Texas) Robert Ramspeck (D-Georgia) Principal U.S. Government Officials of the FDR Years 303

Minority Whip Majority Leader Leslie C. Arends (R-Illinois) John W. McCormack (D-Massachusetts) Minority Leader 78th Congress (1943–1945) Joseph W. Martin, Jr. (R-Massachusetts) Speaker of the House Majority Whip Sam Rayburn (D-Texas) Robert Ramspeck (D-Georgia)

UNITED STATES SENATE

73rd Senate (1933–1935) 75th Senate (1937–1939) President President John Nance Garner (D-Texas) Henry A. Wallace (D-Iowa) President Pro Tempore President Pro Tempore Key Pittman (D-Nevada) Key Pittman (D-Nevada) Majority Leader Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson (D-Arkansas) Joseph T. Robinson (D-Arkansas) Minority Leader Alben W. Barkley (D-Kentucky) Charles L. McNary (R-Oregon) Minority Leader Majority Whip Charles L. McNary (R-Oregon) J. Hamilton Lewis (D-Illinois) Majority Whip Minority Whip J. Hamilton Lewis (D-Illinois) Felix Hebert (R-Rhode Island) Minority Whip None 74th Senate (1935–1937) President 76th Senate (1939–1941) John Nance Garner (D-Texas) President President Pro Tempore Henry A. Wallace (D-Iowa) Key Pittman (D-Nevada) President Pro Tempore Majority Leader Key Pittman (D-Nevada) Joseph T. Robinson (D-Arkansas) William King (D-Utah) Minority Leader Majority Leader Charles L. McNary (R-Oregon) Alben W. Barkley (D-Kentucky) Majority Whip Minority Leader J. Hamilton Lewis (D-Illinois) Charles L. McNary (R-Oregon) Minority Whip Majority Whip None Sherman Minton (D-Indiana) 304 The FDR Years

77th Senate (1941–1943) President Pro Tempore President Carter Glass (D-Virginia) Harry S. Truman (D-Missouri) Majority Leader President Pro Tempore Alben W. Barkley (D-Kentucky) Pat Harrison (D-Mississippi) Minority Leader Majority Leader *Wallace H. White, Jr. (R-Maine) Alben W. Barkley (D-Kentucky) Majority Whip Minority Leader (Joseph) Lister Hill (D-Alabama) Charles L. McNary (R-Oregon) Minority Whip Majority Whip Kenneth S. Wherry (R-Nebraska) Lister Hill (D-Alabama) *During Charles L. McNary’s illness, White served as acting leader and was elected Republican leader in Minority Whip January 4, 1945. Kenneth Wherry (R-Nebraska)

78th Senate (1943–1944) President Harry S. Truman (D-Missouri) SELECTED PRIMARY DOCUMENTS w

1.“The Forgotten Man”—Radio Address, New York, April 7, 1932

2.“Bold, Persistent Experimentation”—Address at Oglethorpe University, May 22, 1932

3.Roosevelt’s Address to the Democratic National Convention Accepting the Nomination, Chicago, Illinois, July 2, 1932

4.“Progressive Government Speech”—Address at the San Francisco Commonwealth Club, September 23, 1932

5.Speech on the Federal Budget, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, October 19, 1932

6.First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1933

7.First Fireside Chat—On the Bank Crisis, March 12, 1933

8.Fifth Fireside Chat—“On Economic Progress,” June 28, 1934

9.Sixth Fireside Chat—On Moving Forward to Greater Freedom and Security, September 30, 1934

10.Speech to the Democratic National Convention, June 27, 1936

11.“I Hate War” Speech, Chautauqua, New York, August 14, 1936

12.“We Have Only Just Begun to Fight”—Campaign Address at Madison Square Garden, New York City, October 31, 1936

13.Second Inaugural Address, January 20, 1937

14. Democratic Victory Dinner Address, Washington, D.C., March 4, 1937

15.Ninth Fireside Chat—On Reorganization of the Judiciary, March 9, 1937

16.“Quarantine” Speech, Chicago, Illinois, October 5, 1937

305 306 The FDR Years

17.Thirteenth Fireside Chat—On Party Primaries (“Purge” Chat), June 24, 1938

18.Fourteenth Fireside Chat—On the European War, September 3, 1939

19.The “Dagger Speech”—Address at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, June 10, 1940

20.Campaign Address at Madison Square Garden, New York City, October 28, 1940

21.Campaign Speech, Boston, Massachusetts, October 30, 1940

22.FDR on Lend-Lease—Press Conference, December 17, 1940

23.Sixteenth Fireside Chat—On National Security (“Great Arsenal” Chat), December 29, 1940

24.The “Four Freedoms”—FDR’s Annual Address to Congress, January 6, 1941

25.Third Inaugural Address, January 20, 1941

26.Eighteenth Fireside Chat—On Maintaining Freedom of the Seas, September 11, 1941

27.Message to Congress on the Japanese Attack at Pearl Harbor, December 8, 1941

28.The “Fala Speech”—Campaign Address at the Teamsters’ Union Dinner, September 23, 1944

29.Address to the Foreign Policy Association Dinner, New York City, October 21, 1944

30.Fourth Inaugural Address, January 20, 1945 Selected Primary Documents 307

1. “The Forgotten Man”—Radio gotten man at the bottom of the economic Address, Albany, New York, April 7, 1932 pyramid...... A real economic cure must go to the FDR delivered his “Forgotten Man” address on the killing of the bacteria in the system rather than radio from Albany, New York, during his campaign to the treatment of external symptoms.... to receive the 1932 presidential nomination by the Such objectives as these three, restoring Democrats. He identifies with the victims of the farmers’ buying power, relief to the small banks Great Depression. The speech was largely written by and homeowners and a reconstructed tariff pol- Raymond Moley. icy, are only a part of ten or a dozen vital fac- Although I understand that I am talking under tors. But they seem to be beyond the concern the auspices of the Democratic National Com- of a national administration which can think in mittee, I do not want to limit myself to poli- terms only of the top of the social and eco- tics. I do not want to feel that I am addressing nomic structure. It has sought temporary relief an audience of Democrats or that I speak from the top down rather than permanent merely as a Democrat myself. The present con- relief from the bottom up. It has totally failed dition of our national affairs is too serious to to plan ahead in a comprehensive way. It has be viewed through partisan eyes for partisan waited until something has cracked and then at purposes. the last moment has sought to prevent total ... The generalship of that moment [World collapse. War I] conceived of a whole Nation mobilized It is high time to get back to fundamentals. for war, economic, industrial, social and mili- It is high time to admit with courage that we tary resources gathered into a vast unit capable are in the midst of an emergency at least equal of and actually in the process of throwing into to that of war. Let us mobilize to meet it. the scales ten million men equipped with phys- ical needs and sustained by the realization that Source: Samuel I. Rosenman, ed., The Public behind them were the united efforts of Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt (1939; 110,000,000 human beings. It was a great plan reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, 1969, 1: 624–627. because it was built from bottom to top and not from top to bottom. In my calm judgment, the Nation faces today a more grave emergency than in 1917. 2. “Bold, Persistent Experimentation”— It is said that Napoleon lost the battle of Address at Oglethorpe University, Waterloo because he forgot his infantry—he May 22, 1932 staked too much on the more spectacular but This speech, written by Ernest Lindley, was deliv- less substantial cavalry. The present adminis- ered at Oglethorpe University in Atlanta, Geor- tration in Washington provides a close parallel. gia. FDR attacked Herbert Hoover and promised It has either forgotten or it does not want to to redistribute income without saying how he would remember the infantry of our economic army. do it. These unhappy times call for the building of plans that rest upon the forgotten, the unorga- President Jacobs, members and friends of nized but the indispensable units of economic Oglethorpe University and especially you, my power, for plans like those of 1917 that build fellow members of the Class of 1932: from the bottom up and not from the top For me, as for you, this is a day of honorable down, that put their faith once more in the for- attainment. For the honor conferred upon me I 308 The FDR Years am deeply grateful, and I felicitate you on yours, should all be better off. But with it have van- even though I cannot share with you that ished, not only the easy gains of speculation, greater satisfaction which comes from a laurel but much of the savings of thrifty and prudent worked for and won. For many of you, doubt- men and women, put by for their old age and less, this mark of distinction which you have for the education of their children. With these received today has meant greater sacrifice by savings has gone, among millions of our fellow your parents or by yourselves, than you antici- citizens, that sense of security to which they pated when you matriculated almost four years have rightly felt they are entitled in a land ago. The year 1928 does not seem far in the abundantly endowed with natural resources past, but since that time, as all of us are aware, and with productive facilities to convert them the world about us has experienced significant into the necessities of life for all of our popula- changes. Four years ago, if you heard and tion. More calamitous still, there has vanished, believed the tidings of the time, you could with the expectation of future security the cer- expect to take your place in a society well sup- tainty of today’s bread and clothing and shelter. plied with material things and could look for- Some of you—I hope not many—are won- ward to the not too distant time when you dering today how and where you will be able to would be living in your own homes, each (if you earn your living a few weeks or a few months believed the politicians) with a two-car garage; hence. Much has been written about the hope and, without great effort, would be providing of youth. I prefer to emphasize another quality. yourselves and your families with all the neces- I hope that you who have spent four years in an sities and amenities of life, and perhaps in addi- institution whose fundamental purpose, I take tion, assure by your savings their security and it, is to train us to pursue truths relentlessly and your own in the future. Indeed, if you were to look at them courageously, will face the observant, you would have seen that many of unfortunate state of the world about you with your elders had discovered a still easier road to greater clarity of vision than many of your material success. They had found that once they elders. had accumulated a few dollars they needed only As you view this world of which you are to put them in the proper place and then sit about to become a more active part, I have no back and read in comfort the hieroglyphics doubt that you have been impressed by its called stock quotations which proclaimed that chaos, its lack of plan. Perhaps some of you have their wealth was mounting miraculously with- used stronger language. And stronger language out any work or effort on their part. Many who is justified. Even had you been graduating, were called and who are still pleased to call instead of matriculating, in these rose-colored themselves the leaders of finance celebrated and days of 1928, you would, I believe, have per- assured us of an eternal future for this easy- ceived this condition. For beneath all the happy chair mode of living. And to the stimulation of optimism of those days there existed lack of belief in this dazzling chimera were lent not plan and great waste. only the voices of some of our public men in This failure to measure true values and to high office, but their influence and the material look ahead extended to almost every industry, aid of the very instruments of Government every profession, every walk of life. Take, for which they controlled. example, the vocation of higher education How sadly different is the picture which we itself. see around us today! If only the mirage had If you had been intending to enter the pro- vanished, we should not complain, for we fession of teaching, you would have found that Selected Primary Documents 309 the universities, the colleges, the normal resources. Much of this waste is the inevitable schools of our country were turning out annu- by-product of progress in a society which val- ally far more trained teachers than the schools ues individual endeavor and which is suscepti- of the country could possibly use or absorb. ble to the changing tastes and customs of the You and I know that the number of teachers people of which it is composed. But much of needed in the Nation is a relatively stable fig- it, I believe, could have been prevented by ure, little affected by the depression and capa- greater foresight and by a larger measure of ble of fairly accurate estimate in advance with social planning. Such controlling and directive due consideration for our increase in popula- forces as have been developed in recent years tion. And yet, we have continued to add teach- reside to a dangerous degree in groups having ing courses, to accept every young man or special interests in our economic order, inter- young woman in those courses without any ests which do not coincide with the interests of thought or regard for the law of supply and the Nation as a whole. I believe that the recent demand. In the State of New York alone, for course of our history has demonstrated that, example, there are at least seven thousand qual- while we may utilize their expert knowledge of ified teachers who are out of work, unable to certain problems and the special facilities with earn a livelihood in their chosen profession just which they are familiar, we cannot allow our because nobody had the wit or the forethought economic life to be controlled by that small to tell them in their younger days that the pro- group of men whose chief outlook upon the fession of teaching was gravely oversupplied. social welfare is tinctured by the fact that they Take, again, the profession of the law. Our can make huge profits from the lending of common sense tells us that we have too many money and the marketing of securities—an lawyers and that thousands of them, thor- outlook which deserves the adjectives “selfish” oughly trained are either eking out a bare exis- and “opportunist.” tence or being compelled to work with their You have been struck, I know, by the tragic hands, or are turning to some other business in irony of our economic situation today. We have order to keep themselves from becoming not been brought to our present state by any objects of charity. The universities, the bar, the natural calamity—by drought or floods or courts themselves have done little to bring this earthquakes or by the destruction of our pro- situation to the knowledge of young men who ductive machine or our man power. Indeed, we are considering entering any one of our multi- have a superabundance of raw materials, a tude of law schools. Here again foresight and more than ample supply of equipment for man- planning have been notable for their complete ufacturing these materials into the goods which absence. we need, and transportation and commercial In the same way we cannot review carefully facilities for making them available to all who the history of our industrial advance without need them. But raw materials stand unused, being struck with its haphazardness, the gigan- factories stand idle, railroad traffic continues to tic waste with which it has been accomplished, dwindle, merchants sell less and less, while mil- the superfluous duplication of productive facil- lions of able-bodied men and women, in dire ities, the continual scrapping of still useful need, are clamoring for the opportunity to equipment, the tremendous mortality in indus- work. This the awful paradox with which we trial and commercial undertakings, the thou- are confronted, a stinging rebuke that chal- sands of dead-end trails into which enterprise lenges our power to operate the economic has been lured, the profligate waste of natural machine which we have created. 310 The FDR Years

We are presented with a multitude of views down, obligations assumed at a higher price as to how we may again set into motion that level. economic machine. Some hold to the theory Possibly because of the urgency and com- that the periodic slowing down of our eco- plexity of this phase of our problem some of nomic machine is one of its inherent peculiar- our economic thinkers have been occupied ities—a peculiarity which we must grin, if we with it to the exclusion of other phases of as can, and bear because if we attempt to tamper great importance. with it we shall cause even worse ailments. Of these other phases, that which seems According to this theory, as I see it, if we grin most important to me in the long run is the and bear long enough, the economic machine problem of controlling by adequate planning will eventually begin to pick up speed and in the creation and distribution of those products the course of an indefinite number of years will which our vast economic machine is capable of again attain that maximum number of revolu- yielding. It is true that capital, whether public tions which signifies what we have been wont or private, is needed in the creation of new to miscall prosperity, but which, alas, is but a enterprise and that such capital gives employ- last ostentatious twirl of the economic machine ment. before it again succumbs to that mysterious But think carefully of the vast sums of capi- impulse to slow down again. This attitude tal or credit which in the past decade have been toward our economic machine requires not devoted to unjustified enterprises—to the only greater stoicism, but greater faith in development of unessentials and to the multi- immutable economic law and less faith in the plying of many products far beyond the capac- ability of man to control what he has created ity of the Nation to absorb. It is the same story than I, for one, have. Whatever elements of as the thoughtless turning out too many school truth lie in it, it is an invitation to sit back and teachers and too many lawyers. do nothing; and all of us are suffering today, I Here again, the field of industry and busi- believe, because this comfortable theory was ness many of those whose primary solicitude is too thoroughly implanted in the minds of some confined to the welfare of what they call capi- of our leaders, both in finance and in public tal have failed to read the lessons of the past affairs. few years and have been moved less by calm Other students of economics trace our pre- analysis of the needs of the Nation as a whole sent difficulties to the ravages of the World than by a blind determination to preserve their War and its bequest of unsolved political and own special stakes in the economic order. I do economic and financial problems. Still others not mean to intimate that we have come to the trace our difficulties to defects in the world’s end of this period of expansion. We shall con- monetary systems. Whether it be an original tinue to need capital for the production of cause, an accentuating cause, or an effect, the newly invented devices, for the replacement of drastic change in the value of our monetary equipment worn out or rendered obsolete by unit in terms of the commodities is a problem our technical progress; we need better housing which we must meet straightforwardly. It is in many of our cities and we still need in many self-evident that we must either restore com- parts of the country more good roads, canals, modities to a level approximating their dollar parks and other improvements. value of several years ago or else that we must But it seems to me probable that our physi- continue the destructive process of reducing, cal economic plant will not expand in the future through defaults or through deliberate writing at the same rate at which it has expanded in the Selected Primary Documents 311 past. We may build more factories, but the fact thrill or the prospect of being a millionaire only remains that we have enough now to supply all to find the next moment that his fortune, actual of our domestic needs, and more, if they are or expected, has withered in his hand because used. With these factories we can now make the economic machine has again broken down. more shoes, more textiles, more steel, more It is toward that objective that we must radios, more automobiles, more of almost move if we are to profit by our recent experi- everything than we can use. ences. Probably few will disagree that the goal No, our basic trouble was not an insuffi- is desirable. Yet many, of faint heart, fearful of ciency of capital. It was an insufficient distri- change, sitting tightly on the roof-tops in the bution of buying power coupled with an flood, will sternly resist striking out for it, lest oversufficient speculation in production. While they fail to attain it. Even among those who are wages rose in many of our industries, they did ready to attempt the journey there will be vio- not as a whole rise proportionately to the lent differences of opinion as to how it should reward to capital, and at the same time the pur- be made. So complex, so widely distributed chasing power of other great groups of our over our society are the problems which con- population was permitted to shrink. We accu- front us that men and women of common aim mulated such a superabundance of capital that do not agree upon the method of attacking our great bankers were vying with each other, them. Such disagreement leads to doing noth- some of them employing questionable meth- ing, to drifting. Agreement may come too late. ods, in their efforts to lend this capital at home Let us not confuse objectives with methods. and abroad. Too many so-called leaders of the Nation fail to I believe that we are at the threshold of a see the forest because of the trees. Too many of fundamental change in our popular economic them fail to recognize the vital necessity of thought, that in the future we are going to planning for definite objectives. True leader- think less about the producer and more about ship calls for the setting forth of the objectives the consumer. Do what we may have to do to and the rallying of public opinion in support of inject life into our ailing economic order, we these objectives. cannot make it endure for long unless we can Do not confuse objects with methods. bring about a wiser, more equitable distribu- When the Nation becomes substantially united tion of the national income. in favor of planning the broad objectives of civ- It is well within the incentive capacity of ilization, then true leadership must unite man, who has built up this great social and eco- thought behind definite methods. nomic machine capable of satisfying the wants The country needs and, unless I mistake its of all, to insure that all who are willing and able temper, the country demands bold, persistent to work receive from it at least the necessities of experimentation. It is common sense to take a life. In such a system, the reward for a day’s method and try it: If it fails, admit it frankly work will have to be greater, on the average, and try another. But above all, try something. than it has been, and the reward to capital, The millions who are in want will not stand by especially capital which is speculative, will have silently forever while the things to satisfy their to be less. But I believe that after the experi- needs are within easy reach. ence of the last three years, the average citizen We need enthusiasm, imagination and the would rather receive a smaller return upon his ability to face facts, even unpleasant ones, savings in return for a greater security for the bravely. We need to correct, by drastic means if principal, than experience for a moment the necessary, the faults in our economic system 312 The FDR Years from which we now suffer. We need the My friends, may this be the symbol of my courage of the young. Yours is not the task of intention to be honest and to avoid all making your way in the world, but the task of hypocrisy or sham, to avoid all silly shutting of remaking the world which you will find before the eyes to the truth in this campaign. You have you. May every one of us be granted the nominated me and I know it, and I am here to courage, the faith and the vision to give the best thank you for the honor. that is in us to that remaking! Let it also be symbolic that in so doing I broke traditions. Let it be from now on the task Source: The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin of our Party to break foolish traditions. We will D. Roosevelt, Vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan Com- break foolish traditions and leave it to the pany, 1938), 639–647. Republican leadership, far more skilled in that art, to break promises. 3. Roosevelt’s Address to the Let us know and here highly resolve to resume the country’s interrupted march along Democratic National Convention the path of real progress, of real justice, or real Accepting the Nomination, Chicago, equality for all of our citizens, great and small. Illinois, July 2, 1932 Our indomitable leader in that interrupted march is no longer with us, but there still sur- FDR’s acceptance speech for the Democratic nomi- vives today his spirit. Many of his captains, nation in Chicago was dramatic for he became the thank God, are still with us, to give us wise first presidential nominee to deliver it in person at counsel. Let us feel that in everything we do a national convention. Moreover, by flying from there still lives with us, if not the body, the Albany to Chicago, he demonstrated his physical great indomitable, unquenchable, progressive vigor. The most famous line in the speech, “I pledge soul of our Commander-in-Chief, Woodrow you, I pledge myself, to a new deal for the American Wilson. people,” was written by Samuel Rosenman. I have many things on which I want to make Chairman Walsh, my friends of the Demo- my position clear at the earliest possible cratic National Convention of 1932: moment in this campaign. That admirable doc- I appreciate your willingness after these six ument, the platform which you have adopted, is arduous days to remain here, for I know well clear. I accept it 100 percent. the sleepless hours which you and I have had. I And you can accept my pledge that I will regret that I am late, but I have no control over leave no doubt or ambiguity on where I stand the winds of Heaven and could only be thank- on any question of moment in this campaign. ful for my Navy training. As we enter this new battle, let us keep The appearance before a National Conven- always present with us some of the ideals of the tion of its nominee for President, to be for- Party: The fact that the Democratic Party by mally notified of his selection, is unprecedented tradition and by the continuing logic of history, and unusual, but these are unprecedented and past and present, is the bearer of liberalism and unusual times. I have started out on the tasks of progress and at the same time of safety to that lie ahead by breaking the absurd traditions our institutions. And if this appeal fails, that the candidate should remain in professed remember well, my friends that a resentment ignorance of what has happened for weeks until against the failure of Republican leadership— he is formally notified of that event many and note well that in this campaign I shall not weeks later. use the word “Republican Party,” but I shall Selected Primary Documents 313 use, day in and day out, the words, “Republican toward the past, and who feel no responsibility leadership”—the failure of Republican leaders to the demands of the new time, that they are to solve our troubles may degenerate into out of step with their Party. unreasoning radicalism. Yes, the people of this country want a gen- The great social phenomenon of this uine choice this year, not a choice between two depression, unlike others before it, is that it has names for the same reactionary doctrine. Ours produced but a few of the disorderly manifes- must be a party of liberal thought, of planned tations that too often attend upon such times. action, of enlightened international outlook, Wild radicalism has made few converts, and and of the greatest good to the greatest number the greatest tribute that I can pay to my coun- of our citizens. trymen is that in these days of crushing want Now it is inevitable—and the choice is that there persists an orderly and hopeful spirit on of the times—it is inevitable that the main issue the part of the millions of our people who have of this campaign should revolve about the clear suffered so much. To fail to offer them a new fact of our economic condition, a depression so chance is not only to betray their hopes but to deep that it is without precedent in modern misunderstand their patience. history. It will not do merely to state, as do To meet by reaction that danger of radical- Republican leaders to explain their broken ism is to invite disaster. Reaction is no barrier promises of continued inaction, that the to the radical. It is a challenge, a provocation. depression is worldwide. That was not their The way to meet that danger is to offer a work- explanation of the apparent prosperity of 1928. able program of reconstruction, and the party The people will not forget the claim made by to offer it is the party with clean hands. them then that prosperity was only a domestic This, and this only, is a proper protection product manufactured by a Republican Presi- against blind reaction on the one hand and an dent and a Republican Congress. If they claim improvised, hit-or-miss, irresponsible oppor- paternity for the one they cannot deny pater- tunism on the other. nity for the other. There are two ways of viewing the Govern- I cannot take up all the problems today. I ment’s duty in matters affecting economic and want to touch on a few that are vital. Let us social life. The first sees to it that a favored few look a little at the recent history and the simple are helped and hopes that some of their pros- economics, the kind of economics that you and perity will leak through, sift through, to labor, I and the average man and woman talk. to the farmer, to the small business man. That In the years before 1929 we know that this theory belongs to the party of Toryism, and I country had completed a vast cycle of building had hoped that most of the Tories left this and inflation; for ten years we expanded on the country in 1776. theory of repairing the wastes of the War, but But it is not and never will be the theory of actually expanding far beyond that, and also the Democratic Party. This is no time for fear, beyond our natural and normal growth. Now it for reaction or for timidity. Here and now I is worth remembering, and the cold figures of invite those nominal Republicans who find that finance prove it, that during that time there was their conscience cannot be squared with the little or no drop in the prices that the consumer groping and the failure of their party leaders to had to pay, although those same figures proved join hands with us; here and now, in equal mea- that the cost of production fell very greatly; sure, I warn those nominal Democrats who corporate profit resulting from this period was squint at the future with their faces turned enormous; at the same time little of that profit 314 The FDR Years was devoted to the reduction of prices. The problem. Picture to yourself, for instance, the consumer was forgotten. Very little of it went great groups of property owned by millions of into increased wages; the worker was forgot- our citizens, represented by credits issued in ten, and by no means an adequate proportion the form of bonds and mortgages—Govern- was even paid out in dividends—the stock- ment bonds of all kinds, Federal, State, county, holder was forgotten. municipal; bonds of industrial companies, of And, incidentally, very little of it was taken utility companies; mortgages on real estate in by taxation to the beneficent Government of farms and cities, and finally the vast invest- those years. ments of the Nation in the railroads. What is What was the result? Enormous corporate the measure of the security of each of those surpluses piled up—the most stupendous in groups? We know that well that in our compli- history. Where, under the spell of delirious cated, interrelated credit structure if any one speculation, did those surpluses go? Let us talk of these credit groups collapses they may all economics that the figures prove and that we collapse. Danger to one is danger to all. can understand. Why, they went chiefly in two How, I ask, has the present Administration directions: first, into new and unnecessary in Washington treated the interrelationship of plants which now stand stark and idle; and sec- these credit groups? The answer is clear: It has ond, into the call-money market of Wall Street, not recognized that interrelationship existed at either directly by the corporations, or indi- all. Why, the Nation asks, has Washington rectly through the banks. Those are the facts. failed to understand that all of these groups, Why blink at them? each and every one, the top of the pyramid and Then came the crash. You know the story. the bottom of the pyramid, must be considered Surpluses invested in unnecessary plants together, that each and every one of them is became idle. Men lost their jobs; purchasing dependent on every other; each and every one power dried up; banks became frightened and of them affecting the whole financial fabric? started calling loans. Those who had money Statesmanship and vision, my friends, were afraid to part with it. Credit contracted. require relief to all at the same time. Just one Industry stopped. Commerce declined, and word or two on taxes, the taxes that all of us unemployment mounted. pay toward the cost of Government of all kinds. And there we are today. I know something of taxes. For three long Translate that into human terms. See how the years I have been going up and down this coun- events of the past three years have come home to try preaching that Government—Federal and specific groups of people: first, the group depen- State and local—costs too much. I shall not dent on industry; second, the group dependent stop that preaching. As an immediate program on agriculture; third, and made up in large part of action we must abolish useless offices. We of members of the first two groups, the people must eliminate unnecessary functions of Gov- who are called “small investors and depositors.” ernment—functions, in fact, that are not defi- In fact, the strongest possible tie between the nitely essential to the continuance of first two groups, agriculture and industry, is the Government. We must merge, we must con- fact that the savings and to a degree the security solidate subdivisions of Government, and, like of both are tied together in that third group— the private citizen, give up luxuries which we the credit structure of the Nation. can no longer afford. Never in history have the interests of all the By our example at Washington itself, we people been so united in a single economic shall have the opportunity of pointing the way Selected Primary Documents 315 of economy to local government, for let us foreign and domestic, which are offered for sale remember well that out of every tax dollar in to the investing public. the average State in this nation, 40 cents enter My friends, you and I as common-sense cit- the treasury in Washington, D.C., 10 or 12 izens know that it would help to protect the cents only go the State capitals, and 48 cents savings of the country from the dishonesty of are consumed by the costs of local government crooks and from the lack of honor of some men in counties and cities and towns. in high financial places. Publicity is the enemy I propose to you, my friends, and through of crookedness. you, that Government of all kinds, big and lit- And now one word about unemployment, tle, be made solvent and that the example be and incidentally about agriculture. I have set by the President of the United States and favored the use of certain types of public works his Cabinet. as a further emergency means of stimulating And talking about setting a definite exam- employment and the issuance of bonds to pay ple, I congratulate this convention for having for such public works, but I have pointed out had the courage fearlessly to write into its dec- that no economic end is served if we merely laration of principles what an overwhelming build without building for a necessary purpose. majority here assembled really thinks about the Such works, of course, should insofar as possi- 18th Amendment. This convention wants ble be self-sustaining if they are to be financed repeal. Your candidate wants repeal. And I am by the issuing of bonds. So as to spread the confident that the United States of America points of all kinds as widely as possible, we wants repeal. must take definite steps to shorten the work- Two years ago the platform on which I ran ing day and the working week. for Governor the second time contained sub- Let us use common sense and business stantially the same provision. The overwhelm- sense. Just as one example, we know that a very ing sentiment of the people of my State, as hopeful and immediate means of relief, both shown by the vote of that year, extends, I know, for the unemployed and for agriculture, will to the people of many of the other States. I say come from a wide plan of the converting of to you now that from this date on the 18th many millions of acres of marginal and unused Amendment is doomed. When that happens, land into timberland through reforestation. we as Democrats must and will, rightly and There are tens of millions of acres east of the morally, enable the States to protect themselves Mississippi River alone in abandoned farms, in against the importation of intoxicating liquor cut-over land, now growing up in worthless where such importation may violate their State brush. Why, every European Nation has a def- laws. We must rightly and morally prevent the inite land policy, and has had one for genera- return of the saloon. tions. We have none. Having none, we face a To go back to this dry subject of finance, future of soil erosion and timber famine. It is because it all ties in together—the 18th clear that economic foresight and immediate Amendment has something to do with finance, employment march hand in hand in the call for too—in a comprehensive planning for the the reforestation of these vast areas. reconstruction of the great credit groups, In so doing, employment can be given to a including Government credit. I list an impor- million men. That is the kind of public work tant place for that prize statement of principle that is self-sustaining, and therefore capable of in the platform here adopted calling for the let- being financed by the issuance of bonds which ting in of the light of day on issues of securities, are made secure by the fact that the growth of 316 The FDR Years tremendous crops will provide adequate secu- of surplus is a part of our objective, but the long rity for the investment. continuance and the present burden of existing Yes, I have a very definite program for pro- surpluses make it necessary to repair great viding employment by that means. I have done damage of the present by immediate emer- it, and I am doing it today in the State of New gency measures. York. I know that the Democratic Party can do Such a plan as that, my friends, does not cost it successfully in the Nation. That will put men the Government any money, nor does it keep to work, and that is an example of the action the Government in business or in speculation. that we are going to have. As to the actual wording of a bill, I believe Now as a further aid to agriculture, we know that the Democratic Party stands ready to be perfectly well—but have we come out and said guided by whatever the responsible farm so clearly and distinctly?—we should repeal groups themselves agree on. That is a principle immediately those provisions of law that com- that is sound; and again I ask for action. pel the Federal Government to go into the One more word about the farmer, and I market to purchase, to sell, to speculate in farm know that every delegate in this hall who lives in products in a futile attempt to reduce farm sur- the city knows why I lay emphasis on the pluses. And they are the people who are talking farmer. It is because one-half of our population, of keeping Government out of business. The over 50,000,000 people, are dependent on agri- practical way to help the farmer is by an culture; and, my friends, if those 50,000,000 arrangement that will, in addition to lightening people have no money, no cash, what is pro- some of the impoverishing burdens from his duced in the city, the city suffers to an equal or back, do something toward the reduction of the greater extent. surpluses of staple commodities that hang on That is why we are going to make the voters the market. It should be our aim to add to the understand this year that this Nation is not world prices of staple products the amount of merely a Nation of independence, but it is, if reasonable tariff protection, to give agriculture we are to survive, bound to be a Nation of the same protection that industry has today. interdependence—town and city, and North And in exchange for this immediately and South, East and West. That is our goal, increased return I am sure that the farmers of and that goal will be understood by the people this Nation would agree ultimately to such of this country no matter where they live. planning of their production as would reduce Yes, the purchasing power of that half of our the surpluses and make it unnecessary in later population dependent on agriculture is gone. years to depend on dumping those surpluses Farm mortgages reach nearly ten billions of abroad in order to support domestic prices. dollars today and interest charges on that alone That result has been accomplished in other are $560,000,000 a year. But that is not all. The Nations; why not in America, too? tax burden caused by extravagant and ineffi- Farm leaders and farm economists, gener- cient local government is an additional factor. ally, agree that a plan based on that principle is Our most immediate concern should be to a desirable first step in the reconstruction of reduce the interest burden on these mortgages. agriculture. It does not in itself furnish a com- Rediscounting of farm mortgages under plete program, but it will serve in great mea- salutary restrictions must be expanded and sure in the long run to remove the pall of a should, in the future, be conditioned on the surplus without the continued perpetual threat reduction of interest rates. Amortization pay- of world dumping. Final voluntary reduction ments, maturities should likewise in the crisis Selected Primary Documents 317 be extended before rediscount is permitted principle: the welfare and the soundness of a where the mortgagor is sorely pressed. That, Nation depend first upon what the great mass my friends, is another example of practical, of the people wish and need; and second, immediate relief: Action. whether or not they are getting it. I aim to do the same thing, and it can be What do the people of America want more done, for the small home-owner in our cities than anything else? To my mind, they want two and villages. We can lighten his burden and things: work, with all the moral and spiritual develop his purchasing power. Take away, my values that go with it; and with work, a reason- friends, that spectre of too high an interest rate. able measure of security—security for them- Take away that spectre of the due date just a selves and for their wives and children. Work short time away. Save homes; save homes for and security—these are more than words. They thousands of self-respecting families, and drive are more than facts. They are the spiritual val- out that spectre of insecurity from our midst. ues, the true goal toward which our efforts of Out of all the tons of printed paper, out of all reconstruction should lead. These are the val- the hours of oratory, the recriminations, the ues that this program is intended to gain; these defenses, the happy-thought plans in Wash- are the values we have failed to achieve by the ington and in every State, there emerges one leadership we now have. great, simple, crystal-pure fact that during the Our Republican leaders tell us economic past ten years a Nation of 120,000,000 people laws—sacred, inviolable, unchangeable—cause has been led by the Republican leaders to erect panics which no one can prevent. But while an impregnable barbed wire entanglement they prate of economic laws, men and woman around its borders through the instrumental- are starving. We must lay hold of the fact that ity of tariffs which have isolated us from all the economic laws are not made by nature. They other human beings in all the rest of the round are made by human beings. world. I accept that admirable tariff statement Yes, when—not if—when we get the chance, in the platform of this convention. It would the Federal Government will assume bold lead- protect American business and American labor. ership in distress relief. For years Washington By our acts of the past we have invited and has alternated between putting its head in the received the retaliation of other Nations. I pro- sand and saying there is no large number of des- pose an invitation to them to forget the past, to titute people in our midst who need food and sit at the table with us, as friends, and to plan clothing, and then saying the States should take with us for the restoration of the trade of the care of them, if there are. Instead of planning world. Go into the home of the business man. two and half years ago to do what they are now He knows what the tariff has done for him. Go trying to do, they kept putting it off from day to into the home of the factory worker. He knows day, week to week, and month to month, until why goods do not move. Go into the home of the conscience of America demanded action. the farmer. He knows how the tariff has helped I say that while primary responsibility for to ruin him. relief rests with localities now, as ever, yet the At last our eyes are open. At last the Ameri- Federal Government has always had and still has can people are ready to acknowledge that a continuing responsibility for the broader pub- Republican leadership was wrong and that the lic welfare. It will soon fulfill that responsibility. Democracy is right. And now, just a few words about our plans My program, of which I can only touch on for the next four months. By coming here these points, is based upon this simple moral instead of waiting for a formal notification, I 318 The FDR Years have made it clear that I believe we should for guidance and for more equitable opportu- eliminate expensive ceremonies and that we nity to share in the distribution of national should set in motion at once, tonight, my wealth. friends, the necessary machinery for an ade- On the farms, in the large metropolitan quate presentation of the issues to the elec- areas, in the smaller cities, and in the villages, torate of the Nation. millions of our citizens cherish the hope that I myself have important duties as Governor their old standards of living and of thought of a great State, duties which in these times are have not gone forever. Those millions cannot more arduous and more grave than at any pre- and shall not hope in vain. vious period. Yet I feel confident that I shall be I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a new deal able to make a number of short visits to several for the American people. Let us all here assem- parts of the Nation. My trips will have as their bled constitute ourselves prophets of a new first objective the study at first hand, from the order of competence and of courage. This is lips of men and women of all parties and all more than a political campaign; it is a call to occupations, of the actual conditions and needs arms. Give me your help, not to win votes of every part of an interdependent country. alone, but to win in this crusade to restore One word more: Out of every crisis, every America to its own people. tribulation, every disaster, mankind rises with some share of greater knowledge, of higher Source: “Roosevelt’s Nomination Address, decency, of purer purpose. Today we shall have Chicago, Ill., July 2, 1932.” New Deal Net- come through a period of loose thinking, work—Works of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Available descending morals, an era of selfishness, among online. URL: http://newdeal.feri.org/speeches/ individual men and women and among Nations. 1932b.htm. Blame not Governments alone for this. Blame ourselves in equal share. Let us be frank in acknowledgment of the truth that many 4. “Progressive Government”— amongst us have made obeisance to Mammon, Commonwealth Club Address, San that the profits of speculation, the easy road Francisco, California, September 23, 1932 without toil, have lured us from the old barri- FDR’s most definitive statement on the role of gov- cades. To return to higher standards we must ernment and presidential leadership was delivered abandon the false prophets and seek new leaders in his so-called Progressive Government speech. of own choosing. Written by Adolph Berle and revised by the Brain Never before in modern history have the Trust, it outlined the approach that the New Deal essential differences between the two major and FDR’s leadership would eventually take: “Gov- American parties stood out in such striking con- ernment includes the art of formulating policy and trast as they do today. Republican leaders not using the political technique to attain so much of the only failed in material things, they have failed in policy as will receive general support; persuading, national vision, because in disaster they held out leading, sacrificing, teaching always, because the no hope, they have pointed out no path for the greatest duty of a statesman is to educate.” people below to climb back to places of security and of safety in our American life. I count it a privilege to be invited to address Thoughout the Nation, men and women, the Commonwealth Club. It has stood in the forgotten in the political philosophy of the life of this city and state, and it is perhaps accu- Government of the last years look to us here rate to add, the nation, as a group of citizen Selected Primary Documents 319 leaders interested in fundamental problems of a strong central government, was a haven of government, and chiefly concerned with refuge to the individual. The people preferred achievement of progress in government the master far away to the exploitation and cru- through non-partisan means. The privilege of elty of the smaller master near at hand. addressing you, therefore, in the heat of a polit- But the creators of national government ical campaign, is great. I want to respond to were perforce ruthless men. They were often your courtesy in terms consistent with your cruel in their methods, but they did strive policy. steadily toward something that society needed I want to speak not of politics but of gov- and very much wanted, a strong central state, ernment. I want to speak not of parties, but of able to keep the peace, to stamp out civil war, to universal principles. They are not political, put the unruly nobleman in his place, and to except in that larger sense in which a great permit the bulk of individuals to live safely. The American once expressed a definition of poli- man of ruthless force had his place in develop- tics, that nothing in all of human life is foreign ing a pioneer country, just as he did in fixing to the science of politics ... the power of the central government in the The issue of government has always been development of nations. Society paid him well whether individual men and women will have for his services and its development. When the to serve some system of government or eco- development among the nations of Europe, nomics, or whether a system of government however, has been completed, ambition, and and economics exists to serve individual men ruthlessness, having served its term tended to and women. This question has persistently overstep its mark. dominated the discussion of government for There came a growing feeling that govern- many generations. On questions relating to ment was conducted for the benefit of a few these things men have differed, and for time who thrived unduly at the expense of all. The immemorial it is probable that honest men will people sought a balancing—a limiting force. continue to differ. There came gradually, through town councils, The final word belongs to no man; yet we trade guilds, national parliaments, by constitu- can still believe in change and in progress. tion and by popular participation and control, Democracy, as a dear old friend of mine in limitations on arbitrary power. India, Meredith Nicholson, has called it, is a Another factor that tended to limit the quest, a never-ending seeking for better things, power of those who ruled, was the rise of the and in the seeking for these things and the ethical conception that a ruler bore a responsi- striving for them, there are many roads to fol- bility for the welfare of his subjects. low. But, if we map the course of these roads, The American colonies were born in this we find that there are only two general direc- struggle. The American Revolution was a turn- tions. ing point in it. After the revolution the struggle When we look about us, we are likely to for- continued and shaped itself in the public life of get how hard people have worked to win the the country. There were those who because they privilege of government. The growth of the had seen the confusion which attended the years national governments of Europe was a strug- of war for American independence surrendered gle for the development of a centralized force to the belief that popular government was essen- in the nation, strong enough to impose peace tially dangerous and essentially unworkable. upon ruling barons. In many instances the vic- They are honest people, my friends, and we can- tory of the central government, the creation of not deny that their experience had warranted 320 The FDR Years some measure of fear. The most brilliant, hon- assistance the property rights could not exist, est and able exponent of this point of view was must intervene, not to destroy individualism Hamilton. He was too impatient of slow mov- but to protect it. ing methods. Fundamentally he believed that You are familiar with the great political duel the safety of the republic lay in the autocratic which followed, and how Hamilton, and his strength of its government, and that funda- friends, building towards a dominant central- mentally a great and strong group of central ized power were at length defeated in the great institutions, guided by a small group of able election of 1800, by Mr. Jefferson’s party. Out and public spirited citizens could best direct all of that duel came the two parties, Republican government. and Democratic, as we know them today. But Mr. Jefferson, in the summer of 1776, So began, in American political life, the new after drafting the Declaration of Independence day, of the individual against the system, the turned his mind to the same problem and took day in which individualism was made the great a different view. He did not deceive himself watchword of American life. The happiest of with outward forms. Government to him was a economic conditions made that day long and means to an end, not an end in itself; it might splendid. On the Western frontier, land was be either a refuge and a help or a threat and a substantially free. No one, who did not shirk danger, depending on the circumstances. We the task of earning a living, was entirely with- find him carefully analyzing the society for out opportunity to do so. Depressions could, which he was to organize a government. “We and did, come and go; but they could not alter have no paupers. The great mass of our popu- the fundamental fact that most of the people lation is of laborers, our rich who cannot live lived partly by selling their labor and partly by without labor, either manual or professional, extracting their livelihood from the soil, so that being few and of moderate wealth. Most of the starvation and dislocation were practically laboring class possess property, cultivate their impossible. At the very worst there was always own lands, have families and from the demand the possibility of climbing into a covered for their labor, are enabled to exact from the wagon and moving west where the untilled rich and the competent such prices as enable prairies afforded a haven for men to whom the them to feed abundantly, clothe above mere East did not provide a place. So great were our decency, to labor moderately and raise their natural resources that we could offer this relief families.” not only to our own people, but to the dis- These people, he considered, had two sets tressed of all the world; we could invite immi- of rights, those of “personal competency,” and gration from Europe, and welcome it with those involved in acquiring and possessing open arms. Traditionally, when a depression property. By “personal competency” he meant came, a new section of land was opened in the the right of free thinking, freedom of forming West; and even our temporary misfortune and expressing opinions, and freedom of per- served our manifest destiny. sonal living each man according to his own It was the middle of the 19th century that a rights. To insure the first set of rights, a gov- new force was released and a new dream cre- ernment must so order its functions as not to ated. The force was what is called the indus- interfere with the individual. But even Jefferson trial revolution, the advance of steam and realized that the exercise of the property rights machinery and the rise of the forerunners of might so interfere with the rights of the indi- the modern industrial plant. The dream was vidual that the government, without whose the dream of an economic machine, able to Selected Primary Documents 321 raise the standard of living for everyone; to During this period of expansion, there was bring luxury within the reach of the humblest; equal opportunity for all and the business of to annihilate distance by steam power and later government was not to interfere but to assist in by electricity, and to release everyone from the the development of industry. This was done at drudgery of the heaviest manual toll. It was to the request of businessmen themselves. The tar- be expected that this would necessarily affect iff was originally imposed for the purpose of government. Heretofore, government had “fostering our infant industry”, a phrase I think merely been called upon to produce conditions the older among you will remember as a politi- within which people could live happily, labor cal issue not so long ago. The railroads were peacefully, and rest secure. Now it was called subsidized, sometimes by grants of money, upon to aid in the consummation of this new oftener by grants of land; some of the most valu- dream. There was, however, a shadow over the able oil lands in the United States were granted dream. To be made real, it required use of the to assist the financing of the railroad which talents of men of tremendous will, and pushed through the Southwest. A nascent mer- tremendous ambition, since by no other force chant marine was assisted by grants of money, could the problems of financing and engineer- or by mail subsidies, so that our steam shipping ing and new developments be brought to a might ply the seven seas. Some of my friends tell consummation. me that they do not want the Government in So manifest were the advantages of the business. With this I agree; but I wonder machine age, however, that the United States whether they realize the implications of the past. fearlessly, cheerfully, and, I think, rightly, For while it has been American doctrine that the accepted the bitter with the sweet. It was government must not go into business in com- thought that no price was too high to pay for petition with private enterprises, still it has been the advantages which we could draw from a traditional particularly in Republican adminis- finished industrial system. trations for business urgently to ask the govern- The history of the last half century is ment to put at private disposal all kinds of accordingly in large measure a history of a government assistance. group of financial Titans, whose methods were The same man who tells you that he does not scrutinized with too much care, and who not want to see the government interfere in were honored in proportion as they produced business—and he means it, and has plenty of the results, irrespective of the means they used. good reasons for saying so—is the first to go to The financiers who pushed the railroads to the Washington and ask the government for a pro- Pacific were always ruthless, we have them hibitory tariff on his produce. When things get today. It has been estimated that the American just bad enough—as they did two years ago— investor paid for the American railway system he will go with equal speed to the United more than three times over in the process; but States government and ask for a loan; and the despite the fact the net advantage was to the Reconstruction Finance Corporation is the United States. As long as we had free land; as outcome of it. Each group has sought protec- long as population was growing by leaps and tion from the government for its own special bounds; as long as our industrial plants were interest, without realizing that the function of insufficient to supply our needs, society chose government must be to favor no small group at to give the ambitious man free play and unlim- the expense of its duty to protect the rights of ited reward provided only that he produced the personal freedom and of private property of all economic plant so much desired. its citizens. 322 The FDR Years

In retrospect we can now see that the turn of What is called “radical” today (and I reason the tide came with the turn of the century. We to know whereof I speak) is mild compared to were reaching our last frontier; there was no the campaign of Mr. Wilson. “No man can more free land and our industrial combinations deny,” he said, “that the lines of endeavor have had become great uncontrolled and irresponsi- more and more narrowed and stiffened; no ble units of power within the state. Clear- man who knows anything about the develop- sighted men saw with fear the danger that ment of industry in this country can have failed opportunity would no longer be equal; that the to observe that the larger kinds of credit are growing corporation, like the feudal baron of more and more difficult to obtain unless you old, might threaten the economic freedom of obtain them upon terms of uniting your efforts individuals to earn a living. In that hour, our with those who already control the industry of antitrust laws were born. The cry was raised the country, and nobody can fail to observe that against the great corporations. Theodore Roo- every man who tries to set himself up in com- sevelt, the first great Republican progressive, petition with any process of manufacture which fought a Presidential campaign on the issue of has taken place under the control of large com- “trust busting” and talked freely about male- binations of capital will presently find himself factors of great wealth. If the government had either squeezed out or obliged to sell and allow a policy it was rather to turn the clock back, to himself to be absorbed.” destroy the large combinations and to return Had there been no World War—had Mr. to the time when every man owned his indi- Wilson been able to devote eight years to vidual small business. domestic instead of to international affairs— This was impossible; Theodore Roosevelt, we might have had a wholly different situation abandoning the idea “good” trusts and “bad” at the present time. However, the then distant trusts. The Supreme Court set forth the roar of European cannon, growing ever louder, famous “rule of reason” by which it seems to forced him to abandon the study of this issue. have meant that a concentration of industrial The problem he saw so clearly is left with us as power was permissible if the method by which a legacy; and no one of us on either side of the it got its power, and the use it made of that political controversy can deny that it is a mat- power, was reasonable. ter of grave concern to the government. Woodrow Wilson, elected in 1912, saw the A glance at the situation today only too situation more clearly. Where Jefferson had clearly indicates the equality of opportunity as feared the encroachment of political power on we have known it no longer exists. Our indus- the lives of individuals, Wilson knew that the trial plant is built; the problem just now is new power was financial. He saw, in the highly whether under existing conditions it is not centralized economic system, the depot of the overbuilt. Our last frontier has long since been twentieth century, on whom great masses of reached, and there is practically no more free individuals relied for their safety and their liveli- land. More than half of our people do not live hood, and whose irresponsibility and greed (if it on the farms or on lands and cannot derive a were not controlled) would reduce them to star- living by cultivating their own property. There vation and penury. The concentration of finan- is no safety valve in the form of a Western cial power had not proceeded so far in 1912 as prairie to which those thrown out of work by it has today; but it had grown far enough for the Eastern economic machines can go for a Mr. Wilson to realize fully its implications. It is new start. We are not able to invite the immi- interesting, now, to read his speeches. gration from Europe to share our endless Selected Primary Documents 323 plenty. We are now providing a drab living for steady course toward economic oligarchy, if we our own people. are not there already. Our system of constantly rising tariffs has at Clearly, all this calls for a re-appraisal of val- least reached against us to the point of closing ues. A mere builder of more industrial plants, a our Canadian frontier on the north, our Euro- creator of more railroad systems, and organizer pean markets on the east, many of our Latin of more corporations, is as likely to be a danger American markets to the south, and a goodly as a help. The day of the great promoter or the proportion of our Pacific markets on the west, financial Titan, to whom we granted anything through the retaliatory tariffs of those coun- if only he would build, or develop, is over. Our tries. It has forced many of our great industrial task now is not discovery or exploitation of nat- institutions who exported their surplus pro- ural resources, or necessarily producing more duction to such countries, to establish plants in goods. It is the soberer, less dramatic business such countries within the tariff walls. This has of administering resources and plants already resulted in the reduction of the operation of in hand, of seeking to reestablish foreign mar- their American plants, and opportunity for kets for our surplus production, of meeting the employment. problem of under consumption, of adjusting Just as freedom to farm has ceased, so also production to consumption, of distributing the opportunity in business has narrowed. It wealth and products more equitably, of adapt- still is true that men can start small enterprises, ing existing economic organizations to the ser- trusting to native shrewdness and ability to vice of the people. The day of enlightened keep abreast of competitors; but area after area administration has come. has been preempted altogether by the great Just as in older times the central government corporations, and even in the fields which still was first a haven of refuge, and then a threat, so have no great concerns, the small man starts now in a closer economic system the central and with a handicap. The unfeeling statistics of the ambitious financial unit is no longer a servant of past three decades show that the independent national desire, but a danger. I would draw the business man is running a losing race. Perhaps parallel one step further. We did not think he is forced to the wall; perhaps he cannot because national government had become a command credit; perhaps he is “squeezed out,” threat in the 18th century that therefore we in Mr. Wilson’s words, by highly organized should abandon the principle of national gov- corporate competitors, as your corner grocery ernment. Nor today should we abandon the man can tell you. principle of strong economic units called cor- Recently a careful study was made of the porations, merely because their power is sus- concentration of business in the United States. ceptible of easy abuse. In other times we dealt It showed that our economic life was domi- with the problem of an unduly ambitious cen- nated by some six hundred odd corporations tral government by modifying it gradually into who controlled two-thirds of American indus- a constitutional democratic government. So try. Ten million small business men divided the today we are modifying and controlling our other third. More striking still, it appeared that economic units. if the process of concentration goes on at the As I see it, the task of government in its rela- same rate, at the end of another century we tion to business is to assist the development of shall have all American industry controlled by an economic declaration of rights, an economic a dozen corporations, and run by perhaps a constitutional order. This is the common task hundred men. Put plainly, we are steering a of statesman and business man. It is the mini- 324 The FDR Years mum requirement of a more permanently safe achieve the common end. They must, where order of things. necessary, sacrifice this or that private advan- Every many has a right to life; and this tage; and in reciprocal self-denial must seek a means that he has also a right to make a com- general advantage. It is here that formal gov- fortable living. He may by sloth or crime ernment—political government, if you choose, decline to exercise that right; but it may not be comes in. Whenever in the pursuit of this denied him. We have no actual famine or objective the lone wolf, the unethical competi- death; our industrial and agricultural mecha- tor, the reckless promoter, the Ishmael or Insull nism can produce enough and to spare. Our whose hand is against every man’s, declines to government formal and informal, political and join in achieving an end recognized as being economic, owes to every one an avenue to pos- for the public welfare, and threatens to drag the sess himself of a portion of that plenty suffi- industry back to a state of anarchy, the govern- cient for his needs, through his own work. ment may properly be asked to apply restraint. Every man has a right to his own property; Likewise, should the group ever use its collec- which means a right to be assured, to the fullest tive power contrary to public welfare, the gov- extent attainable, in the safety of his savings. ernment must be swift to enter and protect the By no other means can men carry the burdens public interest. of those parts of life which, in the nature of The government should assume the func- things afford no chance of labor; childhood, tion of economic regulation only as a last sickness, old age. In all thought of property, resort, to be tried only when private initiative, this right is paramount; all other property inspired by high responsibility, with such assis- rights must yield to it. If, in accord with this tance and balance as government can give, has principle, we must restrict the operations of the finally failed. As yet there has been no final fail- speculator, the manipulator, even the financier, ure, because there has been no attempt, and I I believe we must accept the restriction as decline to assume that this nation is unable to needful, not to hamper individualism but to meet the situation. protect it. The final term of the high contract was for These two requirements must be satisfied, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. We have in the main, by the individuals who claim and learned a great deal of both in the past century. hold control of the great industrial and finan- We know that individual liberty and individual cial combinations which dominate so large a happiness mean nothing unless both are part of our industrial life. They have under- ordered in the sense that one man’s meat is not taken to be, not business men, but princes— another man’s poison. We know that the old princes of property. I am not prepared to say “rights of personal competency”—the right to that the system which produces them is wrong. read, to think, to speak, to choose, and live a I am very clear that they must fearlessly and mode of life, must be respected at all hazards. competently assume the responsibility which We know that liberty to do anything which goes with the power. So many enlightened deprives others of those elemental rights is out- business men know this that the statement side the protection of any compact; and that would be little more than a platitude, were it government in this regard is the maintenance not for an added implication. of a balance, within which every individual may This implication is, briefly, that the respon- have a place if he will take it; in which every sible heads of finance and industry instead of individual may find safety if he wishes it; in acting each for himself, must work together to which every individual may attain such power Selected Primary Documents 325 as his ability permits, consistent with his That is true when in a desperate, futile, last- assuming the accompanying responsibility ... minute effort to dam the tide of popular disap- Faith in America, faith in our tradition of proval that is steadily growing against the personal responsibility, faith in our institutions, Administration, they become alarmists and faith in ourselves demands that we recognize panic breeders. the new terms of the old social contract. We This policy of seeking to win by fear of ruin shall fulfill them, as we fulfilled the obligation is selfish in its motive, brutal in its method and of the apparent Utopia which Jefferson imag- false in its promise. It is a policy that will be ined for us in 1776, and which Jefferson, Roo- resented as such by men and women of all par- sevelt and Wilson sought to bring to ties in every section of the country on Novem- realization. We must do so, lest a rising tide of ber eighth. misery engendered by our common failure, It is an insult to the intelligence of the engulf us all. But failure is not an American American voters to think that they can be habit; and in the strength of great hope we fooled by shifting the boast of the full dinner must all shoulder our common load. pail made in 1928, to the threat of the contin- ued empty dinner pail in 1932. Source: Howard F. Bremer, ed. Franklin Delano I assure the badly advised and fear-stricken Roosevelt 1882–1945. Dobbs Ferry, N.Y.: Oceana leaders of the Republican Party that not only Publications, Inc. 1971. Democrats but also the rank and file of their own party, who are properly dissatisfied with that leadership, are still American patriots and 5. Speech on the Federal Budget, that they still cherish in their hearts, as I do, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the safety of the country, the welfare of its peo- October 19, 1932 ple and the continuance of its institutions. What is the normal and sensible thing to do During the fall campaign, FDR delivered a speech when your neighbor gets all excited and starts to appeal to conservatives that would come back to calling you and your family bad names over the haunt him in 1936. He attacked President Herbert back fence? I take it that nothing is gained by Hoover for deficit spending, while promising to bal- your calling your neighbor worse names or by ance the federal budget without saying how, if he losing your own temper. As a matter of fact, the were elected. peace of the community is best served by sitting To my friends of Pennsylvania: down and quietly discussing the problems It is fitting that I should chose Pittsburgh to without raising one’s voice. That is why I sound a solemn note of warning, addressed not decline to answer vituperation merely by more only to the Republican leaders, but also to the vituperation. rank and file of American voters of all parties. Sometime, somewhere in this campaign, I There are some prices too high for the country have to talk about dollars and cents. It is a ter- to pay for the propaganda spread abroad in a rible thing to ask you people to listen for Presidential election. forty-five minutes to the story of the Federal That, my friends, is proved when, as now, budget, but I am going to ask you to do it; the Republican campaign management and and I am going to talk to you about “dollars people like Henry Ford and General Atterbury and cents” in terms that I think not only of the Pennsylvania Railroad are guilty of public accountants, but everybody else can spreading the gospel of fear. understand. 326 The FDR Years

One of these great problems—and a very the national Government in Washington, the vital one to my family and your family and to State Government and the local government. the whole community—is the financial prob- Perhaps because the apparent national income lem of making both ends meet. I want to dis- seemed to have spiraled upward from about 35 cuss this problem with you tonight. To do so billions a year in 1913, the year before the out- sincerely I must tell you the facts as they are break of the World War, to about 90 billions in and conceal nothing from you. It is not a pretty 1928, four years ago, all three of our govern- picture, but if we know that picture and face it mental units became reckless; and, conse- we have nothing to fear. This country is the quently, the total spending in all three classes, richest and most resourceful Nation in the national, state and local, rose in the same world. It can and will meet successfully every period from about three billions to nearly thir- problem which it faces; but it can do so only teen billions, or from 8 1/2 percent of income through intelligent leadership working to 14 1/2 percent of income. unselfishly for the good of all people. That it “Come-easy-go-easy” was the rule. It was all has not had such leadership in its financial very merry while it lasted. We did not greatly affairs will become obvious from the facts I am worry. We thought we were getting rich. But going to relate to you tonight. when the crash came, we were shocked to find We all know that our own family credit that while income melted away like snow in the depends in large part on the stability of the spring, governmental expense did not drop at credit of the United States. And here, at least, all. It is estimated that in 1932 our total is one field in which all business—big business national income will not much exceed 45 bil- and little business and family business and the lions, or half of what it used to be, while our individual’s business—is at the mercy of our big total cost of Government will likely be consid- Government down at Washington, D.C. erably in excess of 15 billions. This simply What I should like to do is to reduce, in so means that the 14 percent that Government far as possible, the problem of our national cost has risen to has now become 331/3 per- finances to the terms of a family budget. cent of our national income. Take it in terms of The credit of the family depends chiefly on human beings: It means that we are paying for whether that family is living within its income. the cost of our three kinds of Government And that is equally true of the Nation. If the $125 a year for every man, woman and child in Nation is living within its income, its credit is the United States, or $625 a year for the aver- good. If, in some crises, it lives beyond its age family of five people. Can we stand that? I income for year or two, it can usually borrow do not believe it. temporarily at reasonable rates. But if, like a That is a perfectly impossible economic spendthrift, it throws discretion to the winds, condition. Quite apart from every man’s own and is willing to make no sacrifice at all in tax assessment, that burden is a brake on any spending; if it extends its taxing to the limit of return to normal business activity. Taxes are the people’s power to pay and continues to pile paid in the sweat of every man who labors up deficits, then it is on the road to bankruptcy. because they are a burden on production and For over two years our Federal Government are paid through production. If those taxes are has experienced unprecedented deficits, in spite excessive, they are reflected in idle factories, in of increased taxes. We must not forget that tax-sold farms, in hordes of hungry people, there are three separate governmental spend- tramping the streets and seeking jobs in vain. ing and taxing agencies in the United States— Our workers may never see a tax bill, but they Selected Primary Documents 327 pay. They pay in deductions from wages, in keel during these past five years. It was perhaps increased cost of what they buy, or—as now— easy to give this impression because the total in broad unemployment throughout the land. outlay each year up to the emergency appro- There is not an unemployed man, there is not priations of this year did not increase alarm- a struggling farmer, whose interest in this sub- ingly. But the joker in this is that the total ject is not direct and vital. It comes home to outlay includes interest and sinking fund on the every one of us! public debt; and those charges were going Let me make it perfectly clear, however, down steadily, right up to this year. that if men or women or children are starving On the plain question of frugality of man- in the United States—anywhere—I regard it agement, if we want to compare routine Gov- as a positive duty of the Government—of the ernment outlay for 1927 with that for 1931 for national Government if local and State Gov- example—for years later—we must subtract ernments have not the cash—to raise by taxes this so-called “debt service charge” from the whatever sums may be necessary to keep them total budget in each year. If we do this, we find from starvation. that the expenditure for the business of Gov- What I am talking about are the taxes which ernment in 1927 was $2,187,000,000, and in go to the ordinary costs of conducting Gov- 1931, $3,168,000,000. ernment year in and year out. That is where That represents an increase of actual admin- the question of extravagance comes in. There istrative spending in those four years of approx- can be no extravagance when starvation is in imately one billion dollars, or roughly, 50 question; but extravagance does apply to the percent; and that, I may add, is the most reck- mounting budget of the Federal Government less and extravagant past that I have been able in Washington during these past four years. to discover in the statistical record of any The most obvious effect of extravagant Gov- peacetime Government anywhere, any time. ernment spending is its burden on farm and It is an ultimate fact proved by the record industrial activity, and, for that nearly every which is the exact reverse of the thing Government unit in the United States is to announced as fact by Republican leaders. blame. But when we come to consider prodi- Let me repeat those figures so that the whole gality and extravagance in the Federal Govern- country can get them clearly in mind. Leaving ment, as distinguished from State or local out “debt service charges” in both instances, the government, we are talking about something cost of carrying on the usual business of the even more dangerous. For upon the financial United States was $2,187,000,000 in 1927 and stability of the United States Government $3,168,000,000 in 1931—an increase in four depends the stability of trade and employment, years of one billion dollars! and of the entire banking, savings and insur- That, my friends, is the story on the spend- ance system of the Nation. ing side of the ledger. But you and I know that To make things clear, to explain the exact there are always two sides—or ought to be—to nature of the present condition of the Federal a ledger that is supposed to balance. It is bad pocketbook, I must go back to 1929. enough—that story on the spending side, and a Many people throughout the land—rich and billion dollar increase, that 50 percent increase poor—have believed the fairy story which has in four years! But it is less than half of the been painstakingly circulated by this Adminis- whole appalling story. And I am telling the tration, that the routine spending of our Fed- Nation that on the income side of our ledger, eral Government has been kept on a fairly even the record is worse. 328 The FDR Years

Unlike other taxing agencies, the Federal on the verge of catastrophe. Yet, that new bud- Government does not levy a direct tax on prop- get of December, 1930, recommended neither erty. Therefore, you do not have to be an increased taxes nor decreased expenditures, expert to know that when anything happens although upon its recommendations depended that violently contracts sales and incomes and the credit standing of the United States. the prices of securities and commodities, there The Budget Message of the President is sure to be a similar violent contraction of asserted that the deficit for 1931 would be only Federal income and that a Government $180,000,000; and it contained the statements: charged with maintaining the financial stability “Nor do I look with great concern upon this not only of the United States itself, but of the moderate deficit,” and, again, “Our Govern- whole American Nation under all conditions, is ment finances are in a sound condition.” He under a very solemn duty, in such an event, to actually estimated a surplus for the year 1932. take immediate steps to avoid a deficit. At this time the President and his Secretary Although six weeks had elapsed since the of the Treasury had had plenty of experience worst economic crash in history, the panic of with falling tax receipts—just as you and I had 1929, the Federal budget that was submitted had with falling income. by the President in December, 1929, did not The astonishing and inescapable fact is that even refer to it. It estimated receipts for the no such results as those estimated could have year ending June 30, 1931, at 4.2 billions, actu- been achieved without an immediate and com- ally more than they had been in the preceding plete business recovery from the practical paral- year of economic fantasy, a figure which obvi- ysis then existing. That 1930 budget cannot fairly ously could not possibly be attained without an be called an estimate at all. It was an extreme haz- immediate return to the exaggerated specula- ard on the hope of an economic miracle, a gam- tions of 1929. The Administration advised no ble, if you please, a gamble with your money and economy. On the contrary, it proposed a reduc- mine—and a hidden one at that. tion of taxes and it blandly and cheerfully There is something much more than mere remarked—here are its own words: “Our error in that kind of thing. Our people and the finances are in sound condition.... Our esti- world are entitled to reasonable accuracy and mated expenditures ... are well within our reasonable prudence; and above all they are expected receipts.” That was six weeks after the entitled to complete frankness. They have a panic had broken! right and a duty to place in retirement those Against those estimated receipts, placed at who conceal realities, those who abuse confi- 4.2 billions by the Secretary of the Treasury, dence. the sad fact is that the actual revenue turned I am going to talk more about figures—but out to be 3.3 billions, or nearly a billion short figures talk. of the estimate. We remember these simple facts: On I recite that 1929 Federal incident to clarify December 3, 1930, the President estimated what happened at Washington in the next two that the following summer there would be a years, in 1930 and 1931. In December of 1930 deficit of $180,000,0000, but that in the sum- a new budget appeared. Vast declines in every mer of 1932 there would be a profit of form of business activity were at that time $30,000,000, or a total estimated deficit for the deadly certain. In fact, the national income was two years of $150,000,000. in a nosedive, or perhaps it was in a tailspin. It Now, I am going to give you good people a was therefore certain that Federal income was real shock. Instead of the Government running Selected Primary Documents 329 into the red for those two years to the tune of a more rapid rate than business in some $150,000,000, the deficit on June 30, 1932, of the backward and crippled countries. was, for the two fiscal years, three and three- Unemployment began to rise here in even quarters billion dollars. greater proportions than in Europe. To top this No, I fear we cannot call this budget an esti- ruin of all these seductive 1928 theories— mate—or even a fair gamble. I do not know which were to bring the millennium of abol- what to call that kind of representation or that ished poverty and the chicken, or maybe it was kind of fact, but the name for it certainly is not two of them, in every pot—came the complete candor. collapse of the 1929 and 1930 Administration Nineteen hundred and thirty-one proved to fiscal policy. be the worst year experienced in the depression The truth about the shattering effect of all up to that time. For my distinguished oppo- these homing heresies began to leak out as the nent, 1931 was the year in which all his dis- summer of 1931 advanced; and it is my opinion tinctive 1928 economic heresies seemed to that in the conduct of national finances, as in come home to roost, all at the same time. the conduct of corporation finances or family Let us call the roll of those economic budgets, if things are not going as well as one heresies: had hoped, it is far better to face the truth than 1.Those famous loans to “backward and to try to hide it. That is why, when history crippled countries,” which he said comes to be written, it will be shown that it was would provide uninterrupted employ- far more harmful to the Nation last autumn— ment and uninterrupted industrial activ- in 1931—and all through this year of 1932, to ity by expanding our export trade, no have the facts leak out, than it would have been longer could be made. to have had them boldly and frankly disclosed 2.Retaliation against his monstrous to us when they were actually taking place. Grundy tariff—and you people in Penn- The result of such a combination of disqui- sylvania ought to know something eting revelations was inevitable. The very basis about that—against which the best eco- of confidence in our economic and financial nomic and industrial thought in the structure both here and abroad was impaired. A country had stood in almost unanimous fresh wave of liquidation ensued. Foreigners protest, and against which it once more took $1,000,000,000 of their gold back in that protested within the past week, and black year of 1931. which was to cure our agriculture and I emphasize this history because our oppo- maintain our industry, had already nents have now become almost frantic in begun to strangle the world trade of all their insistence that this entire sequence of Nations, including our own. events originated abroad. I do not know 3.Debtor Nations, no longer sustained bywhere; they have never located “abroad,” but our improvident loans and no longer I think it is somewhere near Abyssinia. They able to export goods, were drained of insist that no American policy was in the least gold for debts and, one by one, were to blame, and that to say otherwise is what forced to abandon specie payments. they call “hideous misrepresentation.” The 4.Finally, as a direct result of all these “foreign cause” alibi is just like ascribing influences, our export markets dried up, measles on our little boy to the spots on his our commodity prices slumped and our chest, instead of to the contagious germ that own domestic business itself declined at he has picked up somewhere. 330 The FDR Years

No, we need not look abroad for scapegoats. Under those circumstances I should fail We had ventured into the economic strato- utterly in my duty to the American people, if I sphere—which is a long way up—on the wings did not fearlessly portray these errors and link of President Hoover’s novel, radical and them directly to the havoc which they have unorthodox economic theories of 1928, the brought and which they threaten to continue. complete collapse of which brought the real The autumn of 1931 witnessed the complete crash in 1931. The Grundy tariff accelerated wreckage of the Administration program to the drop. As hard reality rushed up to meet our that date, the collapse of its entire economic fall, this Administration did not see fit to adapt philosophy. The convening of the 72nd its fiscal policies to this inevitable consequence. Congress last December started the last phase. It is a responsibility which no campaign alibi The President appeared with his December, can avert, and less than three weeks off, the day 1931 Budget Message. It was a fateful moment. of reckoning will come. That was the time—last December—for an The Administration’s recent strategy in this honest demonstration to the world that might campaign is a direct appeal to public sympathy have set the whole world trend of economic for its agony of spirit in the dark hours of last events in an upward direction or at least year and this year, when retribution for our checked the decline. All that it was necessary chasing after strange economic gods overtook to do was finally to end once and for all the two us. It protests against any assessment of just years of vacillation and secretiveness, to tell the blame. But it protests in vain. truth to the Congress of the United States, and I want to say, with all sincerity, that I recite to rely on that Congress to balance the budget this record with reluctance. No man with a and establish American credit in the eyes of the spark of decency or humanity can fail to sym- world. pathize with our responsible leaders in hours In a way the Administration did acknowledge of crisis. Politics or no politics, I pay my tribute the necessity for that. It started off by saying to the devotion of the President of the United that it was going to balance the budget. Fine! States. It is not true to say that he has not been Then it said it was balancing the budget. Fine! unremitting in his efforts, and I for one have And finally, it said it had balanced the budget. never heard it said. Better yet! And now, months later, it insists that But I do indict his Administration for wrong because it has balanced the budget, it has saved action, for delayed action, for lack of frankness the Gibraltar of world stability and prevented and for lack of courage. Before the Administra- the overthrow of our form of Government. tion partisans complain of this arraignment, If all that is true, the Administration has they must remember that the American people done well. If it not true, then the Administra- are now about to exercise their democratic right tion stands convicted of a new and fatal trifling of self-determination of their own fate and their with the welfare of our people and the credit of own future. They must make a choice. That our country. appeal for sympathy is not based on any frank Let me not waste words. I now quote from acknowledgement of the failure of the policies the daily Treasury statement, made three weeks so clearly portrayed by these tragic events. On ago, on the result of the first three months of the contrary, it is a denial that these principles operation under the new budget this year, the have failed. It persists in the same course and statement covering the months of July, August even presumes to ask admiration for the stub- and September, the first quarter of the fiscal born ruggedness of that persistence. year. Here is what it says: Selected Primary Documents 331

“Excess of expenditures over receipts, simply absorbed that much of the lending $402,043,002.” There you are! capacity of the banks and by so much impaired For the corresponding quarter of last year the credit available for business. In that year the deficit was only $380,495,584, but at the the amount of Government obligations held by end of the year it was $2,885,000,000. There our banks increased by a little more than one is, therefore, strong indication that we are in billion dollars. for another staggering deficit. If the present You and I know that this Administration’s rate on that budget continues, the true deficit claims that it has provided credit for industry as of June 30th next year will be over and agriculture by pouring credit into banks $1,600,000,000—a deficit so great that it makes are not wholly frank. Commercial credit has us catch our breath. continuously contracted and is contracting I regret to say that the appeal of this Admin- now. The truth is that our banks are financing istration for applause for its soundness and these great deficits and that the burden is courage last winter is simply not based on facts. absorbing their resources. All this is highly The budget is not balanced and the whole job undesirable and wholly unnecessary. It arises must be done over again in the next session of from one cause only, and that is the unbalanced Congress. budget and the continued failure of this I have shown how unreliable these constant Administration to take effective steps to bal- reassurances are. It is not seemly to conjecture ance it. If that budget had been fully and hon- motives, but I think it is fair to say the whole estly balanced in 1930, some of the 1931 record of Administration policy in the last four troubles would have been avoided. Even if it years reveals that it has been afraid to trust the had been balanced in 1931, much of the people of the United States with the true facts extreme dip in 1932 would have been obviated. about their affairs. That is a fundamental error Every financial man in the country knows why which shows unfamiliarity with the true basis of this is true. He knows the unnecessary muddle American character. that has accumulated and is still accumulating While the President claims that he did finally in Washington. recommend new taxes, I fear this courage came Now, how can we continue to countenance two years too late and in far too scanty measure. such a condition? That is a practical question. Perhaps it explains the underlying thought of In all conscience, can an Administration which the phrase “prosperity is just around the corner.” has so frequently failed in a matter so directly Perhaps it explains two complete concealments touching its own responsibilities ask for your of deficits and the insufficiency of the action support and trifle with your common sense by taken last winter. It is an error of weakness and these campaign alibis about mysterious foreign an error which I assure you I will not make. forces and by this specious talk about sound Our Federal extravagance and improvidence fiscal policies? Would it not be infinitely bet- bear a double evil; first, our people and our ter to clear this whole subject of obscurity, to business cannot carry these excessive burdens present the facts squarely to the Congress and of taxation; second, our credit structure is the people of the United States, and to secure impaired by the unorthodox Federal financing the one sound foundation of permanent eco- made necessary by the unprecedented magni- nomic recovery—a complete and honest bal- tude of these deficits. ancing of the Federal budget? In all Instead of financing the billion-dollar deficit earnestness I leave the answer to your com- of 1931 in the regular way, the Government mon sense and judgment. 332 The FDR Years

The other bad effect of this fiscal misman- Hoover left it, it was spending 39 millions a agement is not the least bit technical. It is the year; and this year it is estimated that it will be burden of high cost on the backs of all our peo- spending 43 millions a year. And the Depart- ple. I can state the condition best by quoting ment of Commerce is now housed in that great one paragraph from a document published a marble building which is facetiously called in week ago and signed by both Calvin Coolidge Washington the “Temple of Fact Finding,” and Alfred E. Smith. They say: which cost the people considerably more than “All the costs of local, State and national the Capitol of the United States. Government must be reduced without fear and That little example, my friends, may without favor. Unless the people, through uni- explain the 50 percent increase in Govern- fied action, arise and take charge of their Gov- ment overhead in four years, 1927–1931, and ernment, they will find that their Government I am sure that the whole group of quotations has taken charge of them.” reveal why you can never expect any impor- Every word of that warning is true; and the tant economy from this Administration. It is first and most important and necessitous step in committed to the idea that we ought to center balancing our Federal budget is to reduce control of everything in Washington as expense. rapidly as possible—Federal control. That was The air is now surcharged with Republican the idea that increased the cost of Govern- death-bed repentance on the subject of econ- ment by a billion dollars in four years. Ever omy, but it is too late. We must look deeper since the days of Thomas Jefferson, that has than these eleventh-hour pronouncements. been the exact reverse of the democratic con- You cannot go very far with any real Federal cept, which is to permit Washington to take economy, without a complete change of con- from the States nothing more than is neces- cept of what are the proper functions and lim- sary to keep abreast of the march of our its of the Federal Government itself. changing economic situation. Perhaps we can get some glimpse of the In the latter philosophy, and not in the phi- President’s underlying philosophy about the losophy of Mr. Hoover—which I think is Federal Government by going back and open- responsible for so much of our trouble—I shall ing the volume of his 1928 speeches. He pro- approach the problem of carrying out the plain posed, you remember, as he said, “a new thing precept of our Party, which is to reduce the cost in Government.” He says that he “reorganized of current Federal Government operations by the Department of Commerce on a greater 25 percent. scale than has ever been attempted or achieved Of course that means a complete realign- by any Government in the world.” In his book, ment of the unprecedented bureaucracy that called The New Day, he says this: “A Nation has assembled in Washington in the past four which is spending ninety billions a year can years. I am no stranger to Washington. I knew well afford a few hundred million for a work- it firsthand during the administrations of Pres- able program.” ident Roosevelt and President Taft. I served in I could go on quoting for a good many min- Washington for seven and a half years under utes, but perhaps the point could be made President Wilson. I have some familiarity with clearer by recalling that the Department of the national Government. In addition to that, Commerce went through even the heavy war for more than four years I have been conduct- strain, back in the days of the World War, on ing the Administration and the policies of a about 13 millions a year. When Secretary State that has thirteen million inhabitants. Selected Primary Documents 333

Now, I am going to disclose to you a definite No one, for political purposes or otherwise, personal conclusion which I reached the day has the right in the absence of explicit state- after I was nominated in Chicago. Here it is: ment from me to assume that my views have Before any man enters my Cabinet he must changed. They have not. So much for another give me a two-fold pledge: effort by Republican leaders to preach an unwarranted gospel of fear and panic to the 1.Absolute loyalty to the Democratic plat- American electorate. form and especially to its economy plank. I have sought to make two things clear: 2.Complete cooperation with me, looking First, that we can make savings by reorganiza- to economy and reorganization in his tion of existing departments, by eliminating Department. functions, by abolishing many of those innu- I regard reduction in Federal spending as merable boards and those commissions which, one of the most important issues in this cam- over a long period of years, have grown up as a paign. In my opinion it is the most direct and fungus growth on American Government. effective contribution that Government can These savings can properly be made to total make to business. many hundreds and thousands of dollars a year. In accordance with this fundamental policy Second, I hope that it will not be necessary it is equally necessary to eliminate from Federal to increase the present scale of taxes, and I call budget-making during this emergency all new definite attention to the fact that just as soon as items except such as relate to direct relief of the Democratic platform pledge is enacted into unemployment. legislation modifying the Volstead Act, a source As part of that phase of the budget problem, of new revenue amounting to several hundred I take note that former President Coolidge is millions of dollars a year will be made available reported as having said in a speech in New York toward the balancing of the budget. I refer City: specifically to a Federal tax on beer, which “An early and timely word from the Demo- would be raised through the sale of beer in cratic candidate for President that he would those States and those States only which by reject the proposal to increase the national debt State law allow the sale of beer. At the same by $2,300,000,000 to pay a bonus would have time I reiterate the simple language of the been a great encouragement to business, Democratic platform which in good faith reduced unemployment, and guaranteed the opposes the return of the old-time saloon: integrity of the national credit. While he “We urge the enactment of such measures remained silent economic recovery was mea- by the several States as will actually promote surably impeded.” temperance, effectively prevent the return of That charge is baseless and absurd for the the saloon and bring the liquor traffic into the very good reason that last April my views on the open under complete supervision and control subject were widely published and have been by the State.” subsequently frequently quoted. I said this: The above two categorical statements are “I do not see how, as a matter of practical aimed at a definite balancing of the budget. At sense, a Government running behind two bil- the same time, let me repeat from now to elec- lion dollars annually can consider the anticipa- tion day so that every man, woman and child in tion of bonus payment until it has a balanced the United States will know what I mean: If budget, not only on paper, but with a surplus of starvation and dire need on the part of any of cash in the treasury.” our citizens make necessary the appropriation 334 The FDR Years of additional funds which would keep the bud- necessity of interdependence and the role of govern- get out of balance, I shall not hesitate to tell ment in promoting the general welfare of society. the American people the full truth and ask I am certain that my fellow Americans expect them to authorize the expenditure of that addi- that on my induction into the Presidency I will tional amount. address them with a candor and a decision These have been unhealthy years for which the present situation of our Nation prophets, and I hasten to disclaim such a role. impels. This is preeminently the time to speak But one thing I know: A powerful cause con- the truth, the whole truth, frankly and boldly. tributing to economic disaster has been this Nor need we shrink from honestly facing con- inexcusable fiscal policy and the obscurity and ditions in our country today. This great Nation uncertainty that have attended and grown out will endure as it has endured, will revive and of it. There it remains for all to see—a verita- will prosper. So, first of all, let me assert my ble cancer in the body politic and economic. Is firm belief that the only thing we have to fear it prophecy to assure you that if we remove that is fear itself—nameless, unreasoning, unjusti- destructive growth we shall move on to better fied terror which paralyzes needed efforts to health and better life? convert retreat into advance. In every dark To my mind, that is so plain and persuasive hour of our national life a leadership of frank- as scarcely to be open to argument. As I said in ness and vigor has met with that understanding the beginning, this is the one field in which and support of the people themselves which is business is wholly in the grip of Government. essential to victory. I am convinced that you It is a field where Government can make a will again give that support to leadership in great contribution to recovery. these critical days. To that contribution I here pledge the In such a spirit on my part and on yours we utmost of my faith and my ability. I am as cer- face our common difficulties. They concern, tain as mortal man can be certain of anything in thank God, only material things. Values have the future, that from the moment that you and shrunken to fantastic levels; taxes have risen; I set our hands openly and frankly and coura- our ability to pay has fallen; government of all geously to that problem, we shall have reached kinds is faced by serious curtailment of income; the end of our long, hard, downward road. We the means of exchange are frozen in the cur- shall have started on the upward trail. We shall rents of trade; the withered leaves of industrial have built for economic recovery a firm foot- enterprise lie on every side; farmers find no ing, on a path that is broad, true and straight. markets for their produce; the savings of many Join me, and “let’s go!” years in thousands of families are gone. More important, a host of unemployed citi- Source: The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin zens face the grim problem of existence, and D. Roosevelt, Vol. 1 (New York: Macmillan Com- an equally great number toil with little return. pany, 1938), 795–811. Only a foolish optimist can deny the dark real- ities of the moment. 6. First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1933 Yet our distress comes from no failure of substance. We are stricken by no plague of FDR’s First Inaugural Address is one of the most locusts. Compared with the perils which our famous speeches in American history. Its most forefathers conquered because they believed famous line, “the only thing we have to fear is fear and were not afraid, we have still much to be itself,” helped to inspire the public. He stressed the thankful for. Nature still offers her bounty and Selected Primary Documents 335 human efforts have multiplied it. Plenty is at likeness of callous and selfish wrongdoing. our doorstep, but a generous use of it lan- Small wonder that confidence languishes, for guishes in the very sight of the supply. Primar- it thrives only on honesty, on honor, on the ily this is because the rulers of the exchange of sacredness of obligations, on faithful protec- mankind’s goods have failed, through their own tion, on unselfish performance; without them it stubbornness and their own incompetence, cannot live. have admitted their failure, and abdicated. Restoration calls, however, not for changes Practices of the unscrupulous money changers in ethics alone. This Nation asks for action, stand indicted in the court of public opinion, and action now. rejected by the hearts and minds of men. Our greatest primary task is to put people to True they have tried, but their efforts have work. This is no unsolvable problem if we face been cast in the pattern of an outworn tradi- it wisely and courageously. It can be accom- tion. Faced by failure of credit they have pro- plished in part by direct recruiting by the Gov- posed only the lending of more money. ernment itself, treating the task as we would Stripped of the lure of profit by which to treat the emergency of a war, but at the same induce our people to follow their false leader- time, through this employment, accomplishing ship, they have resorted to exhortations, plead- greatly needed projects to stimulate and reor- ing tearfully for restored confidence. They ganize the use of our natural resources. know only the rules of a generation of self- Hand in hand with this we must frankly rec- seekers. They have no vision, and when there is ognize the overbalance of population in our no vision the people perish. industrial centers and, by engaging on a The money changers have fled from their national scale in a redistribution, endeavor to high seats in the temple of our civilization. We provide a better use of the land for those best may now restore that temple to the ancient fitted for the land. The task can be helped by truths. The measure of the restoration lies in definite efforts to raise the values of agricul- the extent to which we apply social values more tural products and with this the power to pur- noble than mere monetary profit. chase the output of our cities. It can be helped Happiness lies not in the mere possession of by preventing realistically the tragedy of the money; it lies in the joy of achievement, in the growing loss through foreclosure of our small thrill of creative effort. The joy and moral homes and our farms. It can be helped by insis- stimulation of work no longer must be forgot- tence that the Federal, State, and local govern- ten in the mad chase of evanescent profits. ments act forthwith on the demand that their These dark days will be worth all they cost us cost be drastically reduced. It can be helped by if they teach us that our true destiny is not to be the unifying of relief activities which today are ministered unto but to minister to ourselves often scattered, uneconomical, and unequal. It and to our fellow men. can be helped by national planning for and Recognition of the falsity of material wealth supervision of all forms of transportation and of as the standard of success goes hand in hand communications and other utilities which have with the abandonment of the false belief that a definitely public character. There are many public office and high political position are to ways in which it can be helped, but it can never be valued only by the standards of pride of be helped merely by talking about it. We must place and personal profit; and there must be an act and act quickly. end to a conduct in banking and in business Finally, in our progress toward a resumption which too often has given to a sacred trust the of work we require two safeguards against a 336 The FDR Years return of the evils of the old order; there must if we are to go forward, we must move as a be a strict supervision of all banking and cred- trained and loyal army willing to sacrifice for its and investments; there must be an end to the good of a common discipline, because with- speculation with other people’s money, and out such discipline no progress is made, no there must be provision for an adequate but leadership becomes effective. We are, I know, sound currency. ready and willing to submit our lives and prop- These are the lines of attack. I shall pre- erty to such discipline, because it makes possi- sently urge upon a new Congress in special ses- ble a leadership which aims at a larger good. sion detailed measures for their fulfillment, and This I propose to offer, pledging that the larger I shall seek the immediate assistance of the sev- purposes will bind upon us all as a sacred obli- eral States. gation with a unity of duty hitherto evoked Through this program of action we address only in time of armed strife. ourselves to putting our own national house in With this pledge taken, I assume unhesitat- order and making income balance outgo. Our ingly the leadership of this great army of our international trade relations, though vastly people dedicated to a disciplined attack upon important, are in point of time and necessity our common problems. secondary to the establishment of a sound Action in this image and to this end is feasi- national economy. I favor as a practical policy ble under the form of government which we the putting of first things first. I shall spare no have inherited from our ancestors. Our Con- effort to restore world trade by international stitution is so simple and practical that it is pos- economic readjustment, but the emergency at sible always to meet extraordinary needs by home cannot wait on that accomplishment. changes in emphasis and arrangement without The basic thought that guides these specific loss of essential form. That is why our consti- means of national recovery is not narrowly tutional system has proved itself the most nationalistic. It is the insistence, as a first con- superbly enduring political mechanism the sideration, upon the interdependence of the modern world has produced. It has met every various elements in all parts of the United stress of vast expansion of territory, of foreign States—a recognition of the old and perma- wars, of bitter internal strife, of world relations. nently important manifestation of the Ameri- It is to be hoped that the normal balance of can spirit of the pioneer. It is the way to executive and legislative authority may be recovery. It is the immediate way. It is the wholly adequate to meet the unprecedented strongest assurance that the recovery will task before us. But it may be that an unprece- endure. dented demand and need for undelayed action In the field of world policy I would dedicate may call for temporary departure from that this Nation to the policy of the good neigh- normal balance of public procedure. bor—the neighbor who resolutely respects I am prepared under my constitutional duty to himself and, because he does so, respects the recommend the measures that a stricken nation rights of others—the neighbor who respects his in the midst of a stricken world may require. obligations and respects the sanctity of his These measures, or such other measures as the agreements in and with a world of neighbors. Congress may build out of its experience and If I read the temper of our people correctly, wisdom, I shall seek, within my constitutional we now realize as we have never realized before authority, to bring to speedy adoption. our interdependence on each other; that we can But in the event that the Congress shall fail not merely take but we must give as well; that to take one of these two courses, and in the Selected Primary Documents 337 event that the national emergency is still criti- tem by explaining the crisis in understandable cal, I shall not evade the clear course of duty terms, relying on his warm, melodious voice. Many that will then confront me. I shall ask the listeners felt he was talking to them personally. Congress for the one remaining instrument to I want to talk for a few minutes with the people meet the crisis—broad Executive power to of the United States about banking—with the wage a war against the emergency, as great as comparatively few who understand the mechan- the power that would be given to me if we were ics of banking but more particularly with the in fact invaded by a foreign foe. overwhelming majority who use banks for the For the trust reposed in me I will return the making of deposits and the drawing of checks. I courage and the devotion that befit the time. I want to tell you what has been done in the last can do no less. few days, why it was done, and what the next We face the arduous days that lie before us steps are going to be. I recognize that the many in the warm courage of the national unity; with proclamations from State capitals and from the clear consciousness of seeking old and pre- Washington, the legislation, the Treasury regu- cious moral values; with the clean satisfaction lations, etc., couched for the most part in bank- that comes from the stern performance of duty ing and legal terms, should be explained for the by old and young alike. We aim at the assur- benefit of the average citizen. I owe this in par- ance of a rounded and permanent national life. ticular because of the fortitude and good temper We do not distrust the future of essential with which everybody has accepted the incon- democracy. The people of the United States venience and hardships of the banking holiday. have not failed. In their need they have regis- I know that when you understand what we in tered a mandate that they want direct, vigor- Washington have been about I shall continue ous action. They have asked for discipline and to have your cooperation as fully as I have had direction under leadership. They have made your sympathy and help during the past week. me the present instrument of their wishes. In First of all, let me state the simple fact that the spirit of the gift I take it. when you deposit money in a bank the bank In this dedication of a Nation we humbly ask does not put the money into a safe deposit the blessing of God. May He protect each and vault. It invests your money in many different every one of us. May He guide me in the days forms of credit—bonds, commercial paper, to come. mortgages and many other kinds of loans. In other words, the bank puts your money to work Source: “First Inaugural Address of Franklin D. to keep the wheels of industry and of agricul- Roosevelt, Saturday, March 4, 1933.” The Avalon ture turning around. A comparatively small Project at Yale Law School. Available online. URL: part of the money you put into the bank is kept http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/ inaug/froos1.htm. in currency—an amount which in normal times is wholly sufficient to cover the cash needs of the average citizen. In other words, the total 7. First Fireside Chat— amount of all the currency in the country is On the Bank Crisis, March 12, 1933 only a small fraction of the total deposits in all of the banks. FDR’s first radio address to the American people What, then, happened during the last few may have been his most important of the approxi- days of February and the first few days of mately 30 that he delivered during his four terms. March? Because of undermined confidence on He used it to restore confidence in the banking sys- the part of the public, there was a general rush 338 The FDR Years by a large portion of our population to turn turn out not to be in a position for immediate bank deposits into currency or gold—a rush so opening. The new law allows the twelve Federal great that the soundest banks could not get Reserve Banks to issue additional currency on enough currency to meet the demand. The rea- good assets and thus the banks which reopen son for this was that on the spur of the will be able to meet every legitimate call. The moment, it was, of course, impossible to sell new currency is being sent out by the Bureau of perfectly sound assets of a bank and convert Engraving and Printing in large volume to them into cash except at panic prices far below every part of the country. It is sound currency their real value. because it is backed by actual, good assets. By the afternoon of March third scarcely a A question you will ask is this: why are all bank in the country was open to do business. the banks not to be reopened at the same time? Proclamations temporarily closing them in The answer is simple. Your Government does whole or in part had been issued by the Gov- not intend that the history of the past few years ernors of almost all the States. shall be repeated. We do not want and will not It was then that I issued the proclamation have another epidemic of bank failures. providing for the nationwide bank holiday, and As a result, we start tomorrow, Monday, with this was the first step in the Government’s the opening of banks in the twelve Federal reconstruction of our financial and economic Reserve Bank cities—those banks which on fabric. first examination by the Treasury have already The second step was the legislation promptly been found to be all right. This will be followed and patriotically passed by the Congress con- on Tuesday by the resumption of all their func- firming my proclamation and broadening my tions by banks already found to be sound in powers so that it became possible in view of the cities where there are recognized clearing requirement of time to extend the holiday and houses. That means about two hundred and lift the ban of that holiday gradually. This law fifty cities of the United States. also gave authority to develop a program of On Wednesday and succeeding days banks rehabilitation of our banking facilities. I want in smaller places all through the country will to tell our citizens in every part of the Nation resume business, subject, of course, to the that the national Congress—Republicans and Government’s physical ability to complete its Democrats alike—showed by this action a devo- survey. It is necessary that the reopening of tion to public welfare and a realization of the banks be extended over a period in order to emergency and the necessity for speed that is permit the banks to make applications for nec- difficult to match in our history. essary loans, to obtain currency needed to meet The third stage has been the series of regu- their requirements and to enable the Govern- lations permitting the banks to continue their ment to make common sense checkups. functions to take care of the distribution of Let me make it clear to you that if your bank food and household necessities and the pay- does not open the first day you are by no means ment of payrolls. justified in believing that it will not open. A This bank holiday, while resulting in many bank that opens on one of the subsequent days cases in great inconvenience, is affording us the is in exactly the same status as the bank that opportunity to supply the currency necessary to opens tomorrow. meet the situation. No sound bank is a dollar I know that many people are worrying about worse off than it was when it closed its doors State banks not members of the Federal last Monday. Neither is any bank which may Reserve System. These banks can and will Selected Primary Documents 339 receive assistance from member banks and One more point before I close. There will from the Reconstruction Finance Corporation. be, of course, some banks unable to reopen These State banks are following the same without being reorganized. The new law allows course as the National banks except that they the Government to assist in making these reor- get their licenses to resume business from the ganizations quickly and effectively and even State authorities, and these authorities have allows the Government to subscribe to at least been asked by the Secretary of the Treasury to a part of new capital which may be required. permit their good banks to open up on the I hope you can see from this elemental recital same schedule as the national banks. I am con- of what your Government is doing that there is fident that the State Banking Departments will nothing complex, or radical, in the process. be as careful as the national Government in the We had a bad banking situation. Some of policy relating to the opening of banks and will our bankers had shown themselves either follow the same broad policy. incompetent or dishonest in their handling of It is possible that when the banks resume a the people’s funds. They had used the money very few people who have not recovered from entrusted to them in speculations and unwise their fear may again begin withdrawals. Let me loans. This was, of course, not true in the vast make it clear that the banks will take care of all majority of our banks, but it was true in enough needs—and it is my belief that hoarding during of them to shock the people for a time into a the past week has become an exceedingly sense of insecurity and to put them into a frame unfashionable pastime. It needs no prophet to of mind where they did not differentiate, but tell you that when the people find that they can seemed to assume that the acts of a comparative get their money—that they can get it when few had tainted them all. It was the Govern- they want it for all legitimate purposes—the ment’s job to straighten out this situation and phantom of fear will soon be laid. People will do it as quickly as possible. And the job is being again be glad to have their money where it will performed. be safely taken care of and where they can use I do not promise you that every bank will be it conveniently at any time. I can assure you reopened or that individual losses will not be that it is safer to keep your money in a suffered, but there will be no losses that possi- reopened bank than under the mattress. bly could have been avoided; and there would The success of our whole great national pro- have been more and greater losses had we con- gram depends, of course, upon the cooperation tinue to drift. I can even promise you salvation of the public—on its intelligent support and for at least some of the sorely pressed banks. use of a reliable system. We shall be engaged not merely in reopening Remember that the essential accomplish- sound banks but in the creation of sound banks ment of the new legislation is that it makes it through reorganization. possible for banks more readily to convert their It has been wonderful to me to catch the assets into cash than was the case before. More note of confidence from all over the country. I liberal provision has been made for banks to can never be sufficiently grateful to all the peo- borrow on these assets at the Reserve Banks ple for the loyal support they have given me in and more liberal provision has also been made their acceptance of the judgment that has dic- for issuing currency on the security of these tated our course, even though all our processes good assets. This currency is not fiat currency. may not have seemed clear to them. It is issued only on adequate security, and every After all, there is an element in the readjust- good bank has an abundance of such security. ment of our financial system more important 340 The FDR Years than currency, more important than gold, and of President Washington himself. The session that is the confidence of the people. Confi- was distinguished by the extent and variety of dence and courage are the essentials of success legislation enacted and by the intelligence and in carrying out our plan. You people must have good will of debate upon these measures. faith; you must not be stampeded by rumors or I mention only a few of the major enact- guesses. Let us unite in banishing fear. We have ments. It provided for the readjustment of the provided the machinery to restore our finan- debt burden through the corporate and munic- cial system; it is up to you to support and make ipal bankruptcy acts and the farm relief act. It it work. lent a hand to industry by encouraging loans to It is your problem no less than it is mine. solvent industries unable to secure adequate Together we cannot fail. help from banking institutions. It strengthened the integrity of finance through the regulation Source: B. D. Zevin, ed. Nothing to Fear: The of securities exchanges. It provided a rational Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, method of increasing our volume of foreign 1932–1945. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1946. trade through reciprocal trading agreements. It strengthened our naval forces to conform with the intentions and permission of existing 8. Fifth Fireside Chat—“On Economic treaty rights. It made further advances towards Progress” June 28, 1934 peace in industry through the labor adjustment act. It supplemented our agricultural policy FDR’s fifth Fireside Chat dealt with the New Deal through measures widely demanded by farmers as most of them did. He focused on whether the New themselves and intended to avert price destroy- Deal was working. His response was put in a ing surpluses. It strengthened the hand of the rhetorical question, “Are you better off now than Federal Government in its attempts to suppress you were last year?” He fully understood that his gangster crime. It took definite steps towards a audience would answer in the affirmative. national housing program through an act It has been several months since I have talked which I signed today designed to encourage with you concerning the problems of govern- private capital in the rebuilding of the homes of ment. Since January, those of us in whom you the Nation. It created a permanent Federal have vested responsibility have been engaged body for the just regulation of all forms of com- in the fulfillment of plans and policies which munication, including the telephone, the tele- had been widely discussed in previous months. graph and the radio. Finally, and I believe most It seemed to us our duty not only to make the important, it reorganized, simplified and made right path clear but also to tread that path. more fair and just our monetary system, setting As we review the achievements of this ses- up standards and policies adequate to meet the sion of the Seventy-third Congress, it is made necessities of modern economic life, doing jus- increasingly clear that its task was essentially tice to both gold and silver as the metal bases that of completing and fortifying the work it behind the currency of the United States. had begun in March, l933. That was no easy In the consistent development of our previ- task, but the Congress was equal to it. It has ous efforts toward the saving and safeguarding been well said that while there were a few of our national life, I have continued to recog- exceptions, this Congress displayed a greater nize three related steps. The first was relief, freedom from mere partisanship than any other because the primary concern of any Govern- peace-time Congress since the Administration ment dominated by the humane ideals of Selected Primary Documents 341 democracy is the simple principle that in a land sands given new employment through the of vast resources no one should be permitted expansion of direct and indirect government to starve. Relief was and continues to be our assistance of many kinds, although, of course, first consideration. It calls for large expendi- there are those exceptions in professional pur- tures and will continue in modified form to do suits whose economic improvement, of neces- so for a long time to come. We may as well rec- sity, will be delayed. I also could cite statistics to ognize that fact. It comes from the paralysis show the great rise in the value of farm prod- that arose as the after-effect of that unfortunate ucts—statistics to prove the demand for con- decade characterized by a mad chase for sumers’ goods, ranging all the way from food unearned riches and an unwillingness of leaders and clothing to automobiles and of late to in almost every walk of life to look beyond their prove the rise in the demand for durable own schemes and speculations. In our adminis- goods—statistics to cover the great increase in tration of relief we follow two principles: First, bank deposits and to show the scores of thou- that direct giving shall, wherever possible, be sands of homes and of farms which have been supplemented by provision for useful and saved from foreclosure. remunerative work and, second, that where But the simplest way for each of you to judge families in their existing surroundings will in recovery lies in the plain facts of your own all human probability never find an opportu- individual situation. Are you better off than you nity for full self-maintenance, happiness and were last year? Are your debts less burden- enjoyment, we will try to give them a new some? Is your bank account more secure? Are chance in new surroundings. your working conditions better? Is your faith The second step was recovery, and it is suf- in your own individual future more firmly ficient for me to ask each and every one of grounded? you to compare the situation in agriculture Also, let me put to you another simple ques- and in industry today with what it was fifteen tion: Have you as an individual paid too high a months ago. price for these gains? Plausible self-seekers and At the same time we have recognized the theoretical die-hards will tell you of the loss of necessity of reform and reconstruction— individual liberty. Answer this question also out reform because much of our trouble today and of the facts of your own life. Have you lost any in the past few years has been due to a lack of of your rights or liberty or constitutional free- understanding of the elementary principles of dom of action and choice? Turn to the Bill of justice and fairness by those in whom leader- Rights of the Constitution, which I have ship in business and finance was placed— solemnly sworn to maintain and under which reconstruction because new conditions in our your freedom rests secure. Read each provision economic life as well as old but neglected con- of that Bill of Rights and ask yourself whether ditions had to be corrected. you personally have suffered the impairment of Substantial gains well known to all of you a single jot of these great assurances. I have no have justified our course. I could cite statistics question in my mind as to what your answer to you as unanswerable measures of our will be. The record is written in the experiences national progress—statistics to show the gain of your own personal lives. in the average weekly pay envelope of workers In other words, it is not the overwhelming in the great majority of industries—statistics to majority of the farmers or manufacturers or show hundreds of thousands reemployed in workers who deny the substantial gains of the private industries and other hundreds of thou- past year. The most vociferous of the doubting 342 The FDR Years

Thomases may be divided roughly into two organization and method going on in the groups: First, those who seek special political National Recovery Administration. With every privilege and, second, those who seek special passing month we are making strides in the financial privilege. About a year ago I used as orderly handling of the relationship between an illustration the 90% of the cotton manufac- employees and employers. Conditions differ, of turers of the United States who wanted to do course, in almost every part of the country and the right thing by their employees and by the in almost every industry. Temporary methods public but were prevented from doing so by the of adjustment are being replaced by more per- 10% who undercut them by unfair practices manent machinery and, I am glad to say, by a and un-American standards. It is well for us to growing recognition on the part of employers remember that humanity is a long way from and employees of the desirability of maintain- being perfect and that a selfish minority in ing fair relationships all around. every walk of life—farming, business, finance So also, while almost everybody has recog- and even Government service itself—will nized the tremendous strides in the elimination always continue to think of themselves first and of child labor, in the payment of not less than fair their fellow-being second. minimum wages and in the shortening of hours, In the working out of a great national pro- we are still feeling our way in solving problems gram which seeks the primary good of the which relate to self-government in industry, greater number, it is true that the toes of some especially where such self government tends to people are being stepped on and are going to eliminate the fair operation of competition. be stepped on. But these toes belong to the In this same process of evolution we are comparative few who seek to retain or to gain keeping before us the objectives of protecting position or riches or both by some short cut on the one hand industry against chiselers which is harmful to the greater good. within its own ranks, and on the other hand the In the execution of the powers conferred on consumer through the maintenance of reason- it by Congress, the Administration needs and able competition for the prevention of the will tirelessly seek the best ability that the unfair sky-rocketing of retail prices. country affords. Public service offers better But, in addition to this our immediate task, rewards in the opportunity for service than ever we must still look to the larger future. I have before in our history—not great salaries, but pointed out to the Congress that we are seek- enough to live on. In the building of this ser- ing to find the way once more to well-known, vice there are coming to us men and women long-established but to some degree forgotten with ability and courage from every part of the ideals and values. We seek the security of the Union. The days of the seeking of mere party men, women and children of the Nation. advantage through the misuse of public power That security involves added means of pro- are drawing to a close. We are increasingly viding better homes for the people of the demanding and getting devotion to the public Nation. That is the first principle of our future service on the part of every member of the program. Administration, high and low. The second is to plan the use of land and The program of the past year is definitely in water resources of this country to the end that operation and that operation month by month the means of livelihood of our citizens may be is being made to fit into the web of old and new more adequate to meet their daily needs. conditions. This process of evolution is well And, finally, the third principle is to use the illustrated by the constant changes in detailed agencies of government to assist in the estab- Selected Primary Documents 343 lishment of means to provide sound and ade- Potsdam Palace. But I have no such fears. The quate protection against the vicissitudes of architects and builders are men of common modern life—in other words, social insurance. sense and of artistic American tastes. They Later in the year I hope to talk with you know that the principles of harmony and of more fully about these plans. A few timid peo- necessity itself require that the building of the ple, who fear progress, will try to give you new new structure shall blend with the essential and strange names for what we are doing. lines of the old. It is this combination of the Sometimes they will call it “Fascism,” some- old and the new that marks orderly peaceful times “Communism,” sometimes “Regimenta- progress—not only in building buildings but in tion,” sometimes “Socialism.” But, in so doing, building government itself. they are trying to make very complex and the- Our new structure is a part of and a fulfill- oretical something that is really very simple and ment of the old. very practical. All that we do seeks to fulfill the historic tra- I believe in practical explanations and in ditions of the American people. Other nations practical policies. I believe that what we are may sacrifice democracy for the transitory doing today is a necessary fulfillment of what stimulation of old and discredited autocracies. Americans have always been doing—a fulfill- We are restoring confidence and well-being ment of old and tested American ideals. under the rule of the people themselves. We Let me give you a simple illustration: While remain, as John Marshall said a century ago, I am away from Washington this summer, a long “emphatically and truly, a government of the needed renovation of and addition to our White people.” Our government “in form and in sub- House office building is to be started. The archi- stance . . . emanates from them. Its powers are tects have planned a few new rooms built into granted by them, and are to be exercised the present all too small one-story structure. We directly on them, and for their benefits.” are going to include in this addition and in this Before I close, I want to tell you of the inter- renovation modern electric wiring and modern est and pleasure with which I look forward to plumbing and modern means of keeping the the trip on which I hope to start in a few days. offices cool in the hot Washington summers. It is a good thing for everyone who can possi- But the structural lines of the old Executive bly do so to get away at least once a year for a Office Building will remain. The artistic lines of change of scene. I do not want to get into the the White House buildings were the creation of position of not being able to see the forest master builders when our Republic was young. because of the thickness of the trees. The simplicity and the strength of the structure I hope to visit our fellow Americans in remain in the face of every modern test. But Puerto Rico, in the Virgin Islands, in the Canal within this magnificent pattern, the necessities Zone and in Hawaii. And, incidentally, it will of modern government business require con- give me an opportunity to exchange a friendly stant reorganization and rebuilding. word of greeting to the Presidents of our sister If I were to listen to the arguments of some Republics: Haiti, Colombia and Panama. prophets of calamity who are talking these After four weeks on board ship, I plan to days, I should hesitate to make these alter- land at a port in our Pacific northwest, and ations. I should fear that while I am away for a then will come the best part of the whole trip, few weeks the architects might build some for I am hoping to inspect a number of our new strange new Gothic tower or a factory building great national projects on the Columbia, Mis- or perhaps a replica of the Kremlin or of the souri and Mississippi Rivers, to see some of our 344 The FDR Years national parks and, incidentally, to learn much left without assistance and without reasonable of actual conditions during the trip across the safeguards lest it destroy not only itself but also continent back to Washington. our processes of civilization. The underlying While I was in France during the War our necessity for such activity is indeed as strong boys used to call the United States “God’s coun- now as it was years ago when Elihu Root said try.” Let us make it and keep it “God’s country.” the following very significant words: “Instead of the give and take of free individ- Source: Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Review of the ual contract, the tremendous power of organi- Achievements of the Seventy-third Congress.” zation has combined great aggregations of New Deal Network—Reagan’s Fireside Chats. capital in enormous industrial establishments Available online. URL: http://newdeal.feri.org/ working through vast agencies of commerce chat/chat05.htm. and employing great masses of men in move- ments of production and transportation and trade, so great in the mass that each individual 9. Sixth Fireside Chat—On Moving concerned in them is quite helpless by himself. Forward to Greater Freedom The relations between the employer and the and Security, September 30, 1934 employed, between the owners of aggregated capital and the units of organized labor, FDR’s sixth Fireside Chat was a spirited defense of between the small producer, the small trader, the National Recovery Act, which had been offered the consumer, and the great transporting and as the backbone of the New Deal in response to the manufacturing and distributing agencies, all critical economic conditions of 1933. present new questions for the solution of which Three months have passed since I talked with the old reliance upon the free action of indi- you shortly after the adjournment of the vidual wills appears quite inadequate. And in Congress. Tonight I continue that report, many directions, the intervention of that orga- though, because of the shortness of time, I nized control which we call government seems must defer a number of subjects to a later date. necessary to produce the same result of justice Recently the most notable public questions and right conduct which obtained through the that have concerned us all have had to do with attrition of individuals before the new condi- industry and labor and with respect to these, tions arose.” certain developments have taken place which I It was in this spirit thus described by Secre- consider of importance. I am happy to report tary Root that we approached our task of reviv- that after years of uncertainty, culminating in ing private enterprise in March, 1933. Our first the collapse of the spring of 1933, we are bring- problem was, of course, the banking situation ing order out of the old chaos with a greater because, as you know, the banks had collapsed. certainty of the employment of labor at a rea- Some banks could not be saved but the great sonable wage and of more business at a fair majority of them, either through their own profit. These governmental and industrial resources or with Government aid, have been developments hold promise of new achieve- restored to complete public confidence. This ments for the Nation. has given safety to millions of depositors in Men may differ as to the particular form of these banks. Closely following this great con- governmental activity with respect to industry structive effort we have, through various Fed- and business, but nearly all are agreed that pri- eral agencies, saved debtors and creditors alike vate enterprise in times such as these cannot be in many other fields of enterprise, such as loans Selected Primary Documents 345 on farm mortgages and home mortgages; loans the work week have been shortened. Minimum to the railroads and insurance companies and, wages have been established and other wages finally, help for home owners and industry adjusted toward a rising standard of living. The itself. emergency purpose of the N.R.A. was to put In all of these efforts the Government has men to work and since its creation more than come to the assistance of business and with the four million persons have been reemployed, in full expectation that the money used to assist great part through the cooperation of American these enterprises will eventually be repaid. I business brought about under the codes. believe it will be. Benefits of the Industrial Recovery Program The second step we have taken in the have come, not only to labor in the form of new restoration of normal business enterprise has jobs, in relief from overwork and in relief from been to clean up thoroughly unwholesome con- underpay, but also to the owners and managers ditions in the field of investment. In this we of industry because, together with a great have had assistance from many bankers and increase in the payrolls, there has come a sub- business men, most of whom recognize the past stantial rise in the total of industrial profits—a evils in the banking system, in the sale of secu- rise from a deficit figure in the first quarter of rities, in the deliberate encouragement of stock 1933 to a level of sustained profits within one gambling, in the sale of unsound mortgages and year from the inauguration of N.R.A. in many other ways in which the public lost bil- Now it should not be expected that even lions of dollars. They saw that without changes employed labor and capital would be com- in the policies and methods of investment there pletely satisfied with present conditions. could be no recovery of public confidence in the Employed workers have not by any means all security of savings. The country now enjoys the enjoyed a return to the earnings of prosperous safety of bank savings under the new banking times, although millions of hitherto underpriv- laws, the careful checking of new securities ileged workers are today far better paid than under the Securities Act and the curtailment of ever before. Also, billions of dollars of invested rank stock speculation through the Securities capital have today a greater security of present Exchange Act. I sincerely hope that as a result and future earning power than before. This is people will be discouraged in unhappy efforts because of the establishment of fair, competi- to get rich quick by speculating in securities. tive standards and because of relief from unfair The average person almost always loses. Only a competition in wage cutting which depresses very small minority of the people of this coun- markets and destroys purchasing power. But it try believe in gambling as a substitute for the is an undeniable fact that the restoration of old philosophy of Benjamin Franklin that the other billions of sound investments to a rea- way to wealth is through work. sonable earning power could not be brought In meeting the problems of industrial recov- about in one year. There is no magic formula, ery the chief agency of the Government has no economic panacea, which could simply been the National Recovery Administration. revive overnight the heavy industries and the Under its guidance, trades and industries cover- trades dependent upon them. ing over 90 percent of all industrial employees Nevertheless the gains of trade and indus- have adopted codes of fair competition, which try, as a whole, have been substantial. In these have been approved by the President. Under gains and in the policies of the Administration these codes, in the industries covered, child there are assurances that hearten all forward- labor has been eliminated. The work day and looking men and women with the confidence 346 The FDR Years that we are definitely rebuilding our political business men the opportunity they had sought and economic system on the lines laid down by for years to improve business conditions the New Deal—lines which as I have so often through what has been called self-government made clear, are in complete accord with the in industry. If the codes which have been writ- underlying principles of orderly popular gov- ten have been too complicated, if they have ernment which Americans have demanded gone too far in such matters as price fixing and since the white man first came to these shores. limitation of production, let it be remembered We count, in the future as in the past, on the that so far as possible, consistent with the driving power of individual initiative and the immediate public interest of this past year and incentive of fair private profit, strengthened the vital necessity of improving labor condi- with the acceptance of those obligations to the tions, the representatives of trade and industry public interest which rest upon us all. We have were permitted to write their ideas into the the right to expect that this driving power will codes. It is now time to review these actions as be given patriotically and whole-heartedly to a whole to determine through deliberative our Nation. means in the light of experience, from the We have passed through the formative standpoint of the good of the industries them- period of code making in the National Recov- selves, as well as the general public interest, ery Administration and have effected a reorga- whether the methods and policies adopted in nization of the N.R.A. suited to the needs of the emergency have been best calculated to the next phase, which is, in turn, a period of promote industrial recovery and a permanent preparation for legislation which will deter- improvement of business and labor conditions. mine its permanent form. There may be a serious question as to the wis- In this recent reorganization we have recog- dom of many of those devices to control pro- nized three distinct functions: first, the legisla- duction, or to prevent destructive price cutting tive or policy-making function; second, the which many business organizations have administrative function of code making and insisted were necessary, or whether their effect revision; and, third, the judicial function, which may have been to prevent that volume of pro- includes enforcement, consumer complaints duction which would make possible lower and the settlement of disputes between employ- prices and increased employment. Another ers and employees and between one employer question arises as to whether in fixing mini- and another. mum wages on the basis of an hourly or weekly We are now prepared to move into this sec- wage we have reached into the heart of the ond phase, on the basis of our experience in the problem which is to provide annual earnings first phase under the able and energetic leader- for the lowest paid worker as will meet his min- ship of General Johnson. imum needs. We also question the wisdom of We shall watch carefully the working of this extending code requirements suited to the new machinery from the second phase of the great industrial centers and to large employers, N.R.A., modifying it where it needs modifica- to the great number of small employers in the tion and finally making recommendations to the smaller communities. Congress, in order that the functions of N.R.A. During the last twelve months our industrial which have provided their worth may be made a recovery has been to some extent retarded by part of the permanent machinery of government. strikes, including a few of major importance. I Let me call your attention to the fact that would not minimize the inevitable losses to the National Industrial Recovery Act gave employers and employees and to the general Selected Primary Documents 347 public through such conflicts. But I would sumers the benefits that all derive from the point out that the extent and severity of labor continuous, peaceful operation of our essential disputes during this period have been far less enterprises. than in any previous comparable period. Accordingly, I propose to confer within the When the business men of the country were coming month with small groups of those truly demanding the right to organize themselves representative of large employers of labor and adequately to promote their legitimate inter- of large groups of organized labor, in order to ests; when the farmers were demanding legis- seek their cooperation in establishing what I lation which would give them opportunities may describe as a specific trial period of indus- and incentives to organize themselves for a trial peace. common advance, it was natural that the work- From those willing to join in establishing this ers should seek and obtain a statutory declara- hoped-for period of peace, I shall seek assur- tion of their constitutional right to organize ances of the making and maintenance of agree- themselves for collective bargaining as embod- ments, which can be mutually relied upon, ied in Section 7-A of the National Industrial under which wages, hours and working condi- Recovery Act. tions may be determined and any later adjust- Machinery set up by the Federal Govern- ments shall be made either by agreement or, in ment has provided some new methods of case of disagreement, through the mediation or adjustment. Both employers and employees arbitration of State or Federal agencies. I shall must share the blame of not using them as fully not ask either employers or employees perma- as they should. The employer who turns away nently to lay aside the weapons common to from impartial agencies of peace, who denies industrial war. But I shall ask both groups to freedom of organization to his employees, or give a fair trial to peaceful methods of adjusting fails to make every reasonable effort at a peace- their conflicts of opinion and interest, and to ful solution of their differences, is not fully sup- experiment for a reasonable time with measures porting the recovery effort of his Government. suitable to civilize our industrial civilization. The workers who turn away from these same Closely allied to the N.R.A. is the program impartial agencies and decline to use their good of public works provided for in the same Act and offices to gain their ends are likewise not fully designed to put more men back to work, both cooperating with their Government. directly on the public works themselves, and It is time that we made a clean-cut effort to indirectly in the industries supplying the mate- bring about that united action of management rials for these public works. To those who say and labor, which is one of the high purposes of that our expenditures for public works and other the Recovery Act. We have passed through means for recovery are a waste that we cannot more than a year of education. Step by step we afford, I answer that no country, however rich, have created all the Government agencies nec- can afford the waste of its human resources. essary to insure, as a general rule, industrial Demoralization caused by vast unemployment peace, with justice for all those willing to use is our greatest extravagance. Morally, it is the these agencies whenever their voluntary bar- greatest menace to our social order. Some peo- gaining fails to produce a necessary agreement. ple try to tell me that we must make up our There should be at least a full and fair trial minds that for the future we shall permanently given to these means of ending industrial war- have millions of unemployed just as other coun- fare; and in such an effort we should be able to tries have had them for over a decade. What secure for employers and employees and con- may be necessary for those countries is not my 348 The FDR Years responsibility to determine. But as for this coun- British press has told us with pardonable irony try, I stand or fall by my refusal to accept as a that much of our New Deal program is only an necessary condition of our future a permanent attempt to catch up with English reforms that army of unemployed. On the contrary, we must go back ten years or more. make it a national principle that we will not tol- Nearly all Americans are sensible and calm erate a large army of unemployed and that we people. We do not get greatly excited nor is our will arrange our national economy to end our peace of mind disturbed, whether we be busi- present unemployment as soon as we can and ness men or workers or farmers, by awesome then to take wise measures against its return. I pronouncements concerning the unconstitu- do not want to think that it is the destiny of any tionality of some of our measures of recovery American to remain permanently on relief rolls. and relief and reform. We are not frightened Those, fortunately few in number, who are by reactionary lawyers or political editors. All frightened by boldness and cowed by the of these cries have been heard before. More necessity for making decisions, complain that than twenty-one years ago, when Theodore all we have done is unnecessary and subject to Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson were attempt- great risks. Now that these people are coming ing to correct abuses in our national life, the out of their storm cellars, they forget that there great Chief Justice White said; ever was a storm. They point to England. They “There is a great danger it seems to me to would have you believe that England has made arise from the constant habit which prevails progress out of her depression by a do-noth- where anything is opposed or objected to, of ing policy, by letting nature take her course. referring without rhyme or reason to the Con- England has her peculiarities and we have ours, stitution as a means of preventing its accom- but I do not believe any intelligent observer can plishment, thus creating the general impression accuse England of undue orthodoxy in the pre- that the Constitution is but a barrier to progress sent emergency. instead of being the broad highway through Did England let nature take her course? No. which alone true progress may be enjoyed.” Did England hold to the gold standard when In our efforts for recovery we have avoided, her reserves were threatened? No. Has Eng- on the one hand, the theory that business land gone back to the gold standard today? No. should and must be taken over into an all- Did England hesitate to call in ten billion dol- embracing Government. We have avoided, on lars of her war bonds bearing 5 percent inter- the other hand, the equally untenable theory est, to issue new bonds therefore bearing only that it is an interference with liberty to offer 3 1/2 percent interest, thereby saving the reasonable help when private enterprise is in British Treasury one hundred and fifty million need of help. The course we have followed fits dollars a year in interest alone? No. And let it the American practice of Government, a prac- be recorded that the British bankers helped. Is tice of taking action step by step, of regulating it not a fact that ever since the year 1909, Great only to meet concrete needs, a practice of Britain in many ways has advanced further courageous recognition of change. I believe along the lines of social security than the with Abraham Lincoln, that “The legitimate United States? Is it not a fact that relations object of Government is to do for a commu- between capital and labor on the basis of col- nity of people whatever they need to have done lective bargaining are much further advanced but cannot do at all or cannot do so well for in Great Britain than in the United States? Is it themselves in their separate and individual perhaps not strange that the conservative capacities.” Selected Primary Documents 349

I am not for a return to that definition of lib- economic freedom for which Washington and erty under which for many years a free people Jefferson planned and fought.... were being gradually regimented into the ser- Throughout the Nation, opportunity was vice of the privileged few. I prefer and I am sure limited by monopoly. Individual initiative was you prefer that broader definition of liberty crushed in the cogs of a great machine. The under which we are moving forward to greater field open for free business was more and more freedom, to greater security for the average restricted. Private enterprise, indeed, became man than he has ever known before in the his- too private. It became privileged enterprise, tory of America.” not free enterprise. An old English judge once said: “Necessi- Source: The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin tous men are not free men.” Liberty requires D. Roosevelt, Vol. 3 (New York: Macmillan Com- opportunity to make a living—a living decent pany), 413–422. according to the standard of the time, a living which gives man not only enough to live by, but something to live for. 10. Speech to the Democratic National For too many of us the political equality we Convention, June 27, 1936 once had won was meaningless in the face of economic inequality. A small group had con- In 1936, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, FDR was centrated into their own hands an almost com- in the position that Herbert Hoover held in 1932. plete control over other people’s property, other Campaigning for reelection, he delivered his open- people’s money, other people’s labor—other ing salvo. He used Stanley High’s phrase condemn- people’s lives. For too many of us life was no ing the rich “economic royalists” and promised longer free; liberty no longer real; men could Americans they had a “rendezvous with destiny,” a no longer follow the pursuit of happiness. phrase coined by Tommy Corcoran. Against economic tyranny such as this, the ... America will not forget these recent years, American citizen could appeal only to the orga- will not forget that the rescue was not a mere nized power of Government. The collapse of party task. It was the concern of all of us. In 1929 showed up the despotism for what it was. our strength we rose together, rallied our ener- The election of 1932 was the people’s mandate gies together, applied the old rules of common to end it. Under that mandate it is being ended. sense, and together survived. The royalists of the economic order have In those days we feared fear. That was why conceded that political freedom was the busi- we fought fear. And today, my friends, we have ness of the Government, but they have main- won against the most dangerous of our foes. tained that economic slavery was nobody’s We have conquered fear. business. They granted that the Constitution But I cannot, with candor, tell you that all is could protect the citizen in his right to vote, well with the world. Clouds of suspicion, tides but they denied that the Government could do of ill-will and intolerance gather darkly in anything to protect the citizen in his right to many places. In our own land we enjoy indeed work and his right to live. a fullness of life greater than that of most Today we stand committed to the proposi- Nations. But the rush of modern civilization tion that freedom is no half-and-half affair. If itself has raised for us new difficulties, new the average citizen is guaranteed equal oppor- problems which must be solved if we are to tunity in the polling place, he must have equal preserve to the United States the political and opportunity in the market place. 350 The FDR Years

These economic royalists complain that we profiteers or Republican economic royalists favored seek to overthrow the institutions of America. war but that he would fight for peace. What they really complain of is that we seek to As many of you who are here tonight know, I take away their power. Our allegiance to Amer- formed the excellent habit of coming to Chau- ican institutions requires the overthrow of this tauqua more than twenty years ago. After my kind of power. In vain they seek to hide behind Inauguration in 1933, I promised Mr. Bestor the Flag and the Constitution. In their blind- that during the next four years I would come to ness they forget what the Flag and the Consti- Chautauqua again. It is in fulfillment of this tution stand for. Now, as always, they stand for that I am with you tonight. democracy, not tyranny; for freedom, not sub- A few days ago I was asked what the subject jection; and against a dictatorship by mob rule of this talk would be; and I replied that for two and the overprivileged alike.... good reasons I wanted to discuss the subject of We seek not merely to make Government a peace: First, because it is eminently appropri- mechanical implement, but to give it the ate in Chautauqua and second, because in the vibrant personal character that is the very hurly-burly of domestic politics it is impor- embodiment of human charity.... tant that our people should not overlook Governments can err, Presidents do make problems and issues which, though they lie mistakes, but the immortal Dante tells us that beyond our borders, may, and probably will, divine justice weighs the sins of the cold- have a vital influence on the United States of blooded and the sins of the warm-hearted in the future. different scales. Many who have visited me in Washington Better the occasional faults of Government in the past few months may have been sur- that lives in the spirit of charity than the con- prised when I have told them that personally sistent omissions of a Government frozen in and because of my own daily contacts with all the ice of its own indifference. manner of difficult situations I am more con- There is a mysterious cycle in human events. cerned and less cheerful about international To some generations much is given. Of other world conditions than about our immediate generations much is expected. This generation domestic prospects. of Americans has a rendezvous with destiny.... I say this to you not as a confirmed pessimist but as one who still hopes that envy, hatred and Source: Samuel I. Rosenman, comp. The Public malice among Nations have reached their peak Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Vol. 5 and will be succeeded by a new tide of peace (1938; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, and good-will. I say this as one who has partic- 1969), 230–236. ipated in many of the decisions of peace and war before, during and after the World War; 11. “I Hate War” Speech, Chautauqua, one who has traveled much; and one who has New York, August 14, 1936 spent a good portion of every twenty-four hours in the study of foreign relations. Facing the Spanish civil war and the Neutrality Long before I returned to Washington as Act of 1935, FDR was caught between his interna- President of the United States, I had made up tional outlook and an isolationist Congress. He my mind that pending what might be called a turned the tables on the isolationists asserting that more opportune moment on other continents, he rather than the Republicans, many of whom were the United States could best serve the cause of isolationists, could prevent war. He claimed that war a peaceful humanity by setting an example. Selected Primary Documents 351

That was why on the 4th of March 1933, I We have negotiated a Pan-American con- made the following declaration: vention embodying the principle of non-inter- “In the field of world policy I would dedicate vention. We have abandoned the Platt this Nation to the policy of the good neigh- Amendment which gave us the right to inter- bor—the neighbor who resolutely respects vene in the international affairs of the Repub- himself and, because he does so, respects the lic of Cuba. We have withdrawn American rights of others—the neighbor who respects his marines from Haiti. We have signed a new obligations and respects the sanctity of his treaty which places our relations with Panama agreements in and with a world of neighbors.” on a mutually satisfactory basis. We have This declaration represents my purpose; but undertaken a series of trade agreements with it represents more than a purpose, for it stands other American countries to our mutual com- for a practice. To a measurable degree it has mercial profit. At the request of two neighbor- succeeded; the whole world now knows that ing Republics, I hope to give assistance in the the United States cherishes no predatory ambi- final settlement of the last serious boundary tions. We are strong; but less powerful Nations dispute between any of the American nations. know that they need not fear our strength. We Throughout the Americas the spirit of the seek no conquest; we stand for peace. good neighbor is a practical and living fact. In the whole of the Western Hemisphere The twenty-one American Republics are not our good-neighbor policy has produced results only living together in friendship and in peace; that are especially heartening. they are united in the determination so to The noblest monument to peace and to remain. neighborly economic and social friendship in To give substance to this determination a all the world is not a monument in bronze or conference will meet on December 1, 1936, at stone, but the boundary which unites the the capital of our great Southern neighbor, United States and Canada—3,000 miles of Argentina, and it is, I know, the hope of all friendship with no barbed wire, no gun or sol- Chiefs of State of the Americas that this will dier, and no passport on the whole frontier. result in measures which will banish wars for- Mutual trust made that frontier. To extend ever from this vast portion of the earth. the same sort of mutual trust throughout the Peace, like charity, begins at home; that is Americas was our aim. why we have begun at home. But peace in the The American Republics to the south of us Western world is not all that we seek. have been ready always to cooperate with the It is our hope that knowledge of the practi- United States on the basis of equality and cal application of the good-neighbor policy in mutual respect, but before we inaugurated this hemisphere will be borne home to our the good-neighbor policy there were among neighbors across the seas. them resentment and fear, because certain For ourselves we are on good terms with Administrations in Washington had slighted them—terms in most cases of straightforward their national pride and their sovereign friendship, of peaceful understanding. rights. But, of necessity, we are deeply concerned In pursuance of the good-neighbor policy, about tendencies of recent years among many and because in my younger days I had learned of the Nations of other continents. It is a bitter many lessons in the hard school of experience, experience to us when the spirit of agreements I stated that the United States was opposed def- to which we are a party is not lived up to. It is initely to armed intervention. an even more bitter experience for the whole 352 The FDR Years company of Nations to witness not only the have seen cities destroyed. I have seen two hun- spirit but the letter of international agreements dred limping, exhausted men come out of violated with impunity and without regard to line—the survivors of a regiment of one thou- the simple principles of honor. Permanent sand that went forward forty-eight hours friendships between Nations as between men before. I have seen children starving. I have seen can be sustained only by scrupulous respect for the agony of mothers and wives. I hate war. the pledged word. I have passed unnumbered hours, I shall pass In spite of all this we have sought steadfastly unnumbered hours, thinking and planning how to assist international movements to prevent war may be kept from this Nation. war. We cooperated to the bitter end—and it I wish I could keep war from all Nations; but was a bitter end—in the work of the General that is beyond my power. I can at least make Disarmament Conference. When it failed we certain that no act of the United States helped sought a separate treaty to deal with the man- to produce or to promote war. I can at least ufacture of arms and the international traffic in make clear that the conscience of America arms. That proposal also came to nothing. We revolts against war and that any Nation which participated—again to the bitter end—in a provokes war forfeits the sympathy of the peo- conference to continue naval limitations, and ple of the United States. when it became evident that no general treaty Many causes produce war. There are ancient could be signed because of the objections of hatred, turbulent frontiers, the “legacy of old other Nations, we concluded with Great forgotten, far-off things, and battles long ago.” Britain and France a conditional treaty of qual- There are new-born fanaticisms, convictions itative limitation which, much to my regret, on the part of certain peoples that they have already shows signs of ineffectiveness. become the unique depositories of ultimate We shun political commitments which truth and right. might entangle us in foreign wars; we avoid A dark old world was devastated by wars connection with the political activities of the between conflicting religions. A dark modern League of Nations; but I am glad to say that world faces war between conflicting economic we have cooperated whole-heartedly in the and political fanaticisms in which are inter- social and humanitarian work at Geneva. Thus twined race hatreds. To bring it home, it is as if we are part of the world effort to control traf- within the territorial limits of the United fic in narcotics, to improve international States, forty-eight Nations with forty-eight health, to help child welfare, to eliminate dou- forms of government, forty-eight custom bar- ble taxation and to better working conditions riers, forty-eight languages, and forty-eight and laboring hours throughout the world. eternal and different verities, were spending We are not isolationists except in so far as their time and their substance in a frenzy of we seek to isolate ourselves completely from effort to make ourselves strong enough to con- war. Yet we must remember that so long as war quer their neighbors or strong enough to exists on earth there will be some danger that defend themselves against their neighbors. even the Nation which most ardently desires In one field, that of economic barriers, the peace may be drawn into war. American policy may be, I hope, of some assis- I have seen war. I have seen war on land and tance in discouraging the economic source of sea. I have seen blood running from the war and therefore a contribution toward the wounded. I have seen men coughing out their peace of the world. The trade agreements gassed lungs. I have seen the dead in the mud. I which we are making are not only finding out- Selected Primary Documents 353 lets for the products of the American fields and Nevertheless, if war should break out again American factories, but are also pointing the in another continent, let us not blink the fact way to the elimination of embargoes, quotas that we would find in this country thousands and other devices which place such pressure on of Americans who, seeking immediate riches— Nations not possessing great natural resources fools’ gold—would attempt to break down or that to them the price of peace seems less ter- evade our neutrality. rible than the price of war. They would tell you—and, unfortunately, We do not maintain that a more liberal their views would get wide publicity—that if international trade will stop war; but we fear they could produce and ship this and that and that without a more liberal international trade, the other article to belligerent Nations, the war is a natural sequence. unemployed of America would all find work. The Congress of the United States has given They would tell you that if they could extend me certain authority to provide safeguards of credit to warring Nations that credit would be American neutrality in case of war. used in the United States to build homes and The President of the United States, who, factories and pay our debts. They would tell under our Constitution, is vested with primary you that America once more would capture the authority to conduct our international rela- trade of the world. tions, thus has been given new weapons with It would be hard to resist that clamor; it which to maintain our neutrality. would be hard for many Americans, I fear, to Nevertheless—and I speak from long expe- look beyond—to realize the inevitable penal- rience—the effective maintenance of American ties, the inevitable day of reckoning, that come neutrality depends today, as in the past, on the from a false prosperity. To resist the clamor of wisdom and determination of whoever at the that greed, if war should come, would require moment occupy the offices of President and the unswerving support of all Americans who Secretary of State. love peace. It is clear that our present policy and mea- If we face the choice of profits or peace, the sures passed by the Congress would, in the Nation will answer—must answer—“We choose event of a war on some other continent, reduce peace.” It is the duty of all of us to encourage war profits which would otherwise accrue to such a body of public opinion in this country American citizens. Industrial and agricultural that the answer will be clear and for all practical production for a war market may give immense purposes unanimous. fortunes to a few men; for the nation as a whole With that wise and experienced man who is it produces disaster. It was the prospect of war our Secretary of State, whose statesmanship has profits that made our farmers in the West plow met with such wide approval, I have thought up prairie land that should never have been and worked long and hard on the problem of plowed, but should have been left for grazing keeping the United States at peace. But all the cattle. Today we are reaping the harvest of wisdom of America is not to be found in the those war profits in dust storms which have White House or in the Department of State; devastated those war-plowed areas. we need the meditation, the prayer, and the It was the prospect of war profits that caused positive support of the people of America who the extension of monopoly and unjustified go along with us in seeking peace. expansion of industry and a price level so high No matter how well we are supported by neu- that the normal relationship between debtor trality legislation, we must remember that no and creditor was destroyed. laws can be provided to cover every contingency, 354 The FDR Years for it is impossible to imagine how every future 12. “We Have Only Just Begun event may shape itself. In spite of every possible to Fight”—Campaign Address at forethought, international relations involve of Madison Square Garden, New York City, necessity a vast uncharted area. In that safe area October 31, 1936 sailing will depend on the knowledge and the experience and the wisdom of those who direct FDR delivered his so-called John Paul Jones speech— our foreign policy. Peace will depend on their his last major address during the fall 1936 campaign. day-to-day decisions. It was written by Samuel Rosenman, Tommy Corco- At this late date, with the wisdom which is so ran, Stanley High, and Donald Richberg. Naval easy after the event and so difficult before the enthusiast Roosevelt incorporated John Paul Jones’s event, we find it possible to trace the tragic famous retort from the Revolutionary War to the cap- series of small decisions which led Europe into tain of a British warship, “we have only just begun to the Great War in 1914 and eventually engulfed fight.” FDR sided with the people against “the Inter- us and many other Nations. ests,” claiming he welcomed the hatred of the business We can keep out of war if those who watch community, and scored Hooverism with the famous and decide have a sufficiently detailed under- monkey metaphor, “hear-nothing, see-nothing, do- standing of international affairs to make cer- nothing Government.” tain that the small decisions of each day do not Senator Wagner, Governor Lehman, ladies and lead toward war and if, at the same time, they gentlemen: possess the courage to say “no” to those who On the eve of a national election, it is well for selfishly or unwisely would let us go to war. us to stop for a moment and analyze calmly and Of all the Nations of the world today we are without prejudice the effect on our Nation of a in many ways most singularly blessed. Our victory by either of the major political parties. closest neighbors are good neighbors. If there The problem of the electorate is far deeper, are remoter Nations that wish us not good but far more vital than the continuance in the Pres- ill, they know that we are strong; they know idency of any individual. For the greater issue that we can and will defend ourselves and goes beyond units of humanity—it goes to defend our neighborhood. humanity itself. We seek to dominate no other Nation. We In 1932 the issue was the restoration of ask no territorial expansion. We oppose American democracy; and the American people imperialism. We desire reduction in world were in a mood to win. They did win. In 1936 armaments. the issue is the preservation of their victory. We believe in democracy; we believe in free- Again they are in a mood to win. Again they dom; we believe in peace. We offer to every will win. Nation of the world the handclasp of the good More than four years ago in accepting the neighbor. Let those who wish our friendship Democratic nomination in Chicago, I said: look us in the eye and take our hand. “Give me your help not to win votes alone, but to win in this crusade to restore America to its Source: “Franklin D. Roosevelt at Chautauqua, own people.” New York (I Hate War Speech), August 14, 1936.” The Authentic History Center. Available The banners of that crusade still fly in the online. URL: http://www.authentichistory.com/ van of a Nation that is on the march. audio/1930s/history/19360814_FDR_At_ It is needless to repeat the details of the pro- Chautauqua_NY.html. gram which this Administration has been ham- Selected Primary Documents 355 mering out on the anvils of experience. No Written on it are the names of those who amount of misrepresentation or statistical con- despaired, young men and women for whom tortion can conceal or blur that record. Nei- opportunity had become a will-o’-the-wisp. ther the attacks of unscrupulous enemies nor Written on it are the names of farmers the exaggerations of over-zealous friends will whose acres yielded only bitterness, business serve to mislead the American people. men whose books were portents of disaster, What was our hope in 1932? Above all other home owners who were faced with eviction, things the American people wanted peace. frugal citizens whose savings were insecure. They wanted peace of mind instead of gnawing Written there in large letters are the names fear. of countless other Americans of all parties and First, they sought escape from the personal all faiths. Americans who had eyes to see and terror which had stalked them for three years. hearts to understand, whose consciences were They wanted the peace that comes from secu- burdened because too many of their fellows rity in their homes: safety for their savings, per- were burdened, who looked on these things manence in their jobs, a fair profit from their four years ago and said, “This can be changed. enterprise. We will change it.” Next, they wanted peace in the community, We still lead that army in 1936. They stood the peace that springs from the ability to meet with us then because in 1932 they believed. the needs of community life: schools, play- They stand with us today because in 1936 they grounds, parks, sanitation, highways—those know. And with them stand millions of new things which are expected of solvent local gov- recruits who have come to know. ernment. They sought escape from disinte- Their hopes have become our record. gration and bankruptcy in local and state We have not come this far without a strug- affairs. gle and I assure you we cannot go further with- They also sought peace within the Nation: out a struggle. protection of their currency, fairer wages, the For twelve years this Nation was affiliated ending of long hours of toil, the abolition of child with hear-nothing, see-nothing, do-nothing labor, the elimination of wild-cat speculation, the Government. The Nation looked to Gov- safety of their children from kidnappers. ernment but the Government looked away. And, finally, they sought peace with other Nine mocking years with the golden calf and Nations—peace in a world of unrest. The three long years in the breadlines! Nine mad Nation knows that I hate war, and I know that years of mirage and three long years of the Nation hates war. despair! Powerful influences strive today to I submit to you a record of peace; and on restore that kind of government with its doc- that record a well-founded expectation for trine that that Government is best which is future peace—peace for the individual, peace most indifferent. for the community, peace for the Nation, and For nearly four years you have had an peace with the world. Administration which instead of twirling its Tonight I call the roll—the roll of honor of thumbs has rolled up its sleeves. We will keep those who stood with us in 1932 and still stand our sleeves rolled up. with us today. We had to struggle with the old enemies of Written on it are the names of millions who peace—business and financial monopoly, spec- never had a chance—men at starvation wages, ulation, reckless banking, class antagonism, women in sweatshops, children at looms. sectionalism, war profiteering. 356 The FDR Years

They had begun to consider the Govern- the will of the employer. But this propaganda is ment of the United States as a mere appendage worse—it is deceit. to their own affairs. We know now that Gov- They tell the worker his wage will be ernment by organized money is just as danger- reduced by a contribution to some vague form ous as Government by organized mob. of old-age insurance. They carefully conceal Never before in all our history have these from him the fact that for every dollar of pre- forces been so united against one candidate as mium he pays for that insurance the employer they stand today. They are unanimous in their pays another dollar. That omission is deceit. hate for me—and I welcome their hatred. They carefully conceal from him the fact I should like to have it said of my first that under the federal law, he receives another Administration that in it the forces of selfish- insurance policy to help him if he loses his job, ness and of lust for power met their match. I and that the premium of the policy is paid 100 should like to have it said of my second Admin- percent by the employer and not one cent by istration that in it these forces met their master. the worker. They do not tell him that the insur- The American people know from a four-year ance policy that is bought for him is far more record that today there is only one entrance to favorable to him than any policy that any pri- the White House—by the front door. Since vate insurance company could afford to issue. March 4, 1933, there has been only one pass-key That omission is deceit. to the White House. I have carried that key in They imply to him that he pays all the cost my pocket. It is there tonight. So long as I am of both forms of insurance. They carefully con- President, it will remain in my pocket. ceal from him the fact that for every dollar put Those who used to have pass-keys are not up by him his employer puts up three dollars— happy. Some of them are desperate. Only des- three for one. And that omission is deceit. perate men with their backs to the wall would But they are guilty of more than deceit. descend so far below the level of decent citi- When they imply that the reserves thus created zenship as to foster the current pay-envelope against both these policies will be stolen by campaign against America’s working people. some future Congress, diverted to some wholly Only reckless men, heedless of the conse- foreign purpose, they attack the integrity and quences, would risk the disruption of the hope honor of American Government itself. Those for a new peace between worker and employer who suggest that, are already aliens to the spirit by returning to the tactics of the labor spy. of American democracy. Let them emigrate Here is an amazing paradox! The very and try their lot under some foreign flag in employers and politicians and publishers who which they have more confidence. talk most loudly of class antagonism and the The fraudulent nature of this attempt is well destruction of the American system now shown by the record of votes on the passage of undermine that system by this attempt to the Social Security Act. In addition to an over- coerce the votes of the wage earners of this whelming majority of Democrats in both country. It is the 1936 version of the old threat Houses, seventy-seven Republican Represen- to close down the factory or the office if a par- tatives voted for it and only eighteen against it ticular candidate does not win. It is an old strat- and fifteen Republican Senators voted for it egy of tyrants to delude their victims into and only five against it. Where does this last- fighting their battles for them. minute drive of the Republican leadership leave Every message in a pay envelope, even if it is these Republican Representatives and Senators the truth, is a command to vote according to who helped enact this law? Selected Primary Documents 357

I am sure the vast majority of law-abiding continued cooperation we will do all in our businessmen who are not parties to this propa- power to end the piling up of huge surpluses ganda fully appreciate the extent of the threat which spelled ruinous prices for their crops. We to honest business contained in this coercion. will persist in successful action for better land I have expressed indignation at this form of use, for reforestation, for the conservation of campaigning and I am confident that the over- water all the way from its source to the sea, for whelming majority of employers, workers and drought and flood control, for better marketing the general public share that indignation and facilities for farm commodities, for a definite will show it at the polls on Tuesday next. reduction of farm tenancy, for encouragement Aside from this phase of it, I prefer to of farmer cooperatives, for crop insurance and a remember this campaign not as bitter but only stable food supply. For all these we have only as hard-fought. There should be no bitterness just begun to fight. or hate where the sole thought is the welfare Of course we will provide useful work for of the United States of America. No man can the needy unemployed; we prefer useful work occupy the office of President without realizing to the pauperism of a dole. that he is President of all the people. Here and now I want to make myself clear It is because I have sought to think in terms about those who disparage their fellow citizens of the whole Nation that I am confident that on the relief rolls. They say that those on relief today, just as four years ago, the people want are not merely jobless—that they are worth- more than promises. less. Their solution for the relief problem is to Our vision for the future contains more than end relief—to purge the rolls by starvation. To promises. use the language of the stock broker, our needy This is our answer to those who, silent about unemployed would be cared for when, as, and their own plans, ask us to state our objectives. if some fairy godmother should happen on the Of course we will continue to seek to scene. improve working conditions for the workers of You and I will continue to refuse to accept America—to reduce hours over-long, to that estimate of our unemployed fellow Amer- increase wages that spell starvation, to end the icans. Your Government is still on the same labor of children, to wipe out sweatshops. Of side of the street with the Good Samaritan and course we will continue every effort to end not with those who pass by on the other side. monopoly in business, to support collective Again—what of our objectives? bargaining, to stop unfair competition, to abol- Of course we will continue our efforts for ish dishonorable trade practices. For all these young men and women so that they may we have only just begun to fight. obtain an education and an opportunity to Of course we will continue to work for put it to use. Of course we will continue our cheaper electricity in the homes and on the help for the crippled, for the blind, for the farms of America, for better and cheaper trans- mothers, our insurance for the unemployed, portation, for low interest rates, for sounder our security for the aged. Of course we will home financing, for better banking, for the reg- continue to protect the consumer against ulation of security issues, for reciprocal trade unnecessary price spreads, against the costs among nations, for the wiping out of slums. For that are added by monopoly and speculation. all these we have only just begun to fight. We will continue our successful efforts to Of course we will continue our efforts in increase his purchasing power and to keep it behalf of the farmers of America. With their constant. 358 The FDR Years

For these things, too, and for a multitude 13. Second Inaugural Address, of others like them, we have only just begun January 20, 1937 to fight. All this—all these objectives—spell peace at Compared to his First Inaugural address, FDR’s home. All our actions, all our ideals, spell also second was more philosophical than action ori- peace with other nations. ented. It was drafted by Donald Richberg, Samuel Today there is war and rumor of war. We Rosenman, and Roosevelt himself, who wrote its want none of it. But while we guard our shores best line: “I see one-third of a nation ill-housed, against threats of war, we will continue to ill-clad, ill-nourished.” remove the causes of unrest and antagonism at When four years ago we met to inaugurate a home which might make our people easier vic- President, the Republic, single-minded in anx- tims to those for whom foreign war is profitable. iety, stood in spirit here. We dedicated our- You know well that those who stand to profit by selves to the fulfillment of a vision—to speed war are not on our side in this campaign. the time when there would be for all the peo- “Peace on earth, good will toward men”— ple that security and peace essential to the pur- democracy must cling to that message. For it is suit of happiness. We of the Republic pledged my deep conviction that democracy cannot live ourselves to drive from the temple of our without that true religion which gives a nation ancient faith those who had profaned it; to end a sense of justice and of moral purpose. Above by action, tireless and unafraid, the stagnation our political forums, above our market places and despair of that day. We did those first stand the altars of our faith—altars on which things first. burn the fires of devotion that maintain all that Our covenant with ourselves did not stop is best in us and all that is best in our Nation. there. Instinctively we recognized a deeper We have need of that devotion today. It is that need—the need to find through government which makes it possible for government to per- the instrument of our united purpose to solve suade those who are mentally prepared to fight for the individual the ever-rising problems of a each other to go on instead, to work for and to complex civilization. Repeated attempts at their sacrifice for each other. That is why we need to solution without the aid of government had left say with the Prophet: “What doth the Lord us baffled and bewildered. For, without that require of thee—but to do justly, to love mercy aid, we had been unable to create those moral and to walk humbly with thy God.” That is why controls over the services of science which are the recovery we seek, the recovery we are win- necessary to make science a useful servant ning, is more than economic. In it are included instead of a ruthless master of mankind. To do justice and love and humanity, not for ourselves this we knew that we must find practical con- as individuals alone, but for our Nation. trols over blind economic forces and blindly That is the road to peace. selfish men. We of the Republic sensed the truth that Source: “Franklin D. Roosevelt Speeches— democratic government has innate capacity to Madison Square Garden (October 31, 1936).” protect its people against disasters once con- Miller Center of Public Affairs, Scripps Library sidered inevitable, to solve problems once con- and Multimedia Archive. Available online. URL: sidered unsolvable. We would not admit that http://www.millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/ we could not find a way to master economic diglibrary/prezspeeches/roosevelt/fdr_1936_1031. epidemics just as, after centuries of fatalistic html. suffering, we had found a way to master epi- Selected Primary Documents 359 demics of disease. We refused to leave the lic’s government. The legend that they were problems of our common welfare to be solved invincible—above and beyond the processes of by the winds of chance and the hurricanes of a democracy—has been shattered. They have disaster. been challenged and beaten. In this we Americans were discovering no Our progress out of the depression is obvi- wholly new truth; we were writing a new chap- ous. But that is not all that you and I mean by ter in our book of self-government. the new order of things. Our pledge was not This year marks the one hundred and fiftieth merely to do a patchwork job with secondhand anniversary of the Constitutional Convention materials. By using the new materials of social which made us a nation. At that Convention our justice we have undertaken to erect on the old forefathers found the way out of the chaos foundations a more enduring structure for the which followed the Revolutionary War; they better use of future generations. created a strong government with powers of In that purpose we have been helped by united action sufficient then and now to solve achievements of mind and spirit. Old truths problems utterly beyond individual or local have been relearned; untruths have been solution. A century and a half ago they estab- unlearned. We have always known that heed- lished the Federal Government in order to pro- less self-interest was bad morals; we know now mote the general welfare and secure the that it is bad economics. Out of the collapse of blessings of liberty to the American people. a prosperity whose builders boasted their prac- Today we invoke those same powers of gov- ticality has come the conviction that in the ernment to achieve the same objectives. long run economic morality pays. We are Four years of new experience have not beginning to wipe out the line that divides the belied our historic instinct. They hold out the practical from the ideal; and in so doing we are clear hope that government within communi- fashioning an instrument of unimagined power ties, government within the separate States, for the establishment of a morally better and government of the United States can do world. the things the times require, without yielding This new understanding undermines the old its democracy. Our tasks in the last four years admiration of worldly success as such. We are did not force democracy to take a holiday. beginning to abandon our tolerance of the Nearly all of us recognize that as intricacies abuse of power by those who betray for profit of human relationships increase, so power to the elementary decencies of life. govern them also must increase—power to stop In this process evil things formerly accepted evil; power to do good. The essential democ- will not be so easily condoned. Hard-headed- racy of our Nation and the safety of our people ness will not so easily excuse hardheartedness. depend not upon the absence of power, but We are moving toward an era of good feeling. upon lodging it with those whom the people But we realize that there can be no era of good can change or continue at stated intervals feeling save among men of good will. through an honest and free system of elections. For these reasons I am justified in believing The Constitution of 1787 did not make our that the greatest change we have witnessed has democracy impotent. been the change in the moral climate of America. In fact, in these last four years, we have made Among men of good will, science and the exercise of all power more democratic; for democracy together offer an ever-richer life we have begun to bring private autocratic pow- and ever-larger satisfaction to the individual. ers into their proper subordination to the pub- With this change in our moral climate and our 360 The FDR Years rediscovered ability to improve our economic But here is the challenge to our democracy: order, we have set our feet upon the road of In this nation I see tens of millions of its citi- enduring progress. zens—a substantial part of its whole popula- Shall we pause now and turn our back upon tion—who at this very moment are denied the the road that lies ahead? Shall we call this the greater part of what the very lowest standards promised land? Or, shall we continue on our of today call the necessities of life. way? For “each age is a dream that is dying, or I see millions of families trying to live on one that is coming to birth.” incomes so meager that the pall of family dis- Many voices are heard as we face a great aster hangs over them day by day. decision. Comfort says, “Tarry a while.” I see millions whose daily lives in city and Opportunism says, “This is a good spot.” on farm continue under conditions labeled Timidity asks, “How difficult is the road indecent by a so-called polite society half a cen- ahead?” tury ago. True, we have come far from the days of I see millions denied education, recreation, stagnation and despair. Vitality has been pre- and the opportunity to better their lot and the served. Courage and confidence have been lot of their children. restored. Mental and moral horizons have been I see millions lacking the means to buy the extended. products of farm and factory and by their But our present gains were won under the poverty denying work and productiveness to pressure of more than ordinary circumstances. many other millions. Advance became imperative under the goad of I see one-third of a nation ill-housed, ill- fear and suffering. The times were on the side clad, ill-nourished. of progress. It is not in despair that I paint you that picture. To hold to progress today, however, is more I paint it for you in hope—because the Nation, difficult. Dulled conscience, irresponsibility, seeing and understanding the injustice in it, pro- and ruthless self-interest already reappear. poses to paint it out. We are determined to make Such symptoms of prosperity may become por- every American citizen the subject of his coun- tents of disaster! Prosperity already tests the try’s interest and concern; and we will never persistence of our progressive purpose. regard any faithful law-abiding group within our Let us ask again: Have we reached the goal borders as superfluous. The test of our progress of our vision of that fourth day of March 1933? is not whether we add more to the abundance of Have we found our happy valley? those who have much; it is whether we provide I see a great nation, upon a great continent, enough for those who have too little. blessed with a great wealth of natural If I know aught of the spirit and purpose of resources. Its hundred and thirty million peo- our Nation, we will not listen to Comfort, ple are at peace among themselves; they are Opportunism, and Timidity. We will carry on. making their country a good neighbor among Overwhelmingly, we of the Republic are the nations. I see a United States which can men and women of good will; men and women demonstrate that, under democratic methods who have more than warm hearts of dedication; of government, national wealth can be trans- men and women who have cool heads and will- lated into a spreading volume of human com- ing hands of practical purpose as well. They forts hitherto unknown, and the lowest will insist that every agency of popular govern- standard of living can be raised far above the ment use effective instruments to carry out level of mere subsistence. their will. Selected Primary Documents 361

Government is competent when all who able online. URL: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/ compose it work as trustees for the whole peo- avalon/presiden/inaug/froos2.htm. ple. It can make constant progress when it keeps abreast of all the facts. It can obtain jus- tified support and legitimate criticism when the 14. Democratic Victory Dinner Address, people receive true information of all that gov- Washington, D.C., March 4, 1937 ernment does. At the Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D.C., If I know aught of the will of our people, FDR gave one of his best fighting speeches. Appeal- they will demand that these conditions of effec- ing directly to the public over the heads of Congress, tive government shall be created and main- he tried to pressure representatives to support his tained. They will demand a nation uncorrupted Supreme Court–packing plan. He acknowledged by cancers of injustice and, therefore, strong that the conservative bench had overturned essential among the nations in its example of the will to New Deal legislation. peace. Today we reconsecrate our country to long- On this fourth of March, 1937, in millions of cherished ideals in a suddenly changed civiliza- homes, the thoughts of American families are tion. In every land there are always at work reverting to the March 4th of another year. forces that drive men apart and forces that draw That day in 1933 represented the death of one men together. In our personal ambitions we are era and the birth of another. individualists. But in our seeking for economic At that time we faced and met a grave and political progress as a nation, we all go up, national crisis. Now we face another crisis—of a or else we all go down, as one people. different kind but fundamentally even more To maintain a democracy of effort requires a grave than that of four years ago. Tonight I want vast amount of patience in dealing with differ- to begin with you a discussion of that crisis. I ing methods, a vast amount of humility. But out shall continue that discussion on Tuesday night of the confusion of many voices rises an under- in a nation-wide broadcast and thereafter, from standing of dominant public need. Then polit- time to time, as may be necessary. For I propose ical leadership can voice common ideals, and to follow my custom of speaking frankly to the aid in their realization. Nation concerning our common problems. In taking again the oath of office as Presi- I speak at this Victory Dinner not only as dent of the United States, I assume the solemn the head of the Democratic Party but as the obligation of leading the American people for- representative of all Americans who have faith ward along the road over which they have cho- in political and economic democracy. sen to advance. Our victory was not sectional. It did not While this duty rests upon me I shall do my come from compromises and bargains. It was utmost to speak their purpose and to do their the voice of twenty-seven million voters—from will, seeking Divine guidance to help us each every part of the land. and every one to give light to them that sit in The Democratic Party, once a minority darkness and to guide our feet into the way of party, is today the majority party by the great- peace. est majority any party ever had. It will remain the majority party so long as it Source: “Second Inaugural Address of Franklin continues to justify the faith of millions who D. Roosevelt, Wednesday, January 20, 1937.” had almost lost faith—so long as it continues The Avalon Project of Yale Law School. Avail- to make modern democracy work—so long and 362 The FDR Years no longer. We are celebrating the 1936 victory. By this time, my friend was sitting on the That was not a final victory. It was a victory edge of his chair. whereby our party won further opportunity to I continued: “John, my ambition relates to lead in the solution of the pressing problems January 20, 1941.” I could feel just what horrid that perplex our generation. Whether we shall thoughts my friend was thinking. So in order to celebrate in 1938, 1940, and in 1944, as we cel- relieve his anxiety, I went on to say: “My great ebrate tonight, will deservedly depend upon ambition on January 20, 1941, is to turn over whether the party continues on its course and this desk and my chair in the White House to solves those problems. my successor, whoever he may be, with the And if I have aught to say it will continue on assurance that I am at the same time turning its course and it will solve those problems. over to him as President, a Nation intact, a After election day in 1936, some of our sup- Nation at peace, a Nation prosperous, a Nation porters were uneasy lest we grasp the excuse of clear in its knowledge of what powers it has to a false era of good feeling to evade our obliga- serve its own citizens, a Nation that is in a posi- tions. They were worried by the evil symptom tion to use those powers to the full in order to that the propaganda and the epithets of last move forward steadily to meet the modern Summer and Fall had died down. needs of humanity—a Nation which has thus Today, however, those who placed their con- proved that the democratic form and methods fidence in us are reassured. For the tumult and of national government can and will succeed. the shouting have broken forth anew—and “In these coming years I want to provide from substantially the same elements of oppo- such assurance. I want to get the nation as far sition. This new roar is the best evidence in the along the road of progress as I can. I do not world that we have begun to keep our want to leave it to my successor in the condi- promises, that we have begun to move against tion in which Buchanan left it to Lincoln.” conditions under which one-third of this My friends, that ambition of mine for my Nation is still ill-nourished, ill-clad, ill-housed. successor can well be the serious ambition of We gave warning last November that we every citizen who wants his United States to be had only just begun to fight. Did some people handed down intact to his children and grand- really believe we did not mean it? Well—I children. meant it, and you meant it. I spoke in the dead earnestness of anxiety. I A few days ago, a distinguished member of speak to you tonight in the same earnestness. the Congress came to see me to talk about For no one who sees as a whole today’s picture national problems in general and about the of this Nation and the world can help but feel problem of the Judiciary in particular. concern for the future. I said to him: To the President of the United States there “John, I want to tell you something that is come every day thousands of messages of very personal to me—something that you have appeal, of protest, of support, of information a right to hear from my own lips. I have a great and advice, messages from rich and poor, from ambition in life.” business man and farmer, from factory My friend pricked up his ears. employee and relief worker, messages from I went on: “I am by no means satisfied with every corner of our wide domain. having twice been elected President of the Those messages reflect the most striking United States by very large majorities. I have feature of the life of this generation—the fea- an even greater ambition.” ture which men who live mentally in another Selected Primary Documents 363 generation can at least understand—the ever- headed nor just what it is permitted to do in accelerating speed with which social forces now order to insure its continued success and sur- gather headway. vival. I can only hope. The issue of slavery, for example, took at For as yet there is no definite assurance that least forty years—two generations—of argu- the three horse team of the American system of ment, discussion and futile compromise, before government will pull together. If three well- it came to a head in the tragic war between the matched horses are put to the task of ploughing States. up a field where the going is heavy, and the But economic freedom for the wage earner team of three pull as one, the field will be and the farmer and the small business man ploughed. If one horse lies down in the traces will not wait, like emancipation, for forty or plunges off in another direction, the field years. It will not wait for four years. It will not will not be ploughed. wait at all. What you and I call the principles of the After the World War, there arose every- New Deal did not originate on the fourth of where insistent demands upon government March, 1933. We think of that date as their that human needs be met. The unthinking, or beginning, because it was not until then that those who dwell in the past, have tried to block the social demands they represented broke them. The wise who live in the present have through the inertia of many years of failure to recognized their innate justice and irresistible improve our political and economic processes. pressure—and have sought to guide them. What were those demands and needs? How In some countries, a royalist form of gov- far did we succeed in meeting them? What ernment failed to meet these demands—and about them today? fell. In other countries, a parliamentary form Ever since the World War the farmers of of government failed to meet these demands— America had been beating off ever-mounting and fell. In still other countries, governments disasters. This Administration tried to help have managed to hold on, but civil strife has them effectively where no other Administra- flared or threats of upheaval persist. tion had dared to take that risk. Democracy in many lands has failed for the The Agricultural Adjustment Act testified to time being to meet human needs. People have our full faith and confidence that the very become so fed up with futile debate and party nature of our major crops makes them articles bickerings over methods that they have been of commerce between the States. willing to surrender democratic processes and The AAA testified also to our full faith and principles in order to get things done. They have confidence that the preservation of sound agri- forgotten the lessons of history that the ultimate culture is essential to the general welfare—that failures of dictatorships cost humanity far more the Congress of the United States had full than any temporary failures of democracy. constitutional authority to solve the national In the United States democracy has not yet economic problems of the Nation’s agricul- failed and does not need to fail. And we pro- ture. By overwhelming votes, the Congress pose not to let it fail! thought so too! Nevertheless, I cannot tell you with com- You know who assumed the power to veto, plete candor that in these past few years and did veto that program. democracy in the United States has fully suc- In the campaign of 1936, I said: “Of course ceeded. Nor can I tell you, under present cir- we will continue our efforts in behalf of the cumstances, just where American democracy is farmers of America. With their continued 364 The FDR Years cooperation we will do all in our power to end of a majority of the Court that we live in a the piling up of huge surpluses which spell Nation where there is no legal power anywhere ruinous prices for their crops. We will persist in to deal with its most difficult practical prob- successful action for better land use, for refor- lems—a No Man’s Land of final futility. estation ... for better marketing facilities for Furthermore, court injunctions have para- farm commodities, for a definite reduction of lyzed the machinery which we created by the farm tenancy, for encouragement of farmer National Labor Relations Act to settle great cooperatives, for crop insurance and a stable disputes raging in the industrial field, and, food supply. For all these things we have only indeed, to prevent them for ever arising. We just begun to fight.” hope that this Act may yet escape final con- Neither individually nor as a party can we demnation in the highest court. But so far the postpone and run from that fight on advice of attitude and language of the courts in relation defeatist lawyers. But I defy anyone to read the to many other laws have made the legality of majority opinion invalidating of the AAA and this Act also uncertain, and have encouraged tell us what we can do for agriculture in this corporations to defy rather than obey it. session of the Congress with any reasonable In the campaign of 1936, you and I certainty that what we do will not be nullified promised this to working men and women: as unconstitutional. “Of course we will continue to seek to The farmers were not the only people in dis- improve working conditions for the workers of tress in 1932. There were millions of workers America—to reduce hours over-long, to in industry and in commerce who had lost their increase wages that spell starvation, to end the jobs, young people who had never been able to labor of children, to wipe out sweatshops.... find their first job, and more millions whose We will provide useful work for the needy jobs did not return them and their families unemployed. For all these things we have only enough to live on decently. just begun to fight.” The Democratic Administration and the And here again we cannot afford, either Congress made a gallant, sincere effort to raise individually or as a party, to postpone or run wages, to reduce hours, to abolish child labor, from the fight on the advice of defeatist to eliminate unfair trade practices. lawyers. We tried to establish machinery to adjust the But I defy anyone to read the opinions con- relations between the employer and employee. cerning AAA, the Railroad Retirement Act, the And what happened? National Recovery Act, the Guffey Coal Act and You know who assumed the power to veto, the New York Minimum Wage Law, and tell us and did veto that program. exactly what, if anything, we can do for the The Railroad Retirement Act, the National industrial worker in this session of the Congress Recovery Act and the Guffey Coal Act were with any reasonable certainty that what we do successively outlawed as the Child Labor will not be nullified as unconstitutional. Statute had been outlawed twenty years before. During the course of the past four years the Soon thereafter the Nation was told by a Nation has been overwhelmed by disasters of judicial pronunciamento that although the Fed- flood and drought. eral Government had thus been rendered pow- Modern science knows how to protect our erless to touch the problem of hour and wages, land and our people from the recurrence of the States were equally helpless; and that it such catastrophes, and knows how to produce pleased the “personal economic predilections” as a by-product the blessing of cheaper electric Selected Primary Documents 365 power. With the Tennessee Valley Authority ers—insurance for the unemployed—security we made a beginning of that kind of protection for the aged—protection of the consumer on an intelligent regional basis. With only two against monopoly and speculation—protection of its nine projected dams completed there was of the investor—the wiping out of slums— no flood damage in the valley of the Tennessee cheaper electricity for the homes and on the this winter. farms of America. You and I owe it to ourselves But how can we confidently complete that individually, as a party, and as a Nation to Tennessee Valley project or extend the idea to remove those doubts and difficulties. the Ohio and other valleys while the lowest In this fight, as the lawyers themselves say, courts have not hesitated to paralyze its opera- time is of the essence. In three elections during tions by sweeping injunctions? the past five years great majorities have The Ohio River and the Dust Bowl are not approved what we are trying to do. To me, and conversant with the habits of the Interstate I am sure to you, those majorities mean that the Commerce Clause. But we shall never be safe people themselves realize the increasing urgency in our lives, in our property, or in the heritage that we meet their needs now. Every delay cre- of our soil, until we have somehow made the ates risks of intervening events which make Interstate Commerce Clause conversant with more and more difficult an intelligent, speedy, the habits of the Ohio River and the Dust and democratic solution of our difficulties. Bowl. As Chief Executive and as the head of the In the campaign of 1936, you and I and all Democratic Party, I am unwilling to take those who supported us did take cognizance of the risks—to the country and to the party—of Ohio River and the Dust Bowl. We said: “Of postponing one moment beyond absolutely course we will continue our efforts ... for necessity the time when we can free from legal drought and flood control.... For these things doubt those policies which offer a progressive we have only just begun to fight.” solution of our problems. Here, too, we cannot afford, either individ- Floods and droughts and agricultural sur- ually or as a party, to postpone or run away pluses, strikes and industrial confusion and dis- from that fight on the advice of defeatist order, cannot be handled forever on a lawyers. Let them try that advice on sweating catch-as-catch-can basis. men piling sandbags on the levees at Cairo. I have another ambition—not so great an But I defy anyone to read the opinions in the ambition as that which I have for the country, T.V.A. case, the Duke Power case and the AAA but an ambition which as a lifelong Democrat, case and tell us exactly what we can do as a I do not believe unworthy. It is an ambition for National Government in this session of the the Democratic Party. Congress to control flood and drought and The Party, and its associates, have had the generate cheap power with any reasonable cer- imagination to perceive essential unity below tainty that what we do will not be nullified as the surface of apparent diversity. We can, there- unconstitutional. fore, long remain a natural rallying point for the The language of the decisions already ren- cooperative effort of all of those who truly dered and the widespread refusal to obey law believe in political and economic democracy. incited by the attitude of the courts, create It will take courage to let our minds be bold doubts and difficulties for almost everything and find the ways to meet the needs of the else for which we have promised to fight—help Nation. But for our Party, now as always, the for the crippled, for the blind, for the moth- counsel of courage is the counsel of wisdom. 366 The FDR Years

If we do not have the courage to lead the it is physically impossible to answer individu- American people where they want to go, some- ally, I take this means of saying “thank you.” one else will. Tonight, sitting at my desk in the White Here is one-third of a Nation ill-nourished, House, I make my first radio report to the peo- ill-clad, ill-housed—NOW! ple in my second term of office. Here are thousands upon thousands of farm- I am reminded of that evening in March, ers wonder whether next year’s prices will meet four years ago, when I made my first radio their mortgage interest—NOW! report to you. We were then in the midst of the Here are thousands upon thousands of men great banking crisis. and women laboring for long hours in facto- Soon after, with the authority of the ries for inadequate pay—NOW! Congress, we asked the Nation to turn over all Here are thousands upon thousands of chil- of its privately held gold, dollar for dollar, to dren who should be at school, working in the Government of the United States. mines and mills—NOW! Today’s recovery proves how right that pol- Here are strikes more far-reaching than we icy was. have ever known, costing millions of dollars— But when, almost two years later, it came NOW! before the Supreme Court its constitutionality Here are Spring floods threatening to roll was upheld only by a five-to-four vote. The again down our river valleys—NOW! change of one vote would have thrown all the Here is the Dust Bowl beginning to blow affairs of this great Nation back into hopeless again—NOW! chaos. In effect, four Justices ruled that the right If we would keep faith with those who had under a private contract to exact a pound of flesh faith in us, if we would make democracy suc- was more sacred than the main objectives of the ceed, I say we must act—NOW! Constitution to establish an enduring Nation. In 1933 you and I knew that we must never Source: The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin let our economic system get completely out of D. Roosevelt, Vol. 6. (New York: Macmillan Com- joint again—that we could not afford to take pany), 113–121. the risk of another great depression. We also became convinced that the only way to avoid a repetition of those dark days was to 15. Ninth Fireside Chat— have a government with power to prevent and On Reorganization of the Judiciary, to cure the abuses and the inequalities which March 9, 1937 had thrown that system out of joint. We then began a program of remedying FDR made a second fighting speech on the radio in those abuses and inequalities—to give balance another effort to appeal directly to the American and stability to our economic system—to make people to pressure their representatives to support his it bomb-proof against the causes of 1929. Court-packing plan. The speech is defensive in tone, Today we are only part-way through that trying to reassure the public that they could trust program—and recovery is speeding up to a him “to make democracy succeed.” point where the dangers of 1929 are again Last Thursday I described in detail certain eco- becoming possible—not this week or month nomic problems which everyone admits now perhaps, but within a year or two. face the Nation. For the many messages which National laws are needed to complete that have come to me after that speech, and which program. Individual or local or state effort Selected Primary Documents 367 alone cannot protect us in 1937 any better than simple fact that the President, as Chief Execu- ten years ago. tive, is himself one of the three horses. It will take time—and plenty of time—to It is the American people themselves who work out our remedies administratively even are in the driver’s seat. after legislation is passed. To complete our pro- It is the American people themselves who gram of protection in time, therefore, we can- want the furrow plowed. not delay one moment in making certain that It is the American people themselves who our National Government has power to carry expect the third horse to pull in unison with through. the other two. Four years ago action did not come until the I hope that you have re-read the Constitu- eleventh hour. It was almost too late. tion of the United States in these past few If we learned anything from the depression weeks. Like the Bible, it ought to be read again we will not allow ourselves to run around in and again. new circles of futile discussion and debate, It is an easy document to understand when always postponing the day of decision. you remember that it was called into being The American people have learned from the because the Articles of Confederation under depression. For in the last three national elec- which the original thirteen States tried to oper- tions an overwhelming majority of them voted ate after the Revolution showed the need of a a mandate that the Congress and the President national government with power enough to begin the task of providing that protection not handle national problems. In its Preamble, the after long years of debate, but now. Constitution states that it was intended to form The Courts, however, have cast doubts on a more perfect Union and promote the general the ability of the elected Congress to protect welfare; and the powers given to the Congress us against catastrophe by meeting squarely our to carry out those purposes can be best modern social and economic conditions. described by saying that they were all the pow- We are at a crisis in our ability to proceed ers needed to meet each and every problem with that protection. It is a quiet crisis. There which then had a national character and which are no lines of depositors outside closed banks. could not be met by merely local action. But to the far sighted it is far reaching in its But the framers went further. Having in possibilities of injury to America. mind that in succeeding generations many I want to talk with you very simply about the other problems then undreamed of would need for present action in this crisis, the need become national problems, they gave to the to meet the unanswered challenge of one-third Congress the ample broad powers “to levy of a nation ill-nourished, ill-clad, ill-housed. taxes ... and provide for the common defense Last Thursday, I described the American and general welfare of the United States.” form of Government as a three horse team pro- That, my friends, is what I honestly believe vided by the Constitution to the American peo- to have been the clear and underlying purpose ple so that their field might be plowed. The of the patriots who wrote a Federal Constitu- three horses are, of course, the three branches tion to create a National Government with of government—the Congress, the Executive national power, intended as they said, “to form and the Courts. Two of the horses are pulling a more perfect union ... for ourselves and our in unison today; the third is not. Those who posterity.” have intimated that the President of the United For nearly twenty years there was no con- States is trying to drive that team, overlook the flict between the Congress and the Court. 368 The FDR Years

Then Congress passed a statute, which, in majority opinion was “a departure from sound 1803, the Court said violated an express provi- principles,” and placed “an unwarranted limi- sion of the Constitution. The Court claimed tation upon the commerce clause.” And three the power to declare it unconstitutional and other justices agreed with him. did so declare it. But a little later the Court In the case of holding the AAA unconstitu- itself admitted that it was an extraordinary tional, Justice Stone said of the majority opin- power to exercise and through Mr. Justice ion that it was a “tortured construction of the Washington laid down this limitation upon it: Constitution.” And two other justices agreed “It is but a decent respect due to the wisdom, with him. the integrity and the patriotism of the legisla- In the case holding the New York minimum tive body, by which any law is passed, to pre- wage law unconstitutional, Justice Stone said sume in favor of its validity until its violation of that the majority were actually reading into the the Constitution is proved beyond all reason- Constitution their own “personal economic able doubt.” predilections,” and that if the legislative power But since the rise of the modern movement is not left free to choose the methods of solving for social and economic progress through leg- the problems of poverty, subsistence, and islation, the Court has more and more often health of large numbers in the community, and more and more boldly asserted a power to then “government is to be rendered impotent.” veto laws passed by the Congress and State And two other justices agreed with him. Legislatures in complete disregard of this orig- In the face of these dissenting opinions, inal limitation. there is no basis for the claim made by some In the last four years the sound rule of giv- members of the Court that something in the ing statutes the benefit of all reasonable doubt Constitution has compelled them regretfully to has been cast aside. The Court has been acting thwart the will of the people. not as a judicial body, but as a policy-making In the face of such dissenting opinions, it is body. perfectly clear that, as Chief Justice Hughes has When the Congress has sought to stabilize said, “We are under a Constitution, but the national agriculture, to improve the conditions Constitution is what the judges say it is.” of labor, to safeguard business against unfair The Court, in addition to the proper use of competition, to protect our national resources, its judicial functions, has improperly set itself and in many other ways, to serve our clearly up as a third house of the Congress—a super- national needs, the majority of the Court has legislature, as one of the justices has called it, been assuming the power to pass on the wis- reading into the Constitution words and impli- dom of these acts of the Congress—and to cations which are not there, and which were approve or disapprove the public policy written never intended to be there. into these laws. We have, therefore, reached the point as a That is not only my accusation. It is the nation where we must take action to save the accusation of most distinguished justices of the Constitution from the Court and the Court present Supreme Court. I have not the time to from itself. We must find a way to take an quote to you all the language used by dissent- appeal from the Supreme Court to the Consti- ing justices in many of these cases. But in the tution itself. We want a Supreme Court which case holding the Railroad Retirement Act will do justice under the Constitution and not unconstitutional, for instance, Chief Justice over it. In our courts we want a government of Hughes said in a dissenting opinion that the laws and not of men. Selected Primary Documents 369

I want, as all Americans want, an indepen- sion is $20,000 a year. But all Federal Judges, dent judiciary as proposed by the framers of once appointed, can, if they choose, hold office the Constitution. That means a Supreme for life, no matter how old they may get to be. Court that will enforce the Constitution as What is my proposal? It is simply this: written, that will refuse to amend the Consti- whenever a Judge or Justice of any Federal tution by the arbitrary exercise of judicial Court has reached the age of seventy and does power—in other words by judicial say-so. It not avail himself of the opportunity to retire does not mean a judiciary so independent that on a pension, a new member shall be appointed it can deny the existence of facts which are uni- by the President then in office, with the versally recognized. approval, as required by the Constitution, of How then could we proceed to perform the the Senate of the United States. mandate given us? It was said in last year’s That plan has two chief purposes. By bring- Democratic platform, “If these problems can- ing into the judicial system a steady and con- not be effectively solved within the Constitu- tinuing stream of new and younger blood, I tion, we shall seek such clarifying amendment hope, first, to make the administration of all as will assure the power to enact those laws, Federal justice speedier and, therefore, less adequately to regulate commerce, protect pub- costly; secondly, to bring to the decision of lic health and safety, and safeguard economic social and economic problems younger men security.” In other words, we said we would who have had personal experience and contact seek an amendment only if every other possible with modern facts and circumstances under means by legislation were to fail. which average men have to live and work. This When I commenced to review the situation plan will save our national Constitution from with the problem squarely before me, I came hardening of the judicial arteries. by a process of elimination to the conclusion The number of Judges to be appointed that, short of amendments, the only method would depend wholly on the decision of pre- which was clearly constitutional, and would at sent Judges now over seventy, or those who the same time carry out other much needed would subsequently reach the age of seventy. reforms, was to infuse new blood into all our If, for instance, any one of the six Justices of Courts. We must have men worthy and the Supreme Court now over the age of sev- equipped to carry out impartial justice. But, at enty should retire as provided under the plan, the same time, we must have Judges who will no additional place would be created. Conse- bring to the Courts a present-day sense of the quently, although there never can be more than Constitution—Judges who will retain in the fifteen, there may be only fourteen, or thirteen, Courts the judicial functions of a court, and or twelve. And there may be only nine. reject the legislative powers which the courts There is nothing novel or radical about this have today assumed. idea. It seeks to maintain the Federal bench in In forty-five out of the forty-eight States of full vigor. It has been discussed and approved the Union, Judges are chosen not for life but by many persons of high authority ever since a for a period of years. In many States Judges similar proposal passed the House of Repre- must retire at the age of seventy. Congress has sentatives in 1869. provided financial security by offering life pen- Why was the age fixed at seventy? Because sions at full pay for Federal Judges on all the laws of many States, the practice of the Courts who are willing to retire at seventy. In Civil Service, the regulations of the Army and the case of Supreme Court Justices, that pen- Navy, and the rules of many of our Universities 370 The FDR Years and of almost every great private business Congress has always had, and will have, that enterprise, commonly fix the retirement age at power. The number of justices has been changed seventy years or less. several times before, in the Administration of The statute would apply to all the courts in John Adams and Thomas Jefferson—both sign- the Federal system. There is general approval ers of the Declaration of Independence— so far as the lower Federal courts are con- Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln and Ulysses cerned. The plan has met opposition only so S. Grant. far as the Supreme Court of the United States I suggest only the addition of Justices to the itself is concerned. If such a plan is good for bench in accordance with a clearly defined prin- the lower courts it certainly ought to be equally ciple relating to a clearly defined age limit. Fun- good for the highest Court from which there is damentally, if in the future, America cannot no appeal. trust the Congress it elects to refrain from abuse Those opposing this plan have sought to of our Constitutional usages, democracy will arouse prejudice and fear by crying that I am have failed far beyond the importance to it of seeking to “pack” the Supreme Court and that any kind of precedent concerning the Judiciary. a baneful precedent will be established. We think it so much in the public interest What do they mean by the words “packing to maintain a vigorous judiciary that we the Court”? encourage the retirement of elderly Judges by Let me answer this question with a blunt- offering them a life pension at full salary. Why ness that will end all honest misunderstanding then should we leave the fulfillment of this of my purposes. public policy to chance or make independent If by that phrase “packing the Court” it is on upon the desire or prejudice of any individ- charged that I wish to place on the bench ual Justice? spineless puppets who would disregard the law It is the clear intention of our public policy to and would decide specific cases as I wished provide for a constant flow of new and younger them to be decided, I make this answer: that no blood into the Judiciary. Normally every Pres- President fit for his office would appoint, and ident appoints a large number of District and no Senate of honorable men fit for their office Circuit Court Judges and a few members of the would confirm, that kind of appointees to the Supreme Court. Until my first term practically Supreme Court. every President of the United States has But if by that phrase the charge is made that appointed at least one member of the Supreme I would appoint and the Senate would confirm Court. President Taft appointed five members Justices worthy to sit beside present members of and named a Chief Justice; President Wilson, the Court who understand those modern con- three; President Harding, four, including a ditions, that I will appoint Justices who will not Chief Justice; President Coolidge, one; Presi- undertake to override the judgment of the dent Hoover, three, including a Chief Justice. Congress on legislative policy, that I will appoint Such a succession of appointments should Justices who will act as Justices and not as legis- have provided a Court well-balanced as to age. lators—if the appointment of such Justices can But chance and the disinclination of individu- be called “packing the Courts,” then I say that I als to leave the Supreme bench have now given and with me the vast majority of the American us a Court in which five Justices will be over people favor doing just that thing—now. seventy-five years of age before next June and Is it a dangerous precedent for the Congress one over seventy. Thus, a sound public policy to change the number of the Justices? The has been defeated. Selected Primary Documents 371

I now propose that we establish by law an of the amendment. It would take months and assurance against any such ill-balanced Court years thereafter to get a two-thirds majority in in the future. I propose that hereafter, when a favor of that amendment in both Houses of the Judge reaches the age of seventy, a new and Congress. younger Judge shall be added to the Court Then would come the long course of ratifi- automatically. In this way I propose to enforce cation by three-fourths of all the States. No a sound public policy by law instead of leaving amendment which any powerful economic the composition of our Federal Courts, includ- interests or the leaders of any powerful politi- ing the highest, to be determined by chance or cal party have had reason to oppose has ever the personal indecision of individuals. been ratified within anything like a reasonable If such a law as I propose is regarded as time. And thirteen states which contain only establishing a new precedent, is it not a most five percent of the voting population can block desirable precedent? ratification even though the thirty-five States Like all lawyers, like all Americans, I regret with ninety-five percent of the population are the necessity of this controversy. But the wel- in favor of it. fare of the United States, and indeed of the A very large percentage of newspaper pub- Constitution itself, is what we all must think lishers, Chambers of Commerce, Bar Associ- about first. Our difficulty with the Court today ation, Manufacturers’ Associations, who are rises not from the Court as an institution but trying to give the impression that they really from human beings within it. But we cannot do want a constitutional amendment would be yield our constitutional destiny to the personal the first to exclaim as soon as an amendment judgment of a few men who, being fearful of was proposed, “Oh! I was for an amendment the future, would deny us the necessary means all right, but this amendment you proposed is of dealing with the present. not the kind of amendment that I was think- This plan of mine is no attack on the Court; ing about. I am therefore, going to spend my it seeks to restore the Court to its rightful and time, my efforts and my money to block the historic place in our Constitutional Govern- amendment, although I would be awfully glad ment and to have it resume its high task of to help get some other kind of amendment building anew on the Constitution “a system ratified.” of living law.” The Court itself can best undo Two groups oppose my plan on the ground what the Court has done. that they favor a constitutional amendment. I have thus explained to you the reasons that The first includes those who fundamentally lie behind our efforts to secure results by legis- object to social and economic legislation along lation within the Constitution. I hope that modern lines. This is the same group who dur- thereby the difficult process of constitutional ing the campaign last Fall tried to block the amendment may be rendered unnecessary. But mandate of the people. let us examine the process. Now they are making a last stand. And the There are many types of amendment pro- strategy of that last stand is to suggest the time- posed. Each one is radically different from the consuming process of amendment in order to other. There is no substantial group within the kill off by delay the legislation demanded by Congress or outside it who are agreed on any the mandate. single amendment. To them I say: I do not think you will be able It would take months or years to get sub- long to fool the American people as to your stantial agreement upon the type and language purposes. 372 The FDR Years

The other group is composed of those who because it will provide a series of Federal honestly believe the amendment process is the Courts willing to enforce the Constitution as best and who would be willing to support a rea- written, and unwilling to assert legislative pow- sonable amendment if they could agree on one. ers by writing into it their own political and To them I say, we cannot rely on an amend- economic policies. ment as the immediate or only answer to our During the past half century the balance of present difficulties. When the time comes for power between the three great branches of the action, you will find that many of those who Federal Government, has been tipped out of pretend to support you will sabotage any con- balance by the Courts in direct contradiction structive amendment which is proposed. Look of the high purposes of the framers of the at these strange bed-fellows of yours. When Constitution. It is my purpose to restore that before have you found them really at your side balance. in your fights for progress? You who know me will accept my solemn And remember one thing more. Even if an assurance that in a world in which democracy is amendment were passed, and even if in the under attack, I seek to make American democ- years to come it were to be ratified, its meaning racy succeed. You and I will do our part. would depend upon the kind of Justices who would be sitting on the Supreme Court Bench. Source: “Fireside Chat on Reorganization of the An amendment, like the rest of the Constitu- Judiciary.” Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential tion, is what the Justices say it is rather than Library and Museum. Available online. URL: what its framers or you might hope it is. http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/030937.html. This proposal of mine will not infringe in the slightest upon the civil or religious liber- ties so dear to every American. 16. “Quarantine” Speech, Chicago, My record as Governor and President Illinois, October 5, 1937 proves my devotion to those liberties. You who In Chicago FDR tried to find a way to resolve the know me can have no fear that I would tolerate fact that he was ahead of public opinion in terms of the destruction by any branch of government preparation for war. After war broke out between of any part of our heritage of freedom. Japan and China in 1937, he suggested in this The present attempt by those opposed to rather vague speech that aggressor nations should progress to play upon the fears of danger to be treated as if they were carriers of infectious dis- personal liberty brings again to mind that crude ease. It was his first major effort to mold public and cruel strategy tried by the same opposition opinion to endorse international action. to frighten the workers of America in a pay- envelope propaganda against the Social Secu- I am glad to come once again to Chicago and rity Law. The workers were not fooled by that especially to have the opportunity of taking propaganda then. The people of America will part in the dedication of this important project not be fooled by such propaganda now. of civic betterment. I am in favor of action through legislation, On my trip across the continent and back I First, because I believe that it can be passed at have been shown many evidences of the result this session of the Congress. Second, because it of common-sense cooperation between munic- will provide a reinvigorated, liberal-minded ipalities and the federal government, and I have Judiciary necessary to furnish quicker and been greeted by tens of thousands of Ameri- cheaper justice from bottom to top. Third, cans who have told me in every look and word Selected Primary Documents 373 that their material and spiritual well-being has including vast numbers of women and children, made great strides forward in the past few are being ruthlessly murdered with bombs years. from the air. In times of so-called peace, ships And yet, as I have seen with my own eyes the are being attacked and sunk by submarines prosperous farms, the thriving factories, and without cause or notice. Nations are fomenting the busy railroads, as I have seen the happiness and taking sides in civil warfare in nations that and security and peace which covers our wide have never done them any harm. Nations land, almost inevitably I have been compelled claiming freedom for themselves deny it to to contrast, our peace with very different scenes others. being enacted in other parts of the world. Innocent peoples, innocent nations, are It is because the people of the United States being cruelly sacrificed to a greed for power under modern conditions must, for the sake of and supremacy which is devoid of all sense of their own future, give thought to the rest of the justice and humane consideration.... world, that I, as the responsible executive head The peace-loving nations must make a con- of the nation, have chosen this great inland city certed effort in opposition to those violations and this gala occasion to speak to you on a sub- of treaties and those ignorings of humane ject of definite national importance. instincts which today are creating a state of The political situation in the world, which of international anarchy and instability from late has been growing progressively worse, is which there is no escape through mere isola- such as to cause grave concern and anxiety to tion or neutrality. all the peoples and nations who wish to live in Those who cherish their freedom, and rec- peace and amity with their neighbors. ognize and respect the equal right of their Some fifteen years ago the hopes of mankind neighbors to be free and live in peace, must for a continuing era of international peace were work together for the triumph of law and moral raised to great heights when more than sixty principles in order that peace, justice, and con- nations solemnly pledged themselves not to fidence may prevail in the world. There must resort to arms in furtherance of their national be a return to a belief in the pledged word, in aims and policies. The high aspirations expressed the value of a signed treaty. There must be in the Briand-Kellogg peace pact and the hopes recognition of the fact that national morality is for peace thus raised have of late given way to a as vital as private morality.... haunting fear of calamity. The present reign of There is a solidarity and interdependence terror and international lawlessness began a few about the modern world, both technically and years ago. morally, which makes it impossible for any It began through unjustified interference in nation completely to isolate itself from eco- the internal affairs of other nations or the inva- nomic and political upheavals in the rest of the sion of alien territory in violation of treaties, world, especially when such upheavals appear and has now reached a stage where the very to be spreading and not declining. There can foundations of civilization are seriously threat- be no stability or peace either within nations ened. The landmarks and traditions which have or between nations except under laws and marked the progress of civilization toward a moral standards adhered to by all. International condition of law, order, and justice are being anarchy destroys every foundation for peace. It wiped away. jeopardizes either the immediate or the future Without a declaration of war and without security of every nation, large or small. It is, warning or justification of any kind, civilians, therefore, a matter of vital interest and concern 374 The FDR Years to the people of the United States that the nation could be so foolish and ruthless as to run sanctity of international treaties and the main- the risk of plunging the whole world into war tenance of international morality be by invading and violating, in contravention of restored.... solemn treaties, the territories of other nations In those nations of the world which seem to that have done them no real harm and are too be piling armament on armament for purposes weak to protect themselves adequately. Yet the of aggression, and those other nations which peace of the world and the welfare and secu- fear acts of aggression against them and their rity of every nation, including our own, is today security, a very high proportion of their being threatened by that very thing. national income is being spent directly for War is a contagion, whether it be declared or armaments. It runs from 30 to as high as 50 undeclared. It can engulf states and peoples percent. We are fortunate. The proportion that remote from the original scene of hostilities. We we in the United States spend is far less—11 or are determined to keep out of war, yet we can- 12 percent. not insure ourselves against the disastrous effects How happy we are that circumstances of the of war and the dangers of involvement. We are moment permit us to put our money into adopting such measures as will minimize our bridges and boulevards, dams and reforesta- risk of involvement, but we cannot have com- tion, the conservation of our soil, and many plete protection in a world of disorder in which other kinds of useful works rather than into confidence and security have broken down. huge standing armies and vast supplies of If civilization is to survive, the principles of implements of war. the Prince of Peace must be restored. Trust I am compelled and you are compelled, nev- between nations must be revived. ertheless, to look ahead. The peace, the free- Most important of all, the will for peace on dom, and the security of 90 percent of the the part of peace-loving nations must express population of the world is being jeopardized by itself to the end that nations that may be the remaining 10 percent who are threatening tempted to violate their agreements and the a breakdown of all international order and law. rights of others will desist from such a course. Surely the 90 percent who want to live in peace There must be positive endeavors to preserve under law in accordance with moral standards peace. that have received almost universal acceptance America hates war. America hopes for peace. through the centuries can and must find some Therefore, America actively engages in the way to make their will prevail.... search for peace. It seems to be unfortunately true that the epidemic of world lawlessness is spreading. Source: Samuel I. Rosenman, comp. The Public When an epidemic of physical disease starts Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Vol. 6 to spread, the community approves and joins (1941; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, in a quarantine of the patients in order to pro- 1969), 406–411. tect the health of the community against the spread of the disease. It is my determination to pursue a policy of 17. Thirteenth Fireside Chat—On Party peace. It is my determination to adopt every Primaries (“Purge” Chat), June 24, 1938 practicable measure to avoid involvement in war. It ought to be inconceivable that in this Frustrated over congressional reaction to his Su- modern era, and in the face of experience, any preme Court–packing plan, in his Thirteenth Fire- Selected Primary Documents 375 side Chat, FDR announced his decision to purge con- products in interstate commerce—ends servatives from the Democratic Party. Yet his charge child labor, sets a floor below wages and remained vague in the address and voters saw him a ceiling over hours of labor. as interfering in state and local matters. The purge Except perhaps for the Social Secu- failed. rity Act, it is the most far-reaching, far- ... Our Government, happily, is a democracy. sighted program for the benefit of As part of the democratic process, your Presi- workers ever adopted here or in any dent is again taking an opportunity to report other country. Without question it starts on the progress of national affairs to the real us toward a better standard of living and rulers of this country—the voting public. increases purchasing power to buy the The Seventy-fifth Congress, elected in products of farm and factory. November, 1936, on a platform uncompromis- Do not let any calamity-howling ingly liberal, has adjourned. Barring unforeseen executive with an income of $1,000 a events, there will be no session until the new day, who has been turning his employees Congress, to be elected in November, assem- over to the Government relief rolls in bles next January. order to preserve his company’s undis- On the one hand, the Seventy-fifth Congress turbed reserves, tell you—using his has left many things undone. stockholders’ money to pay the postage For example, it refused to provide more for his personal opinions—that a wage businesslike machinery for running the Execu- of $11 a week is going to have a disas- tive Branch of the Government. The Congress trous effect on all American industry. also failed to meet my suggestion that it take Fortunately for business as a whole, and the far-reaching steps necessary to put the rail- therefore for the Nation, that type of roads of the country back on their feet. executive is a rarity with whom most But, on the other hand, the Congress, striv- business executives heartily disagree. 3.The Congress has provided a fact-find- ing to carry out the Platform on which most of ing Commission to find a path through its members were elected achieved more for the jungle of contradictory theories the future good of the country than any about wise business practices—to find Congress between the end of the World War the necessary facts for any intelligent and the spring of 1933. legislation on monopoly, on price-fix- I mention tonight only the more important ing and on the relationship between big of these achievements. business and medium-sized business 1.It improved still further our agricultural and little business. Different from a laws to give the farmer a fairer share of great part of the world, we in America the national income, to preserve our persist in our belief in individual enter- soil, to provide an all-weather granary, prise and in the profit motive; but we to help the farm tenant toward indepen- realize we must continually seek dence, to find new uses for farm prod- improved practices to insure the con- ucts, and to begin crop insurance. tinuance of reasonable profits, together 2.After many requests on my part the with scientific progress, individual ini- Congress passed a Fair Labor Standards tiative, opportunities for the little fel- Act, commonly called the Wages and low, fair prices, decent wages and Hours Bill. That Act—applying to continuing employment. 376 The FDR Years

4.The Congress has coordinated the tional situation which is definitely dis- supervision of commercial aviation and turbing to all of us, the Congress has air mail by establishing a new Civil authorized important additions to the Aeronautics Authority; and it has placed national armed defense of our shores all postmasters under the civil service and our people. for the first time in our history. On another important subject, the net result 5.The Congress set up the United States of a struggle in the Congress, has been an Housing Authority to help finance important victory for the people of the United large-scale slum clearance and provide States—a battle lost which won a war. low rent housing for the low income You will remember that on February 5, groups in our cities. And by improving 1937, I sent a message to the Congress dealing the Federal Housing Act, the Congress with the real need of Federal Court reforms of made it easier for private capital to build several kinds. In one way or another, during the modest homes and low rental dwellings. sessions of this Congress, the ends—the real 6.The Congress has properly reduced objectives—sought in that message, have been taxes on small corporate enterprises, substantially attained. and has made it easier for the Recon- The attitude of the Supreme Court toward struction Finance Corporation to make constitutional questions is entirely changed. Its credit available to all business. I think recent decisions are eloquent testimony of a the bankers of the country can fairly be willingness to collaborate with the two others expected to participate in loans where branches of Government to make democracy the Government, through the Recon- work. The Government has been granted the struction Finance Corporation, offers to right to protect its interests in litigation take a fair portion of the risk. between private parties involving the constitu- 7.The Congress has provided additional tionality of Federal statutes, and to appeal funds for the Works Progress Adminis- directly to the Supreme Court in all cases tration, the Public Works Administra- involving the constitutionality of Federal tion, the Rural Electrification statutes; and no single judge is any longer Administration, the Civilian Conserva- empowered to suspend a Federal statute on his tion Corps and other agencies in order sole judgment as to its constitutionality. Jus- to take care of what we hope is a tempo- tices of the Supreme Court may now retire at rary additional number of unemployed the age of seventy after ten years service; a sub- and to encourage production of every stantial number of additional judgeships have kind by private enterprise. been created in order to expedite the trial of All these things together I call our cases; and greater flexibility has been added to program for the national defense of our the Federal judicial system by allowing judges economic system. It is a program of bal- to be assigned to congested districts. anced action—of moving on all fronts at Another indirect accomplishment of this once in intelligent recognition that all Congress has been its response to the devotion our economic problems, of every group, of the American people to a course of sane con- of every section, are essentially one sistent liberalism. The Congress has understood problem. that under modern conditions government has a 8.Finally, because of increasing arma- continuing responsibility to meet continuing ments in other nations and an interna- problems, and that Government cannot take a Selected Primary Documents 377 holiday of a year, a month, or even a day just This Congress has ended on the side of the because a few people are tired or frightened by people. My faith in the American people—and the inescapable pace of this modern world in their faith in themselves—have been justified. I which we live. congratulate the Congress and the leadership Some of my opponents and some of my thereof and I congratulate the American people associates have considered that I have a mis- on their own staying power. takenly sentimental judgment as to the tenacity One word about our economic situation. It of purpose and the general level of intelligence makes no difference to me whether you call it of the American people. a recession or a depression. In 1932, the total I am still convinced that the American peo- national income of all the people in the coun- ple, since 1932, continue to insist on two requi- try had reached the low point of thirty-eight sites of private enterprise, and the relationship billion dollars in that year. With each succeed- of Government to it. The first is complete hon- ing year it rose. Last year, 1937, it had risen to esty at the top in looking after the use of other seventy billion dollars—despite definitely people’s money, and in apportioning and paying worse business and agricultural prices in the individual and corporate taxes according to abil- last four months of last year. This year, 1938, ity to pay. The second is sincere respect for while it is too early to do more than give an the need of all at the bottom to get work— estimate, we hope that the national income will and through work to get a really fair share of not fall below sixty billion dollars. We remem- the good things of life, and a chance to save ber also that banking and business and farming and rise. are not failing apart like the one-hoss shay, as After the election of 1936 I was told, and the they did in the terrible winter of 1932–1933. Congress was told, by an increasing number of Last year mistakes were made by the leaders politically—and worldly—wise people that I of private enterprise, by the leaders of labor should coast along, enjoy an easy Presidency and by the leaders of Government—all three. for four years, and not take the Democratic Last year the leaders of private enterprise platform too seriously. They told me that peo- pleaded for a sudden curtailment of public ple were getting weary of reform through spending, and said they would take up the political effort and would no longer oppose slack. But they made the mistake of increasing that small minority which, in spite of its own their inventories too fast and setting many of disastrous leadership in 1929, is always eager their prices too high for their goods to sell. to resume its control over the Government of Some labor leaders, goaded by decades of the United States. oppression of labor, made the mistake of going Never in our lifetime has such a concerted too far. They were not wise in using methods campaign of defeatism been thrown at the which frightened many well-wishing people. heads of the President and Senators and Con- They asked employers not only to bargain with gressmen as in the case of this Seventy-fifth them but to put up with jurisdictional disputes Congress. Never before have we had so many at the same time. Copperheads—and you will remember that it Government, too, made mistakes—mistakes was the Copperheads who, in the days of the of optimism in assuming that industry and War Between the States, tried their best to labor would themselves make no mistakes— make Lincoln and his Congress give up the and Government made a mistake of timing, in fight, let the Nation remain split in two and not passing a farm bill or a wage and hour bill return to peace—peace at any price. last year. 378 The FDR Years

As a result of the lessons of all these mistakes They demanded “restoration of confidence” we hope that in the future private enterprise— last year when the automobile industry was capital and labor alike—will operate more intel- running three shifts and turning out more cars ligently together, and in greater cooperation than the country could buy—and again this with their own Government than they have in year when the industry is trying to get rid of the past. Such cooperation on the part of both an automobile surplus and has shut down its of them will be very welcome to me. Certainly factories as a result. at this stage there should be a united stand on It is my belief that many of these people who the part of both of them to resist wage cuts have been crying aloud for “confidence” are which would further reduce purchasing power. beginning today to realize that that hand has Today a great steel company announced a been overplayed, and that they are now willing reduction in prices with a view to stimulating to talk cooperation instead. It is my belief that business recovery, and I was gratified to know the mass of the American people do have con- that this reduction involved no wage cut. fidence in themselves—have confidence in Every encouragement should be given to their ability, with the aid of Government, to industry which accepts a large volume of high solve their own problems. wage policy. It is because you are not satisfied, and I am If this is done, it ought to result in condi- not satisfied, with the progress we have made in tions which will replace a great part of the finally solving our business and agricultural and Government spending which the failure of social problems that I believe the great major- cooperation made necessary this year. ity of you want your own Government to keep From March 4, 1933, down, not a single on trying to solve them. In simple frankness week has passed without a cry from the oppo- and in simple honesty, I need all the help I can sition “to do something, to say something, to get—and I see signs of getting more help in the restore confidence.” There is a very articulate future from many who have fought against group of people in this country, with plenty of progress with tooth and nail. ability to procure publicity for their views, who And now, following out this line of thought, have consistently refused to cooperate with the I want to say a few words about the coming mass of the people, whether things were going political primaries. well or going badly, on the ground that they Fifty years ago party nominations were gen- required more concessions to their point of erally made in conventions—a system typified view before they would admit having what they in the public imagination by a little group in a called “confidence.” smoke-filled room who made out the party These people demanded “restoration of slates. confidence” when the banks were closed—and The direct primary was invented to make again when the banks were reopened. the nominating process a more democratic They demanded “restoration of confidence” one—to give the party voters themselves a when hungry people were thronging the chance to pick their party candidates. streets—and again when the hungry people What I am going to say to you tonight does were fed and put to work. not relate to the primaries of any particular They demanded “restoration of confidence” political party, but to matters of principle in all when droughts hit the country—again now parties—Democratic, Republican, Farmer- when our fields are laden with bounteous yields Labor, Progressive, Socialist, or any other. Let and excessive crops. that be clearly understood. Selected Primary Documents 379

It is my hope that everybody affiliated with or stop all this business of old age pensions and any party will vote in the primaries, and that unemployment insurance, or repeal the Secu- every such voter will consider the fundamental rities and Exchange Act, or let monopolies principles for which his party is on record. thrive unchecked—return, in effect, to the kind That makes for a healthy choice between the of Government we had in the twenties. candidates of the opposing parties on Election Assuming the mental capacity of all the can- Day in November. didates, the important question which seems to An election cannot give a country a firm me the primary voter must ask is this: “To sense of direction if it has two or more national which of these general schools of thought does parties which merely have different names but the candidate belong?” are as alike in their principles and aims as peas As President of the United States, I am not in the same pod. asking the voters of the country to vote for In the coming primaries in all parties, there Democrats next November as opposed to will be many clashes between two schools of Republicans or members of any other party. thought, generally classified as liberal and con- Nor am I, as President, taking part in Demo- servative. Roughly speaking, the liberal school cratic primaries. of thought recognizes that the new conditions As the head of the Democratic Party, how- throughout the world call for new remedies. ever, charged with the responsibility of carry- Those of us in America who hold to this ing out the definitely liberal declarations of school of thought, insist that these new reme- principles set forth in the 1936 Democratic dies can be adopted and successfully main- platform, I feel that I have every right to speak tained in this country under our present form in those few instances where there may be a of government if we use government as an clear issue between candidates for a Demo- instrument of cooperation to provide these cratic nomination involving these principles, or remedies. We believe that we can solve our involving a clear misuse of my own name. problems through continuing effort, through Do not misunderstand me. I certainly would democratic processes instead of Fascism or not indicate a preference in a State primary Communism. We are opposed to the kind of merely because a candidate, otherwise liberal moratorium on reform which, in effect, is reac- in outlook, had conscientiously differed with tion itself. me on any single issue. I should be far more Be it clearly understood, however, that when concerned about the general attitude of a can- I use the word “liberal,” I mean the believer in didate toward present day problems and his progressive principles of democratic, represen- own inward desire to get practical needs tative government and not the wild man who, attended to in a practical way. We all know that in effect, leans in the direction of Communism, progress may be blocked by outspoken reac- for that is just as dangerous as Fascism. tionaries and also by those who say “yes” to a The opposing or conservative school of progressive objective, but who always find thought, as a general proposition, does not rec- some reason to oppose any specific proposal to ognize the need for Government itself to step gain that objective. I call that type of candidate in and take action to meet these new problems. a “yes, but” fellow. It believes that individual initiative and private And I am concerned about the attitude of a philanthropy will solve them—that we ought candidate or his sponsors with respect to the to repeal many of the things we have done and rights of American citizens to assemble peaceably go back, for instance, to the old gold standard, and to express publicly their views and opinions 380 The FDR Years on important social and economic issues. There that the United States would remain neutral and can be no constitutional democracy in any com- there would be “no black-out of peace.” munity which denies to the individual his free- My fellow Americans and my friends: dom to speak and worship as he wishes. The Tonight my single duty is to speak to the American people will not be deceived by anyone whole of America. who attempts to suppress individual liberty under Until four-thirty this morning I had hoped the pretense of patriotism. against hope that some miracle would prevent This being a free country with freedom of a devastating war in Europe and bring to an expression—especially with freedom of the end the invasion of Poland by Germany. press—there will be a lot of mean blows struck For four long years a succession of actual between now and Election Day. By “blows” I wars and constant crises have shaken the entire mean misrepresentation, personal attack and world and have threatened in each case to bring appeals to prejudice. It would be a lot better, on the gigantic conflict which is today unhap- of course, if campaigns everywhere could be pily a fact. waged with arguments instead of blows. It is right that I should recall to your minds I hope the liberal candidates will confine themselves to argument and not resort to the consistent and at times successful efforts of blows. In nine cases out of ten the speaker or your Government in these crises to throw the writer who, seeking to influence public opin- full weight of the United States into the cause ion, descends from calm argument to unfair of peace. In spite of spreading wars I think that blows hurts himself more than his opponent. we have every right and every reason to main- The Chinese have a story on this—a story tain as a national policy the fundamental based on three or four thousand years of civiliza- moralities, the teachings of religion and the tion: Two Chinese coolies were arguing heatedly continuation of efforts to restore peace—for in the midst of a crowd. A stranger expressed sur- some day, though the time may be distant, we prise that no blows were being struck. His Chi- can be of even greater help to a crippled nese friend replied: “The man who strikes first humanity. admits that his ideas have given out.” It is right, too, to point out that the unfor- I know that neither in the summer primaries tunate events of these recent years have, with- nor in the November elections will the Amer- out question, been based on the use of force ican voters fail to spot the candidate whose and the threat of force. And it seems to me ideas have given out. clear, even at the outbreak of this great war, that the influence of America should be con- Source: The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin sistent in seeking for humanity a final peace D. Roosevelt, Vol. 7 (New York: Macmillan Com- which will eliminate, as far as it is possible to do pany, 1941), 391–400. so, the continued use of force between nations. It is, of course, impossible to predict the future. I have my constant stream of information 18. Fourteenth Fireside Chat—On the from American representatives and other sources European War, September 3, 1939 throughout the world. You, the people of this country, are receiving news through your radios In addition to using his Fireside Chats to develop and your newspapers at every hour of the day. support for the New Deal, FDR used them to pre- You are, I believe, the most enlightened and pare the nation for war. In his fourteenth he pledged the best informed people in all the world at this Selected Primary Documents 381 moment. You are subjected to no censorship of It is of the utmost importance that the peo- news, and I want to add that your Government ple of this country, with the best information in has no information which it withholds or which the world, think things through. The most it has any thought of withholding from you. dangerous enemies of American peace are At the same time, as I told my press confer- those who, without well-rounded information ence on Friday, it is of the highest importance on the whole broad subject of the past, the pre- that the press and the radio use the utmost cau- sent and the future, undertake to speak with tion to discriminate between actual verified fact assumed authority, to talk in terms of glittering on the one hand, and mere rumor on the other. generalities, to give the nation assurances or I can add to that by saying that I hope the prophesies which are of little present or future people of this country will also discriminate value. most carefully between news and rumor. Do I myself cannot and do not prophesy the not believe of necessity everything that you course of events abroad—and the reason is hear or read. Check up on it first. that, because I have of necessity such a com- You must master at the outset a simple but plete picture of what is going on in every part unalterable fact in modern foreign relations of the world, I do not dare to do so. And the between nations. When peace has been broken other reason is that I think it is honest for me anywhere, the peace of all countries every- to be honest with the people of the United where is in danger. States. It is easy for you and for me to shrug our I cannot prophesy the immediate economic shoulders and to say that conflicts taking place effect of this new war on our nation, but I do thousands of miles from the continental United say that no American has the moral right to States, and, indeed, thousands of miles from profiteer at the expense of his fellow citizens or the whole American hemisphere, do not seri- of the men, the women and the children who ously affect the Americas—and that all the are living and dying in the midst of war in United States has to do is to ignore them and Europe. go about its own business. Passionately though Some things we do know. Most of us in the we may desire detachment, we are forced to United States believe in spiritual values. Most realize that every word that comes through the of us, regardless of what church we belong to, air, every ship that sails the sea, every battle that believe in the spirit of the New Testament—a is fought, does affect the American future. great teaching which opposes itself the use of Let no man or woman thoughtlessly or force, of armed force, of marching armies and falsely talk of America sending its armies to falling bombs. The overwhelming masses of European fields. At this moment there is being our people seek peace—peace at home, and the prepared a proclamation of American neutral- kind of peace in other lands which will not ity. This would have been done even if there jeopardize our peace at home. had been no neutrality statute on the books, for We have certain ideas and certain ideals of this proclamation is in accordance with inter- national safety, and we must act to preserve that national law and in accordance with American safety today, and to preserve the safety of our policy. children in future years. This will be followed by a Proclamation That safety is and will be bound up with the required by the existing Neutrality Act. And I safety of the Western Hemisphere and of the trust that in the days to come our neutrality can seas adjacent thereto. We seek to keep war be made a true neutrality. from our own firesides by keeping war from 382 The FDR Years coming to the Americas. For that we have his- President Newcomb, my friends at the Uni- toric precedent that goes back to the days of versity of Virginia ... the Administration of President George Wash- Every generation of young men and women ington. It is serious enough and tragic enough in America has questions to ask the world. to every American family in every State in the Most of the time they are the simple but nev- Union to live in a world that is torn by wars on ertheless difficult questions of work to do, other continents. Those wars today affect every opportunities to find, ambitions to satisfy. American home. It is our national duty to use But every now and again in the history of every effort to keep them out of the Americas. the republic a different kind of question pre- And at this time let me make the simple plea sents itself—a question that asks, not about the that partisanship and selfishness be adjourned; future of an individual or even of a generation, and that national unity be the thought that but about the future of the country, the future underlies all others. of the American people.... This nation will remain a neutral nation, but There is such a time again today. Again I cannot ask that every American remain neutral today the young men and the young women of in thought as well. Even a neutral has a right to America ask themselves with earnestness and take account of facts. Even a neutral cannot be with deep concern this same question: “What is asked to close his mind or his conscience. to become of the country we know?” I have said not once, but many times, that I Now they ask it with even greater anxiety have seen war and that I hate war. I say that than before. They ask, not only what the future again and again. holds for this republic, but what the future holds I hope the United States will keep out of this for all peoples and all nations that have been liv- war. I believe that it will. And I give you assur- ing under democratic forms of government- ance and reassurance that every effort of your under the free institutions of a free people. Government will be directed toward that end. It is understandable to all of us, I think, that As long as it remains within my power to they should ask this question. They read the prevent, there will be no black-out of peace in words of those who are telling them that the the United States. ideal of individual liberty, the ideal of free fran- chise, the ideal of peace through justice is a Source: The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin decadent idea! D. Roosevelt, Vol. 8 (New York: Macmillan Com- They read the word and hear the boast of pany, 1941), 460–464. those who say that a belief in force—force directed by self-chosen leaders—is the new and vigorous system which will overrun the earth. 19. The “Dagger Speech”—Address They have seen the ascendancy of the philoso- at the University of Virginia, phy of force in nation after nation where free Charlottesville, June 10, 1940 institutions and individual liberties were once maintained. In his commencement address at the University of It is natural and understandable that the Virginia, FDR reacted to Benito Mussolini’s inva- younger generation should first ask itself what sion of France with Nazi Germany. In an the extension of the philosophy of force to all impromptu rhetorical stab at Il Duce, FDR com- the world would lead to ultimately. We see mented “the hand that held the dagger has plunged today, for example, in stark reality some of the it into the back of its neighbor.” consequences of what we call the machine age. Selected Primary Documents 383

Where control of machines has been ing majority of Americans today a helpless retained in the hands of mankind as a whole, nightmare, the helpless nightmare of a people unrelated benefits have accrued to mankind. without freedom. Yes, the nightmare of a peo- For mankind was then the master: The machine ple lodged in prison, handcuffed, hungry, and was the servant. fed through the bars from day to day by the But in this new system of force the master of contemptuous, unpitying masters of other con- the machine is not in the hands of mankind. It tinents. is in the control of infinitely small groups of It is natural also that we should ask ourselves individuals who rule without a single one of the how now we can prevent the building of that democratic sanctions that we have known. prison and the placing of ourselves in the midst The machine in the hands of the irresponsi- of it. ble conquerers becomes the master; mankind Let us not hesitate—all of us—to proclaim is not only the servant, it is the victim too. Such certain truths. Overwhelmingly we, as a nation, mastery abandons with deliberate contempt all and this applies to all the other American of the moral values to which even this young nations, we are convinced that military and country for more than 300 years has been naval victory for the gods of force and hate accustomed and dedicated. would endanger the institutions of democracy Surely the new philosophy proves from in the Western World—and that equally, there- month to month that it could have no possible fore, the whole of our sympathies lie with those conception of the way of life or the way of nations that are giving their life blood in com- thought of a nation whose origins go back to bat against those forces. Jamestown and Plymouth Rock. The people and Government of the United And conversely, neither those who sprang States have seen with the utmost respect and from that ancient stock nor those who have with grave disquiet the decision of the Italian come hither in later years can be indifferent to Government to engage in the hostilities now the destruction of freedom in their ancestral raging in Europe. lands across the sea. More than three months ago the chief of the Perception to danger to our institution may Italian Government sent me word that because come slowly or it may come with a rush and of the determination of Italy to limit, so far as shock as it has to the people of the United might be possible, the spread of the European States in the past few months. This perception conflict, more than two hundred millions of of danger—danger in a worldwide arena—has people in the region of the Mediterranean had come to us clearly and overwhelmingly. We been enabled to escape the suffering and the perceive the peril in this world-wide arena—an devastation of war. arena that may become so narrow that only the I informed the chief of the Italian Govern- Americans will retain the ancient faiths. ment that this desire on the part of Italy to pre- Some indeed still hold to the now somewhat vent the war from spreading met with full obvious delusion that we of the United States sympathy and response on the part of the gov- can safely permit the United States to become ernment and the people of the United States, a lone island in a world dominated by the phi- and I expressed the earnest hope of this gov- losophy of force. ernment and of this people that this policy on Such an island may be the dream of those the part of Italy might be continued. I made it who still talk and vote as isolationists. Such an clear that in the opinion of the Government of island represents to me and to the overwhelm- the United States any extension of hostilities in 384 The FDR Years the region of the Mediterranean might result in equality of opportunity in the world markets and the still greater enlargement of the scene of the in the securing of raw materials on equal terms. conflict, the conflict in the Near East and in I have likewise, of course, felt it necessary in Africa, and that if this came to pass no one my communications to Signor Mussolini to could foretell how much greater the theatre of express the concern of the government of the the war eventually might become. United States because of the fact that any Again, upon a subsequent occasion, not so extension of the war in the region of the far ago, recognizing that certain aspirations of Mediterranean would inevitably result in great Italy might form the basis of discussions prejudice to the ways of life and government between the powers most specifically con- and to the trade and commerce of all the Amer- cerned, I offered, in a message addressed to the ican republics. chief of the Italian government, to send to the The government of Italy has now chosen to Governments of France and Great Britain such preserve what it terms its “freedom of action” specific indications of the desires of Italy to and to fulfill what it states are its promises to obtain readjustments with regard to her posi- Germany. In so doing it has manifested disre- tion as the chief of the Italian Government gard for the rights and serenity of other might desire to transmit through me. nations, disregard for the lives of the peoples of While making it clear that the government those nations which are directly threatened by of the United States in such an event could not the spread of this war; and has evidenced its and would not assume responsibility for the unwillingness to find the means through pacific nature of the proposals submitted nor for negotiations for the satisfaction of what it agreements which might thereafter be reached, believes are its legitimate aspirations. I proposed that if Italy would refrain from On this 10th day of June, 1940, the hand entering the war I would be willing to ask that held the dagger has struck it into the back assurances from the other powers concerned of its neighbor. that they would faithfully execute any agree- On this 10th day of June, 1940, in this uni- ment so reached, and that Italy’s voice in any versity founded by the first great American future peace conference would have the same teacher of democracy we send forth our prayers authority as if Italy had actually taken part in and our hopes to those beyond the seas who the war as a belligerent. are maintaining with magnificent valor their Unfortunately, unfortunately to the regret of battle for freedom. all of us, and to the regret of humanity, the chief In our unity, in our American unity, we will of the Italian Government was unwilling to pursue two obvious and simultaneous courses; accept the procedure suggested, and he has made we will extend to the opponents of force the no counter proposal. This government directed material resources of the nation and, at the its efforts to doing what it could to work for the same time, we will harness and speed up the preservation of peace in the Mediterranean area, use of those resources in order that we our- and it likewise expressed its willingness to selves in the Americas may have equipment and endeavor to cooperate with the government of training equal to the task of any emergency and Italy when the appropriate occasion arose for the every defense. creation of a more stable world order, through All roads leading to the accomplishment of the reduction of armaments and through the those objectives must be kept clear of obstruc- construction of a more liberal international eco- tions. We will not slow down or detour. Signs nomic system which would assure to all powers and signals call for speed—full speed ahead. Selected Primary Documents 385

Yes, it is right that each new generation have had an anxious day too, because three or should ask questions. But in recent months the four times during the day I have had to be in principal question has been somewhat simpli- touch with the Department of State and with fied. Once more the future of the nation and the Secretary of State, Cordell Hull, because, the future of the American people is at stake. unfortunately, it seems that another war has We need not and we will not, in any way, broken out on the other side of the ocean. I am abandon our continuing efforts to make quite sure that all of you will feel the same sor- democracy work within our borders. Yes, we row in your hearts that I feel—sorrow for the still insist on the need for vast improvements in Italian people and the Grecian people, that our own social and economic life. they should have been involved together in But that, that is a component part of conflict. national defense itself. Tonight, for the second time, I take up the The program unfolds swiftly and into that public duty—the far from disagreeable duty— program will fit the responsibility and the of answering major campaign falsifications with opportunity of every man and woman in the facts. land to preserve our heritage in days of peril. Last week in Philadelphia, which is sup- I call for effort, courage, sacrifice, devotion. posed to be the City of Brotherly Love, but Granting the love of freedom, all of these are isn’t always, I nailed the falsehood about some possible. fanciful secret treaties to dry on the barn door. And the love of freedom is still fierce, still I nailed that falsehood and other falsehoods the steady in the nation today. way when I was a boy up in Dutchess County we used to nail up the skins of foxes and Source: “Franklin D. Roosevelt Address at Char- weasels. And, incidentally, I think it was a kins- lottesville, Virginia, June 10, 1940—The ‘Hand man of mine, about thirty years ago, who that held the dagger’ Speech.” Available online. invented the term, “weasel words.” URL: http://www.sagehistory.net/worldwar2/docs/ Tonight I am going to nail up the falsifica- FDRUVaSpeech.htm. tions that have to do with our relations with the rest of the world and with the building up of our Army, our Navy and our air defense. It 20. Campaign Address at Madison is a very dangerous thing to distort facts about Square Garden, New York City, things like that, because if repeated over and October 28, 1940 over again, it is apt to create a sense of fear and doubt in the minds of some of the American In his fall 1940 reelection campaign for an unprece- people. dented third term, FDR reveled in poking fun at I now brand as false the statement being “Martin, Barton, and Fish,” the Republican mem- made by Republican campaign orators, day bers of Congress who had voted against the repeal of after day and night after night, that the rearm- the embargo of arms for the Allies. ing of America is slow, that it is hamstrung and Mr. Chairman, Governor Lehman, ladies and impeded, that it will never be able to meet gentlemen: threats from abroad. Those are the whisper- No campaign can possibly be complete ings of appeasers. without this great Garden meeting. That particular misstatement has a history. I have had a very wonderful day in New It came into the world last June, just about the York, in all five boroughs But, as you know, I time of the Republican National Convention. 386 The FDR Years

Before that, the responsible Republican lead- men in the nation in their own fields. I do not ers had been singing an entirely different song. know their politics. I do not care about their For almost seven years the Republican leaders politics. All I know is that they are cooperating in Congress kept on saying that I was placing one hundred per cent with this Administration too much emphasis on national defense. in our efforts for national defense. And, the And now today these men of great vision other way around, this Government is cooper- have suddenly discovered that there is a war ating with them—one hundred per cent. going on in Europe and another one in Asia. All these men—all American industry and And so, now, always with their eyes on the good American labor—are doing magnificent and old ballot box, they are charging that we have unselfish work. The progress of today proves it. placed to little emphasis on national defense. I shall have occasion on Wednesday or Fri- But, unlike them, the printed pages of the day or Saturday of this week to tell more about Congressional Record cannot be changed or the work they are doing and about the progress suppressed at election time. And based on that that has been made in our whole picture of permanent record of their speeches and their defense. votes, I make this assertion—that if the Repub- When the first World War broke out, we lican leaders had been in control of the were pretty weak, but by the end of it we were Congress of the United States during the past one of the strongest naval and military powers seven years, the important measures for our in the world. When this Administration first defense would not now be law; and the Army came into office fifteen years later, we were one and Navy of the United States would still be in of the weakest. almost the same condition in which I found As early as 1933 the storm was gathering in them in 1933. Europe and in Asia. Year by year I reported the Remember, I am making those charges warnings of danger from our listening posts in against the responsible political leadership of foreign lands. But I was only called “an the Republican Party. But there are millions— alarmist” by the Republican leadership, and by millions and millions—of patriotic Republicans the great majority of the Republican newspa- who have at all times been in sympathy with pers of the country. the efforts of this Administration to arm the Year by year I asked for more and more nation adequately for purposes of defense. defense appropriations. In addition, I allocated To Washington in the past few months have hundreds of millions of dollars for defense come not two or three or a dozen but several work from relief funds. The C.C.C. helped, the hundred of the best business executives in the Public Works helped—as was understood by United States—Republicans and Democrats the Congress when the money was voted by alike. Not holding company executives or them. lawyers, but men experienced in actual pro- Today our Navy is at a peak of efficiency and duction—production of all the types of fighting strength. Ship for ship, man for man, machines and tools and steel and everything it is as powerful and efficient as any single navy else that has made this Nation the industrial that ever sailed the seas in history. But it is not leader of the world. as powerful as combinations of other navies I have asked Mr. Knudsen and Mr. Stettinius that might be put together in an attack upon and Mr. Harriman and Mr. Budd and the many us. Our Army and our air forces are now at the others to serve their Government because I highest level that they have ever been in peace- certainly believe that they are among the ablest time. But in the light of existing dangers they Selected Primary Documents 387 are not great enough for the absolute safety of can Presidential nomination this year—said America at home. this past February, 1940: While this great, constructive work was “The increase of the Army and Navy over going forward, the Republican leaders were the tremendous appropriations of the current definitely and beyond peradventure of doubt year seems to be unnecessary if we are con- trying to block our efforts toward national cerned solely with defense.” defense. They not only voted against these There is the record on that; the permanent efforts; but they stated time and again through crystal clear record. Until the present political the years that they were unnecessary and campaign opened, Republican leaders, in and extravagant, that our armed strength was suffi- out of the Congress shouted from the house- cient for any emergency. tops that our defenses were fully adequate. I propose now to indict these Republican Today they proclaim that this Administra- leaders out of their own mouths—these leaders tion has starved our armed forces, that our who now disparage our defenses—with what Navy is anemic, our Army puny, our air forces they themselves said in the days before this piteously weak. election year, about how adequate our defenses Yes, it is a remarkable somersault. already were. I wonder if the election could have some- Listen to this for instance: thing to do with it. And this seems to be what “The facts are that we have the largest and they would have called “logic” when I was at most powerful Navy we ever had, except for two school: If the Republican leaders were telling years after the World War, and the greatest air the truth in 1938 and 1939, then—out of their forces we ever had and a match for any nation.” own mouths—they stand convicted of incon- Now, who do you suppose made that state- sistency today. And, as we used to say, per con- ment a little over two years ago? It was not I. It tra, if they are telling the truth today, they was not even a member of this Administration. stand convicted of inconsistency in 1938 and It was the ranking Republican member of the 1939. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Repub- The simple truth is that the Republican lican Leader, Hamilton Fish. Party, through its leadership, played politics And now listen to the only living ex-Presi- with defense, the defense of the United States, dent of the United States. He said in that same in 1938 and 1939. And they are playing politics year, two years ago: with the national security of America today. “We shall be expending nine hundred mil- That same group would still control their lion dollars more than any nation on earth. We party in Congress at the next session. It is the are leading in the arms race.” Congress which passes the laws of the United And now listen to Republican leader Senator States. The record of those Republican leaders Vandenberg, also speaking at that time. He said shows what a slim chance the cause of strong that our defense expenditures had already defense would have, if they were in control. brought us “an incomparably efficient Navy” Not only in their statements but in their and he said further, “I rise in opposition to this votes is written their record of sabotage of this super-super Navy bill. I do not believe it is jus- Administration’s continual efforts to increase tified by any conclusive demonstration of our defenses to meet the dangers that loomed national necessity.” ever larger and larger upon the horizon. And now listen to what Republican leader For example, deeply concerned over what Senator Taft—the runner-up for the Republi- was happening in Europe, I asked the Congress 388 The FDR Years in January, 1938, for a naval expansion of expansion bill, of course, was passed; but it was twenty per cent—forty-six additional ships and passed by Democratic votes in the Congress— nine hundred and fifty new planes. in spite of the Republicans. What did the Republican leaders do when You see, I am talking by the book. Again, in they had this chance to increase our national March, 1939, the Republican Senators voted defense almost three years ago? You would twelve to four against the bill for one hundred think from their present barrage of verbal and two million dollars to buy certain strategic pyrotechnics [laughter], that they rushed in to war materials which we did not have in this pass that bill, or that they even demanded a country. larger expansion of the Navy. In March, 1939, the Republicans in the Sen- But, ah! my friends, they were not in a ate voted eleven to eight against increasing the national campaign for votes then. authorized number of planes in the Navy. In those days they were trying to build up a In June, 1939, Republicans in the House different kind of political fence. voted one hundred and forty-four to eight in In those days they thought that the way to favor of reducing the appropriations for the win votes was by representing this Administra- Army Air Corps. tion as extravagant in national defense, indeed Now that proves this one simple fact: It as hysterical, and as manufacturing panics and proves that if the Republican leaders had been inventing foreign dangers. in control of the Congress in 1938 and 1939, But now, in the serious days of 1940, all is these measures to increase our Navy and our changed! Not only because they are serious Army and our air forces would have been days, but because they are election days as well. defeated overwhelmingly. On the radio these Republican orators swing I say that the Republican leaders played pol- through the air with the greatest of ease; but itics with defense in 1938 and 1939. I say that the American people are not voting this year they are playing politics with our national secu- for the best trapeze performer. rity today. The plain fact is that when that naval bill I was Turn another page: speaking about was submitted to the Congress, The Republican campaign orators and lead- the Republican leaders jumped in to fight it. ers are all now yelling “me too” on help to Who were they? There was the present Britain. But this fall they had their chance to Republican candidate for Vice President, Sen- vote to give aid to Britain and other democra- ator McNary. There were Senator Vandenberg cies—and they turned it down. and Senator Nye. And there was the man who This chance came when I recommended would be the Chairman of the House Com- that the Congress repeal the embargo on the mittee on Foreign Affairs, Congressman Fish. shipment of armaments and munitions to The first thing they did was to try to elimi- nations at war, and permit such shipments on a nate the battleships from the bill. The Repub- “cash-and-carry basis.” It is only because of the licans in the House voted sixty-seven to twenty repeal of the embargo law that we have been against building them; and in the Senate, where able to sell planes and ships and guns and they had a much smaller number, the Republi- munitions to victims of aggression. cans voted seven to four against building them. But how did the Republicans vote on the The record is perfectly clear that back in repeal of that embargo? 1938 they were positive in their own minds that In the Senate the Republicans voted four- we needed no more battleships. The naval teen to six against it. In the House Republicans Selected Primary Documents 389 voted one hundred and forty to nineteen ahead of human lives—to say nothing of against it. national security. The Act was passed by Democratic votes, You and I, and the overwhelming majority but it was over the opposition of the Republi- of Americans, will never stand for that. can leaders. And just to name a few, the fol- Outside the halls of Congress eminent lowing Republican leaders, among many Republican candidates began to turn new som- others, voted against the Act: Senators ersaults. At first they denounced the bill; then, McNary, Vandenberg, Nye and Johnson; now when public opinion rose up to demand it, they wait, a perfectly beautiful rhythm—Congress- seized their trapeze with the greatest of ease, men Martin, Barton and Fish. and reversed themselves in mid-air. Now, at the eleventh hour, they have dis- This record of Republican leadership—a covered what we knew all along—that overseas record of timidity, of weakness, of short-sight- success in warding off invasion by dictatorship edness—is as bad in international as in military forces means safety to the United States. It affairs. means also continued independence to those It is the same record of timidity, of weak- smaller nations which still retain their inde- ness, of short-sightedness which they showed pendence. And it means the restoration of in domestic affairs when they were in control sovereignty to those smaller nations which before 1933. have temporarily lost it. As we know, one of the But the Republican leaders’ memories seem keystones of American policy is the recognition to have been short, in this, as in some other of the right of small nations to survive and matters. And by the way—who was it said that prosper. an elephant never forgets? Great Britain and a lot of other nations It is the same record of timidity, of weakness would never have received one ounce of help and of short-sightedness that governed the pol- from us—if the decision had been left to Mar- icy of the confused, reactionary governments tin, Barton and Fish. in France and England before the war. And, finally, let me come down to something That fact was discovered too late in France. that happened two months ago. It was discovered just in time in England. In the Senate there was an amendment to Pray God that, having discovered it, we permit the United States Government to pre- won’t forget it either. vent profiteering or unpatriotic obstruction by For eight years our main concern, as you any corporation in defense work. It permitted know and as the nation knows, has been to look the Government to take over, with reasonable for peace and the preservation of peace. compensation, any manufacturing plant which Back in 1935, in the face of growing dangers refused to cooperate in national defense. And throughout the world, your Government the Republican Senators voted against this undertook to eliminate certain hazards which Russell-Overton Amendment on August 28, in the past had led us into war. 1940, eight to six. By the Neutrality Act of 1935, and by other The bill was adopted all right—by Demo- steps: cratic votes. But the opposing vote of those We made it possible to prohibit American eight Republican leaders showed what would citizens from traveling on vessels belonging to happen if the National Government were countries at war. Was that right? turned over to their control. For their vote We made it clear that American investors, said, in effect, that they put money rights who put their money into enterprises in foreign 390 The FDR Years nations, could not call on American warships or That declaration at Lima was a great step American soldiers to bail out their investments. toward peace. For unless the Hemisphere is Was that right? safe, we are not safe. We made it clear that we would not use Matters in Europe grew steadily worse. American armed forces to intervene in affairs of Czecho-Slovakia was overrun by the Nazis. the sovereign republics to the south of us. Was General war seemed inevitable. that right? Yet even then, in the summer of 1939, the We made it clear that ships flying the Amer- Republican leaders kept chanting, “There will ican flag could not carry munitions to a bel- be no war.” ligerent; and that they must stay out of war A few months later—on the first of Septem- zones. Was that right? ber, 1939—war came. In all these ways we made it clear to every The steps which we had carefully planned American, and to every foreign nation that we were put into effect. would avoid becoming entangled through American ships were kept from danger some episode beyond our borders. zones. Those were measures to keep us at peace. American citizens were helped to come And through all the years since 1935, there has home. been no entanglement and there will be no Unlike 1914, there was no financial upheaval. entanglement. Very soon, in a few weeks, the American And we have had plenty of chances to get Republics set up at Panama a system of into trouble. I know that well. patrolling the waters of the whole Western In July, 1937, Japan invaded China. Hemisphere, with success. On January 3, 1938, I called the attention I am asking the American people to support of the nation to the danger of the whole world a continuance of this type of affirmative, real- situation. istic fight for peace. The alternative is to risk It was clear that rearmament was now, the future of the country in the hands of those unfortunately, a necessary implement of peace. with this record of timidity, weakness and I asked for large additions to American short-sightedness or to risk it in the inexperi- defenses. Yes, I was called an alarmist—and enced hands of those who in these perilous days worse names than that. I have learned by now are willing recklessly to imply that our boys are to take it on the chin. already on their way to the transports. In March, 1938, German troops marched This affirmative search for peace calls for into Vienna. clear vision. It is necessary to mobilize In September, 1938, came the Munich cri- resources, minds and skills, and every active sis. German, French and Czech armies were force for peace in all the world. mobilized. The result was only an abortive We have steadily sought to keep mobilized armistice. the greatest force of all—religious faith, devo- I said then: “It is becoming increasingly tion to God. clear that peace by fear has no higher or more Your Government is working at all times enduring quality than peace by the sword.” with representatives of the Catholic, Protes- Three months later, in Lima, Peru, the tant, and Jewish faiths. Without these three, all twenty-one American Republics, including our three of them, without them working with us own, solemnly agreed to stand together to toward that great end, things would not be as defend the independence of each one of us. clear or as easy. Selected Primary Documents 391

Shadows, however, are still heavy over the in their speeches, have been playing, and are faith and the hope of mankind. still playing politics with national defense. We—who walk in the ways of peace and Even during the past three years, when the freedom and light—have seen the tragedies dangers to all forms of democracy throughout enacted in one free land after another. the world have been obvious, the Republican We have not been blind to the causes or the team in the Congress has been acting only as a consequences of these tragedies. Party team. We guard ourselves against all evils—spiri- Time after time, Republican leadership tual as well as material—which may beset us. refused to see that what this country needs is an We guard against the forces of anti-Christian all-American team. aggression, which may attack us from without, Those side-line critics are now saying that and the forces of ignorance and fear which may we are not doing enough for our national corrupt us from within. defense. I say to you that we are going full speed ahead! ... Source: The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin And within the past two months your Gov- D. Roosevelt, Vol. 7 (New York: Macmillan Com- ernment has acquired new naval and air bases pany, 1941), 391–400. in British territory in the Atlantic Ocean; extending all the way from Newfoundland in the north to that part of South America where 21. Campaign Speech, Boston, the Atlantic Ocean begins to get narrow, with Massachusetts, October 30, 1940 Africa not far away. I repeat: Our objective is to keep any poten- Two days after his speech at Madison Square Gar- tial attacker as far from our continental shores den in New York in which he ridiculed “Martin, as we possibly can.... Barton, and Fish,” the Republican members of the Campaign orators seek to tear down the Congress who had voted against the repeal of the morale of the American people when they embargo of arms for the Allies, FDR had only to make false statements about the Army’s equip- mention “Martin” and the audience in unison ment. I say to you that we are supplying our responded with “Barton and Fish.” He then went Army with the best fighting equipment in the on to assert in this fall campaign address that all the world. “Your boys are not going to be sent into any for- Yes, the Army and the Defense Commission eign wars.” are getting things done with speed and efficiency. Mr. Mayor, my friends of New England: More than eight billion dollars of contracts for I’ve had a glorious day here in New Eng- defense have been let in the past few months. land. And I do not need to tell you that I have I am afraid that those campaign orators will been glad to come back to my old stamping pretty soon be under the painful necessity of ground in Boston. There’s one thing about coming down to Washington later on and eat- this trip that I regret. I have to return to ing their words.... Washington tonight, without getting a chance And while I am talking to you mothers and to go into my two favorite states of Maine and fathers, I give you one more assurance. Vermont. I have said this before, but I shall say it again In New York City two nights ago, I showed and again and again: by the cold print of the Congressional Record Your boys are not going to be sent into any how Republican leaders, with their votes and foreign wars. 392 The FDR Years

They are going into training to form a force land and the others—have lived in terror of the so strong that, by its very existence, it will keep destruction of their independence by Nazi mil- the threat of war far away from our shores. itary might. The purpose of defense is defense.... And so, my friends, we are building up our In ten months this Nation has increased our armed defenses to their highest peak of effi- engine output for planes 240 percent; and I am ciency for a very good reason, the reason of the proud of it. possibility of real national danger to us; but Remember, too, that we are scattering them these defenses will be inadequate unless we all over the country. We are building brand new support them with a strong national morale, a plants for airplanes and airplane engines in sound economy, a sense of solidarity and eco- places besides the Pacific Coast and this coast. nomic and social justice. We are also building them in centers in the When this Administration first came to Middle West. office, the foundation of that national morale Last spring and last winter this great pro- was crumbling. In the panic and misery of duction capacity program was stepped up by those days no democracy could have built up orders from overseas. In taking these orders for an adequate armed defense. planes from overseas, we are following and What we have done since 1933 has been were following hard-headed self-interest. written in terms of improvement in the daily Building on the foundation provided by life and work of the common man.... these orders, the British on the other side of I would not single him out except that he is the ocean are receiving a steady stream of air- national interest now, because at the time of his planes. After three months of blitzkrieg in the appointment as Republican National Chair- air over there, the strength of the Royal Air man this handsome verbal bouquet, this expen- Force is actually greater now than when the sive orchid, was pinned upon him: “In public attack began. And they know and we know that life for many years Joe Martin has represented that increase in strength despite battle losses is all that is finest in American public life.” due in part to the purchases made from the Considering the source of that orchid, Mar- American airplane industries.... tin must be slated for some Cabinet post. So The productive capacity of the United let’s look for a minute at the voting record of States which has made it the greatest industrial this representative of what they call, “all that is country in the world, is not failing now. It will finest in American public life.” Martin voted make us the strongest air power in the world. against the Public Utility Holding Company And that is not just a campaign promise! Act, the Tennessee Valley Authority Act, the I have been glad in the past two or three National Securities Exchange Act, and the days to welcome back to the shores of America extension of the Civilian Conservation Corps that Boston boy, beloved by all of Boston and a Act. He voted against practically all relief and lot of other places, my Ambassador to the work relief measures, and against the appropri- Court of St. James, Joe Kennedy. ation for rural electrification. Actually on the scene where planes were Martin voted against the Civil Service fighting and bombs were dropping day and Extension Act and against the United States night for many months, he has been telling me Housing Act. just what you and I have visualized from afar— What I particularly want to say on the radio that all the smaller independent nations of to the farmers of the Nation, and to you here in Europe—Sweden, Switzerland, Greece, Ire- this hall, is that Republican National Chairman Selected Primary Documents 393

Martin voted against every single one of the 9. (1941; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, farm measures that were recommended by this 1969), 514–524. Administration. Perhaps Brother Martin will be rewarded for this loyal service to the princi- ples of his party by being appointed Secretary 22. FDR on Lend-Lease—Press of Agriculture. Conference, December 17, 1940 He is one of that great historic trio which FDR’s impromptu eloquence is suggested in this press has voted consistently against every measure conference when he argued for the Lend-Lease pro- for the relief of agriculture—Martin, Barton gram that he formally proposed the next month. He and Fish. [Bruce Barton and Hamilton Fish used familiar homey images to argue that sending were conservative Republican congressmen.] aid to the British was just like lending a garden hose I have to let you in on a secret. It will come to a neighbor whose house was on fire. Moreover, it as a great surprise to you. And it’s this: was not appropriate to ask how items would be repaid I’m enjoying this campaign. I’m really hav- if they could not be returned. His ability to obfuscate ing a fine time. technical and legal problems trumped the isolationists. I think you know that the office of President has not been an easy one during the past years. The President: When I came back yesterday I The tragedies of this distracted world have began to note intimations that this inaugural weighed heavily on all of us. party was getting out of hand—all these But—there is revival for every one of us in chairmen, et cetera, trying to make a real the sight of our own national community. party out of it, and I was trying not to. In In our own American community we have other words, simplicity, I still think, should sought to submerge all the old hatreds, all the be the keynote; and I am trying to catch up old fears, of the old world. and find out what people have been doing We are Anglo-Saxon and Latin, we are Irish while I was away. and Teuton and Jewish and Scandinavian and Outside of that I have been trying to Slav—we are American. We belong to many catch up on quite a number of other things. races and colors and creeds—we are American. I don’t think there is any particular news, And it seems to me that we are most com- except possibly one thing that I think is pletely, most loudly, most proudly American worth my talking about. In the present around Election Day. world situation of course there is absolutely Because it is then that we can assert our- no doubt in the mind of a very overwhelm- selves—voters and candidates alike. We can ing number of Americans that the best assert the most glorious, the most encouraging immediate defense of the United States is fact in all the world today—the fact that the success of Great Britain in defending democracy is alive—and going strong. itself; and that, therefore, quite aside from We are telling the world we are free—and our historic and current interest in the sur- we intend to remain free and at peace. vival of democracy in the world as a whole, We are free to live and love and laugh. it is equally important from a selfish point We face the future with confidence and of view of American defense, that we should courage. We are American. do everything to help the British Empire to defend itself. Source: Samuel I. Rosenman, comp., The Public I have read a great deal of nonsense in the Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Vol. last few days by people who can only think 394 The FDR Years

in what we may call traditional terms about Now we have been getting stories, finances. Steve [Early] was asking me about speeches, et cetera, in regard to this partic- it this morning, and I thought it was better ular war that is going on, which go back a that I should talk to you than for Steve to little bit to that attitude. It isn’t merely a talk to you; but I gave him one line which he question of doing things the traditional way; would have used this morning if anybody there are lots of other ways of doing them. I had asked him, and that was this: In my am just talking background, informally; I memory, and your memory, and in all his- haven’t prepared any of this—I go back to tory, no major war has ever been won or lost the idea that the one thing necessary for through lack of money. American national defense is additional pro- I remember 1914 very well, and I will give ductive facilities; and the more we increase you an illustration: In 1914 I was up at East- those facilities—factories, shipbuilding ways, port, Maine, with the family the end of July, munition plants, et cetera, and so on—the and I got a telegram from the Navy Depart- stronger American national defense is. ment that it looked as if war would break out Orders from Great Britain are therefore a in Europe the next day. Actually it did break tremendous asset to American national out in a few hours, when Germany invaded defense; because they automatically create Belgium. So I went across from the island additional facilities. I am talking selfishly, and took a train down to Ellsworth, where I from the American point of view—nothing got on the Bar Harbor Express. I went into else. Therefore, from the selfish point of the smoking room. The smoking room of view, that production must be encouraged the Express was filled with gentlemen from by us. There are several ways of encouraging banking and brokerage offices in New York, it—not just one, as the narrow-minded fel- most of whom were old friends of mine; and low I have been talking about might assume, they began giving me their opinion about and has assumed. He has assumed that the the impending world war in Europe. These only way was to repeal certain existing eminent bankers and brokers assured me, statutes, the Neutrality Act and the old and made it good with bets, that there was- Johnson Act and a few other things like that; n’t enough money in all the world to carry and then to lend the money to Great Britain on a European war for more than three to be spent over here—either lend it months—bets at even money; that the through private banking circles, as was done bankers would stop the war within six in the earlier days of the previous war, or months—odds of 2 to 1; that it was humanly make it a loan from this Government to the impossible—physically impossible—for a British Government. European war to last for six months—odds Well, that is one type of mind that can of 4 to 1; and so forth and so on. Well, actu- think only of that method as somewhat ally, I suppose I must have won those—they banal. were small, five-dollar bets—I must have There is another one which is also some- made a hundred dollars. I wish I had bet a what banal—we may come to it, I don’t lot more. know—and that is a gift; in other words, for There was the best economic opinion in us to pay for all these munitions, ships, the world that the continuance of the war plants, guns, et cetera, and make a gift of was absolutely dependent on money in the them to Great Britain. I am not at all sure bank. Well, you know what happened. that that is a necessity, and I am not at all Selected Primary Documents 395 sure that Great Britain would care to have a may help him to put out his fire. Now, what gift from the taxpayers of the United States. do I do? I don’t say to him before that oper- I doubt it very much. ation, “Neighbor, my garden hose cost me Well, there are other possible ways, and $15; you have to pay me $15 for it.” What is those ways are being explored. All I can do is the transaction that goes on? I don’t want to speak in very general terms, because we $15—I want my garden hose back after the are in the middle of it. I have been at it now fire is over. All right. If it goes through the three or four weeks, exploring other meth- fire all right, intact, without any damage to ods of continuing the building up of our it, he gives it back to me and thanks me very productive facilities and continuing auto- much for the use of it. But suppose it gets matically the flow of munitions to Great smashed up—holes in it—during the fire; we Britain. I will just put it this way, not as an don’t have to have too much formality about exclusive alternative method, but as one of it, but I say to him, “I was glad to lend you several other possible methods that might that hose; I see I can’t use it any more, it’s all be devised toward that end. smashed up.” He says, “How many feet of it It is possible—I will put it that way—for were there?” I tell him, “There were 150 the United States to take over British orders, feet of it.” He says, “All right, I will replace and, because they are essentially the same it.” Now, if I get a nice garden hose back, I kind of munitions that we use ourselves, turn am in pretty good shape. them into American orders. We have In other words, if you lend certain muni- enough money to do it. And thereupon, as tions and get the munitions back at the end to such portion of them as the military of the war, if they are intact—haven’t been events of the future determine to be right hurt—you are all right; if they have been and proper for us to allow to go to the other damaged or have deteriorated or have been side, either lease or sell the materials, subject lost completely, it seems to me you come out to mortgage, to the people on the other side. pretty well if you have them replaced by the That would be on the general theory that it fellow to whom you have lent them. may still prove true that the best defense of I can’t go into details; and there is no use Great Britain is the best defense of the asking legal questions about how you would United States, and therefore that these do it, because that is the thing that is now materials would be more useful to the under study; but the thought is that we defense of the United States if they were would take over not all, but a very large used in Great Britain, than if they were kept number of, future British orders; and when in storage here. they come off the line, whether they were Now, what I am trying to do is to elimi- planes or guns or something else, we would nate the dollar sign. That is something enter into some kind of arrangement for brand new in the thoughts of practically their use by the British on the ground that it everybody in this room, I think—get rid of was the best thing for American defense, the silly, foolish old dollar sign. with the understanding that when the show Well, let me give you an illustration: Sup- was over, we would get repaid sometime in pose my neighbor’s home catches fire, and I kind, thereby leaving out the dollar mark in have a length of garden hose four or five the form of a dollar debt and substituting for hundred feet away. If he can take my garden it a gentleman’s obligation to repay in kind. hose and connect it up with his hydrant, I I think you all get it. 396 The FDR Years

Q. Mr. President, that suggests a question, Q: Let us leave out the legal phase of it all right; Would the title still be in our entirely; the question I have is whether you name? think this takes us any more into the war than we are? The President: You have gone and asked a question I told you not to ask, because it The President: No, not a bit. would take lawyers much better than your Q: Even though goods we own are being used? or I to answer it. Where the legal title is would depend largely on what the lawyers The President: I don’t think you go into a war say. Now, for example, if you get mixed up in for legalistic reasons; in other words, we are the legal end of this, you get in all kinds of doing all we can at the present time. tangles. Let me ask you this simple question: Q: Mr. President, did you mean naval craft? You own, let us say, a house, a piece of prop- erty, a farm, and it is not encumbered in any The President: No, no! I am talking about way—there is no mortgage on it—but you merchant ships. have had some troubles, and you want to Q: It is my understanding that this is all for borrow four or five thousand dollars on it. purposes of background, but at one point You go to the bank and you say, “I want to here I was wondering whether you would borrow four or five thousand dollars on my attribute this to the necessity for facilities house or my farm.” They say, “Sure; give me and for encouragement of production? a mortgage.” You give them a mortgage, if you think The President: I think you can attribute this— you will be able to pay it off in three or four what we have been talking about—to me. years. In your mind you still think you own Q: Mr. President, would we take our own your own house; you still think it is your goods abroad? house or your farm; but from the strictly legalistic point of view, the bank is the owner. The President: What do you mean—take our You deed your house over to the bank; you own goods? pledge it, like going to the pawnbroker. Let’s Q: As long as this is being made to our account take the other side of it: The title to your and we are lending it to Great Britain, would gold watch is vested in the pawnbroker. You we deliver the goods in Great Britain that can redeem it; you can pay off your mortgage are going to be used in that way? and get title to your house. On this particular thing—let’s say it’s a The President: Oh, I suppose it would depend ship—I haven’t the faintest idea at this on what flag was flying at the stern of the moment in whom the legal title of that par- ship. You can work it out any way you want. ticular ship would be. I don’t think that It might even be a Bolivian flag. That ques- makes any difference in the transaction; the tion is a detail. point of the transaction is that if that ship Q: Would it be an American flag? were returned to us in first-class condition, after payment of what might be called a rea- The President: Not necessarily. That would sonable amount for the ship during that bring up another subject; that would bring time—the other people might have had legal up a subject which might be a dangerous title or the title might have remained in us; one, quite frankly, of American sailors and I don’t know, and I don’t care. American passengers, et cetera, taking the Selected Primary Documents 397

American flag into a war zone. You need not would do the financing of the factory just worry about that one bit, because you don’t the way we have done it for ourselves, have to send an American flag and an Amer- thereby increasing the productive capacity ican crew on an American vessel. for turning out shells. Q: I was backing into the question that this Q: Mr. President, before you loan your hose to whole theory of yours doesn’t involve your neighbor you have to have the hose. I amendment of the Neutrality Act. was wondering, have you any plans to build up supplies? There has been a good deal of The President: Right! discussion about the lack of authority to tell Q: You referred to future orders in this connec- a manufacturer he should run two or three tion; as I understand it, the orders the British shifts a day. There is no one now that has have given would go ahead on the basis of that authority. existing contracts and would be paid for? The President: Isn’t there? The President: Yes, I think so. They have Q: I don’t believe so. plenty of exchange, you know. There does- n’t seem to be very much of a problem about The President: I think so, yes. After all, you payment for existing orders, but there might have to follow certain laws of the land. Of be a problem about paying for additions to course the law is, and always was that con- those orders or for replacement of those tracts by the Navy, for instance (I used to orders now. place a great many of them in the World War)—should be signed by the Secretary of Q: Is this a safe conclusion on what you have the Navy or the Assistant Secretary of the said, that what the British are interested in is Navy. Never, in the history of the United to have us lend them the supplies? States, has that power been taken away from The President: That’s the point. I am trying to the two main contracting departments. eliminate the dollar mark. That is a pretty important thing to remember. A lot of people in the last week Q: Does this require Congressional approval? or two have forgotten that fact. There never The President: Oh, yes, this would require var- has been one individual in this country, out- ious types of legislation, in addition to side of the Army or Navy, who could do any- appropriation. Let me give you an example: thing more than recommend very strongly Let’s take anything—a shell factory; and the that they do thus and so, and supervise it— present shell factories are all filled up with supervise keeping the program up to date. If orders a year—two years—ahead; but the the program is not kept up to date, there are British need more shells now, and the shell lots of things that have been done in the manufacturers say, “That is all very well, but past, and would be done in the future. That we have got to get a new factory.” And the is what was done in the World War. United States Government has ordered sev- The number of perfectly crazy assertions eral new factories and put up the money that have been made in the last couple of through the R.F.C. or some other way for weeks by some people who didn’t grow up the capital. Well, if the British wanted a new until after the World War is perfectly factory for additional shells, or went above extraordinary. They have assigned all kinds present orders, if we take that order over we of authorities and powers to people in the 398 The FDR Years

World War that never existed, except in the think it is fair to say there are two or three figment of their imagination. I went through companies under investigation. it; I happen to know. Q: Mr. President, do you expect to place this Q: Mr. President, on your statement that we general idea before this session of Congress? never would get into war for legalistic rea- The President: Either that or something similar. sons—would you amplify that a little? Q: Within a few days? The President: Only this, that I would not try, from what I have said, to make it appear— The President: No, probably not until the 3rd, who was it who asked that question a while because the thing has not only to be worked ago? out here, but in London too. Mr. Early: Jim Wright Q: Mr. President, is there any plan under con- sideration for building up our Defense Pro- The President: Jim Wright asked whether any gram because of this? of these steps would be a greater danger to the United States of getting into war than the The President: Well, that’s a pretty general existing situation, and the answer it: “No, of question; on what, for example? course not.” In other words, we are furnish- Q: I wondered if you had any specific program ing everything we possibly can at the present for building up any phase of defense. moment. This will make easier a continua- tion of that program. That’s all there is to it. The President: You can’t answer a general question like that. If you ask about an article Q: Mr. President, it is interesting about taking that is coming along in good shape, the over the future orders for the British, but answer is No. It depends on what you are Mr. Knudsen says that the first half of that is talking about. Before I left, I think we talked crucial. Can you do anything more than you about the Navy destroyer program which, in are doing? my judgment, was completely insufficient The President: Except efficient people; that’s because a lot of the planned destroyers could what he is trying to do—push them. not be laid down except in turn. In other words, after No. 1 Destroyer had been built Q: Mr. President, has the division of orders and launched from the ways, then they been changed? It was 50-50 the last time. would start No. 31 of the destroyers on the The President: That was rule of thumb. In same ways, build that and launch it, and after some places it is 40-60, and in others 60-40. that was launched they would put No. 61 on the same ways, so that No. 61 would not be Q: Mr. President, do any production delays at launched for perhaps four years from now. the present time indicate any need for Well, now, the answer to that program, authority to take over plants? which was laid down by the Navy Depart- The President: That is a thing I asked Steve ment, was that in my judgment it was too [Mr. Early] to look up this morning. darned slow. And how can you speed it up? By building more ways. So that was an illus- Mr. Early: No one is reporting today, sir. tration of how the program as laid down The President: That is a thing I asked Steve to proved insufficient, and we are now studying report on. No one is reporting today. But I how we can build more destroyer ways. Selected Primary Documents 399

Q: Mr. President, Mr. Knudsen said that the to work it out, but you can employ one whole Defense Program was lagging pretty group of common laborers the first five severely; do you see anything in this picture days in the week, 40 hours—that is 8 hours that would require you to extend the present a day; and then another group you can limited emergency? employ on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday and give them Sunday The President: No; that again is largely a legal- and Monday off; and another group you istic problem. It is a great question whether can employ Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, it would speed it up or not—a great techni- Saturday and Sunday and give them Mon- cal question. day and Tuesday off; and in that way you Q: Mr. President, when the Government can keep a plant going seven days a week if refuses to take in a union man on a defense you want to. It takes a little more—what project, don’t you think it is because the shall I say?—figuring out on a sheet of unions ask exorbitant fees? paper, a little more trouble. In that way some people will get their hol- The President: You would have to give me the iday in the middle of the week for a while, name of the man and information about the and others will get it at the end of the week; case. but it can be done, and it is being done—that Q: How about eliminating the Friday to Mon- is the point of it—in a great many plants in day blackout? the United States. It is being done; and that can be extended to a great many other plants. The President: It depends entirely on the par- It is a nuisance from the point of plant man- ticular type of industrial plant and the con- agement; we all know that. ditions in the locality, and the type of There is still another point to consider— workmen that are used. There is no gener- there are plants which obviously could not alization that is possible; and the one thing run seven days a week; the plant that has to we have to avoid, all of us, is generalization. be laid up for repairs one day out of seven; Now for example—you take down here in or a part of the particular plant that has to be the Washington Navy Yard, there are cer- laid up for repairs and closed down one day tain very, very skilled trades; and there is a out of seven. You see you can’t apply a gen- shortage of labor in those trades. Because eral rule. It’s just plain immature to try to do there is a shortage, because there is no relief, it. The people that understand manufactur- no additional labor in that trade, we proba- ing will be the first to say you can’t apply a bly have to employ the people in that par- general rule to this question. ticular trade, more than 40 hours; and for the extra hours they will get time and a half Q: Mr. President, one argument that is for overtime. advanced is where it is necessary for a man You take the other extreme—common to work 55 hours a week, a trained man, and labor; there’s plenty of it. For common he can’t be replaced; and since the public is labor it is not necessary in that particular begging for this armament, that is putting undue stress on the public’s shoulders—time yard to work men overtime; and yet you and a half. can run the yard six days a week, or even seven days a week. It takes a lot more plan- The President: In the case of that particular ning on the part of the management team man that is irreplaceable working 55 hours a 400 The FDR Years

week, we are trying, as you know, to train My Friends: other people to fit into those positions. It This is not a fireside chat on war. It is a talk takes time to do it, but gradually we are get- on national security, because the nub of the ting a large number of people trained to do whole purpose of your President is to keep you these specialized jobs. now, and your children later, and your grand- children much later, out of a last-ditch war for Q: Mr. President, on this defense setup, do we the preservation of American independence understand you to mean that you are not and all of the things that American indepen- interested in appointing a chairman of the dence means to you and to me and to ours. national defense? Tonight, in the presence of a world crisis, The President: I would not draw any inferences my mind goes back eight years to a night in the on a detail. That is a pure detail. midst of a domestic crisis. It was a time when the wheels of American industry were grinding Q: One more question: I believe Mr. Knudsen to a full stop, when the whole banking system referred to the blackout of machine time of our country had ceased to function. rather than human time. I believe he was I well remember that while I sat in my study referring quite specifically to the fact that in the White House, preparing to talk with the the machines were shut down between Fri- people of the United States, I had before my day and Monday. eyes the picture of all those Americans with The President: You have to tell me the machine, whom I was talking. I saw the workmen in the and the trade that runs the machine. mills, the mines, the factories; the girl behind the counter; the small shopkeeper; the farmer Q: He didn’t say. doing his spring plowing; the widows and the The President: In some cases, yes; in some old men wondering about their life’s savings. cases, no. The objective is to keep all the I tried to convey to the great mass of Amer- machines that will run seven days a week in ican people what the banking crisis meant to operation seven days a week. them in their daily lives. Tonight, I want to do the same thing, with the same people, in this Source: The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin new crisis which faces America. D. Roosevelt, Vol. 9 (New York: Macmillan Com- We met the issue of 1933 with courage and pany, 1941), 604–615. realism. We face this new crisis—this new threat to the security of our nation—with the same 23. Sixteenth Fireside Chat— courage and realism. On National Security (“Great Arsenal” Never before since Jamestown and Ply- Chat, December 29, 1940) mouth Rock has our American civilization been in such danger as now. FDR used his 16th Fireside Chat to promote his For, on September 27th, 1940, this year, by Lend-Lease progress in Congress and prepare the an agreement signed in Berlin, three powerful nation for war. To counter isolationists’ fear that the nations, two in Europe and one in Asia, joined United States would be dragged into war by giving themselves together in the threat that if the aid to the Allies, he assured the public that they could United States of America interfered with or “nail any talk about sending armies to Europe as blocked the expansion program of these three deliberate untruths.” nations—a program aimed at world control— Selected Primary Documents 401 they would unite in ultimate action against the One hundred and seventeen years ago the United States. Monroe Doctrine was conceived by our Gov- The Nazi masters of Germany have made it ernment as a measure of defense in the face of clear that they intend not only to dominate all a threat against this hemisphere by an alliance life and thought in their own country, but also in Continental Europe. Thereafter, we stood to enslave the whole of Europe, and then to use guard in the Atlantic, with the British as neigh- the resources of Europe to dominate the rest of bors. There was no treaty. There was no the world. “unwritten agreement.” It was only three weeks ago their leader And yet, there was the feeling, proven cor- stated this: “There are two worlds that stand rect by history, that we as neighbors could set- opposed to each other.” And then in defiant tle any disputes in peaceful fashion. And the reply to his opponents, he said this: “Others are fact is that during the whole of this time the correct when they say: With this world we can- Western Hemisphere has remained free from not ever reconcile ourselves ... I can beat any aggression from Europe or from Asia. other power in the world.” So said the leader of Does anyone seriously believe that we need the Nazis. to fear attack anywhere in the Americas while a In other words, the Axis not merely admits free Britain remains our most powerful naval but the Axis proclaims that there can be no ulti- neighbor in the Atlantic? And does anyone mate peace between their philosophy of gov- seriously believe, on the other hand, that we ernment and our philosophy of government. could rest easy if the Axis powers were our In view of the nature of this undeniable neighbors there? threat, it can be asserted, properly and cate- If Great Britain goes down, the Axis powers gorically, that the United States has no right or will control the continents of Europe, Asia, reason to encourage talk of peace, until the day Africa, Australia, and the high seas—and they shall come when there is a clear intention on will be in a position to bring enormous mili- the part of the aggressor nations to abandon all tary and naval resources against this hemi- thought of dominating or conquering the sphere. It is no exaggeration to say that all of world. us, in all the Americas, would be living at the At this moment, the forces of the states that point of a gun—a gun loaded with explosive are leagued against all peoples who live in free- bullets, economic as well as military. dom are being held away from our shores. The We should enter upon a new and terrible Germans and the Italians are being blocked on era in which the whole world, our hemisphere the other side of the Atlantic by the British, and included, would be run by threats of brute by the Greeks, and by thousands of soldiers and force. And to survive in such a world, we sailors who were able to escape from subju- would have to convert ourselves permanently gated countries. In Asia the Japanese are being into a militaristic power on the basis of war engaged by the Chinese nation in another great economy. defense. In the Pacific Ocean is our fleet. Some of us like to believe that even if Britain Some of our people like to believe that wars falls, we are still safe, because of the broad in Europe and in Asia are of no concern to us. expanse of the Atlantic and of the Pacific. But But it is a matter of most vital concern to us the width of those oceans is not what it was in that European and Asiatic war-makers should the days of clipper ships. At one point between not gain control of the oceans which lead to Africa and Brazil the distance is less from this hemisphere. Washington than it is from Washington to 402 The FDR Years

Denver, Colorado—five hours for the latest The Nazis have justified such actions by var- type of bomber. And at the North end of the ious pious frauds. One of these frauds is the Pacific Ocean America and Asia almost touch claim that they are occupying a nation for the each other. purpose of “restoring order.” Another is that Why, even today we have planes that could they are occupying or controlling a nation on fly from the British Isles to New England and the excuse that they are “protecting it” against back again without refueling. And remember the aggression of somebody else. that the range of a modern bomber is ever For example, Germany has said that she was being increased. occupying Belgium to save the Belgians from During the past week many people in all the British. Would she then hesitate to say to parts of the nation have told me what they any South American country, “We are occupy- wanted me to say tonight. Almost all of them ing you to protect you from aggression by the expressed a courageous desire to hear the plain United States?” truth about the gravity of the situation. One Belgium today is being used as an invasion telegram, however, expressed the attitude of base against Britain, now fighting for its life. the small minority who want to see no evil and And any South American country, in Nazi hear no evil, even though they know in their hands, would always constitute a jumping-off hearts that evil exists. That telegram begged place for German attack on any one of the me not to tell again of the ease with which our other republics of this hemisphere. American cities could be bombed by any hos- Analyze for yourselves the future of two tile power which had gained bases in this West- other places even nearer to Germany if the ern Hemisphere. The gist of that telegram was: Nazis won. Could Ireland hold out? Would “Please, Mr. President, don’t frighten us by Irish freedom be permitted as an amazing pet telling us the facts.” exception in an unfree world? Or the Islands Frankly and definitely there is danger of the Azores which still fly the flag of Portugal ahead—danger against which we must prepare. after five centuries? You and I think of Hawaii But we well know that we cannot escape dan- as an outpost of defense in the Pacific. And yet, ger, or the fear of danger, by crawling into bed the Azores are closer to our shores in the and pulling the covers over our heads. Atlantic than Hawaii is on the other side. Some nations of Europe were bound by There are those who say that the Axis pow- solemn non-intervention pacts with Germany. ers would never have any desire to attack the Other nations were assured by Germany that Western Hemisphere. That is the same dan- they need never fear invasion. gerous form of wishful thinking which has Non-intervention pact or not, the fact destroyed the powers of resistance of so many remains that they were attacked, overrun, conquered peoples. The plain facts are that the thrown into modern slavery at an hour’s notice, Nazis have proclaimed, time and again, that all or even without any notice at all. As an exiled other races are their inferiors and therefore leader of one of these nations said to me the subject to their orders. other day, “The notice was a minus quantity. It And most important of all, the vast resources was given to my Government two hours after and wealth of this American Hemisphere con- German troops had poured into my country in stitute the most tempting loot in all of the a hundred places.” round world. Let us no longer blind ourselves The fate of these nations tells us what it to the undeniable fact that the evil forces which means to live at the point of a Nazi gun. have crushed and undermined and corrupted Selected Primary Documents 403 so many others are already within our own be embraced to death by their allies. The gates. Your Government knows much about American appeasers ignore the warning to be them and every day is ferreting them out. found in the fate of Austria, Czechoslovakia, Their secret emissaries are active in our own Poland, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and in neighboring countries. They seek to stir Denmark and France. up suspicion and dissension to cause internal They tell you that the Axis powers are going strife. They try to turn capital against labor, to win anyway; that all of this bloodshed in the and vice versa. They try to reawaken long world could be saved, that the United States slumbering racist and religious enmities which might just as well throw its influence into the should have no place in this country. They are scale of a dictated peace, and get the best out of active in every group that promotes intoler- it that we can. ance. They exploit for their own ends our own They call it a “negotiated peace.” Nonsense! natural abhorrence of war. These trouble- Is it a negotiated peace if a gang of outlaws sur- breeders have but one purpose. It is to divide rounds your community and on threat of exter- our people, to divide them into hostile groups mination makes you pay tribute to save your and to destroy our unity and shatter our will to own skins? defend ourselves. Such a dictated peace would be no peace at There are also American citizens, many of all. It would be only another armistice, leading them in high places, who, unwittingly in most to the most gigantic armament race and the cases, are aiding and abetting the work of these most devastating trade wars in all history. And agents. I do not charge these American citizens in these contests the Americas would offer the with being foreign agents. But I do charge only real resistance to the Axis powers. them with doing exactly the kind of work that With all their vaunted efficiency, with all the dictators want done in the United States. their parade of pious purpose in this war, there These people not only believe that we can are still in their background the concentration save our own skins by shutting our eyes to the camp and the servants of God in chains. fate of other nations. Some of them go much The history of recent years proves that the further than that. They say that we can and shootings and the chains and the concentration should become the friends and even the part- camps are not simply the transient tools but the ners of the Axis powers. Some of them even very altars of modern dictatorships. They may suggest that we should imitate the methods of talk of a “new order” in the world, but what the dictatorships. But Americans never can and they have in mind is only a revival of the oldest never will do that. The experience of the past and the worst tyranny. In that there is no lib- two years has proven beyond doubt that no erty, no religion, no hope. nation can appease the Nazis. No man can The proposed “new order” is the very oppo- tame a tiger into a kitten by stroking it. site of a United States of Europe or a United There can be no appeasement with ruth- States of Asia. It is not a government based lessness. There can be no reasoning with an upon the consent of the governed. It is not a incendiary bomb. We know now that a nation union of ordinary, self-respecting men and can have peace with the Nazis only at the price women to protect themselves and their free- of total surrender. dom and their dignity from oppression. It is an Even the people of Italy have been forced to unholy alliance of power and pelf to dominate become accomplices of the Nazis, but at this and to enslave the human race. The British moment they do not know how soon they will people and their allies today are conducting an 404 The FDR Years active war against this unholy alliance. Our Our national policy is not directed toward own future security is greatly dependent on the war. Its sole purpose is to keep war away from outcome of that fight. Our ability to “keep out our country and away from our people. of war” is going to be affected by that outcome. Democracy’s fight against world conquest is Thinking in terms of today and tomorrow, I being greatly aided, and must be more greatly make the direct statement to the American aided, by the rearmament of the United States people that there is far less chance of the and by sending every ounce and every ton of United States getting into war if we do all we munitions and supplies that we can possibly can now to support the nations defending spare to help the defenders who are in the front themselves against attack by the Axis than if we lines. And it is no more unneutral for us to do acquiesce in their defeat, submit tamely to an that than it is for Sweden, Russia and other Axis victory, and wait our turn to be the object nations near Germany to send steel and ore and of attack in another war later on. oil and other war materials into Germany every If we are to be completely honest with our- day in the week. selves, we must admit that there is risk in any We are planning our own defense with the course we may take. But I deeply believe that utmost urgency, and in its vast scale we must the great majority of our people agree that the integrate the war needs of Britain and the other course that I advocate involves the least risk free nations which are resisting aggression. now and the greatest hope for world peace in This is not a matter of sentiment or of con- the future. troversial personal opinion. It is a matter of The people of Europe who are defending realistic, practical military policy, based on the themselves do not ask us to do their fighting. advice of our military experts who are in close They ask us for the implements of war, the touch with existing warfare. These military planes, the tanks, the guns, the freighters which and naval experts and the members of the will enable them to fight for their liberty and Congress and the Administration have a sin- for our security. Emphatically we must get gle-minded purpose—the defense of the these weapons to them, get them to them in United States. sufficient volume and quickly enough, so that This nation is making a great effort to pro- we and our children will be saved the agony duce everything that is necessary in this emer- and suffering of war which others have had to gency—and with all possible speed. And this endure. Let not the defeatists tell us that it is great effort requires great sacrifice. too late. It will never be earlier. Tomorrow will I would ask no one to defend a democracy be later than today. which in turn would not defend everyone in the Certain facts are self-evident. In a military nation against want and privation. The sense Great Britain and the British Empire are strength of this nation shall not be diluted by today the spearhead of resistance to world con- the failure of the Government to protect the quest. And they are putting up a fight which economic well-being of its citizens. will live forever in the story of human gallantry. If our capacity to produce is limited by There is no demand for sending an American machines, it must ever be remembered that Expeditionary Force outside our own borders. these machines are operated by the skill and the There is no intention by any member of your stamina of the workers. As the Government is Government to send such a force. You can, determined to protect the rights of the work- therefore, nail—nail any talk about sending ers, so the nation has a right to expect that the armies to Europe as deliberate untruth. men who man the machines will discharge their Selected Primary Documents 405 full responsibilities to the urgent needs of But all of our present efforts are not enough. defense. We must have more ships, more guns, more The worker possesses the same human dig- planes—more of everything. And this can only nity and is entitled to the same security of posi- be accomplished if we discard the notion of tion as the engineer or the manager or the “business as usual.” This job cannot be done owner. For the workers provide the human merely by superimposing on the existing pro- power that turns out the destroyers, and the ductive facilities the added requirements of the planes and the tanks. nation for defense. The nation expects our defense industries to Our defense efforts must not be blocked by continue operation without interruption by those who fear the future consequences of sur- strikes or lockouts. It expects and insists that plus plant capacity. The possible consequences management and workers will reconcile their of failure of our defense efforts now are much differences by voluntary or legal means, to con- more to be feared. tinue to produce the supplies that are so sorely And after the present needs of our defense needed. are past, a proper handling of the country’s And on the economic side of our great peacetime needs will require all of the new pro- defense program, we are, as you know, bending ductive capacity—if not still more. every effort to maintain stability of prices and No pessimistic policy about the future of with that the stability of the cost of living. America shall delay the immediate expansion of Nine days ago I announced the setting up of those industries essential to defense. We need a more effective organization to direct our them. I want to make it clear that it is the pur- gigantic efforts to increase the production of pose of the nation to build now with all possible munitions. The appropriation of vast sums of speed every machine, every arsenal, every fac- money and a well coordinated executive direc- tory that we need to manufacture our defense tion of our defense efforts are not in themselves material. We have the men—the skill—the enough. Guns, planes, ships and many other wealth—and above all, the will. things have to be built in the factories and the I am confident that if and when production arsenals of America. They have to be produced of consumer or luxury goods in certain indus- by workers and managers and engineers with the tries requires the use of machines and raw aid of machines which in turn have to be built by materials that are essential for defense pur- hundreds of thousands of workers throughout poses, then such production must yield, and the land. In this great work there has been splen- will gladly yield, to our primary and compelling did cooperation between the Government and purpose. industry and labor, and I am very thankful. So I appeal to the owners of plants—to the American industrial genius, unmatched managers—to the workers—to our own Gov- throughout all the world in the solution of pro- ernment employees—to put every ounce of duction problems, has been called upon to effort into producing these munitions swiftly bring its resources and its talents into action. and without stint. With this appeal I give you Manufacturers of watches, of farm implements, the pledge that all of us who are officers of your of linotypes, and cash registers, and automo- Government will devote ourselves to the same biles, and sewing machines, and lawn mowers whole-hearted extent to the great task that lies and locomotives are now making fuses, bomb ahead. packing crates, telescope mounts, shells, and As planes and ships and guns and shells are pistols and tanks. produced, your Government, with its defense 406 The FDR Years experts, can then determine how best to use upon our people with absolute confidence that them to defend this hemisphere. The deci- our common cause will greatly succeed. sion as to how much shall be sent abroad and how much shall remain at home must be Source: “On National Security,” December 29, made on the basis of our overall military 1940. Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library necessities. and Museum. Available online. URL: We must be the great arsenal of democracy. http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/122940.html. For us this is an emergency as serious as war itself. We must apply ourselves to our task with the same resolution, the same sense of urgency, 24. The “Four Freedoms”—FDR’s Annual the same spirit of patriotism and sacrifice as we Address to Congress, January 6, 1941 would show were we at war. In urging aid for Britain short of war, FDR deliv- We have furnished the British great mate- ered an eloquent pledge to the nation and the rial support and we will furnish far more in the remainder of the free world in support of freedom of future. speech, freedom to worship God, freedom from want, There will be no “bottlenecks” in our deter- and freedom from fear. In response, Congress passed mination to aid Great Britain. No dictator, no the Lend-Lease program. combination of dictators, will weaken that determination by threats of how they will con- Mr. President, Mr. Speaker, Members of the strue that determination. Seventy-seventh Congress: The British have received invaluable mili- I address you, the Members of the Seventy- tary support from the heroic Greek army and seventh Congress, at a moment unprecedented from the forces of all the governments in exile. in the history of the Union. I use the word Their strength is growing. It is the strength of “unprecedented,” because at no previous time men and women who value their freedom more has American security been as seriously threat- highly than they value their lives. ened from without as it is today. I believe that the Axis powers are not going Since the permanent formation of our Gov- to win this war. I base that belief on the latest ernment under the Constitution, in 1789, most and best of information. of the periods of crisis in our history have We have no excuse for defeatism. We have related to our domestic affairs. Fortunately, every good reason for hope—hope for peace, only one of these—the four-year War Between yes, and hope for the defense of our civiliza- the States—ever threatened our national unity. tion and for the building of a better civilization Today, thank God, one hundred and thirty mil- in the future. lion Americans, in forty-eight States, have for- I have the profound conviction that the gotten points of the compass in our national American people are now determined to put unity. forth a mightier effort than they have ever yet It is true that prior to 1914 the United States made to increase our production of all the often had been disturbed by events in other implements of defense, to meet the threat to Continents. We had even engaged in two wars our democratic faith. with European nations and in a number of As President of the United States I call for undeclared wars in the West Indies, in the that national effort. I call for it in the name of Mediterranean and in the Pacific for the main- this nation which we love and honor and which tenance of American rights and for the princi- we are privileged and proud to serve. I call ples of peaceful commerce. But in no case had Selected Primary Documents 407 a serious threat been raised against our national unjust than the kind of “pacification” which safety or our continued independence. began even before Munich, and which is being What I seek to convey is the historic truth carried on under the new order of tyranny that that the United States as a nation has at all seeks to spread over every continent today. The times maintained clear, definite opposition, to American people have unalterably set their any attempt to lock us in behind an ancient faces against that tyranny. Chinese wall while the procession of civiliza- Every realist knows that the democratic way tion went past. Today, thinking of our children of life is at this moment being directly assailed and of their children, we oppose enforced iso- in every part of the world—assailed either by lation for ourselves or for any other part of the arms, or by secret spreading of poisonous pro- Americas. paganda by those who seek to destroy unity and That determination of ours, extending over promote discord in nations that are still at all these years, was proved, for example, during peace. the quarter century of wars following the During sixteen long months this assault has French Revolution. While the Napoleonic blotted out the whole pattern of democratic life struggles did threaten interests of the United in an appalling number of independent nations, States because of the French foothold in the great and small. The assailants are still on the West Indies and in Louisiana, and while we march, threatening other nations, great and engaged in the War of 1812 to vindicate our small. right to peaceful trade, it is nevertheless clear Therefore, as your President, performing that neither France nor Great Britain, nor any my constitutional duty to “give to the Congress other nation, was aiming at domination of the information of the state of the Union,” I find it, whole world. unhappily, necessary to report that the future In like fashion from 1815 to 1914—ninety- and the safety of our country and of our nine years—no single war in Europe or in Asia democracy are overwhelmingly involved in constituted a real threat against our future or events far beyond our borders. against the future of any other American Armed defense of democratic existence is nation. now being gallantly waged in four continents. Except in the Maximilian interlude in Mex- If that defense fails, all the population and all ico, no foreign power sought to establish itself the resources of Europe, Asia, Africa and Aus- in this Hemisphere; and the strength of the tralasia will be dominated by the conquerors. British fleet in the Atlantic has been a friendly Let us remember that the total of those popu- strength. It is still a friendly strength. lations and their resources in those four conti- Even when the World War broke out in nents greatly exceeds the sum total of the 1914, it seemed to contain only small threat of population and the resources of the whole of danger to our own American future. But, as the Western Hemisphere-many times over. time went on, the American people began to In times like these it is immature—and inci- visualize what the downfall of democratic dentally, untrue—for anybody to brag that an nations might mean to our own democracy. unprepared America, single-handed, and with We need not overemphasize imperfections one hand tied behind its back, can hold off the in the Peace of Versailles. We need not harp on whole world. failure of the democracies to deal with prob- No realistic American can expect from a dic- lems of world reconstruction. We should tator’s peace international generosity, or return remember that the Peace of 1919 was far less of true independence, or world disarmament, 408 The FDR Years or freedom of expression, or freedom of reli- time and the place and the method of their gion -or even good business. attack. Such a peace would bring no security for us That is why the future of all the American or for our neighbors. “Those, who would give Republics is today in serious danger. up essential liberty to purchase a little tempo- That is why this Annual Message to the rary safety, deserve neither liberty nor safety.” Congress is unique in our history. As a nation, we may take pride in the fact That is why every member of the Executive that we are softhearted; but we cannot afford to Branch of the Government and every member be soft-headed. of the Congress faces great responsibility and We must always be wary of those who with great accountability. sounding brass and a tinkling cymbal preach The need of the moment is that our actions the “ism” of appeasement. and our policy should be devoted primarily- We must especially beware of that small almost exclusively—to meeting this foreign group of selfish men who would clip the wings peril. For all our domestic problems are now a of the American eagle in order to feather their part of the great emergency. own nests. Just as our national policy in internal affairs I have recently pointed out how quickly the has been based upon a decent respect for the tempo of modern warfare could bring into our rights and the dignity of all our fellow men very midst the physical attack which we must within our gates, so our national policy in for- eventually expect if the dictator nations win eign affairs has been based on a decent respect this war. for the rights and dignity of all nations, large There is much loose talk of our immunity and small. from immediate and direct invasion from And the justice of morality must and will win across the seas. Obviously, as long as the British in the end. Navy retains its power, no such danger exists. Our national policy is this: First, by an Even if there were no British Navy, it is not impressive expression of the public will and probable that any enemy would be stupid without regard to partisanship, we are com- enough to attack us by landing troops in the mitted to all-inclusive national defense. United States from across thousands of miles of Second, by an impressive expression of the ocean, until it had acquired strategic bases from public will and without regard to partisanship, which to operate. we are committed to full support of all those But we learn much from the lessons of the resolute peoples, everywhere, who are resisting past years in Europe-particularly the lesson of aggression and are thereby keeping war away Norway, whose essential seaports were cap- from our Hemisphere. By this support, we tured by treachery and surprise built up over a express our determination that the democratic series of years. cause shall prevail; and we strengthen the The first phase of the invasion of this Hemi- defense and the security of our own nation. sphere would not be the landing of regular Third, by an impressive expression of the troops. The necessary strategic points would public will and without regard to partisanship, be occupied by secret agents and their dupes- we are committed to the proposition that prin- and great numbers of them are already here, ciples of morality and considerations for our and in Latin America. own security will never permit us to acquiesce As long as the aggressor nations maintain in a peace dictated by aggressors and sponsored the offensive, they-not we—will choose the by appeasers. We know that enduring peace Selected Primary Documents 409 cannot be bought at the cost of other people’s To change a whole nation from a basis of freedom. peacetime production of implements of peace In the recent national election there was no to a basis of wartime production of implements substantial difference between the two great of war is no small task. And the greatest diffi- parties in respect to that national policy. No culty comes at the beginning of the program, issue was fought out on this line before the when new tools, new plant facilities, new American electorate. Today it is abundantly assembly lines, and new ship ways must first evident that American citizens everywhere are be constructed before the actual materiel demanding and supporting speedy and com- begins to flow steadily and speedily from them. plete action in recognition of obvious danger. The Congress, of course, must rightly keep Therefore, the immediate need is a swift and itself informed at all times of the progress of the driving increase in our armament production. program. However, there is certain informa- Leaders of industry and labor have tion, as the Congress itself will readily recog- responded to our summons. Goals of speed nize, which, in the interests of our own security have been set. In some cases these goals are and those of the nations that we are supporting, being reached ahead of time; in some cases we must of needs be kept in confidence. are on schedule; in other cases there are slight New circumstances are constantly begetting but not serious delays; and in some cases—and new needs for our safety. I shall ask this Congress I am sorry to say very important cases—we are for greatly increased new appropriations and all concerned by the slowness of the accom- authorizations to carry on what we have begun. plishment of our plans. I also ask this Congress for authority and for The Army and Navy, however, have made funds sufficient to manufacture additional substantial progress during the past year. munitions and war supplies of many kinds, to Actual experience is improving and speeding be turned over to those nations which are now up our methods of production with every pass- in actual war with aggressor nations. ing day. And today’s best is not good enough Our most useful and immediate role is to act for tomorrow. as an arsenal for them as well as for ourselves. I am not satisfied with the progress thus far They do not need man power, but they do need made. The men in charge of the program rep- billions of dollars worth of the weapons of resent the best in training, in ability, and in defense. patriotism. The time is near when they will not be able They are not satisfied with the progress thus to pay for them all in ready cash. We cannot, far made. None of us will be satisfied until the and we will not, tell them that they must sur- job is done. render, merely because of present inability to No matter whether the original goal was set pay for the weapons which we know they must too high or too low, our objective is quicker have. I do not recommend that we make them and better results. To give you two illustrations: a loan of dollars with which to pay for these We are behind schedule in turning out fin- weapons—a loan to be repaid in dollars. ished airplanes; we are working day and night I recommend that we make it possible for to solve the innumerable problems and to those nations to continue to obtain war mate- catch up. rials in the United States, fitting their orders We are ahead of schedule in building war- into our own program. Nearly all their materiel ships but we are working to get even further would, if the time ever came, be useful for our ahead of that schedule. own defense. 410 The FDR Years

Taking counsel of expert military and naval We must all prepare to make the sacrifices authorities, considering what is best for our that the emergency—almost as serious as war own security, we are free to decide how much itself—demands. Whatever stands in the way should be kept here and how much should of speed and efficiency in defense preparations be sent abroad to our friends who by their must give way to the national need. determined and heroic resistance are giving A free nation has the right to expect full us time in which to make ready our own cooperation from all groups. A free nation has defense. the right to look to the leaders of business, of For what we send abroad, we shall be repaid labor, and of agriculture to take the lead in within a reasonable time following the close of stimulating effort, not among other groups but hostilities, in similar materials, or, at our within their own groups. option, in other goods of many kinds, which The best way of dealing with the few slack- they can produce and which we need. ers or trouble makers in our midst is, first, to Let us say to the democracies: “We Ameri- shame them by patriotic example, and, if that cans are vitally concerned in your defense of fails, to use the sovereignty of Government to freedom. We are putting forth our energies, save Government. our resources and our organizing powers to As men do not live by bread alone, they do give you the strength to regain and maintain a not fight by armaments alone. free world. We shall send you, in ever-increas- Those who man our defenses, and those ing numbers, ships, planes, tanks, guns. This is behind them who build our defenses, must our purpose and our pledge.” have the stamina and the courage which come In fulfillment of this purpose we will not be from unshakable belief in the manner of life intimidated by the threats of dictators that they which they are defending. The mighty action will regard as a breach of international law or as that we are calling for cannot be based on a dis- an act of war our aid to the democracies which regard of all things worth fighting for. dare to resist their aggression. Such aid is not The Nation takes great satisfaction and an act of war, even if a dictator should unilat- much strength from the things which have erally proclaim it so to be. been done to make its people conscious of their When the dictators, if the dictators, are individual stake in the preservation of demo- ready to make war upon us, they will not wait cratic life in America. Those things have for an act of war on our part. They did not wait toughened the fibre of our people, have for Norway or Belgium or the Netherlands to renewed their faith and strengthened their commit an act of war. devotion to the institutions we make ready to Their only interest is in a new one-way protect. international law, which lacks mutuality in its Certainly this is no time for any of us to stop observance, and, therefore, becomes an instru- thinking about the social and economic prob- ment of oppression. lems which are the root cause of the social rev- The happiness of future generations of olution which is today a supreme factor in the Americans may well depend upon how effec- world. tive and how immediate we can make our aid For there is nothing mysterious about the felt. No one can tell the exact character of the foundations of a healthy and strong democracy. emergency situations that we may be called The basic things expected by our people of upon to meet. The Nation’s hands must not be their political and economic systems are sim- tied when the Nation’s life is in danger. ple. They are : Selected Primary Documents 411

Equality of opportunity for youth and for The first is freedom of speech and expres- others. sion—everywhere in the world. Jobs for those who can work. Security for The second is freedom of every person to those who need it. worship God in his own way—everywhere in The ending of special privilege for the few. the world. The preservation of civil liberties for all. The third is freedom from want—which, The enjoyment of the fruits of scientific translated into world terms, means economic progress in a wider and constantly rising stan- understandings which will secure to every dard of living. nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabi- These are the simple, basic things that must tants—everywhere in the world. never be lost sight of in the turmoil and unbe- The fourth is freedom from fear—which, lievable complexity of our modern world. The translated into world terms, means a world- inner and abiding strength of our economic wide reduction of armaments to such a point and political systems is dependent upon the and in such a thorough fashion that no nation degree to which they fulfill these expectations. will be in a position to commit an act of phys- Many subjects connected with our social ical aggression against any neighbor—any- economy call for immediate improvement. where in the world. As examples: That is no vision of a distant millennium. It We should bring more citizens under the is a definite basis for a kind of world attainable coverage of old-age pensions and unemploy- in our own time and generation. That kind of ment insurance. world is the very antithesis of the so-called new We should widen the opportunities for ade- order of tyranny which the dictators seek to quate medical care. create with the crash of a bomb. We should plan a better system by which To that new order we oppose the greater persons deserving or needing gainful employ- conception—the moral order. A good society ment may obtain it. is able to face schemes of world domination I have called for personal sacrifice. I am and foreign revolutions alike without fear. assured of the willingness of almost all Ameri- Since the beginning of our American his- cans to respond to that call. tory, we have been engaged in change—in a A part of the sacrifice means the payment of perpetual peaceful revolution—a revolution more money in taxes. In my Budget Message I which goes on steadily, quietly adjusting itself shall recommend that a greater portion of this to changing conditions—without the concen- great defense program be paid for from taxa- tration camp or the quick-lime in the ditch. tion than we are paying today. No person The world order which we seek is the cooper- should try, or be allowed, to get rich out of this ation of free countries, working together in a program; and the principle of tax payments in friendly, civilized society. accordance with ability to pay should be con- This nation has placed its destiny in the stantly before our eyes to guide our legislation. hands and heads and hearts of its millions of If the Congress maintains these principles, free men and women; and its faith in freedom the voters, putting patriotism ahead of pocket- under the guidance of God. books, will give you their applause. Freedom means the supremacy of human In the future days, which we seek to make rights everywhere. secure, we look forward to a world founded Our support goes to those who struggle to upon four essential human freedoms. gain those rights or keep them. 412 The FDR Years

Our strength is our unity of purpose. To that nation is the fullness of the measure of its will high concept there can be no end save victory. to live. There are men who doubt this. There are Source: “Our Documents: Franklin Roosevelt’s men who believe that democracy, as a form of Annual Address to Congress—The ‘Four Free- Government and a frame of life, is limited or doms.’ ” Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential measured by a kind of mystical and artificial Library and Museum. Available online. URL: fate that, for some unexplained reason, tyranny http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/online14.html, and slavery have become the surging wave of http://website_online_version/od4frees.html. the future—and that freedom is an ebbing tide. But we Americans know that this is not true. Eight years ago, when the life of this Repub- 25. Third Inaugural Address, January 20, lic seemed frozen by a fatalistic terror, we 1941 proved that this is not true. We were in the midst of shock—but we acted. We acted FDR’s Third Inaugural address was less successful quickly, boldly, decisively. than his first two. He wrote out a draft in longhand These later years have been living years— in which he compared the nation’s needs to the mind, fruitful years for the people of this democracy. body, and spirit of humanity. Samuel Rosenman For they have brought to us greater security contributed to the philosophical speech that echoes and, I hope, a better understanding that life’s the tension between the president’s preference for ideals are to be measured in other than material belligerency and the nonbelligerency favored by the things. isolationists. The address failed to clarify what the Most vital to our present and our future is president planned to do. this experience of a democracy which success- On each national day of inauguration since fully survived crisis at home; put away many 1789, the people have renewed their sense of evil things; built new structures on enduring dedication to the United States. lines; and, through it all, maintained the fact of In Washington’s day the task of the people its democracy. was to create and weld together a nation. For action has been taken within the three- In Lincoln’s day the task of the people was to way framework of the Constitution of the preserve that Nation from disruption from United States. The coordinate branches of the within. Government continue freely to function. The In this day the task of the people is to save Bill of Rights remains inviolate. The freedom that Nation and its institutions from disruption of elections is wholly maintained. Prophets of from without. the downfall of American democracy have seen To us there has come a time, in the midst of their dire predictions come to naught. swift happenings, to pause for a moment and Democracy is not dying. take stock—to recall what our place in history We know it because we have seen it revive— has been, and to rediscover what we are and and grow. what we may be. If we do not, we risk the real We know it cannot die—because it is built peril of inaction. on the unhampered initiative of individual men Lives of nations are determined not by the and women joined together in a common count of years, but by the lifetime of the human enterprise—an enterprise undertaken and car- spirit. The life of a man is three-score years and ried through by the free expression of a free ten: a little more, a little less. The life of a majority. Selected Primary Documents 413

We know it because democracy alone, of all all tongues, to all peoples, not because this con- forms of government, enlists the full force of tinent was a new-found land, but because all men’s enlightened will. those who came here believed they could cre- We know it because democracy alone has ate upon this continent a new life—a life that constructed an unlimited civilization capable of should be new in freedom. infinite progress in the improvement of human Its vitality was written into our own life. Mayflower Compact, into the Declaration of We know it because, if we look below the Independence, into the Constitution of the surface, we sense it still spreading on every con- United States, into the Gettysburg Address. tinent—for it is the most humane, the most Those who first came here to carry out the advanced, and in the end the most unconquer- longings of their spirit, and the millions who able of all forms of human society. followed, and the stock that sprang from A nation, like a person, has a body—a body them—all have moved forward constantly and that must be fed and clothed and housed, invig- consistently toward an ideal which in itself has orated and rested, in a manner that measures gained stature and clarity with each generation. up to the objectives of our time. The hopes of the Republic cannot forever A nation, like a person, has a mind—a mind tolerate either undeserved poverty or self-serv- that must be kept informed and alert, that must ing wealth. know itself, that understands the hopes and the We know that we still have far to go; that we needs of its neighbors—all the other nations must more greatly build the security and the that live within the narrowing circle of the opportunity and the knowledge of every citi- world. zen, in the measure justified by the resources And a nation, like a person, has something and the capacity of the land. deeper, something more permanent, something But it is not enough to achieve these pur- larger than the sum of all its parts. It is that poses alone. It is not enough to clothe and feed something which matters most to its future— the body of this Nation, and instruct and which calls forth the most sacred guarding of inform its mind. For there is also the spirit. its present. And of the three, the greatest is the spirit. It is a thing for which we find it difficult—even Without the body and the mind, as all men impossible—to hit upon a single, simple word. know, the Nation could not live. And yet we all understand what it is—the But if the spirit of America were killed, even spirit—the faith of America. It is the product of though the Nation’s body and mind, con- centuries. It was born in the multitudes of stricted in an alien world, lived on, the Amer- those who came from many lands—some of ica we know would have perished. high degree, but mostly plain people, who That spirit—that faith—speaks to us in our sought here, early and late, to find freedom daily lives in ways often unnoticed, because they more freely. seem so obvious. It speaks to us here in the The democratic aspiration is no mere recent Capital of the Nation. It speaks to us through phase in human history. It is human history. It the processes of governing in the sovereignties permeated the ancient life of early peoples. It of 48 States. It speaks to us in our counties, in blazed anew in the middle ages. It was written our cities, in our towns, and in our villages. It in Magna Carta. speaks to us from the other nations of the hemi- In the Americas its impact has been irre- sphere, and from those across the seas—the sistible. America has been the New World in enslaved, as well as the free. Sometimes we fail 414 The FDR Years to hear or heed these voices of freedom because American destroyer Greer. He did not mention to us the privilege of our freedom is such an old, that the Nazi submarine had first been attacked by old story. a British plane while working with the Greer. The destiny of America was proclaimed in My fellow Americans: words of prophecy spoken by our first Presi- The Navy Department of the United States dent in his first inaugural in 1789—words has reported to me that on the morning of almost directed, it would seem, to this year of September fourth, the United States destroyer 1941: “The preservation of the sacred fire of Greer, proceeding in full daylight towards Ice- liberty and the destiny of the republican model land, had reached a point southeast of Green- of government are justly considered ... land. She was carrying American mail to deeply, ... finally, staked on the experiment Iceland. She was flying the American flag. Her intrusted to the hands of the American people.” identity as an American ship was unmistakable. If we lose that sacred fire—if we let it be smothered with doubt and fear—then we shall She was then and there attacked by a sub- reject the destiny which Washington strove so marine. valiantly and so triumphantly to establish. The Germany admits that it was a German sub- preservation of the spirit and faith of the marine. The submarine deliberately fired a Nation does, and will, furnish the highest jus- torpedo at the Greer, followed later by another tification for every sacrifice that we may make torpedo attack. in the cause of national defense. In spite of what Hitler’s propaganda bureau In the face of great perils never before has invented, and in spite of what any American encountered, our strong purpose is to protect obstructionist organization may prefer to and to perpetuate the integrity of democracy. believe, I tell you the blunt fact that the Ger- For this we muster the spirit of America, and man submarine fired first upon this American the faith of America. destroyer without warning, and with deliber- We do not retreat. We are not content to ate design to sink her. stand still. As Americans, we go forward, in the Our destroyer, at the time, was in waters service of our country, by the will of God. which the Government of the United States had declared to be waters of self-defense—sur- Source: “Third Inaugural Address of Franklin D. rounding outposts of American protection in Roosevelt, Monday, January 20, 1941.” The the Atlantic. Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Available In the North of the Atlantic, outposts have online. URL: http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/ been established by us in Iceland, in Green- presid/inaug/froos3.htm. land, in Labrador and in Newfoundland. Through these waters there pass many ships of many flags. They bear food and other supplies 26. Eighteenth Fireside Chat— to civilians; and they bear material of war, for On Maintaining Freedom of the Seas, which the people of the United States are September 11, 1941 spending billions of dollars, and which, by Congressional action, they have declared to be In his last Fireside Chat before the Pearl Harbor essential for the defense of (their) our own attack, FDR brought the nation into a de facto land. naval war with Nazi Germany as a result of the The United States destroyer, when attacked, fact that a Nazi submarine had torpedoed the was proceeding on a legitimate mission. Selected Primary Documents 415

If the destroyer was visible to the submarine sister Republic of Panama—the S. S. Sessa. On when the torpedo was fired, then the attack was August seventeenth, she had been first torpe- a deliberate attempt by the Nazis to sink a doed without warning, and then shelled, near clearly identified American warship. On the Greenland, while carrying civilian supplies to other hand, if the submarine was beneath the Iceland. It is feared that the other members of surface of the sea and, with the aid of its listen- her crew have been drowned. ing devices, fired in the direction of the sound In view of the established presence of Ger- of the American destroyer without even taking man submarines in this vicinity, there can be the trouble to learn its identity—as the official no reasonable doubt as to the identity of the German communique would indicate then the flag of the attacker. attack was even more outrageous. For it indi- Five days ago, another United States mer- cates a policy of indiscriminate violence against chant ship, the Steel Seafarer, was sunk by a any vessel sailing the seas—belligerent or non- German aircraft in the Red Sea two hundred belligerent. and twenty miles south of Suez. She was bound This was piracy—piracy legally and morally. for an Egyptian port. It was not the first nor the last act of piracy So four of the vessels sunk or attacked flew which the Nazi Government has committed the American flag and were clearly identifiable. against the American flag in this war. For attack Two of these ships were warships of the Amer- has followed attack. ican Navy. A few months ago an American flag mer- In the fifth case, the vessel sunk clearly car- chant ship, the Robin Moor, was sunk by a Nazi ried the flag of our sister Republic of Panama. submarine in the middle of the South Atlantic, In the face of all this, we Americans are under circumstances violating long-established keeping our feet on the ground. Our type of international law and violating every principle democratic civilization has outgrown the of humanity. The passengers and the crew were thought of feeling compelled to fight some forced into open boats hundreds of miles from other nation by reason of any single piratical land, in direct violation of international agree- attack on one of our ships. We are not becom- ments signed by nearly all nations including the ing hysterical or losing our sense of proportion. Government of Germany. Therefore, what I am thinking and saying No apology, no allegation of mistake, no tonight does not relate to any isolated episode. offer of reparations has come from the Nazi Instead, we Americans are taking a long- Government. range point of view in regard to certain funda- In July, 1941, nearly two months ago an mentals—a point of view in regard to a series American battleship in North American waters of events on land and on sea which must be con- was followed by a submarine which for a long sidered as a whole—as a part of a world pattern. time sought to maneuver itself into a position It would be unworthy of a great nation to of attack upon the battleship. The periscope of exaggerate an isolated incident, or to become the submarine was clearly seen. No British or inflamed by some one act of violence. But it American submarines were within hundreds of would be inexcusable folly to minimize such miles of this spot at the time, so the nationality incidents in the face of evidence which makes it of the submarine is clear. clear that the incident is not isolated, but is part Five days ago a United States Navy ship on of a general plan. patrol picked up three survivors of an Ameri- The important truth is that these acts of can-owned ship operating under the flag of our international lawlessness are a manifestation of 416 The FDR Years a design—a design that has been made clear to the Government of the United States. Con- the American people for a long time. It is the spiracy has followed conspiracy. Nazi design to abolish the freedom of the seas, For example, last year a plot to seize the and to acquire absolute control and domina- Government of Uruguay was smashed by the tion of (the) these seas for themselves. prompt action of that country, which was sup- For with control of the seas in their own ported in full by her American neighbors. A like hands, the way can obviously become clear for plot was then hatching in Argentina, and that their next step—domination of the United government has carefully and wisely blocked it States (and the) domination of the Western at every point. More recently, an endeavor was Hemisphere by force of arms. Under Nazi con- made to subvert the government of Bolivia. And trol of the seas, no merchant ship of the United within the past few weeks the discovery was States or of any other American Republic made of secret air-landing fields in Colombia, would be free to carry on any peaceful com- within easy range of the Panama Canal. I could merce, except by the condescending grace of multiply instance(s) upon instance. this foreign and tyrannical power. The Atlantic To be ultimately successful in world mastery, Ocean which has been, and which should Hitler knows that he must get control of the always be, a free and friendly highway for us seas. He must first destroy the bridge of ships would then become a deadly menace to the which we are building across the Atlantic and commerce of the United States, to the coasts of over which we shall continue to roll the imple- the United States, and even to the inland cities ments of war to help destroy him, (and) to of the United States. destroy all his works in the end. The Hitler Government, in defiance of the He must wipe out our patrol on sea and in laws of the sea, (and) in defiance of the recog- the air if he is to do it. He must silence the nized rights of all other nations, has presumed British Navy. to declare, on paper, that great areas of the I think it must be explained over and over seas—even including a vast expanse lying in the again to people who like to think of the Western Hemisphere—are to be closed, and United States Navy as an invincible protec- that no ships may enter them for any purpose, tion, that this can be true only if the British except at peril of being sunk. Actually they are Navy survives. And that, my friends, is simple sinking ships at will and without warning in arithmetic. For if the world outside of the widely separated areas both within and far out- Americas falls under Axis domination, the side of these far-flung pretended zones. shipbuilding facilities which the Axis powers This Nazi attempt to seize control of the would then possess in all of Europe, in the oceans is but a counterpart of the Nazi plots British Isles and in the Far East would be now being carried on throughout the West- much greater than all the shipbuilding facili- ern Hemisphere—all designed toward the ties and potentialities of all of the Americas— same end. For Hitler’s advance guards—not not only greater, but two or three times only his avowed agents but also his dupes greater, enough to win. among us—have sought to make ready for Even if the United States threw all its him footholds, bridgeheads in the New resources into such a situation, seeking to dou- World, to be used as soon as he has gained ble and even redouble the size of our Navy, the control of the oceans. Axis powers, in control of the rest of the world, His intrigues, his plots, his machinations, his would have the manpower and the physical sabotage in this New World are all known to resources to outbuild us several times over. Selected Primary Documents 417

It is time for all Americans, Americans of all was no mere episode in a struggle between two the Americas to stop being deluded by the nations. This was one determined step towards romantic notion that the Americas can go on creating a permanent world system based on living happily and peacefully in a Nazi-domi- force, on terror and on murder. nated world. And I am sure that even now the Nazis are Generation after generation, America has bat- waiting, waiting to see whether the United tled for the general policy of the freedom of the States will by silence give them the green light seas. And that policy is a very simple one, but a to go ahead on this path of destruction. basic, a fundamental one. It means that no nation The Nazi danger to our Western world has has the right to make the broad oceans of the long ceased to be a mere possibility. The dan- world at great distances from the actual theatre ger is here now—not only from a military of land war, unsafe for the commerce of others. enemy but from an enemy of all law, all liberty, That has been our policy, proved time and all morality, all religion. again, in all of our history. There has now come a time when you and I Our policy has applied from the earliest days must see the cold inexorable necessity of saying of the Republic—and still applies—not merely to these inhuman, unrestrained seekers of to the Atlantic but to the Pacific and to all world conquest and permanent world domina- other oceans as well. tion by the sword: “You seek to throw our chil- Unrestricted submarine warfare in 1941 con- dren and our children’s children into your form stitutes defiance—an act of aggression—against of terrorism and slavery. You have now attacked that historic American policy. our own safety. You shall go no further.” It is now clear that Hitler has begun his Normal practices of diplomacy—note campaign to control the seas by ruthless force writing—are of no possible use in dealing and by wiping out every vestige of international with international outlaws who sink our ships law, every vestige of humanity. His intention and kill our citizens. One peaceful nation has been made clear. The American people can after another has met disaster because each have no further illusions about it. refused to look the Nazi danger squarely in No tender whisperings of appeasers that the eye until it had actually had them by the Hitler is not interested in the Western hemi- throat. sphere, no soporific lullabies that a wide ocean The United States will not make that fatal protects us from him—can long have any effect mistake. on the hard-headed, far-sighted and realistic No act of violence, no act of intimidation American people. will keep us from maintaining intact two bul- Because of these episodes, because of the warks of American defense: First, our line of movements and operations of German war- supply of material to the enemies of Hitler; and ships, and because of the clear, repeated proof second, the freedom of our shipping on the that the present government of Germany has high seas. no respect for treaties or for international law, No matter what it takes, no matter what it that it has no decent attitude toward neutral costs, we will keep open the line of legitimate nations or human life—we Americans are now commerce in these defensive water of ours. face to face not with abstract theories but with We have sought no shooting war with cruel, relentless facts. Hitler. We do not seek it now. But neither do This attack on the Greer was no localized we want peace so much, that we are willing to military operation in the North Atlantic. This pay for it by permitting him to attack our naval 418 The FDR Years and merchant ships while they are on legiti- on the surface of the sea, strike their deadly mate business. blow—first. I assume that the German leaders are not Upon our naval and air patrol—now operat- deeply concerned, tonight or any other time, ing in large number over a vast expanse of the by what we Americans or the American gov- Atlantic Ocean—falls the duty of maintaining ernment say or publish about them. We can- the American policy of freedom of the seas— not bring about the downfall of Nazi-ism by now. That means, very simply, very clearly, that the use of long-range invective. our patrolling vessels and planes will protect all But when you see a rattlesnake poised to merchant ships—not only American ships but strike, you do not wait until he has struck ships of any flag—engaged in commerce in our before you crush him. defensive waters. They will protect them from These Nazi submarines and raiders are the submarines; they will protect them from sur- rattlesnakes of the Atlantic. They are a menace face raiders. to the free pathways of the high seas. They are This situation is not new. The second Pres- a challenge to our own sovereignty. They ham- ident of the United States, John Adams, mer at our most precious rights when they ordered the United States Navy to clean out attack ships of the American flag—symbols of European privateers and European ships of war our independence, our freedom, our very life. which were infesting the Caribbean and South It is clear to all Americans that the time has American waters, destroying American com- come when the Americas themselves must now merce. be defended. A continuation of attacks in our The third President of the United States, own waters or in waters that could be used for Thomas Jefferson, ordered the United States further and greater attacks on us, will inevitably Navy to end the attacks being made upon weaken our American ability to repel Hitlerism. American and other ships by the corsairs of the Do not let us be hair-splitters. Let us not ask nations of North Africa. ourselves whether the Americas should begin My obligation as President is historic; it is to defend themselves after the first attack, or clear. Yes, it is inescapable. the fifth attack, or the tenth attack, or the twen- It is no act of war on our part when we tieth attack. decide to protect the seas that are vital to The time for active defense is now. American defense. The aggression is not ours. Do not let us split hairs. Let us not say : “We Ours is solely defense. will only defend ourselves if the torpedo suc- But let this warning be clear: ceeds in getting home, or if the crew and the From now on, if German or Italian vessels of passengers are drowned.” war enter the waters, the protection of which is This is the time for prevention of attack. necessary for American defense, they do so at If submarines or raiders attack in distant their own peril. waters, they can attack equally well within sight The orders which I have given as Comman- of our own shores. Their very presence in any der-in-Chief of the United States Army and waters which America deems vital to its defense Navy are to carry out that policy—at once. constitutes an attack. The sole responsibility rests upon Germany. In the waters which we deem necessary for There will be no shooting unless Germany our defense, American naval vessels and Amer- continues to seek it. ican planes will no longer wait until Axis sub- That is my obvious duty in this crisis. That marines lurking under the water, or Axis raiders is the clear right of this sovereign nation. This Selected Primary Documents 419 is the only step possible, if we would keep tight Mr. Vice President, and Mr. Speaker, and the wall of defense which we are pledged to Members of the Senate and House of Repre- maintain around this Western Hemisphere. sentatives: I have no illusions about the gravity of this Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which step. I have not taken it hurriedly or lightly. It will live in infamy—the United States of is the result of months and months of constant America was suddenly and deliberately attacked thought and anxiety and prayer. In the protec- by naval and air forces of the Empire of tion of your nation and mine it cannot be Japan. avoided. The United States was at peace with that The American people have faced other Nation and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still grave crises in their history—with American in conversation with its Government and its courage, with American resolution. They will Emperor looking toward the maintenance of do no less today. They know the actualities of peace in the Pacific. Indeed, one hour after the attacks upon us. They know the necessities Japanese air squadrons had commenced bomb- of a bold defense against these attacks. They ing in the American Island of Oahu, the know that the times call for clear heads and Japanese Ambassador to the United States and fearless hearts. his colleague delivered to our Secretary of State And with that inner strength that comes to a a formal reply to a recent American message. free people conscious of their duty, (and) con- And while this reply stated that it seemed use- scious of the righteousness of what they do, less to continue the existing diplomatic negoti- they will—with Divine help and guidance— ations, it contained no threat or hint of war or stand their ground against this latest assault of armed attack. upon their democracy, their sovereignty, and It will be recorded that the distance of their freedom. Hawaii from Japan makes it obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many days or Source: “On Maintaining Freedom of the Seas,” even weeks ago. During the intervening time September 11, 1941. Franklin D. Roosevelt Pres- the Japanese Government has deliberately idential Library and Museum. Available online. sought to deceive the United States by false URL: http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/091141. statements and expressions of hope for contin- html. ued peace. The attack yesterday on the Hawaiian Islands has caused severe damage to American 27. Message to Congress on the naval and military forces. I regret to tell you Japanese Attack at Pearl Harbor, that very many American lives have been lost. December 8, 1941 In addition American ships have been reported torpedoed on the high seas between San Fran- FDR delivered the best speech he ever wrote in this cisco and Honolulu. message, which was virtually all his own work, Yesterday the Japanese Government also except for the ending line by Harry Hopkins. FDR launched an attack against Malaya. dictated the first draft to Grace Tully, his secre- Last night Japanese forces attacked Hong tary, and then made changes in the second draft. Kong. The sneak attack on Pearl Harbor on December Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam. 7, 1941, became “a date which will live in Last night Japanese forces attacked the infamy.” Philippine Islands. 420 The FDR Years

Last night the Japanese attacked Wake concerns over his health by using humor to disarm Island. And this morning the Japanese attacked his critics and inspire the nation. Rebutting Repub- Midway Island. lican distortions of his record, he used sarcasm and Japan has, therefore, undertaken a surprise humor in defense of his dog, Fala, against alleged offensive extending throughout the Pacific partisan attacks. area. The facts of yesterday and today speak for Well, here we are together again—after four themselves. The people of the United States years—and what years they have been! You have already formed their opinions and well know, I am actually four years older, which is a understand the implications to the very life and fact that seems to annoy some people. In fact, safety of our Nation. As Commander in Chief of the Army and in the mathematical field there are millions of Navy I have directed that all measures be taken Americans who are more than eleven years for our defense. older than we started in to clear up the mess But always will our whole Nation remember that was dumped in our laps in 1933. the character of the onslaught against us. No We all know that certain people who make it matter how long it may take us to overcome this a practice to depreciate the accomplishments premeditated invasion, the American people in of labor—who even attack labor as unpatri- their righteous might will win through to abso- otic—they keep this up usually for three years lute victory. I believe that I interpret the will of and six months in a row. But then, for some the Congress and of the people when I assert strange reason they change their tune—every that we will not only defend ourselves to the four years—just before election day. When uttermost but will make it very certain that this votes are at stake, they suddenly discover that form of treachery shall never again endanger us. they really love labor and that they are anxious Hostilities exist. There is no blinking at the to protect labor from its old friends. fact that our people, our territory, and our I got quite a laugh, for example—and I am interests are in grave danger. sure that you did—when I read this plank in With confidence in our armed forces—with the Republican platform adopted at their the unbounding determination of our people— National Convention in Chicago last July: we will gain the inevitable triumph—so help us “The Republican Party accepts the purposes God. of the National Labor Relations Act, the Wage and Hour Act, the Social Security Act and all Source: “Address to Congress Requesting a Dec- other Federal statutes designed to promote and laration of War (December 8, 1941).” Miller protect the welfare of American working men Center of Public Affairs. Scripps Library and and women, and we promise a fair and just Multimedia Archive. Available online: URL: administration of these laws.” http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/ You know, many of the Republican leaders diglibrary/prezspeches/roosevelt/fdr_1941_1208. and Congressmen and candidates, who shouted html. enthusiastic approval of that plank in that Con- vention Hall would not even recognize these 28. The “Fala Speech”—Teamsters’ progressive laws if they met them in broad day- light. Indeed, they have personally spent years Union Dinner, September 23, 1944 of effort and energy—and much money—in FDR’s so-called Fala Speech was delivered during fighting every one of those laws in the the fourth term of his presidency. He responded to Congress, and in the press, and in the courts, Selected Primary Documents 421 ever since this Administration began to advo- There are some politicians who kept their cate them and enact them into legislation. That heads buried deep in the sand while the storms is a fair example of their insincerity and of their of Europe and Asia were headed our way, who inconsistency. said that the lend-lease bill “would bring an end The whole purpose of Republican oratory to free government in the United States,” and these days seems to be to switch labels. The who said, “only hysteria entertains the idea that object is to persuade the American people that Germany, Italy, or Japan contemplates war on the Democratic Party was responsible for the us.” “These very men are now asking the Amer- 1929 crash and the depression, and that the ican people to entrust to them the conduct of Republican Party was responsible for all social our foreign policy and our military policy.” progress under the New Deal. What the Republican leaders are now saying Now, imitation may be the sincerest form of in effect is this: flattery—but I am afraid that in this case it is “Oh, just forget what we used to say, we have the most obvious common or garden variety of changed our minds now—we have been read- fraud. ing the public opinion polls about these things Of course, it is perfectly true that there are and now we know what the American people enlightened, liberal elements in the Republi- want.” And they say: “Don’t leave the task of can Party, and they have fought hard and hon- making the peace to those old men who first orably to bring the Party up to date and to get urged it and who have already laid the founda- it in step with the forward march of American tion for it, and who have had to fight all of us progress. But these liberal elements were not inch by inch during the last five years to do it. able to drive the Old Guard Republicans from Why, just turn it over to us. We’ll do it so skill- their Republican positions. fully that we won’t lose a single isolationist vote Can the Old Guard pass itself off as the New or a single isolationist campaign contribution.” Deal? I think there is one thing that you should I think not. know: I am too old for that. We have all seen many marvelous stunts in the I cannot talk out of both sides of my mouth circus but no performing elephant could turn a at the same time.... hand-spring without falling flat on his back. And while I am on the subject of voting, let I need not recount to you the centuries of me urge every American citizen—man and history which have been crowded into these woman—to use your sacred privilege of voting, four years since I saw you last. no matter which candidate you expect to sup- There were some—in the Congress and port. Our millions of soldiers and sailors and out—who raised their voices against our prepa- merchant seamen have been handicapped or rations for defense—before and after 1939— prevented from voting by those politicians and objected to them, raised their voices against candidates who think that they stand to lose by them as hysterical war mongering, who cried such votes. You here at home have the freedom out against our help to the Allies as provocative of the ballot. Irrespective of the party, you and dangerous. We remember the voices. They should register and vote this November. I think would like to have us forget them now. But in that is a matter of plain good citizenship. 1940 and 1941—my, it seems a long time ago— Words come easily, but they do not change they were loud voices. Happily they were a the record. You are, most of you, old enough minority and—fortunately for ourselves, and to remember what things were like for labor for the world—they could not stop America. in 1932. 422 The FDR Years

You remember the closed banks and the Now, there is an old and somewhat lugubri- breadlines and the starvation wages; the fore- ous adage which says: “Never speak of rope in closures of homes and farms, and the bankrupt- the house of a man who has been hanged.” In cies of businesses; the “Hoovervilles,” and the the same way, if I were a Republican leader young men and women of the nation facing a speaking to a mixed audience, the last word in hopeless, jobless future; the closed factories and the whole dictionary that I think I would use is mines and mills; the ruined and abandoned that word “depression.”. . . farms; the stalled railroads and the empty But perhaps the most ridiculous of these docks; the blank despair of a whole Nation— campaign falsifications is the one that this and the utter impotence of the Federal Gov- Administration failed to prepare for the war ernment. that was coming. I doubt whether even You remember the long, hard road, with its Goebbels [Joseph Goebbels was the Nazi’s pro- gains and its setbacks, which we have traveled paganda and culture minister] would have tried together ever since those days. that one. For even he would never have dared Now there are some politicians who do not hope that the voters of American had already remember that far back, and there are some forgotten that many of the Republican leaders who remember but find it convenient to for- in the Congress and outside the Congress tried get. No, the record is not to be washed away to thwart and block nearly every attempt that that easily. this Administration made to warn our people The opposition this year has already and to arm our Nation. Some of them called imported into this campaign a very interesting our 50,000 airplane program fantastic. Many thing, because it is foreign. They have imported of those very same leaders who fought every the propaganda technique invented by the dic- defense measure we proposed are still in con- tators abroad. Remember, a number of years trol of the Republican party—look at their ago, there was a book, Mein Kampf, written by names—were in control of its National Con- Hitler himself. The technique was all set out in vention in Chicago, and would be in control of Hitler’s book—and it was copied by the aggres- the machinery of the Congress and of the sors of Italy and Japan. According to that tech- Republican party, in the event of a Republican nique, you should never use a small falsehood; victory this fall. always a big one, for its very fantastic nature These Republican leaders have not been con- would make it more credible—if only you keep tent with attacks on me, or my wife, or my sons. repeating it over and over and over again. No, not content with that, they now include my Well, let us take some simple illustrations little dog, Fala. Well, of course, I don’t resent that come to mind. For example, although I attacks, and my family doesn’t resent attacks, but rubbed my eyes when I read it, we have been Fala does resent them. You know, Fala is Scotch, told that it was not a Republican depression, and being a Scottie, as soon as he learned that but a Democratic depression from which this the Republican fiction writers in Congress and nation was saved in 1933. That this adminis- out had concocted a story that I had left him tration—this one—today—is responsible for all behind on the Aleutian Islands and had sent a the suffering and misery that the history books destroyer back to find him—at a cost to the tax- and the American people have always thought payers of two or three, or eight or twenty mil- had been brought about during the twelve ill- lion dollars—his Scotch soul was furious. He has fated years when the Republican party was in not been the same dog since. I am accustomed to power. hearing malicious falsehoods about myself— Selected Primary Documents 423 such as that old, worm-eaten chestnut that I We are even now organizing the logistics of have represented myself as indispensable. But I the peace, just as Marshall and King and think I have a right to resent, to object to Arnold, MacArthur, Eisenhower and Nimitz libelous statements, about my dog. are organizing the logistics of this war. Well, I think we all recognize the old tech- I think that the victory of the American peo- nique. The people of this country know well ple and their allies in this war will be far more the past too well to be deceived into forgetting. than a victory against Fascism and reaction and Too much is at stake to forget. There are tasks the dead hand of despotism of the past. The ahead of us which we must now complete with victory of the American people and their allies the same will and the same skill and intelli- in this war will be a victory for democracy. It gence and devotion that have already led us so will constitute such an affirmation of the far along the road to victory. strength and power and vitality of government There is the task of finishing victoriously by the people as history has never before wit- this most terrible of all wars as speedily as pos- nessed. sible and with the least cost in lives. And so, my friends, we have had affirma- There is a task of setting up international tion of the vitality of democratic government machinery to assure that the peace, once estab- behind us, that demonstration of its resilience lished, will not again be broken. and its capacity for decision and for action— And there is the task that we face here at we have that knowledge of our own strength home—the task of reconverting our economy and power—we move forward with God’s from the purposes of war to the purposes of help to the greatest epoch of free achieve- peace. ment by free men that the world has ever These peace-building tasks were faced once known. before, nearly a generation ago. They were botched by a Republican administration. That Source: Samuel I. Rosenman, comp., The Public must not happen this time. We will not let it Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Vol. happen this time. 13 (1950; reprint, New York: Russell and Russell, Fortunately, we do not begin from scratch. 1969), 284–292. Much has been done. Much more is under way. The fruits of victory this time will not be apples sold on street corners.... 29. Address to the Foreign Policy This is not the time in which men can be Association Dinner, New York City, forgotten as they were in the Republican catas- October 21, 1944 trophe that we inherited. The returning sol- In his 1944 campaign FDR preempted New York diers, the workers by their machines, the Governor Thomas Dewey’s support for the United farmers in the field, the miners, the men and Nations by coming out in favor of it first. women in offices and shops, do not intend to be forgotten. General McCoy, My Old Friends, Ladies and No, they know that they are not surplus. Gentlemen: Because they know that they are America. Tonight I am speaking as the guest of the We must set targets and objectives for the Foreign Policy Association, a nation-wide future which will seem impossible—like the organization, a distinguished organization airplanes—to those who live in and are composed of Americans of every shade of polit- weighted down by the dead past. ical opinion. 424 The FDR Years

I am going to talk about American foreign That principle we’ve learned in childhood policy. has not changed. The world has. Wars are no I am going to talk without rancor, without longer fought from horseback or from the snap judgment. decks of sailing ships. And I am going to talk without losing my It was with recognition of that fact, that way head or losing my temper. back in 1933 we took as the basis of our for- When the first World War was ended, and it eign relations the Good Neighbor Policy—the seems like a long time ago, I believed—I believe policy, the principle of the neighbor who, res- now—that enduring peace in the world has not olutely respecting himself, equally respects the a chance unless this nation, our America, is will- rights of others. ing to cooperate in winning it and maintaining We and the other American Republics have it. I thought back in those days of 1918 and made the Good Neighbor Policy real, real in 1919—and I know now—that we have to back this hemisphere. And I want to say tonight that our American words with American deeds. it is my conviction that this policy can be and A quarter of a century ago we helped to save should be made universal throughout the our freedom but we failed to organize the kind world. of world in which future generations could live At American, inter-American conferences with freedom. Opportunity knocks again. beginning in Montevideo in 1933, and contin- There is no guarantee that opportunity will uing down to date, we have made it clear, clear knock a third time. to this hemisphere at least, and I think to most Today, Hitler and the Nazis continue to of the world, that the United States of Ameri- fight desperately, inch by inch, and may con- can practices what it preaches. tinue to do so all the way to Berlin. Our action in 1934, for example, with And, by the way, we have another important respect to Philippine independence was engagement in Tokyo. No matter how hard, another step in making good the same philos- how long the road we must travel, our forces ophy that animated the Good Neighbor Policy will fight their way under the leadership of of the year before. MacArthur and Nimitz. And as I said two years ago: “I like to think All of our thinking about foreign policy in that the history of the Philippine Islands in the this war must be conditioned by the fact that last forty-four years provides in a very real millions of our American boys are today fight- sense a pattern for the future of other small ing many thousands of miles from home, for nations in the world. It is a pattern of what men the first objective, the defense of our country, of good-will look forward to in the future to and the second objective, the perpetuation of come.” our American ideals. And there are still many And I cite as an illustration in the field of for- hard and bitter battles to be fought. eign policy something that I’m proud of—that The leaders of this nation have always was the recognition in 1933 of Soviet Russia. held—time out of mind—that concern for our And may I add a personal word. national security does not end at our borders. In 1938, a certain lady who sits at a table in President Monroe and every American Presi- front of me came back from a trip on which she dent following him were prepared to use force, had attended the opening of a schoolhouse. if necessary, to assure the independence of And she had gone to the history class, history other American nations threatened by aggres- and geography, children of 8, 9 and 10, and she sors from across the seas. told me she had seen there a map of the world Selected Primary Documents 425 with a big white space upon it; no name, no event of Republican victory in the Senate this information, and the teacher told her that it year, 1944, that same Senator Johnson, who is was blank with no name because the school still a friend of mine—he would be chairman board wouldn’t let her say anything about that of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. big blank space. Oh, there were only And I hope that the American voters will bear 180,000,000 to 200,000,000 people in it, it was that in mind. called Soviet Russia, and there were a lot of And it’s fact, a plain fact; all you have to do children and they were told that the teacher is to go back through the files of the newspa- was forbidden by the school board even to put pers. During the years that followed 1920, the the name of that blank space on the map. foreign policy of the Republican Adminis- For sixteen years before then the American trations was dominated by the heavy hand of people and the Russian people had no practical isolationism. means of communicating with each other. We Much of the strength of our Navy, and I re-established those means, and today we are ought to know it, was scuttled, and some of the fighting with the Russians against common Navy’s resources were handed over to friends in foes, and we know that the Russian contribu- private industry—as in the unforgettable case tion to victory has been, and will continue to of Teapot Dome. be, gigantic. Tariff walls went higher and higher—block- However, we have to take a lot of things. ing international trade. Certain politicians, now very prominent in the There was snarling at our former Allies and Republican party, have condemned our recog- at the same time encouragement was given to nition. American finance to invest two and one-half I am impelled to wonder how Russia would billion dollars in Germany—our former enemy. have survived, survived against the German All petitions that this nation joined the attack, if these same people had had their way. World Court were rejected or ignored. After the last war—in the political cam- We know that after this Administration took paign of 1920—the isolationist Old Guard office, Secretary Hull and I replaced high tar- professed to be enthusiastic about interna- iffs with a series of reciprocal trade agreements tional cooperation. under a statute of the Congress. The Republi- And—I remember very well, for I was run- cans in the Congress opposed these agreements ning at the time—while campaigning for votes and tried to stop the extension of the law every in that year of 1920 Senator Harding said that three years. he favored with all his heart an Association of In 1935 I asked the Congress to join the Nations, “so organized, so participated in”—I am World Court. It so happens, and I put it that quoting the language—“as to make the actual way, the Democrats in the Senate at the time attainment of peace a reasonable possibility.” voted for it, for joining, 43 to 20, the two- However, and this is history, too, after Pres- thirds. The Republicans voted against it 14 to ident Harding’s election the Association of 9. And the result was that we were prevented Nations was never heard of again. from obtaining the necessary two-thirds major- However, we’ve got to look at people. One ity. I did my best. of the leading isolationists who killed interna- In 1937, I asked that aggressor nations be tional cooperation in 1920 was an old friend of quarantined. For this I was branded by isola- mine—I think he supported me two or three tionists in and out of public office as an times—Senator Hiram Johnson. Now, in the “alarmist” and a “warmonger.” 426 The FDR Years

From that time on, as you well know, I made years ago—or even four years ago—giving clear by repeated messages to the Congress of warning of the grave peril which we then faced. the United States, by repeated statements to There have been, and there still are, in the the American people, the danger threatening Republican party distinguished men and from abroad—and the need of rearming to women of vision and courage, both in and out meet it. of public office, men and women who have vig- Why, in, for example, in July, 1939, I tried to orously supported our aid to our Allies and all obtain the repeal of the Arms Embargo provi- the measures that we took to build up our sions of the Neutrality Law that tied our hands, national defense. And many of these Republi- tied us against selling arms to the European cans have rendered magnificent services, ser- democracies in defense against Hitler and vices to our country in this war as members of Mussolini. my Administration. I am happy that one of I remember very well—I’ve got a note on it these distinguished Americans is sitting here at somewhere in my memoirs—the late Senator this table tonight, our great Secretary of War— Borah told a group, which I called, all parties, Henry Stimson. which I called together in the White House, And let us always remember that this very that his own private information from abroad war might have been averted if Harry Stimson’s was better than that of the State Department of views had prevailed when in 1931 the Japanese the United States and that there would be no ruthlessly attacked and raped Manchuria. war in Europe. Let’s analyze a little more. The majority of And as it was made plain to Mr. Hull and the Republican members of the Congress me—and it was made plain to us at that time— voted—I’m just giving you a few, not many— that because of the isolationist vote in the voted against the Selective Service Law in Congress of the United States we could not 1940; they voted against Repeal of the Arms possibly hope to obtain the desired revision of Embargo in 1939; they voted against the Lend- the Neutrality Act. Lease Law in 1941, and they voted in August, Now, this fact was also made plain to Adolf 1941, against extension of the Selective Service, Hitler. A few weeks after Borah said that to me, which meant voting against keeping our Army he brutally attacked Poland, and the second together—four months before Pearl Harbor. World War began. You see, I’m quoting history to you. I’m Let’s get on. In 1941, this Administration going by the record, and I am giving you the proposed and the Congress passed, in spite of whole story, and not a phrase here, and half a isolationist opposition, a thing called Lend- phrase there. In my reading copy is another Lease Law—the practical and dramatic notice half-sentence. You got the point and I’m not to the world that we intended to help those going to use it. nations resisting aggression. You know I happen to believe—I am sort of Bring it down to date, in these days—and old-fashioned, I guess I am getting old—that now I am speaking of October 1944—I hear even in a political campaign we ought to obey voices in the air attacking me for my “failure” that ancient injunction—Thou shalt not bear to prepare this nation for this war, to warn false witness against they neighbor. the American people of the approaching Now, the question of the men who will for- tragedy. mulate and carry out the foreign policy of this It’s rather interesting as a side thought that country is in issue in this country, very much in these same voices were not so very audible five issue. It is in issue not in terms of partisan Selected Primary Documents 427 application but in terms of sober solemn of peril—I don’t think they’re reliable custodi- facts—the facts that are on the record. ans of the future of America. If the Republicans were to win control of the Let’s be fair. There have been Democrats in Congress in this election—and it’s only two the isolationist camp, but they have been rela- weeks from next Tuesday and I occupy the tively few and far between, and so far they have curious position of being President of the not attained great positions of leadership. United States and at the same time a candidate And I am proud of the fact that this Admin- for the Presidency—if the Republicans were to istration does not have the support of the isola- win control of the Congress, inveterate isola- tionist press. Well, for about a half a century, I’ve tionists would occupy positions of command- been accustomed to naming names—I mean ing influence and power. That’s record, too. specifically, to take the glaring examples, the I have already spoken of the ranking Repub- McCormick, Patterson, Gannett and Hearst lican member of the Senate Foreign Relations press. Committee, Senator Hiram Johnson. You know the American people have gone One of the most influential members of the through great national debates in the recent crit- Senate Foreign Relations Committee—a man ical years. They were soul-searching debates. who’d also be chairman of the powerful Senate They reached from every city to every village Committee on Appropriations—is Senator and every home. Gerald P. Nye. Well, I’m not going back to the We have debated our principles, our deter- old story of the last Presidential campaign, mination to aid those fighting for freedom. Martin and Barton and Fish. One of ’em’s gone. Obviously we could have come to terms But in the House of Representatives the man with Hitler. We could have accepted a minor who is the present leader of the Republicans role in his totalitarian world. We rejected that! there, and another friend of mine, and who’d We could have compromised with Japan and undoubtedly be speaker is Joseph W. Martin. bargained for a place in the Japanese-domi- He voted, I’m not just giving you examples, he nated Asia, the Japanese-dominated Pacific, by voted against repeal of the Arms Embargo; he selling out the heart’s blood of the Chinese voted against the Lend-Lease Bill, against the people. And we rejected that! extension of the Selective Service Law, against As I look back I am more and more certain the arming of merchant ships, against the that the decision not to bargain with the tyrants Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, and their rose from the hearts and souls and sinews of extension. the American people. They faced reality; they The chairman of the powerful Committee appraised reality; they knew what freedom on Rules is the other one, would be none other meant. than Hamilton Fish. The power which this nation has attained— These are like a lot of others in the Congress the political, the economic, the military and of the United States. Every one of them is now above all the moral power—has brought to us actively campaigning for the National Repub- the responsibility, and with it the opportunity, lican ticket this year. for leadership in the community of nations. In Can any one really suppose that these isola- our own best interest, in the name of peace and tionists have changed their minds about world humanity, this nation cannot, must not and will affairs? That’s a real question. Politicians who not shirk that responsibility. embraced the policy of isolationism—and who Now there are some who hope to see a struc- never raised their voices against it in our days ture of peace, a structure of peace completely 428 The FDR Years set up, set up immediately, with all of the apart- arrest, then we are not doing our share to pre- ments assigned to everybody’s satisfaction, with vent another world war. I think, and I have had the telephones in, and the plumbing complete, some experience, that the people of this nation the heating system, the electric iceboxes all want their Government to work, they want functioning perfectly, all furnished with linen their Government to act, and not merely talk, and silver—and with the rent prepaid. whenever and wherever there is a threat to The United Nations have not yet produced world peace. such a comfortable dwelling place. But we have Now it is obvious that we cannot attain our achieved a very practical expression of a com- great objectives by ourselves. Never again after mon purpose on the part of four great nations, cooperating with other nations in a world war who are now united to wage this war, that they to save our way of life can we wash our hands of will embark together after the war on a greater maintaining the peace for which we fought. and more difficult enterprise—on the enter- The Dumbarton Oaks conference didn’t prise of waging peace. We will embark on it spring up overnight. It was called by Secretary with all the peace-loving nations of the world— Hull and me after years of thought, discussion, large and small. preparation, consultation with our allies. Our And our objective, as I stated ten days ago, is State Department did a grand job in preparing to complete the organization of the United for the conference and leading it to a success- Nations without delay, before hostilities actu- ful termination. It was just another chapter in ally cease. the long process of cooperations—beginning You know peace, like war, can succeed only with the Atlantic Charter, that’s a long time when there is a will to enforce it, and where ago, and continuing through conferences at there is available power to enforce it. Casablanca, and Moscow, and Cairo and The Council of the League of Nations of Teheran and Quebec and Washington. the United Nations, must have the power to It is my profound conviction that the Ameri- act quickly and decisively to keep the peace by can people know that Cordell Hull and I are force, if necessary. thoroughly conversant with the Constitution of I live in a small town, and I always think in the United States and know that we cannot com- small town terms, but this goes for small towns mit this nation to any secret treaties or any secret as well as for big towns. A policeman would not guarantees that in violation of that Constitution. be a very effective policeman if, when he saw a After my return from Teheran, I stated offi- felon break into a house, he had to go to the cially that no secret commitments had been town hall and call a town meeting to issue a made. The issue then is between my veracity warrant before the felon could be arrested. and the continuing assertions of those who So to my simple mind, it is clear that, if the have no responsibility in the foreign field—or, world organization is to have any reality at all, perhaps I should say, a field foreign to them. our American representative must be endowed No President of the United States—there in advance by the people themselves, by con- have been quite a lot of them, too—can or could stitutional means through their representatives have made the American contribution to pre- in Congress, with authority to act. serve the peace without the constant, alert and If we do not catch the international felon conscious collaboration of the American people. when we have our hands on him, if we let him Only the determination of the people to use get away with his loot, because the town coun- the machinery gives worth to the machinery. cil has not passed an ordinance authorizing his Remember that. Selected Primary Documents 429

We believe that the American people have tion toward justice, some passion for peace— already made up their minds on this great issue; buried as it may be in the German case under and this Administration has been able to press a brutal regime. forward constantly with its plans. We bring no charge against the German We are thinking to avert and avoid war. race, as such, for we cannot believe that God The very fact that we are now at work on has eternally condemned any race or humanity. the organization of the peace proves that the We know in our own land, in the United States great nations are committed to trust each of America, how many good men and women other. Put this proposition any way you want, of German ancestry have proved loyal, free- it is bound to come out the same way; we dom-loving, and peace-loving citizens. either work with the other great nations, or we But there is going to be a stern punishment might some day have to fight them. And I am for all those in Germany directly responsible against that. for this agony of mankind. The kind of world order which we, the The German people are not going to be peace-loving nations must achieve, must enslaved. Why? Because the United Nations depend essentially on friendly human rela- do not traffic in human slavery. But it will be tions, on acquaintance, on tolerance, on unas- necessary for them to earn their way back— sailable sincerity and goodwill and good faith. earn their way back into the fellowship of We have achieved that relationship to a very peace-loving and law-abiding nations. And, in remarkable degree in our dealings with our their climb up that steep road, we shall cer- Allies in this war—as I think the events of the tainly see to it that they are not encumbered by war have proved. having to carry guns. We hope they will be It is a new thing in human history for allies relieved of that burden forever. to work together as we have done—so closely, Now, the task ahead of us will not be easy. so harmoniously, so effectively in fighting of a Indeed, it will be as difficult, complex, as any war, and at the same time in the building of a task which has ever faced any American peace. Administration. If we fail to maintain that relationship in the I will not say to you now, or ever, that we of peace—if we fail to expand it and strengthen the Democratic party know all the answers. I it—then there will be no lasting peace. am certain, for myself, that I do not know how I digress for a moment. As for Germany, that all the unforeseeable difficulties can be met. tragic nation which has sown the wind and is What I can say to you is this—that I have now reaping the whirlwind, we and our Allies unlimited faith that the task can be done. And are entirely agreed that we shall not bargain that faith, that faith, is based on knowledge, with the Nazi conspirators, or leave them a knowledge gained in the arduous practical and shred of control—open or secret—of the continuing experience of these past eventful instruments of government. years. We shall not leave them a single element of And so I speak to the present generation of military power—or a potential military power. Americans with a reverent participation in its But I should be false to the very foundations sorrows and in its hopes. No generation has of my religious and political convictions, if I undergone a greater test, or has met that test should ever relinquish the hope—or even the with greater heroism, and, I think, greater wis- faith—that in all peoples, without exception, dom, and no generation has had a more exalted there live some instinct for truth, some attrac- mission. 430 The FDR Years

For this generation must act not only for ington’s Second Inaugural Address. He used a draft itself, but as a trustee for all those who fell in written by Robert Sherwood but after several subse- the last war—a part of their mission unfilled. quent drafts had pared the original down to only It must also act for all those who have paid 560 words. The President’s philosophical address the supreme price in this war—lest their mis- praised American communal values. sion, too, be betrayed. And, finally, it must act for the generations Mr. Chief Justice, Mr. Vice President, my to come—that must be granted a heritage of friends, you will understand and, I believe, peace. agree with my wish that the form of this inau- I do not exaggerate that mission. We are not guration be simple and its words brief. fighting for, and we shall not attain a Utopia. We Americans of today, together with our Indeed, in our own land, the work to be done is allies, are passing through a period of supreme never finished. We have yet to realize the full test. It is a test of our courage—of our resolve— and equal enjoyment of our freedom. So, in of our wisdom—our essential democracy. embarking on the building of a world fellow- If we meet that test—successfully and hon- ship, we have set ourselves a long and arduous orably—we shall perform a service of historic task, a task which will challenge our patience, importance which men and women and chil- our intelligence, our imagination, as well as our dren will honor throughout all time. faith. As I stand here today, having taken the That task, my friends, calls for the judgment solemn oath of office in the presence of my fel- of a seasoned and mature people. This, I think, low countrymen—in the presence of our the American people have become. We shall God—I know that it is America’s purpose that not again be thwarted in our will to live as a we shall not fail. mature nation, confronting limitless horizons. In the days and in the years that are to come We shall bear our full responsibility, exercise we shall work for a just and honorable peace, a our full influence, and bring our full help and durable peace, as today we work and fight for encouragement to all who aspire to peace and total victory in war. freedom. We can and we will achieve such a peace. We now are, and we shall continue to be, We shall strive for perfection. We shall not strong brothers, strong brothers in the family achieve it immediately—but we still shall strive. of mankind, the family of the children of God. We may make mistakes—but they must never be mistakes which result from faintness of heart Source: “Text of the Address by President Roo- or abandonment of moral principle. sevelt at Dinner of the Foreign Policy Association I remember that my old schoolmaster, Dr. Here,” New York Times, October 22, 1944, 34. Peabody, said, in days that seemed to us then to be secure and untroubled: “Things in life will not always run smoothly. Sometimes we 30. Fourth Inaugural Address, January will be rising toward the heights—then all will seem to reverse itself and start downward. 20, 1945 The great fact to remember is that the trend Unlike his first three inaugurals which were deliv- of civilization itself is forever upward; that a ered at the Capitol, FDR delivered the Fourth line drawn through the middle of the peaks Inaugural at the White House. It is the second and the valleys of the centuries always has an shortest in American history after George Wash- upward trend.” Selected Primary Documents 431

Our Constitution of 1787 was not a perfect We can gain it only if we proceed with the instrument; it is not perfect yet. But it provided understanding, the confidence, and the courage a firm base upon which all manner of men, of which flow from conviction. all races and colors and creeds, could build our The Almighty God has blessed our land in solid structure of democracy. many ways. He has given our people stout And so today, in this year of war, 1945, we hearts and strong arms with which to strike have learned lessons—at a fearful cost—and we mighty blows for freedom and truth. He has shall profit by them. given to our country a faith which has become We have learned that we cannot live alone, the hope of all peoples in an anguished world. at peace; that our own well-being is dependent So we pray to Him now for the vision to see on the well-being of other nations far away. We our way clearly—to see the way that leads to a have learned that we must live as men, not as better life for ourselves and for all our fellow ostriches, nor as dogs in the manger. men—to the achievement of His will to peace We have learned to be citizens of the world, on earth. members of the human community. We have learned the simple truth, as Emer- Source: “Fourth Inaugural Address of Franklin D. son said, that “The only way to have a friend is Roosevelt, Saturday, January 20, 1945.” The to be one.” Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Available We can gain no lasting peace if we approach online. URL: www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presid/ it with suspicion and mistrust or with fear. inaug/froos4.htm.

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Adams, Grace. Workers on Relief. New Haven, Argersinger, Jo Ann E. Toward a New Deal in Conn.: Yale University Press, 1939. Baltimore: People and Government in the Great Adams, Henry H. Harry Hopkins: A Biography. Depression. Chapel Hill: University of North New York: Putnam, 1977. Carolina Press, 1988. ———. Thomas Hart Benton: An American Arkes, Hadley. The Return of George Sutherland: Original. New York: Knopf, 1989. Restoring a Jurisprudence of Natural Rights. Adams, Stephen B. Mr. Kaiser Goes to Washing- Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, ton: The Rise of a Government Entrepreneur. 1994. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Badger, Anthony J. The New Deal: The Depres- Press, 1997. sion Years, 1933–1940. Lanham, Md.: Row- Agee, James. Let Us Now Praise Famous Men: man and Littlefield, 2003. Three Tenant Families. Boston: Houghton Baker, Leonard. Back to Back: The Duel Between Mifflin, 1941. FDR and the Supreme Court. New York: Alldritt, Keith. The Greatest of Friends: Franklin Macmillan, 1967. D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, ———. Brandeis and Frankfurter: A Dual Biog- 1941–1945. London: Robert Hall, 1995. raphy. New York: New York University Allswang, John. The New Deal and American Press, 1986. Politics: A Study in Political Change. New Baker, William J. Jesse Owens: An American Life. York: Wiley, 1978. London: Collier Macmillan, 1986. Alsop, Joseph. The 168 Days. New York: Da Baldwin, Sidney. Poverty and Politics: The Rise Capo, 1973. and Fall of the Farm Security Administration. Alter, Jonathan. The Defining Moment: FDR’s Raleigh: University of North Carolina Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope. New Press, 1968. York: Simon and Schuster, 2006. Ball, Howard. Hugo L. Black: Cold Steel Warrior. Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. President. New York: Distican, 1990. Barber, James G. Portraits from the New Deal. Amenta, Edwin. Bold Relief: Institutional Politics Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution and the Origins of Modern American Social Pol- Press, 1988. icy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Barber, William J. Designs Within Disorder: Press, 1998. Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Economists, and the Anderson, Marian. My Lord, What a Morning: Shaping of American Economic Policy, An Autobiography. Madison: University of 1933–1945. New York: Cambridge Univer- Wisconsin Press, 1992. sity Press, 1996.

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Boldface page numbers indicate primary discussions. Italic page numbers indicate illustrations.

A Farm Security Bankhead, William B. Lewis, John L. Absalom, Absalom Administration 11–12 155–156 (Faulkner) 84 (FSA) 9, 78–79, Evans, Walker 78, 79 American Gothic (Wood) Acheson, Dean 1–2, 158 152, 251, 297 Alfred P. Sloan 272 Adams, John 418 FDR on 315–317, Foundation 242 American Indian Defense Address to the Foreign 322–323, 335, 357, Alien Registration Act Association 52–53 Policy Association 363–364, 375 (Smith Act, 1940) 246 American Labor Party Dinner (October 21, Frank, Jerome 92–93 Alsberg, Henry 77 73 1944) 423–430 Frazier, Lynn Joseph Amalgamated Clothing The American Language AFL. See American 94–95 Workers of America (Mencken) 185 Federation of Labor Lemke, William 154 (ACWA) 115 American Legion 181 (AFL) Morgenthau, Henry, ambassadors American Liberty AFL-CIO 214 Jr. 190 Berle, Adolf, Jr. 17–18 League 80 Agee, James 2 Reno, Milo 219 Bowers, Claude American Mercury 184 Agricultural Adjustment Smith, Ellison Gernade 26–27 American Newspaper Administration (AAA) DuRant 243–244 Bullitt, William 34–36 Guild 31 296 Tolley, Howard 257 Kennedy, Joseph P. American Political FDR on 315–317, Wickard, Claude 140 Science Association 322–323, 363, 364, 269–270 Leahy, William 185 368 Agriculture, Department 152–153 American Revolution, Frank, Jerome 93 of 295 America First Committee FDR on 319–320 Keyserling, Leon 142 Bennett, Hugh 15 La Follette, Philip American spirit 413–414 Peek, George 207 Bureau of Agricultural 147 Anderson, Marian 3, Pressman, Lee 212 Economics 257 Lindbergh, Charles 3–4, 131 Roberts, Owen 223 Ezekiel, Mordecai J. 159 Antioch College 188 Tolley, Howard 257 79 Nye, Gerald 199 antitrust Wallace, Henry 266 Soil Conservation Wheeler, Burton 269 Arnold, Thurman 7 Wickard, Claude 270 Service (SCS) 15 America First Party 244 Brandeis, Louis 28 agriculture. See also Tolley, Howard 257 America Go Bust Henderson, Leon Agricultural Tugwell, Rexford 259 (Ludlow) 165 112 Adjustment Wallace, Henry 266 American Civil Liberties “Are you better off now Administration (AAA); Wickard, Claude Union (ACLU) 94, than you were last Agriculture, 269–270 256 year?” (FDR) 340, Department of Air Force, U.S. 25–26. American Federation of 341 Bankhead, John H., See also Army Air Labor (AFL) Arizona 70 Jr. 11 Corps; Army Air Force Dubinsky, David 73 Arkansas 224–225 Farm Mortgage Alabama Foster, William Z. 91 arms embargo Moratorium Act Bankhead, John H., Green, William 388–389 (1935) 95 Jr. 11 102–103 Armstrong, Louis 4–5

461 462 The FDR Years

Army, U.S. Ford Motor Giannini, Amadeo Bowers, Claude Gernade Eisenhower, Dwight Company 14–15, 99–100 26–27 76–77 56–57, 88–89 Mellon, Andrew 183 Bowles, Chester 27 MacArthur, Douglas General Motors Pecora, Ferdinand Boy Scouts 225, 226 166–168 Corporation 216, 206–207 The Brains Trust Marshall, George C. 242, 248 State banks 338–339 (Tugwell) 260 173–174 Rivera, Diego 221 Barkley, Alben 12 Brain Trust 318 Patton, George Automobile Labor Board Barton, Bruce 385, 389, Frank, Jerome 93 204–206 296 393 Johnson, Hugh 136 Army Air Corps, U.S. Baruch, Bernard 13, 13 Moley, Raymond Arnold, Henry “Hap” B Beard, Charles A. 187 187–188 5–6 Babbitt (Lewis) 156 Belgium 402 Tugwell, Rexford 259 FDR on rearmament Bailey, Josiah 8 Bennett, Harry 14–15 Brandeis, Louis 27–28, 388, 392 Baker, Newton 8–9 Bennett, Hugh 15 149 Army Air Force, U.S. balanced budget, FDR Bennett, Richard 15–16 Brazil 17–18 5–6 on 331, 332–334 Benton, Thomas Hart Bretton Woods Arnold, Henry “Hap” balance of power, FDR 16–17 conference 190 5–6 on 367, 372 Berle, Adolf, Jr. 17–18, Briand-Kellogg peace Arnold, Thurman 6–7 Baldwin, Calvin 9 318 pact 373 Bethune, Mary 18–19 Arrowsmith (Lewis) 156 Baldwin, Stanley 9–10 Bricker, John 28–29 Biddle, Francis 19–20 art and artists Banister, Marion Glass Bricker amendment 29 big business/corporations Benton, Thomas Hart 10–11 Bridges, Harry 29–30 Arnold, Thurman 7 16–17 Bankhead, John H., Jr. Brotherhood of Sleeping Berle, Adolf, Jr. 17, Mellon, Andrew 11 Car Porters (BSCP) 18 183–184 Bankhead, William B. 214 Brandeis, Louis 27–28 regionalist movement 11–12 Broun, Heywood 30–31 FDR on 321–323, 272 Bankhead-Jones Farm Browder, Earl 31–32, 91 344, 349, 355–356, Rivera, Diego Brownell, Herbert 67 Tenancy Act (1937) 375 221–222 32–34 266 Henderson, Leon 112 Brownlow, Louis Rockwell, Norman Banking Act (1935) big government Brownlow Committee. 225–226 Currie, Lauchlin 61 326–329, 331 See President’s Wood, Grant Eccles, Marriner 75 Bilbo, Theodore 20–21 Committee on 271–272 Vandenberg, Arthur Birthplace of Hoover Administrative Association of Nations 262 (Wood) 272 Management 425 banking holiday Black, Hugo 21, 21–22 (Brownlow Committee) Atlantic Charter xi 337–339 Black Boy (Wright) 273 Brown v. Board of Atomic Energy Bank of America 100 Blum, Leon 22–23 Education (1954) 172, Commission (AEC) Bank of Italy 100 Bohlen, Charles 23–24 218 158 banks/banking. See also “Bold, Persistent Buck, Pearl S. 34 attorney general Federal Reserve Board Experimentation” budget 296 Biddle, Francis Banking Act (1935) address (May 22, 1932) Douglas, Lewis 70–71 19–20 61, 262 307–312 FDR on 331, 332–334 Cummings, Homer banking holiday Bonus Army veterans Bullitt, William 34, 60–61 337–339 120, 124, 166, 205, 215 34–36 Jackson, Robert 132 Couzens, James Borah, William 24–25 Burdick, Usher 36 McReynolds, James 56–57 Boston bread line vii Bureau of Agriculture C. 182, 183 Crowley, Leo 59 Boulanger, Nadia 54 Economics 79 Murphy, Frank Eccles, Marriner 75 Boulder Canyon Bureau of the Budget 191–192 Emergency Banking Reclamation Project 70–71, 296 automobile industry Act (1933) 75, 218 134 Burns, Eveline 36–37 Ford, Henry 14–15, FDR on 337–340, Bourke-White, Margaret Bush, Vannevar 37, 87–89, 179 344–345 25–26, 42–43 37–38 Index 463

The Business of the Supreme Casablanca Conference National Association Commission to Study Court (Frankfurter, 50 for the Advancement Cooperative Enterprise Landis) 149 CBS 194 of Colored People Abroad 200 Butler, Pierce 38–39 Cermak, Anton 138 (NAACP) 172, 269 Committee for Industrial Butler v. United States The Challenge of Liberty Randolph, Philip 214 Organization. See also 223 (Hoover) 120 Rankin, John Congress of Industrial buying power, FDR on Chamberlain, Neville 215–216 Organizations (CIO) 311 47–48 Roberts, Owen Dubinsky, David 73 Byrd, Harry 39–40 Chiang Kai-shek 48–49, 222–223 Hague, Frank 105 Byrnes, James “Jimmy” 170, 171 Smith, Ellison Hillman, Sidney 115 40–41 Chiang Kai-shek, DuRant 243–244 Lewis, John L. 156 Byrns, Joseph 33, 41 Madame (Soong Mei- White, Walter 269 Murray, Philip 193 ling [Sung Meiling]) Civil Service Pressman, Lee 213 C 48, 49, 217 Commission 236 Committee on Economic Caldwell, Erskine 42, Chicago Tribune 178–180 Civil Works Security 66 42–43 Chile 27 Administration 297 Committee on Long- California China Clapper, Raymond 51 Range Work and Relief Giannini, Amadeo Chiang Kai-shek Cleveland Crime Survey Policies 36–37 99–100 48–49 187 Commodity Credit Johnson, Hiram 133 Mao Zedong (Mao Cleveland Foundation Corporation 297 McAdoo, William Tse-tung) 170–171 187 Commonwealth and coal industry 176 Marshall, George C. Southern Corporation Carmody, John 47 Olson, Culbert 174 158, 271 Green, William 200–201 China, Republic of communism. See also 102–103 Sinclair, Upton 241 (Taiwan) 48–49 Communist Party of Murray, Philip 193 Steinbeck, John 247 Chou Enlai (Zhou Enlai) the USA (CPUSA); Cohen, Benjamin Campaign Address at 48 House Un-American 51–52, 55 Madison Square Christian Nationalist Activities Committee Collected Poems Garden (October 28, Front 244 (HUAC) (MacLeish) 170 1940) 385–391 chronology 275–294 Dies, Martin, Jr. 68 Collier, John 52–53 Campaign Speech in Churchill, Winston xi, Collier’s 252 Flanagan, Hallie Mae Boston (October 30, xii, 49–51, 50, 107 Columbia Broadcasting Ferguson 86–87 1940) 391–393 CIO. See Congress of System (CBS) 194 Hicks, Granville 114 Camps for Unemployed Industrial Columbia Law School Mao Zedong (Mao Women 245 Organizations Douglas, William O. Tse-tung) 170–171 Canada Citizen Kane 267 71–72 Marcantonio, Vito Bennett, Richard Civil Aeronautics Stone, Harlan Fiske 171, 172 15–16 Authority 376 250 McCarran, Patrick King, William Lyon Civilian Conservation Columbia University 177 MacKenzie 143 Corps 297 104 McCormack, John Cannon, Joseph 198 FDR on 376 The Coming American 178 Capper, Arthur 43 MacArthur, Douglas Fascism (Dennis) 66 Rivera, Diego 222 Capra, Frank 44 166 Commerce, Department Robeson, Paul 224 Caraway, Hattie 44–45 Vinson, Frederick of 295 Stalin, Joseph Caraway, Thaddeus H. Moore 264 Business Advisory 246–247 44 civil rights Council 106 Communist Party of the Cárdenas, Lázaro 45–46 Anderson, Marian in FDR’s speeches 332 USA (CPUSA) Cardozo, Benjamin 46 3–4 Harriman, Averell 106 Browder, Earl 31–32 Carmody, John 46–47 Bethune, Mary Hoover, Herbert 119 Cowley, James 58 Carnegie Institution of 18–19 Hopkins, Harry 121 Foster, William Z. Washington (CIW) 37, Margold, Nathan Jones, Jesse 136–137 90–91 38 172 Wallace, Henry 267 Wright, Richard 273 464 The FDR Years

Comptroller of the Coughlin, Charles 55, defense industries Dubinsky, David 72–73 Currency 297 55–56, 244 404–406, 409–410 Dumbarton Oaks confidence, restoration of counsel to the president deficit spending conference xi, 248, 428 377 51–52, 237 FDR on 326–329, du Pont, Pierre S. 216 Congress, U.S., FDR on Court of Appeals, U.S. 331, 332 Dust Bowl 367–368, 375–377 Frank, Jerome New Henderson, Leon Bennett, Hugh 15 congressmen. See House 92–93 112 Bourke-White, of Representatives, U.S. Vinson, Frederick democracy, FDR on Margaret 25 Congress of Industrial Moore 264 363, 406, 407–408, FDR on 365 Organizations (CIO). Wyzanski, Charles 410–411, 412–413 Lorenz, Pare 163 See also Committee for 274 Democratic National The Dynamics of War and Industrial Organization Couzens, James 56–57 Committee Revolution (Dennis) 66 Green, William 103 Cowley, Malcolm 57–58 Crump, Edward 60 Pressman, Lee 213 Cox, Edward 58 Dawson, Mary E Connally, Thomas 53 CPUSA. See Communist “Molly” 65–66 Early, Stephen 74 Connecticut 60–61 Party of the USA Farley, James 81 Eccles, Marriner 61, Conquistador (MacLeish) Creation (Rivera) 221 Flynn, Edward 87 74–75 169 crime 187 Hickok, Lorena 113 The Economic Consequences conservative coalition Croly, Herbert 159 Raskob, John 216 of the Peace (Keynes) Cox, Edward 58 Crowley, Leo Thomas Women’s Division 141 Martin, Joseph 59 65–66, 113 economic heresies, FDR 174–175 Crump, Edward 60 Democratic National on 329–332 McCarran, Patrick Cummings, Homer ix, Conventions viii, ix economic regulation, 177 60–61 Crump, Edward 60 FDR on 324–325 Smith, Howard 246 Currie, Lauchlin 61–62, Farley, James 81 economic restoration and Tydings, Millard 261 112 FDR’s address recovery, FDR on conservative manifesto 8 accepting the 335–337 conservatives, FDR on D nomination (July 2, “economic royalists” ix, 379–380 “Dagger Speech” (June 1932) 312–318 349–350 Constitution, U.S. 10, 1940) 382–385 FDR’s speech (June economists/economic Black, Hugo 22 “a date which will live in 27, 1936) 349–350 advisors FDR on 336, 359, 367 infamy” (FDR) 419 Democratic Party, FDR Ezekiel, Mordecai J. FDR on amendments Daladier, Édouard on 361–362, 365–366, 79 to 371–372 63–64 379 Fisher, Irving 85–86 Cooke, Morris 53–54 Daugherty, Harry M. Democratic Victory Hansen, Alvin 106 Coolidge, Calvin 174, 268 Dinner Address (March Henderson, Leon 332, 333 Daughters of the 4, 1937) 361–366 112 Copland, Aaron 54 American Revolution Detroit Industry (Rivera) Keynes, John Copperheads, FDR on (DAR) 4 221 Maynard 141–142 377 Davis, James 64 Dewey, Thomas 67, 180 Mitchell, Wesley Corcoran, Thomas Dawes, Charles 64–65 Dies, Martin, Jr. 67–68 186–187 54–55 Dawes Plan 65 Dodsworth (Lewis) 156 Einstein, Albert 75–76 Cohen, Benjamin 52 Dawson, Mary “Molly” Dos Passos, John 68–69 Eisenhower, Dwight 76, FDR on 349, 354 65–66 Doughton, Robert 76–77, 205, 206 corporations. See big debt, FDR on 327, 69–70 election of 1924 business/corporations 331–332 Douglas, Lewis 70–71 242–243 cotton interests 243 Deere and Company Douglas, William O. 71, election of 1928 Cotton Textile Board 207 71–72, 89–90 242–243 297 defeatism, FDR on 377 Dragon’s Teeth (Sinclair) election of 1932 viii Cotton Textile National defense. See national 241 Baker, Newton 9 Industrial Relations defense Drift and Mastery Farley, James 81 Board 297 Defense Commission 391 (Lippmann) 159 FDR 232, 312–318 Index 465

Longworth, Nicholas Emergency Banking Act Farm Mortgage Federal Farm Bureau 97 (1933) Moratorium Act (1935) 190 Thomas, Norman Eccles, Marriner 75 95 Federal Farm Mortgage 256 Reed, Stanley 218 Farm Security Corporation 298 election of 1934 viii–ix Empire State Building Administration (FSA) Federal Housing election of 1936 ix 243 297 Administration 298, Farley, James 81 European Recovery Baldwin, Calvin 9 376 FDR 232–233, Program (Marshall Evans, Walker Federal Loan Agency 349–350, 354–358, Plan) 174 78–79 136 361–366 Evangelical and Lange, Dorothea 152 Federal Music Project Knox, Frank 144 Reformed Church 197 Stryker, Roy 251 298 Evans, Luther Harris Landon, Alf 150–151 fascism Federal National 77–78 Lemke, William 155 Franco, Francisco 92 Mortgage Association Evans, Walker 78, Long, Huey 161–162 Mussolini, Benito 298 78–79, 251 Longworth, Nicholas 194–195 Federal Power 97 Ever-Normal Granary Faulkner, William 267, 270 Commission 200, Talmadge, Eugene 82–84, 83 298 255–256 executive branch, FBI (Federal Bureau of strengthening of. See Federal Prison election of 1938 x Investigation) 120–121 Industries, Inc. 298 FDR on primaries President’s Committee FDIC. See Federal on Administrative Federal Real Estate 378–380 Deposit Insurance Management Board 298 election of 1940 x–xi Corporation (FDIC) (Brownlow Federal Register 93 Bricker, John 29 fear, FDR on 325, 334, Committee); Federal Reserve Act Browder, Earl 32 349, 411 Reorganization Act (1913) 102 Campaign Address at Federal Alcohol (1939) Federal Reserve Board Madison Square Administration 297 Executive Office 296 Garden (October Federal Anti-Price Building renovations Currie, Lauchlin 61 28, 1940) 385–391 Discrimination Act 343 Eccles, Marriner FDR’s campaign (1936) 225 Executive Office of the 74–75 speech in Boston Federal Art Project 297 President 186 Hansen, Alvin 106 391–393 Federal Budget speech Export-Import Bank Federal Savings and FDR’s popularity in (October 19, 1932) 207, 297 Loan Insurance 233 Ezekiel, Mordecai J. 79 325–334 Longworth, Nicholas Federal Bureau of Corporation 298 97 Investigation (FBI) Federal Security Agency F 182, 298 McNary, Charles 181 Fahy, Charles 80–81 120–121 McNutt, Paul 182 Federal Communications Federal Surplus Relief Fair Employment Corporation 93 Taft, Robert Alphonso Practices Commission Commission 297 Federal Theatre Project 254 (FEPC) 214 Federal Crop Insurance Flanagan, Hallie Mae Wallace, Henry Fair Labor Standards Act Corporation 297 Ferguson 86–87 265–267 (1938) Federal Dance Project Lewis, Sinclair 157 Willkie, Wendell 271 FDR on 375 297–298 election of 1944 xii–xiii Perkins, Frances 211 Federal Deposit Federal Trade Bricker, John 29 “Fala Speech” Insurance Corporation Commission 149, FDR 234 (September 23, 1944) (FDIC) 298 298–299 Wallace, Henry 420–423 Crowley, Leo 59 Federal Works Agency 265–267 A Farewell to Arms Vandenberg, Arthur 299 Electric Home and Farm (Hemingway) 111 262 Carmody, John 47 Authority 297 Farley, James 81–82 Federal Emergency Relief Kerr, Florence Elmer Gantry (Lewis) Farm Credit Administration (FEMA) Stewart 141 156 Administration 190, Hickok, Lorena 113 Federal Writers Project Elmira Gazette 96 297 Williams, Aubrey 270 273, 299 466 The FDR Years

FEMA (Federal flooding, FDR on Sutherland, George Garner, John Nance 97, Emergency Relief 364–365 253 97–98, 266 Administration) Florida 209–210 Van Devanter, Willis McCormack, John Hickok, Lorena 113 Flynn, Edward 87 263 178 Williams, Aubrey The Folklore of Capitalism France as vice president viii, 270 (Arnold) 7 Blum, Leon 22–23 ix, 98, 232 The Fight for Life 163 force, philosophy of, Bullitt, William Gaulle, Charles de film FDR on 382–383 34–36 98–99 Capra, Frank 44 Ford, Henry 87–89 Daladier, Édouard Gay, Edwin 186 Lorenz, Pare 163 Bennett, Harry 14–15 63–64 Gellhorn, Martha 99 Robeson, Paul McCormick, Robert FDR on Italian General Disarmament 223–224 179 invasion of 382–385 Conference, FDR on Rogers, Will Ford Foundation 257 Gaulle, Charles de 352 227–228 Ford Motor Company 98–99 General Motors Welles, Orson 267 88–89 Franco, Francisco 91–92 Corporation Fireside Chats Bennett, Harry Frank, Jerome New Raskob, John 216 on the bank crisis 14–15 92–93, 212 Sloan, Alfred P., Jr. (March 12, 1933) Couzens, James Frankfurter, Felix 242 337–340 56–57 93–94, 94 Stettinius, Edward on economic progress Foreign Economic Acheson, Dean 1 248 (June 28, 1934) Administration Cohen, Benjamin The General Theory of 340–344 Crowley, Leo 59 51–52 Employment, Interest, on the European War Currie, Lauchlin Corcoran, Thomas and Money (Keynes) (September 3, 1939) 61–62 54–55 141 380–382 foreign policy, FDR on Happy Hotdogs 1, Georgia on maintaining 336, 350–352, 423–430 51–52, 94, 149, 157, Caldwell, Erskine freedom of the seas Foreign Policy 172, 274 42–43 (September 11, Association 423 Landis, James 149 Cox, Edward 58 1941) 414–419 “The Forgotten Man” Lilienthal, David 157 Talmadge, Eugene on moving forward to radio address (April 7, Margold, Nathan 172 254–256 greater freedom and 1932) 187, 307 Wyzanski, Charles Germany. See also Hitler, security (September Fortas, Abe 89–90 274 Adolf 30, 1934) 344–349 Fortune (magazine) Frazier, Lynn Joseph FDR on attacks on on national security Agee, James 2 94–95 American vessels (December 29, Bourke-White, Frazier-Lemke Acts 414–419 1940) 400–406 Margaret 25 (1934, 1935) 95, 155 FDR on Nazis in on party primaries Luce, Henry 164 freedom, FDR on 341, Europe 401–404 (June 24, 1938) MacLeish, Archibald 348–349, 349–350, 363, FDR on treatment 374–380 169 411–412 after World War II on reorganization of For Whom the Bell Tolls freedom of the seas, 429 the judiciary (March (Hemingway) 111 FDR on 414–419 G.I. Bill of Rights 9, 1937) 366–372 Foster, William Z. 32, FSA. See Farm Security (Servicemen’s First National Labor 90–91 Administration (FSA) Readjustment Act, Relations Board 299 Four Freedoms 226 1944) xi–xii The First to Awaken “Four Freedoms” Annual G Giannini, Amadeo (Hicks) 114 Address to Congress Gannet, Frank Ernest 99–100 Fish, Hamilton 84–85, (January 6, 1941) 226, 96–97 Girdler, Tom 385, 387, 388, 389, 393, 226, 406–412 garment industry 100–101 427 Four Horsemen Dubinsky, David Glass, Carter 10, 11, Fisher, Irving 85–86 Butler, Pierce 39 72–73 102 Flanagan, Hallie Mae McReynolds, James Hillman, Sidney Go Down, Moses Ferguson 86–87 C. 183 115 (Faulkner) 84 Index 467

God’s Little Acre Cowley, James 57–58 Margold, Nathan 172 Hoover, Herbert (Caldwell) 42 Evans, Walker 78–79 Wyzanski, Charles 118–120 gold standard 218 Faulkner, William 274 Dawes, Charles 65 The Good Earth (Buck) 82–84 Harding, Senator 425 FDR on 328–332 34 FDR on 307, Harriman, Averell MacArthur, Douglas Good Neighbor League 309–312, 313–314, 106–107, 107 166 114–115 320, 334–335, 378 Harrison, Pat (Byron Mellon, Andrew Good Neighbor Policy films 44 Patton) 107–108 183–184 FDR on 336, 351, Ford, Henry 89 Harvard Law School Mitchell, Wesley 186 424 Gellhorn, Martha 99 Brandeis, Louis 27–28 Reed, Stanley 218 Hull, Cordell 127 Hoover, Herbert 120 Frankfurter, Felix 93, Sullivan, Mark 252 Welles, Sumner 268 Hoovervilles 119 94 Hoover, J. Edgar government Kelly, Edward Margold, Nathan 172 120–121 FDR on big 138–139 Harvard University Hoover Dam 134 government Lange, Dorothea Hansen, Alvin 106 Hoovervilles 119 326–329, 331 151–152 Roosevelt, Franklin Hopkins, Harry 121, FDR on role of MacDonald, Ramsey Delano (FDR) 231 121–122 317–318, 318–325, 168–169 Hastie, William 108 Hague, Frank 105 348–349, 358–359, Steinbeck, John 247 Hatch Act (1939) 12 Kelly, Edward 376–377 The Great Globe Itself Hearst, William 138–139 Grange 219 (Bullitt) 35 Randolph 108–110, Smith, Hilda 245 Williams, Aubrey 270 The Grapes of Wrath Green, William 267 Horner, Henry 122–123 (Steinbeck) 247 102–103 Heathen Days (Mencken) House of Representatives, “Great Arsenal” fireside Greer incident 414–415 185 U.S. 302–303 chat 400–406 Guffey-Vinson Hemingway, Ernest Bankhead, William B. Great Britain Bituminous Coal Act 110–111 11–12 Baldwin, Stanley (1937) 193 Dos Passos, John 69 Burdick, Usher 36 9–10 Guffey Coal Act (1935) Gellhorn, Martha 99 Byrns, Joseph, Sr. 41 Chamberlain, Neville 264 Henderson, Leon 112 Connally, Thomas 53 47–48 Gulick, Luther Halsey Hickok, Lorena Cox, Edward 58 Churchill, Winston 33, 103–104 112–113 Crump, Edward 60 49–51 Hicks, Granville Dies, Martin, Jr. FDR on aid to 392, H 113–114 67–68 393–395, 404, 406 Hague, Frank 105 High, Stanley 114–115, Doughton, Robert FDR on depression in Hale, Ruth 31 349, 354 69–70 348 Hamilton, Alexander Hillman, Sidney 115, Douglas, Lewis 70 FDR on U.S. national 320 156 Fish, Hamilton security and “the hand that held the Hirohito 115–116 84–85, 385, 387, 401–402 dagger has plunged it Hiss, Alger 213 388, 389, 393, 427 Kennedy, Joseph P. into the back of its Historical Records Garner, John Nance 140 neighbor” (FDR) 382, Survey 77–78, 299 97–98 MacDonald, Ramsey 384 Hitler, Adolf 116–118 Lemke, William 168–169 Hansen, Alvin 106 FDR on 416–418, 422 154–155 Mellon, Andrew 184 Happy Days (Mencken) Ford, Henry 89 Ludlow, Louis Great Depression 185 Mussolini, Benito 195 164–165 Agee, James 2 Happy Hotdogs Owens, Jesse 203 Marcantonio, Vito Bennett, Richard 16 Acheson, Dean 1 Stalin, Joseph 247 171–172 Boston bread line vii Cohen, Benjamin Home Owners Loan Martin, Joseph Caldwell, Erskine 51–52 Corporation 299 174–175, 385, 389, 42–43 Frankfurter, Felix 94 Home Owners’ 392–393, 427 Coughlin, Charles Landis, James 149 Refinancing Act (1933) Maverick, Maury, Sr. 55–56 Lilienthal, David 157 142 175 468 The FDR Years

House of Representatives, Ickes, Harold 129 International Juridical Japan U.S. (continued) Kelly, Edward Association 212 attacks in the Pacific McCormack, John 138–139 International Ladies’ 419–420 177–178 McCormick, Robert Garment Workers Hirohito 115–116 Norris, George 198 178–180 Union (ILGWU) MacArthur, Douglas Patman, Wright 204 Merriam, Charles E. 72–73 167–168 Pepper, Claude 210 185–186 International Japanese Americans, Rankin, John 215–216 Richberg, Donald Longshoremen’s internment of Rayburn, Sam 220–221 Association (ILA) 29–30 Fahy, Charles 81 217–218 Immigration and International Monetary Fortas, Abe 90 Smith, Howard Naturalization Service Fund 190 Lange, Dorothea 152 245–246 (INS) 30 Interstate Commerce Murphy, Frank 192 Tydings, Millard 260 inaugural addresses Clause 365 Rankin, John 215 Vinson, Frederick 1933 334–337 Interstate Commerce Stryker, Roy 251 Moore 264 1937 358–361 Commission 299 J.B. (MacLeish) 170 House Un-American 1941 412–414 Iowa Jefferson, Thomas 320, Activities Committee 1945 430–431 Kerr, Florence 418 (HUAC) 68, 224 Indiana Stewart 140 Jiang Jieshi. See Chiang Flanagan, Hallie Mae McNutt, Paul Reno, Milo 219 Kai-shek Ferguson 86–87 181–182 Wallace, Henry Jobs for All Through Pressman, Lee 213 Wickard, Claude 265–267 Industrial Expansion Rankin, John 216 269–270 Wood, Grant (Ezekiel) 79 Robeson, Paul 224 Indian affairs 52–53 271–272 John Birch Society 208 Howe, Louis 123–124 Indian Arts and Crafts “I pledge you, I pledge John Paul Jones speech How to Live (Fisher) 85 Board 299 myself, to a new deal for 354–358 HUAC. See House Un- Indian Reorganization the American people” Johnson, Hiram American Activities Act (1934) 52–53, 130 (FDR) 312, 318 133–135, 389, 425, 427 Committee (HUAC) individualism, FDR on Is Capitalism Doomed? Johnson, Hugh 135–136 Hughes, Charles Evans 320, 324–325 (Dennis) 66 FDR on 346 124–126, 368 industrial recovery, FDR “I see one-third of a Henderson, Leon 112 Hughes, Howard 136 on 344–349 nation ill-housed, ill- Peek, George 207 Hull, Cordell 126–128, industrial revolution, in clad, ill-nourished” Johnson-O’Malley Act 127, 428 FDR’s speeches (FDR) 358, 360, 366 (1934) 52 320–321 isolationism, FDR on Johnston, Olin 244 I Industrial Workers of the 373, 374, 383, 401, 427, Joint Chiefs of Staff I, Governor of California, World (Wobblies) 431 Arnold, Henry “Hap” and How I Ended Poverty Bridges, Harry 29–30 Italy 5–6 (Sinclair) 241 Foster, William 90 FDR on invasion of Leahy, William 153 Ickes, Harold 129–131, Olson, Floyd 201 France 382–385 Joint Resolution (1933) 130 Industry and Humanity Mussolini, Benito 218 Johnson, Hiram (King) 143 194–195 Jones, Jesse 136, 133–134 Institute of Public It Can’t Happen Here 136–137 Landon, Alf 150–151 Administration 104 (Lewis) 156–157, 157 Jones, John Paul 354 Idaho Institutional It Happened One Night Jones and Laughlin Steel Borah, William 24–25 Revolutionary Party 44 Corporation 100–101 Ross, C. Ben 238 (PRI) 45–46 “I Tried to be a journalists. See also “I Hate War” speech Interior, Department of Communist” (Wright) newspapers and (August 14, 1936) 295 273 magazines 350–354 Fortas, Abe 90 Bourke-White, Illinois Ickes, Harold J Margaret 25–26 Horner, Henry 130–131 Jackson, Robert 132–133 Bowers, Claude 122–123 Margold, Nathan 172 James, William 159, 232 Gernade 26–27 Index 469

Broun, Heywood Hastie, William 108 Perkins, Frances legal council to the 30–31 Hoover, J. Edgar 120 210–211 Roosevelt Clapper, Raymond Jackson, Robert 132 Randolph, Philip 214 administration 51–52 51 Margold, Nathan Richberg, Donald legal realism viii Early, Stephen 74 172–173 220–221 Arnold, Thurman 7 Gellhorn, Martha 99 McReynolds, James Roberts, Owen Berle, Adolf, Jr. 17 Hemingway, Ernest C. 182, 183 222–223 Douglas, William O. 110–111 Murphy, Frank Wagner, Robert F. 71 Hickok, Lorena 113 191–192 265 Fortas, Abe 90 High, Stanley Reed, Stanley 218 Labor, Department of Stone, Harlan Fiske 114–115 Wyzanski, Charles 295 250 Johnson, Hugh 136 274 Perkins, Frances 211 Legislative Reference Krock, Arthur Wyzanski, Charles Services 77–78 144–145 K 274 LeHand, Missy 153, Lippmann, Walter Kansas Ladies of Courage 260 159–160 Capper, Arthur 43 (Hickok) 113 Lehman, Herbert Mencken, H. L. Landon, Alf 150–151 La Follette, Philip 59, 153–154 (Henry Lewis) Kelly, Edward 138–139 146–147 Lemke, William 184–185 Kennedy, Joseph P. 139, La Follette, Robert M. 154–155 Moley, Raymond 188 139–140, 392 147, 148 Lend-Lease Murrow, Edward R. Kentucky La Follette, Robert M., Administration 193–194 Barkley, Alben 12 Jr. 59, 147, 147–148 FDR on 393–400, Pegler, Westbrook Krock, Arthur La Guardia, Fiorello 404–406, 409–410, 208 144–145 148, 148–149, 171 426 Rogers, Will 227 McReynolds, James Landis, James 149–150 Stettinius, Edward Roosevelt, Eleanor C. 182–183 Landon, Alf 150–151, 248 230 Kern, John W. 26 203 Let Us Now Praise Famous Roosevelt, Elliot 230 Kerr, Florence Stewart Lange, Dorothea Men (Agee) 2, 79, 251 Sullivan, Mark 140–141 151–152 Lewis, John L. 155, 251–252 Keynes, John Maynard Lorenz, Pare 163 155–156 Judicial Reorganization 106, 141–142 “Migrant Mother, Girdler, Tom 101 bill (Supreme Court Keyserling, Leon Nipuma, California” Green, William packing plan, 1937) 142–143 (Lange) 152 102–103 ix–x, 233 King, William Lyon Stryker, Roy 251 Hillman, Sidney 115 Cummings, Homer MacKenzie 143 Latin American affairs Murray, Philip 192, 60–61 Knox, Frank 143–144 Berle, Adolf, Jr. 17–18 193 FDR on 369–372 Knudsen, William S. 89 FDR on 351, 424 Pressman, Lee Hughes, Charles 126 Korematsu v. U.S. 192 Hull, Cordell 127 212–213 Robinson, Joseph T. Krock, Arthur 144–145 Lawrence, Dennis Lewis, Sinclair 225 66 156–157 Van Devanter, Willis L Welles, Sumner 268 liberals, FDR on 263 labor. See also unions Law and the Modern Mind 379–380 Justice, Department of FDR on 356, 357 (Frank) 92–93 The Liberal Tradition 295 FDR on industrial Lawrence, Dennis (Douglas) 70 antitrust 7, 28 recovery 344–349 66–67 liberty. See freedom Arnold, Thurman FDR on Republican League of Nations Liberty League 217 6–7 Party and labor FDR on 352 Library of Congress Biddle, Francis 420–421 Johnson, Hiram 77–78 19–20 La Follette, Robert 133–134 Life (magazine) Cummings, Homer M., Jr. 147 Leahy, William Bourke-White, 60–61 La Guardia, Fiorello 152–153 Margaret 25 Fahy, Charles 80–81 148 Lee, Russell 251 Luce, Henry 164 470 The FDR Years

Lilienthal, David Maritime Labor Board McIntyre, Marvin 180 Mississippi 157–158, 188–189 299 McNary, Charles Bilbo, Theodore Lincoln, Abraham 118, Marshall, George C. 180–181, 388, 389 20–21 348 173, 173–174 McNutt, Paul 181–182 Faulkner, William Lindbergh, Charles Leahy, William 153 McReynolds, James C. 82–84 158–159 Mao Zedong (Mao x, 182–183 Harrison, Pat Lindley, Ernest 307 Tse-tung) 171 Meat Inspection Act 241 107–108 Lippmann, Walter Marshall, John 343 media. See newspapers Rankin, John 159–160 Marshall Plan (European and magazines; 215–216 Living Newspaper Recovery Program) 174 photographers; radio Missouri 86–87 “Martin, Barton, and Mein Kampf (Hitler) Pendergast, Thomas Long, Huey 160, Fish” (FDR) 385, 389, 117, 422 208–209 160–162 391, 393 Mellon, Andrew Truman, Harry Caraway, Hattie Martin, Joseph 183–184 258–259 44–45 174–175, 385, 389, Mencken, H. L. (Henry Mitchell, Wesley Smith, Gerald L. K. 392–393, 427 Lewis) 184–185 186–187 244 Maryland Mercer, Lucy. See Modern Arms and Free Longworth, Alice Lee Mencken, H. L. Rutherford, Lucy Men: A Discussion of the Roosevelt 162–163 (Henry Lewis) Mercer Role of Science in Longworth, Nicholas 184–185 Merriam, Charles E. Preserving Democracy 97, 162–163, 174 Tydings, Millard 185–186 (Bush) 37, 38 Lorenz, Pare 163 260–261 Brownlow, Louis 33 The Modern Corporation Los Angeles Examiner 230 Massachusetts Frank, Jerome 92 and Private Property Louisiana, Huey Long Boston bread line vii Message to Congress on (Berle) 17 160–162 Martin, Joseph the Japanese Attack at Moley, Raymond Louisville Times 144–145 174–175, 174–175, Pearl Harbor 187–188, 307 Loyal Order of Moose 385, 389, 392–393, (December 8, 1941) Moline Plow Company 64 427 419–420 207 Luce, Clare Boothe 164 McCormack, John methods vs. objectives, Molotov, V. M. 107 Luce, Henry 25, 164 177–178 FDR on 311–312 Monroe Doctrine 401 Ludlow, Louis 164–165 Wyzanski, Charles Mexico Montana, Burton lynching 279 273–274 Cárdenas, Lázaro Wheeler 268–269 material wealth, FDR on 45–46 Moral Man and Immoral M 335 Rivera, Diego Society (Niebuhr) 197 MacArthur, Douglas mathematical economics 221–222 Morgan, Arthur 147, 166–168, 167 85 Michigan 157–158, 188–189, 189 MacDonald, Ramsey Maverick, Maury, Sr. Couzens, James Morgan, Harcourt 168–169 175–176 56–57 157–158, 188–189, 189 MacLeish, Archibald McAdoo, William 176 Ford, Henry 87–89 Morgenthau, Elinor 169–170 McCarran, Patrick Murphy, Frank Fatman 190 magazines. See newspapers 176–177, 211, 212 190–192 Morgenthau, Henry, Jr. and magazines McCarthy, Joseph 261 Vandenberg, Arthur 189–190 Main Street (Lewis) 156 Kennedy, Joseph P. 262 mortgages, in FDR’s Malcomson, Alex 56 140 “Migrant Mother, speeches 315–316 Manassas: A Novel of the McCarran, Patrick Nipuma, California” most-favored-nation War (Sinclair) 241 177 (Lange) 152 status 127 Mao Zedong (Mao Tse- McCormack, John Minersville School District “moving forward to tung) 48, 170–171 177–178 v. Golbitis (1940) 250 greater freedom and Marcantonio, Vito McCormick, Robert Minnesota security” (FDR) 344, 171–172 178–180 Butler, Pierce 38–39 349 Margold, Nathan McGroarty, John Steven Olson, Floyd Mr. Deeds Goes to Town 172–173 258 201–202 44 Index 471

Mr. Smith Goes to FDR on defense of National Institute of national security, FDR Washington 269 freedom of the seas Health 300 on 400–406 munitions industry 199 418–419 National Institute of National Socialist murals FDR on defense of Public Administration German Workers Party Benton, Thomas Hart Great Britain and 119–120 (Nazis) 117 16–17 393–395 National Labor Board National Steel Labor Rivera, Diego FDR on national 300 Relations Board 300 221–222 security and U.S. National Labor Relations National Union for Murphy, Frank borders 424 Act (Wagner Act, 1935) Social Justice 56 190–192, 191 FDR on rearmament viii, 232 National Youth Murray, Philip 192–193 for aid and national Fahy, Charles 80 Administration (NYA) Murrow, Edward R. defense 397–400 Girdler, Tom 101 300 193–194 FDR’s Campaign Keyserling, Leon 142 Bethune, Mary 18–19 music/musicians Address at Madison Roberts, Owen 223 Williams, Aubrey Anderson, Marian Square Garden Wagner, Robert F. 270 3–4 (October 28, 1940) 265 “A nation, like a person, Armstrong, Louis 385–391 National Labor Relations has a body” (FDR) 4–5 FDR’s campaign Board 344, 349, 413 Copland, Aaron 54 speech, Boston Bennett, Harry 15 Native Son (Wright) Robeson, Paul (October 30, 1940) Biddle, Francis 273 223–224 391–392 19–20 The Nature of the Judicial Mussolini, Benito National Defense Fahy, Charles 80 Process (Cardozo) 46 194–195, 382–385 Mediation Board 274 National Longshoremen’s The Naval War of 1812 My First Days in the National Defense Labor Board 300 (Roosevelt) 235 White House (Long) Research Committee National Planning Board Navy, U.S. 161 (NDRC) 37–38 187 FDR on rearmament National Emergency National Power Policy 387, 388 N Council 299–300 Committee 54 Knox, Frank 144 Nash, Patrick A. 138, National Farmers’ National Progressives of Leahy, William 139 Holiday Association America Party 152–153 National Association for (NFHA) 219 La Follette, Philip Nazis (National Socialist the Advancement of National Farmers’ Union 147 German Workers Colored People 219 National Recovery Act Party) (NAACP) National Gallery of Art (1933) 135 FDR on 401–404 Margold, Nathan 172 184 National Recovery Hitler, Adolf 117 White, Walter 269 National Housing Act Administration 300 Nazi-Soviet National Bituminous (1937) 142 FDR on 342, Nonaggression Pact Coal Commission 299 National Housing 345–346 (1939) 247 National Bituminous Agency 142 Flynn, Edward 87 Nebraska, George Norris Coal Labor Board 299 National Industrial Hillman, Sidney 115 198–199 National Bureau of Recovery Act (NIRA, Johnson, Hugh negative government Economic Research 1933) 135–136 viii 186 FDR on 346–348 Murray, Philip 193 Nelson, Donald 196 National Committee to Frank, Jerome 93 Richberg, Donald neutrality, FDR on 353, Uphold Constitutional Girdler, Tom 101 220–221 354, 381, 382, 389–390, Government 96, 97 Hillman, Sidney 115 National Resources 426 national defense Keyserling, Leon 142 Board 187, 300 Nevada FDR on armament Reed, Stanley 218 National Resources McCarran, Patrick production Roberts, Owen Planning Board 300 176–177 408–409 222–223 Burns, Eveline 36–37 Pittman, Key FDR on defense of Wyzanski, Charles Merriam, Charles E. 211–212 democracy 407–408 274 185–186 New Criticism 114 472 The FDR Years

New Deal viii–ix newspapers and Smith, Al 242–243 Nye, Gerald 199, 388, Bennett, Richard (in magazines. See also Stimson, Henry 249 389, 427 Canada) 16 journalists Wagner, Robert F. Nye Committee 199 Blum, Leon (in Capper, Arthur 43 265 France) 23 Early, Stephen 74 Welles, Sumner O Cárdenas, Lázaro (in Gannet, Frank Ernest 267–268 objectives vs. methods, Mexico) 45–46 96–97 New York Daily News 179 FDR on 311–312 as change from Glass, Carter 102 New York Emergency Office of Civilian negative to positive Hearst, William Relief Administration Defense 300 government viii Randolph 108–110 121 Office of Economic FDR on 312–318, Knox, Frank 143–144 New York Evening Post Stabilization 300 340–342, 363–364 Luce, Henry 164 252 Byrnes, James first hundred days McCormick, Robert New York Telegram 31 “Jimmy” 40–41 232, 277–278 178–180 New York Times 145 Vinson, Frederick La Follette, Philip (in New York New York World 31 Moore 264 Wisconsin) 146–147 Berle, Adolf, Jr. 18 New York World-Telegram Office of Economic legal realism viii Broun, Heywood 31, 208 Workforce 59 Lehman, Herbert (in 30–31 Nicholson, Meredith Office of Facts and New York) 153–154 Cardozo, Benjamin 319 Figures 58 MacLeish, Archibald 46 Niebuhr, Reinhold Office of Foreign Relief 169–170 Dewey, Thomas 67 196–198 and Rehabilitation Murphy, Frank (in Farley, James 81–82 NIRA. See National Operations 154 Michigan) 191 Fish, Hamilton Industrial Recovery Act Office of Price Native Americans and 84–85 (NIRA, 1933) Administration (OPA) 52 Flynn, Edward 87 Nonpartisan League 300 Olson, Floyd (in Gannet, Frank Ernest (farmers) Bowles, Chester 27 Minnesota) 202 96–97 Frazier, Lynn Joseph Henderson, Leon overview ix Hopkins, Harry 121 95 112 Rayburn, Sam Hughes, Charles Lemke, William 154 Office of Production 217–218 Evans 124–125 Non-Partisan League Stettinius, Edward Roosevelt, Eleanor Jackson, Robert 132 (labor) 156 248 230 La Guardia, Fiorello Norbeck, Peter 206 Office of Production Ross, C. Ben (in 148–149 Norris, George Management 300 Idaho) 238 Lehman, Herbert 198–199 Harriman, Averell second hundred days 153–154 Norris-La Guardia Act 106 281–282 Marcantonio, Vito (1932) 148 Office of Scientific Talmadge, Eugene (in 171–172 North Carolina Research and Georgia) 255 Morgenthau, Henry, Bailey, Josiah 8 Development (OSRD) New Freedom program Jr. 189–190 Doughton, Robert 37–38 28 Olds, Leland 200 69–70 Office of War New Jersey, Frank Pecora, Ferdinand North Dakota Mobilization Hague 105 206–207 Burdick, Usher 36 Byrnes, James New Masses 114 Perkins, Frances 211 Frazier, Lynn Joseph “Jimmy” 40–41 New Progressive 159 Roosevelt, Franklin 94–95 Cohen, Benjamin 52 New Republic Delano (FDR) vii, Lemke, William Vinson, Frederick Broun, Heywood 31 232 154–155 Moore 264 Cowley, James 57, 58 Roosevelt, Franklin Nye, Gerald 199, Oglethorpe University Frankfurter, Felix 94 Delano, Jr. 235 199, 388, 389, 427 speech (FDR) New School for Social Roosevelt, Theodore Nuremberg Trials 133 307–312 Research 186 “Teddy” 235, 236 NYA. See National Ohio Newspaper Days Rosenman, Samuel Youth Administration Baker, Newton 9 (Mencken) 185 237 (NYA) Bricker, John 28–29 Index 473

Green, William Pearl Harbor, Japanese Long, Huey 160–162 prohibition (18th 102–103 attack on 419–420 Pendergast, Thomas amendment, Volstead Moley, Raymond Pecora, Ferdinand 208–209 Act), FDR on 315, 333 187–188 206–207 political science, field of public administration Morgan, Arthur Peek, George 207, 185 103–104 188–189 266–267 positive government viii, Public Administration Taft, Robert Alphonso Pegler, Westbrook 208 118 Clearinghouse 33 254 Pendergast, Thomas postmaster general 81 Public Papers and Addresses Ohio River 365 208–209, 259 poverty of Franklin D. Roosevelt oil industry 172 Pennsylvania Caldwell, Erskine (Roosevelt) 237 The Old Man and the Sea Davis, James 64 42–43 public relations 180 (Hemingway) 111 Roberts, Owen 223 Evans, Walker public service, FDR on Olds, Leland 200 pension plans 257–258. 78–79 342 Olson, Culbert 200–201 See also Social Security A Preface to Politics Public Utilities Holding Olson, Floyd 201–202 Act (1935) (Lippmann) 159 Act (1935) 271 Olympic Games (1936) Pepper, Claude President’s Commission Public Works 202–203 209–210 on Pearl Harbor Administration (PWA) One World (Willkie) 271 Perkins, Frances viii, (Robert’s Commission) 301 Only One Storm (Hicks) 210, 210–211, 245 223 FDR on 376 114 Pershing, John J. 205 President’s Committee Frank, Jerome 93 “the only thing we have Pétain, Philippe 98 on Administrative Ickes, Harold 129 to fear is fear itself” Petroleum Management Mitchell, Wesley 187 (FDR) 334 Administrative Board (Brownlow Committee) Public Works Committee OPA. See Office of Price 80, 172 ix, x 54 Administration (OPA) Petroleum Labor Policy Brownlow, Louis Public Works of Art Oregon, Charles Board 172, 300 32–34, 33, 34 Project 272 McNary 180–181 Pfeiffer, Pauline 111 Gulick, Luther Puerto Rico 260 Organic Act (1936) 108 Philippines Halsey, IV 103–104 Pullman Company 214 Our Time: The United MacArthur, Douglas Merriam, Charles Pure Food and Drug Act States, 1900\#2081925 166, 167 186 241 (Sullivan) 252 McNutt, Paul 182 President’s Research “Purge” chat (June 24, The Outsider (Wright) Murphy, Frank 191 Commission on Social 1938) 374–380 273 philosophy of force, Trends 186–187 PWA. See Public Works overproduction, FDR on FDR on 382–383 Pressman, Lee Administration (PWA) 308–309, 310–311, photographers 212–213 313–314 Evans, Walker 78–79 press secretary 74 Q Owens, Jesse 202, Lange, Dorothea “Progressive “Quarantine” speech 202–203 151–152 Government” speech (October 5, 1937) physics 75–76 (September 23, 1932) 372–374 P Pittman, Key 211–212 17, 318–325 Quezon, Manuel 166 Panama Refining Company Platt Amendment (1934) Progressive Open Forum v Ryan (1935) 172–173 FDR on 351 Discussion Group 175 R panic of 1929, FDR on Welles, Sumner 268 Progressive Party 148 racketeering 67 328 The Plow That Broke the Johnson, Hiram radio. See also Fireside Patman, Wright 204 Plains 163 133–134 Chats Patterson, Joseph Medill polio vi, 232 La Follette, Philip Clapper, Raymond 179 political bosses 146, 147 51 Patton, George Crump, Edward 60 Richberg, Donald Coughlin, Charles 204–206 Flynn, Edward 87 220 55–56 peace, FDR on 350–352, Hague, Frank 105 Roosevelt, Theodore Luce, Henry 164 355, 358, 373–374, 380, Kelly, Edward 236–237 Murrow, Edward R. 427–430, 430–431 138–139 Wheeler, Burton 268 193–194 474 The FDR Years

Rogers, Will 228 Currie, Lauchlin 61 and FDR v–vi, vi–vii, as president Welles, Orson 267 Merriam, Charles 229–230, 231, 232, first term viii, Railroad Retirement Act 186 238–239 232, 277–283 368 Republican Party Gellhorn, Martha 99 fourth term railroads FDR on foreign Hickok, Lorena 113 xii–xiii, 234, FDR on 321 policy and 425–427 Howe, Louis 123, 124 293–294 Richberg, Donald FDR’s Campaign Kerr, Florence second term ix, 220–221 Address at Madison Stewart 140, 141 232–233, 283–288 Railway Labor Act Square Garden Morgenthau, Elinor third term xi–xii, (1926) 220–221 (October 28, 1940) Fatman 190 233–234, Randolph, Philip 214 385–391 Rutherford, Lucy 288–293 Rankin, John 215–216 FDR’s “Fala Speech” Mercer 238–239 Roosevelt, Theodore Ransdell, Joseph E. 161 420–423 Smith, Hilda 245 235, 236, 321 Raskob, John 216–217 Republic Steel Roosevelt, Elliot speeches. See speeches Rayburn, Sam 217, Corporation 101 230–231 (FDR) 217–218 Research Committee on Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, Franklin REA. See Rural Social Trends 119–120 Delano (FDR) v–xiii, Delano, Jr. 234–235 Electrification Resettlement 231–235 Roosevelt, Theodore Administration (REA) Administration 152, birth v “Teddy” v, vi, 235–237 Recent Economic Changes 301 children 229, FDR and 235, 236, (Mitchell) 187 Stryker, Roy 251 230–231, 234–235 321 Recent Social Trends in the Tugwell, Rexford 259 chronology 275–294 Hughes, Charles United States (Mitchell) restoration of confidence death xiii Evans 124–125 187 378 early political career Johnson, Hiram 133 Reciprocal Trade RFC. See Reconstruction vi, 231–232 Knox, Frank 144 Agreements 127 Finance Corporation education v, 231, 232 Lippmann, Walter Reconstruction Finance (RFC) and Eleanor v–vi, vi, 159 Corporation (RFC) Richardson, Hadley 110 vi–vii, 229–230, 231, Longworth, Alice Lee 301 Richberg, Donald 232, 238–239 Roosevelt 162 Corcoran, Thomas 220–221, 354, 358 as governor of New Roosevelt, Eleanor 54–55 Riefenstahl, Leni 203 York vii, 232 229 Dawes, Charles rights, FDR on Mercer, Lucy The Roosevelt Year: 1933 64–65 324–325, 341 (Rutherford, Lucy 163 FDR on 321, 376 The River 163 Mercer) 232, Root, Elihu 249, 344 Jones, Jesse 136 Rivera, Diego 221–222 238–239 Rope and Faggot: A Reed, Stanley 218–219 Roberts, Owen pet dog Fala 422–423 Biography of Judge Lynch regionalist art movement 222–223 photos (White) 269 272 Robeson, Paul 223–224 before Congress Rosenman, Dorothy religious leaders Robin Moor incident 415 233 Reuben 237 Coughlin, Charles Robinson, Joseph T. x, with Eleanor vi Rosenman, Samuel 237, 55–56 224–225 with Hopkins, 312, 354, 358, 412 Niebuhr, Reinhold Rockefeller, Nelson 221 Harry 121 Ross, C. Ben 238 196–198 Rockwell, Norman with La Guardia, Rural Electrification Smith, Gerald L. K. 225–226 Fiorello 148 Administration (REA) 244–245 Rogers, Will 226–228 at Selective Service 301 “rendezvous with Roosevelt, Eleanor vi, lottery 249 Cooke, Morris 53–54 destiny” (FDR) 349, xiii, 228–230, 229 with Wallace, FDR on 376 350 Anderson, Marian 4 Henry A. 266 Wickard, Claude 270 Reno, Milo 219 Baruch, Bernard 13 at Yalta xii Russell-Overton Reorganization Act Bethune, Mary 19 polio vi, 232 Amendment 389 (1939) x children 229, presidency and Russia. See USSR (Soviet Brownlow, Louis 34 230–231, 234–235 leadership style v Union) Index 475

Rutherford, Lucy Mercer Bailey, Josiah 8 Vandenberg, Arthur Smith, Hilda 245 232, 238–239 Bankhead, John H., 262 Smith, Howard Rutledge, Wiley Jr. 11 Wagner, Robert F. 245–246 239–240 Barkley, Alben 12 265 Smith Act (Alien Bilbo, Theodore Wheeler, Burton Registration Act, 1940) S 20–21 268–269 246 Sartoris (Faulkner) 83 Black, Hugo 21–22 Servicemen’s Smith-Connally Anti- Saturday Evening Post Borah, William Readjustment Act Strike Act (1943) 225, 226 24–25 (1944, G.I. Bill of Lewis, John L. 156 Schechter Poultry Bricker, John 28–29 Rights) xi–xii Smith, Howard 246 Corporation v. U.S. Byrd, Harry 39–40 Shahn, Ben 251 Social Gospel movement (1935) 218 Byrnes, James Share Our Wealth Hopkins, Harry 121 Schmedeman, Albert G. “Jimmy” 40–41 Society Ickes, Harold 129 59 Capper, Arthur 43 Long, Huey 161 Perkins, Frances 210 scientific management Caraway, Hattie Smith, Gerald L. K. Thomas, Norman 53 44–45 244 256 Scripps-Howard Connally, Thomas 53 Sherwood, Robert 430 Socialist Party syndicate Couzens, James Showboat 224 Niebuhr Reinhold Clapper, Raymond 56–57 Shreveport Rate Case 197 51 Davis, James 64 (1914) 125 Thomas, Norman Pegler, Westbrook Frazier, Lynn Joseph silver-mining industry 256–257 208 94–95 212 Social Sciences Research Second National Glass, Carter 102 Silver Purchase Act Council (SSRC) Bituminous Coal Harrison, Pat (1934) 212 Hoover, Herbert 120 Commission 301 107–108 Sinclair, Upton 241 Merriam, Charles Second National Labor Johnson, Hiram Sloan, Alfred P., Jr. 185 Relations Board 301 133–135 241–242 Social Security Act secretary to the president Long, Huey 160–162 small business (1935) viii, 232 Howe, Louis McAdoo, William Jones, Jesse 136 Burns, Eveline 37 123–124 176 Maverick, Maury, Sr. FDR on 356–357 LeHand, Missy 153 McCarran, Patrick 175 Perkins, Frances 211 McIntyre, Marvin 176–177 Patman, Wright 204 Townsend, Francis 180 McNary, Charles Robinson, Joseph T. 258 Tully, Grace 260 180–181 225 Social Security Board Securities Act (1933) Norris, George Small Business 301 149, 345 198–199 Administration 136. Dawson, Mary Securities and Exchange Nye, Gerald 199 See also Reconstruction “Molly” 66 Commission (SEC) Pepper, Claude Finance Corporation Soil Conservation 296 209–210 (RFC) Service (SCS) 15 Cohen, Benjamin 52 Pittman, Key Smaller Plants solicitor general Douglas, William O. 211–212 Corporation 204 Biddle, Francis 71–72 Robinson, Joseph T. Smathers, George A. 19–20 Frank, Jerome 93 224–225 210 Fahy, Charles 80–81 Kennedy, Joseph P. Smith, Ellison Smith, Al 242–243 Jackson, Robert 132 139–140 DuRant 243–244 FDR on 332 Reed, Stanley 218 Landis, James Sutherland, George Lehman, Herbert The Sound and the Fury 149–150 253 154 (Faulkner) 83–84 Pecora, Ferdinand Taft, Robert Alphonso Raskob, John 216 South Carolina 206 254 Smith, Ellison DuRant Byrnes, James Selective Service lottery Truman, Harry 259 243–244 “Jimmy” 40–41 249, 250, 426 Tydings, Millard Smith, Gerald L. K. Smith, Ellison Senate, U.S. 303–304 260–261 244–245 DuRant 243–244 476 The FDR Years

Southern Committee to Democratic Victory “I Hate War” speech SSRC. See Social Uphold the Dinner Address (August 14, 1936) Sciences Research Constitution 255–256 (March 4, 1937) 350–354 Council (SSRC) Souvestre, Marie 228 361–366 inaugural address Stalin, Joseph xii, Spain “Fala Speech” (1933) 334–337 246–247 Bowers, Claude (September 23, inaugural address State, Department of Gernade 26–27 1944) 420–423 (1937) 358–361 295 Franco, Francisco Federal Budget inaugural address Acheson, Dean 1–2 91–92 speech (October 19, (1941) 412–414 Berle, Adolf, Jr. Spanish-American War 1932) 325–334 inaugural address 17–18 236 Fireside Chat on (1945) 430–431 Bohlen, Charles Spanish civil war 92 economic progress Lend-Lease press 23–24 Dos Passos, John 69 (June 28, 1934) conference Bowers, Claude Gellhorn, Martha 99 340–344 (December 17, Gernade 26–27 Hemingway, Ernest Fireside Chat on 1940) 382–385 Bullitt, William 111 maintaining Message to Congress 34–36 Hicks, Granville 114 freedom of the seas on the Japanese Hughes, Charles special assistant to the (September 11, Attack at Pearl Evens 125 president 122 1941) 414–419 Harbor (December Hull, Cordell special counsel to the Fireside Chat on 8, 1941) 419–420 127–128 president 237 moving forward to “Progressive Kennedy, Joseph P. speech, freedom of 411 greater freedom and Government” speech 140 speeches (FDR) security (September (September 23, Leahy, William Address to the 30, 1934) 344–349 1932) 17, 318–325 152–153 Foreign Policy Fireside Chat on “Quarantine” speech MacLeish, Archibald Association Dinner national security (October 5, 1937) 169–170 (October 21, 1944) (December 29, 372–374 Stettinius, Edward 423–430 1940) 400–406 “We Have Only Just 248 “Bold, Persistent Fireside Chat on Begun to Fight” Welles, Sumner 268 Experimentation” party primaries campaign address State Emergency Relief address (May 22, (June 24, 1938) (October 31, 1936) Administration (SERA) 1932) 307–312 374–380 354–358 151–152 Campaign Address at Fireside Chat on speechwriters steel industry Madison Square reorganization of Berle, Adolf, Jr. 17 Girdler, Tom Garden (October the judiciary (March Bowers, Claude 100–101 28, 1940) 385–391 9, 1937) 366–372 Gernade 26–27 Murray, Philip 193 Campaign Speech in Fireside Chat on the Corcoran, Thomas Stettinius, Edward Boston (October 30, bank crisis (March 54–55 248 1940) 391–393 12, 1933) 337–340 High, Stanley Steel Seafarer incident “Dagger Speech” Fireside Chat on the 114–115 415 (June 10, 1940) European War Keyserling, Leon 142 Steel Workers 382–385 (September 3, 1939) MacLeish, Archibald Organizing Committee Democratic National 380–382 169–170 (SWOC) Convention address “The Forgotten Man” Moley, Raymond Murray, Philip 193 accepting the radio address (April 187–188 Pressman, Lee 213 nomination (July 2, 7, 1932) 187, 307 Rosenman, Samuel Steinbeck, John 247 1932) 312–318 “Four Freedoms” 237 Stettinius, Edward 248 Democratic National Annual Address to spirit of America Stimson, Henry Convention speech Congress (January 6, 413–414 248–250, 249 (June 27, 1936) 1941) 226, 226, The Spirit of St. Louis FDR on 426 349–350 406–412 (Lindbergh) 159 Frankfurter, Felix 93 Index 477 stock market, FDR on Murphy, Frank Wagner, Robert F. Thomson, Virgil 163 308, 345 191–192 265 Time (magazine) 164 Stone, Harlan Fiske Reed, Stanley tariffs, FDR on 317, 329 Tobacco Road (Caldwell) 250–251, 368 218–219 taxes, FDR on 315–316, 42 Stryker, Roy 251 Roberts, Owen 326–327, 331, 333, 411 “Today and Tomorrow” Student Army Training 222–223 Taylor, Frederick W. 53 (Lippmann) 159 Corp 209 Rutledge, Wiley Taylor, Paul Schuster To Have and Have Not Studies in the Law of 239–240 151–152 (Hemingway) 111 Corporate Finance Stone, Harlan Temporary National Tolley, Howard 257 (Berle) 17 Fiske 250–251 Economic Committee Toward Social Security Sullivan, Mark 251–252 Sutherland, 112 (Burns) 37 The Sun Also Rises George 252–253 Tennessee Townsend, Francis 244, (Hemingway) 111 Van Devanter, Byrns, Joseph, Sr. 41 257–258 Sung Meiling (Soong Willis 262–263 Caraway, Hattie Townsend Clubs 258 Mei-ling). See Chiang Vinson, Frederick 44–45 trade Kai-shek, Madame Moore 264 Crump, Edward 60 FDR on 352–353 The Supply of Money in the packing plan (Judicial Morgan, Harcourt in FDR’s speeches United States (Currie) Reorganization bill, 189 336 61 1937) ix–x, 233 Tennessee Valley Peek, George 207 Supreme Court Cummings, Authority 301 Pittman, Key 211, 212 FDR on 363–365, Homer 60–61 FDR on 365 Trade Union Educational 366–368, 376 FDR on 369–372 Lilienthal, David League (TUEL) Four Horsemen Hughes, Charles 157–158 Browder, Earl 32 Butler, Pierce 39 126 Morgan, Arthur Foster, William Z. 91 McReynolds, Robinson, Joseph 188–189 Transamerica James C. 183 T. 225 Morgan, Harcourt Corporation 100 Sutherland, Van Devanter, 189 Treasury, Department of George 253 Willis 263 Texas 296 Van Devanter, Sutherland, George Connally, Thomas 53 Banister, Marion Willis 263 252–253 Dies, Martin, Jr. Glass 10–11 justices 295 The Symbols of 67–68 Eccles, Marriner Black, Hugo 21–22 Government (Arnold) 7 Garner, John Nance 74–75 Brandeis, Louis Syndicalism (Foster) 97–98 Glass, Carter 102 27–28 90–91 Jones, Jesse 136–137 Mellon, Andrew Butler, Pierce Maverick, Maury, Sr. 183–184 38–39 T 175–176 Morgenthau, Henry, Byrnes, James Taft, Robert Alphonso Patman, Wright 204 Jr. 190 “Jimmy” 40–41 254, 387 Rayburn, Sam Treatise on Money Cardozo, Taft, William Howard 217–218 (Keynes) 141 Benjamin 46 Hughes, Charles Textile Labor Relations Triangle Shirtwaist Douglas, William Evans 125 Board 301 Company fire 211, O. 71–72 Stimson, Henry 249 theater project 242, 265 Fortas, Abe 90 Talmadge, Eugene Flanagan, Hallie Mae Trotsky, Leon 246 Frankfurter, Felix 254–256, 255 Ferguson 86–87 Truman, Harry S. xiii, 93–94 Tammany Hall Lewis, Sinclair 157 258–259 Hughes, Charles Flynn, Edward 87 Thomas, Norman Hastie, William 108 Evens 125 La Guardia, Fiorello 256–257 Lilienthal, David 158 Jackson, Robert 148 Thomas Woodrow Wilson: MacArthur, Douglas 132 Rosenman, Samuel 28th President, A 167–168 McReynolds, James 237 Psychological Study Marshall, George C. C. 182–183 Smith, Al 242 (Bullitt, Freud) 35–36 174 478 The FDR Years

Truman, Harry S. Hillman, Sidney 115 Clapper, Raymond Stalin, Joseph (continued) Lewis, John L. 51 246–247 McCormick, Robert 155–156 Gellhorn, Martha 99 Utah 180 Murphy, Frank 191 Pegler, Westbrook Eccles, Marriner Pendergast, Thomas Murray, Philip 208 74–75 209 192–193 United States Olson, Culbert 201 Vinson, Frederick Pressman, Lee Conference of Mayors Sutherland, George Moore 264 212–213 149 252–253 TUEL. See Trade Union Randolph, Philip 214 United States utility companies 271 Educational League Reno, Milo 219 Employment Service (TUEL) Sloan, Alfred P., Jr. 301 V Tugwell, Rexford 242 United States Film Vandenberg, Arthur 259–260 United Auto Workers Service 163, 301 262 Keyserling, Leon 142 (UAW) United States Housing Bailey, Josiah 8 Stryker, Roy 251 Bennett, Harry 14–15 Authority 301, 376 FDR on 387, 389 Tully, Grace 260 Sloan, Alfred P., Jr. United States Maritime Van Devanter, Willis $2,500 A Year: From 242 Commission 301 262–263 Scarcity to Abundance United Church of Christ Kennedy, Joseph P. Vardaman, James K. (Ezekiel) 79 197 140 107 Tydings, Millard United Features United States Steel vice presidents 260–261 syndicate 208 Murray, Philip 193 Barkley, Alben 12 United Garment Stettinius, Edward Truman, Harry. See U Workers of America 248 Truman, Harry UAW. See United Auto (UGW) 115 United States v. Butler Wallace, Henry Workers (UAW) United Mine Workers of (1936) 250 265–267 UMWA. See United America (UMWA) United States v. Carolene Vinson, Frederick Moore Mine Workers of Green, William Products Co. (1938) 250 263, 263–264 America (UMWA) 102–103 United States v. Curtiss- Virginia Uncle Tom’s Children Lewis, John L. Wright Export Corp. Byrd, Harry 39–40 (Wright) 273 unemployment, FDR on 155–156 (1936) 253 Glass, Carter 102 315–316, 317, 329, 335, Murray, Philip 192, United Steel Workers of Smith, Howard 347–348, 356, 357 193 America 193 245–246 Union for Democratic United Nations University of Chicago Virgin Islands 108 Action (UDA) 197 FDR on 428–430 Frank, Jerome 92 Volstead Act Union Party Hull, Cordell 128 Merriam, Charles (prohibition, 18th Coughlin, Charles 56 Lehman, Herbert 185 amendment), FDR on Smith, Gerald L. K. 154 The Unvanquished 315, 333 244 Roosevelt, Eleanor (Faulkner) 84 Townsend, Francis 230 UP. See United Press W 258 Stettinius, Edward (UP) wages, FDR on 311 unions. See also labor 248 U.S.A. (Dos Passos) Wages and Hours Bill. Bennett, Harry Vandenberg, Arthur 68–69 See Fair Labor 14–15 262 USSR (Soviet Union) Standards Act (1938) Bridges, Harry 29–30 United Nations Food Bohlen, Charles 23 Wagner, Robert F. viii, Dubinsky, David and Agricultural Bullitt, William 142, 265 72–73 Organization (FAO) 34–36 Wagner Act. See Ford, Henry 89 257 FDR on recognition National Labor Foster, William Z. United Nations Relief of 424–425 Relations Act (Wagner 90–91 and Rehabilitation Harriman, Averell Act, 1935) Girdler, Tom 101 Administration 106 Wallace, Henry xi, Green, William (UNRAA) 154 Pepper, Claude 210 265–267, 266, 270 102–103 United Press (UP) Robeson, Paul 224 want, freedom from 411 Index 479

War, Department of Flynn, Edward 87 La Follette, Philip Arnold, Henry “Hap” 296. See also Office of Gulick, Luther 146–147 5–6 War Mobilization Halsey, IV 104 Lewis, Sinclair 157 Bourke-White, Bethune, Mary 18–19 white supremacy 215 Smith, Hilda 245 Margaret 25–26 Hastie, William 108 Why We Fight (films) 44 Williams, Aubrey Byrnes, James Stimson, Henry Wickard, Claude 270 “Jimmy” 40–41 248–250 269–279 Wright, Richard 273 Capra, Frank 44 war, FDR on 352–353, The Wild Palms Works Projects Chamberlain, Neville 353–354, 374, 380–382 (Faulkner) 84 Administration (WPA) 47–48 War Industries Board Williams, Aubrey Flanagan, Hallie Mae chronology 286–294 (WIB) 270–271 Ferguson 86–87 Churchill, Winston Johnson, Hugh 135 Willkie, Wendell 158, Kerr, Florence 49–51 Mitchell, Wesley 186 271 Stewart 140–141 Clapper, Raymond Peek, George 207 Wilson, Woodrow world aggression and 51 War Information, Office Baker, Newton 9 lawlessness, FDR on Cohen, Benjamin 52 of Baruch, Bernard 13 373–374 Cowley, James 57–58 Buck, Pearl S. 34 Bullitt, William 35 World Bank 190 Daladier, Édouard 63 War Manpower FDR on 322 World Court 425 Einstein, Albert Commission 182 Glass, Carter 102 World Monetary and 75–76 War Production Board Hoover, Herbert 118 Economic Conference Eisenhower, Dwight 196, 301 Hull, Cordell 188 76–77 war profits, FDR on 126–127 World War I FDR 233, 233–234 353, 381 McAdoo, William Bonus Army veterans FDR on appeasement War Resources Board 176 120, 124, 166, 205, 403 301 McReynolds, James 215 FDR on Axis powers Washington, George C. 183 Bullitt, William 35 400–401 414 Wisconsin Early, Stephen 74 FDR on invasion of Waterfront Employers Crowley, Leo 59 FDR on 394, 407 U.S. 408 Association (WEA) La Follette, Philip Fish, Hamilton FDR on Italy’s 29–30 146–147 84–85 invasion of France Weaver, Robert C. 108 La Follette, Robert Hitler, Adolf 382–385 “We Have Only Just M., Jr. 147–148 116–117 FDR on maintaining Begun to Fight” Wisconsin Progressive Hoover, Herbert 118 freedom of the seas campaign address Party 147, 148 Johnson, Hugh 414–419 (October 31, 1936) Wobblies. See Industrial Samuel 135 FDR on national 354–358 Workers of the World McCormick, Robert defense and aid to Welles, Orson 267 (Wobblies) 179 Allies 385–391 Welles, Sumner 267–268 Wood, Grant 271–272 Mussolini, Benito FDR on Nazis in West Virginia State Board Workers Education 194–195 Europe 401–404 of Education v. Barnette Program Patton, George 205 FDR’s Message to (1943) 250 Smith, Hilda 245 Peek, George 207 Congress on the Westward migration, Works Progress Rankin, John 215 Japanese Attack at FDR on 320 Administration (WPA) World War II xi, xiii Pearl Harbor Wheeler, Burton 302 America First 419–420 268–269 Barkley, Alben 12 Committee Fireside Chat on the White, Edward D. 125, Bethune, Mary 18–19 La Follette, Philip European War 348 Evans, Luther Harris 147 380–382 White, Walter 269 77–78 Lindbergh, Fish, Hamilton White House Office 186 FDR on 376 Charles 159 84–85 White House staff Hopkins, Harry 121 Nye, Gerald 199 Gaulle, Charles de Currie, Lauchlin Kerr, Florence Wheeler, Burton 98–99 61–62 Stewart 140–141 269 Girdler, Tom 101 480 The FDR Years

World War II (continued) Marshall, George C. Agee, James 2 Wyzanski, Charles Hastie, William 108 173–174 Buck, Pearl S. 34 273–274 Hemingway, Ernest McCormick, Robert Caldwell, Erskine 111 179–180 42–43 Y Henderson, Leon 112 Morgenthau, Henry, Faulkner, William Yale Law School Hirohito 115–116 Jr. 190 82–84 Douglas, William O. Hitler, Adolf 118 Mussolini, Benito 195 Hemingway, Ernest 71 Hoover, J. Edgar Nelson, Donald 196 110–111 Fortas, Abe 89–90 121 Nuremberg Trials 133 Hicks, Granville Yale University Hopkins, Harry 122 Patton, George 113–114 Arnold, Thurman 6–7 Japanese Americans, 205–206 Johnson, Hugh Fisher, Irving 85 internment of 81, Pepper, Claude 135–136 Yalta conference xii, 90, 152, 192, 215, 209–210 Lawrence, Dennis 66 50 251 Rockwell, Norman Lewis, Sinclair You Have Seen Their Faces Kerr, Florence 226 156–157 (Bourke-White, Stewart 141 Roosevelt, Elliot Ludlow, Louis Caldwell) 25, 42–43 Keynes, John 230–231 164–165 “Your boys are not going Maynard 141–142 Selective Service MacLeish, Archibald to be sent into any King, William Lyon lottery 249, 250 169–170 foreign wars.” (FDR) MacKenzie 143 Stimson, Henry 248, Sinclair, Upton 241 391 Knox, Frank 144 250 Steinbeck, John 247 Lindbergh, Charles Wright, Richard Welles, Orson 267 Z 158–159 272–273 Wright, Richard Zhou Enlai (Chou Enlai) MacArthur, Douglas writers. See also journalists; 272–273 48 166–167, 166–168 speechwriters Wyoming 262–263 Ziegfeld Follies 227