Volume: 2 Issue-11 November- 2015 Pages 80

ISSN 2394-1227 Indian Farmer

A Monthly Magazine

Volume: 2, Issue-11 November -2015

Sr. Editorial Board Full length Articles Page No.

Sun Protective Clothing for Farm Workers 804-806 1 Editor In Chief Neeta Singh and Surabhi Singh Methods of Sexing of X And Y Chromosomes 2 807-812 Dr. V.B. Dongre, Ph.D. Avinash Singh,Pr anay Bharti and Sunil Kumar

3 Essentials In Clean Milk Production 813-816 Editor S. K. Joshi, L. K. Babu, S. Kanungo and S. Sathapathy 4 Package of Practices for Scientific Dairy Farming 817-823 Dr. A.R. Ahlawat, Ph.D. Abhey Singh Yadav and Sandeep Kumar Sangwan

5 Physical Characteristics of Indigenous Breeds of Cattle: An Over- 824-838 view Members Alok Kumar Yadav 6 Agrotextiles - An overview 839-842 Dr. Alka Singh, Ph.D. Neeta Singh

Dr. K. L. Mathew, Ph.D. 7 Strategy of Amelioration of Heat Stress in Buffaloes 843-846 Dr. Mrs. Santosh, Ph.D. Rekha Yadav, Parveen Kumar, Naresh Kumar, Anjali Kumari and Dr. S. S. Patil, Ph.D. Narender Kumar

8 Myiasis: Diagnosis, Control and Therapeutic management 847-853 Snehil Gupta, Arjun Kasondra, Venkata Rami Reddy Balena, Subject Editors Ashutosh Fular, Sumit Sardana3, Manu Kurian Mathew, Ramadevi Pampana, Vijay Kumar Jwalagatti and Narender Agriculture Kumar Dr. R. S. Tomar, Ph.D 9 Farm Animal Waste Utilization For Bio-Gas Production 854-861 Himani Tewari, Rajashree Rath, Jagish Reen, Kalpana Tyagi, Alok K.Yadav and Ankita Rautela Veterinary Science Dr. P. SenthilKumar, Ph.D. 10 Vaccination Failure: Factors and Considerations 862-864 Adarsh Mishra

Home Science 11 Micronutrients Fortification of Food 865-868 Akanksha Wadehra, Prasad Patil and Avinash Ghule Dr. Mrs. Surabhi Singh, Ph.D. 12 Management of Transition Period of Dairy Cows 869-871 Horticulture Meeti Punetha, Sanjay Singh Yadav, Pooja Joshi and Alok Kumar Yadav Dr. Timur Ahlawat, Ph.D 13 Heat Stress and Its Management in Farm Animals 872-874 Manoj Kumar, Poonam Ratwan, Nancy Sheoran and Mohsin A. Mir 14 Livestock Behavior and its Importance 875-879 Indu Devi, Shiwani Tiwari, Kuldeep Dudi and Ranjna Sinha

15 Role of Information and Communication Technology In Livestock 880-883 Sector: An Overview P. M.Gamit, S. S. Parikh, V. V. Gamit, G. B. Solanki and P. U. Gajbhiye

(Note: ‘Indian Farmer’ may not necessarily subscribe to the views expressed in the articles published herein. The views are expressed by authors, editorial board does not take any responsibility of the content of the articles) Indian Farmer 2(11):804-806; November-2015 Singh and Singh

Sun Protective Clothing for Farm Workers

* Neeta Singh and Surabhi Singh**

*Department of Clothing and Textiles and **Family Resource Management, ASPEE, College Of Home Science and Nutrition, S.D.A.U, S.K Nagar

un protective clothing is clothing temperature) rises upto 40°C (104°F). A specifically designed for sun normal temperature is about 37°C S protection and is produced from a (98.6°F). At these temperatures, may fabric rated for its level of ultraviolet (UV) feel sick and develop headaches, sweat protection. A novel weave structure and excessively and feel faint. denier (related to thread count per inch) may produce sun protective properties. Farm workers are at high risk for heat and sun illnesses because they work for long hours outdoors during the hottest and sunniest time of the year. In fact, farm workers are 20 times more likely than the general workforce to die from working in the heat, and evidence suggests that undiagnosed heat-related illnesses among field workers are widespread. The 3. Heatstroke/sunstroke- Heatstroke consequences of this hidden health occurs when the core body problem include everything from temperature rises above 40°C (104°F). headaches and fatigue to painful cramping, It is potentially very serious. The cells kidney disease, decreased work in the body begin to break down, productivity, and increased on-the-job important bodily functions stop accidents. The sun damage done to every working, internal organs can fail (such exposed part of our body, continually as the brain) and, in extreme cases, adding risks of premature skin aging and death can occur. skin cancer. 4. Premature aging - Most visible signs Effects of overexposure of sunlight on of aging are the result of damage to the Health skin caused by exposure to sun. 1. Sunburn - Sunburn is a radiation burn 5. Eye damage - Acute effects of to the skin. The skin becomes red, hot exposure to UVR on the eye include and painful. photo keratitis (inflammation of the 2. Heat exhaustion- This occurs when the cornea and the iris) and photo temperature inside the body (the core conjunctivitis (inflammation of the

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membrane that lines the inside of the coverage of the skin most susceptible to UV eyelids and white of the eye). This is damage. Long sleeves, full collars, and full- commonly referred to as snow length trousers common styles for clothing blindness. as a sun protective measure.

6. Skin cancer- The most serious health effect of exposure to UVR is skin cancer. Cancer is a disease that occurs when the cells of the body are damaged, causing them to grow out of control. 7. Skin damage- Repeated exposure to too much sun over a number of years can cause damage to skin. The effects of sun damage include premature skin ageing and wrinkling, brown spots, non-cancerous (benign) warty growths on the skin (actinic keratoses), and skin cancer. SUN PROTECTIVE CLOTHING Clothing is our first line of defense against the sun’s harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays and protects us by absorbing or blocking much of this radiation. One of the most effective barriers between skin and the sun is clothing. The overall protection provided SUN PROTECTIVE ACCESSORIES by clothing depends both on the material 1. Sun protective hats from which it is made and the garment’s A sun protective hat is one that shades the design. A long-sleeved shirt covers more face, head, ears and neck. As with clothing, skin than a t-shirt, especially if it has a high the overall protection provided depends on neckline or collar that shields the back of the material from which the hat is made the neck. Likewise, long pants protect more together with the design skin than shorts. A wide-brimmed hat 2. Sunglasses protects more of the face than a baseball Sunglasses can provide excellent protection cap, and close-fitting wrap around for the eyes. The overall protection sunglasses protect more of the area around provided depends on the protective the eyes than small lenses. In addition to qualities of the lens together with the special fabrics, sun protective clothing may design of the sunglasses. also adhere to specific design parameters, including styling appropriate to full

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Factors that Determine Sun Protection Loosely woven fabrics provide less of Clothing protection than tightly woven fabrics. To All clothing disrupts UV radiation, even if see how tight the weave on a piece of only in small amounts. When determining a clothing is, hold it up to a light. If you can piece of clothing’s UPF, several factors are see light through it, the weave may be too taken into consideration. The same factors loose to be effective at blocking the sun’s can be used by anyone to determine if a rays. regular piece of clothing is efficient at 5. Weight blocking UV rays:- The heavier the fabric, the better it is at 1. Dyes blocking UV rays. Dark-colored clothing is better than lighter 6. Wetness shades, but the real blocking power comes Dry fabric provides more protection than from the type of dye used to color the wet fabric. Wetting a fabric reduces its fabric. The higher the concentration of effectiveness by as much as 50 percent. certain premium UV-blocking dyes, the CONCLUSION more rays they disrupt. 2. Fabric Sun protective clothing is clothing Fabrics that aren’t very effective at specifically designed for sun protection and blocking UV rays unless treated with an is produced from a fabric rated for its level added chemical include: of ultraviolet (UV) protection. Clothing is  Cotton, Rayon our first line of defense against the sun’s  Flax, Hemp harmful UV rays and protects us by Fabrics that are better at blocking the sun absorbing or blocking much of this include: radiation. A long-sleeved shirt covers more  polyester skin than a t-shirt, especially if it has a high  nylon neckline or collar that shields the back of the neck. Likewise, long pants protect more  wool skin than shorts. A wide-brimmed hat  Silk protects more of the face than a baseball 3. Stretch cap, and close-fitting wrap around Clothing that stretches may have less UV sunglasses protect more of the area around protection than clothing that doesn't the eyes than small lenses. In addition to stretch. special fabrics, sun protective clothing may 4. Treatments also adhere to specific design parameters, Clothing manufacturers may add chemicals including styling appropriate to full that absorb UV light to clothing during the coverage of the skin most susceptible to UV manufacturing process. Laundry additives, damage. Long sleeves, full collars, and full- such as “optical brightening agents” and length trousers common styles for clothing UV-disrupting compounds, can increase a as a sun protective measure. garment’s UPF rating. 4. Weave

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Indian Farmer 2(11):807-812; November-2015 Singh et al

Methods of Sexing of X And Y Chromosomes

Avinash Singh, 1Pranay Bharti2 and Sunil Kumar3

1-Ph.D. Scholar, DCB Division ICAR-NDRI Karnal, Haryana 2-Ph.D. Scholar, LPM Division ICAR-NDRI Karnal, Haryana 3-Ph.D. Scholar, Animal Nutrition Division IVRI Izatnagar Bareilly (U.P.) Corresponding Author: [email protected]

ex is determined in mammals by difference in DNA content. The resultant whether the fertilizing 'sex-sorted' spermatozoa are then able to S spermatozoon contains an X- be used in conjunction with chromosome to produce a female or a Y- other assisted reproductive technologies chromosome to produce a male. As a such as artificial insemination or in-vitro consequence of the way that fertilization (IVF) to produce offspring of chromosomes segregate at meiosis, the the desired sex. chance that a spermatozoon will carry Why we need sperm sexing: either chromo- some is equal. But  Offspring of choice because of technique of sperm sexing It is  Females: continuous milk production now possible to predetermine the sex of  Males: meat production offspring from a number of species  Breeding stock before fertilization with an accuracy of Difference between x and y 85–95% it was first demonstrated chromosomes: convincingly by Johnson et al. (1989),  x sperm contains 4% more DNA than the resulted from integration of advances in Y sperm, across various species the many fields including chromosomal difference between an X and Y sperm karyotyping, artificial insemination, varies between 3-4.5 %. For bovine maintenance of spermatozoa fertility in sperm it is approximately 3.8%. vitro, DNA- specific staining, flow  Y sperm is smaller in size and has greater cytometry, computer science and high downward swimming velocity. speed cell sorting. The first documented  X and Y sperm have surface antigenic microscopic identification of sex differences. Sex specific proteins are chromosomes was by Guyer (1910). associated with sperms. Antibody to WHAT IS SPERM SEXING: these SSPs is raised and can be used to Sperm sorting is a means of choosing identify the X & Y chromosomes. what type of sperm cell is  The electric charge on the surface of X- to fertilize the egg cell. It can be used to chromosome-bearing spermatozoa sort out sperm that are most healthy, as differs from that exhibited by Y- well as determination of more specific chromosome-bearing spermatozoa, uses traits, such as sex selection in which an electric field to separate spermatozoa spermatozoa are separated into X- into the two major classes. (female) and Y- (male) chromosome bearing populations based on their

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 Spermatozoa containing an X quantification of sperm nuclear DNA, in chromosome are larger than those some cases without affecting sperm containing a Y chromosome. Van Munster viability. Many dyes have been used, but et al. (1999a). only after application of the DIFFERENT METHODS OF SPERM bisbenzimidazole Hoechst 33342 (29-(4- SEXING: ethoxyphenyl) -5- (4-methyl-1- 1. Separation of spermatozoa by DNA piperazinyl)-29,59-bi-1 H - content via flow cytometry. benzimidazole?3 HCl) for staining intact 2. Gradient swim-down procedure. spermatozoa was fluorescence 3. Surface antigenic differences. quantification of the DNA content of 4. Free-flow electrophoresis. living spermatozoa successful The 5. Sperm sorting based on volumetric medium for staining spermatozoa with differences. H33342 is a modified Tyrode’s albumin 6. Centrifugal counter current lactate pyruvate (TALP) (Schenk et al ., distribution. 1999). This is diluted with TALP 7. Genetic approaches. containing egg yolk to which vital- 1-Separation of spermatozoa by DNA staining food dye is added for sorting. content via flow cytometry- During the sorting process, spermatozoa The strong binding of certain fluorescent in the sorting medium are mixed with dyes to nucleic acids enables precise Tris-based sheath fluid containing citric

Figure 1 A schematic diagram of the flow cytometer cell sorter modified for sorting sperm.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):807-812; November-2015 Singh et al acid and fructose. Sheath fluid functions respective collection tubes the sorting, as a cylindrical wall of fluid surrounding sheath and catch fluids obviously need to the core stream of sorting medium be compatible with maintaining sperm (containing the spermatozoa) that guides fertility, but respective fluids also must the flow of fluid through the flow have certain electrical and viscosity cytometer. The exiting fluid is composed properties, as well as not interfere with of approximately 90% sheath fluid and staining and fluorescence. 10% core stream fluid. After spermatozoa Both X- and Y-chromo- some-bearing pass through the sorter, the streams of X- spermatozoa can be sorted and Y-chromosome-bearing spermatozoa simultaneously. Droplets containing Y- are collected into tubes containing a 22% chromosome-bearing spermatozoa are egg yolk-Tris extender (catch fluid; given a positive charge, so are attracted Schenk et al., 1999). As the test tube fills to the negative field to the left whereas during sorting, the initial catch fluid is droplets containing X-chromosome- continually diluted by the stream exiting bearing spermatozoa are given a negative the sorter charge and nozzle. Within are attracted the Cytonozzle is to the positive a piezo crystal. field to the Frequency right. waves are The applied to the respective crystal, which is streams of coupled to the droplets are fluid inside the collected in nozzle. This separate test causes the tubes that stream to break contain an egg off into droplets at controlled intervals. yolk medium to keep spermatozoa Sperm sorters typically produce 70 000 healthy. drops per second with a 70 µm diameter Droplets with no spermatozoa, dead nozzle. spermatozoa, or unsexable spermatozoa The sperm sorter is calibrated so that a are uncharged, and drop straight into the spermatozoon of the desired sex is inside waste stream. the last attached drop when a positive Sorting of viable sperm for production (for Y-chromosome- bearing of sexed offspring- spermatozoa) or negative (for X- Preparation of the intact sperm sample for chromosome-bearing spermatozoa) flow sorting- charge is applied to the stream. The drop The most critical aspect of preparing that carries that spermatozoon breaks sperm for use in sperm sexing is that the away from the stream holding the charge. less insult imposed on the sperm, the The drops then travel between high greater the likelihood that the ultimate voltage fields which direct them to their population of sorted sperm will keep and

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Indian Farmer 2(11):807-812; November-2015 Singh et al maintain their fertilizing capacity. and histograms are analyzed by Examples of insults imposed are: adding computer fitting to double Gaussian stain to the sperm, Re-warming the peaks other method of determining the sperm by incubation of the stained sperm sex ratio is to use fluorescence in sperm, subjecting the sperm to pressure situ hybridization FISH. procedures changes in the sorting system and where the fluorescent signal can be centrifugation of sorted sperm. Using counted to determine the proportion of high speed sorting Uniform stain Y-chromosome-bearing sperm carrying penetration is essential to minimize stain the Y microsatellite DNA probe. variation and helps to reduce the CV of Factors affecting the sorting efficiency the sperm separation. The result of of flow cytometer- proper processing is improved efficiency  Orientation of sperm head affects yield of sorting. and throughput. Collection of separate populations of X-  Angle of sperm presentation towards and Y-bearing sperm the excitation source, 450 is The need for maintaining viability of the inadequate. sperm is critical right up through the  Orientation of fluid in nozzle affects collection of the sorted sperm. An the sorting. environment that will minimize the  Even with the correct orientation of dilution that accompanies cell sorting is cell and fluid 20-40% of live sperm are essential. The concentration of the not measurable, passes directly to the stained sperm to be sorted waste tube. are lower 150 million/ml. compared to  Concentration of the sperm in the the original ejaculates 300 million/ml for sample affects the output sexed semen. swine, & one billion/ml for cattle.  Optical technique adopted to detect Validation of sorted X- and Y- sperm the binding dyes. populations in the laboratory by sort  Speed of the computer processor. reanalysis- 2-Gradient swim-down procedure:- At some point during a sort or Successful separation of X- and Y- immediately after the completion of a chromosome-bearing human sort to be used for insemination or IVF, a spermatozoa using an albumin gradient presiliconized and BSA presoaked tube is was first reported by Ericsson et al. placed in position to collect the sorted (1973). The conceptual basis for this sperm. No TEST-yolk is added to the tube method is that Y-chromosome-bearing for the sort reanalysis. Approximately spermatozoa are smaller in size and 100,000 sperm are sorted into each tube. exhibit a greater downward swimming After the aliquot has been sorted, the velocity than X-chromosome-bearing sperm are sonicated to remove the tails spermatozoa within vertical columns of and Hoechst 33342 added to maintain high density human serum albumin staining uniformity and then flow (Ericsson et al.1973). A fraction enriched cytometrically reanalyzed but not with Y- chromosome-bearing resorted. Y-bearing sperm are spermatozoa can be obtained by determined based on the DNA difference

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agglutination of approximately half of the bovine spermatozoa and when the unagglutinated spermatozoa were isolated and used in bovine IVF, they produced > 90% male embryos (Blecher et al. 1999). This immunological approach, which implies post-meiotic transcription or translation of SSPs that do not equilibrate through inter- spermatid cytoplasmic bridges, appeared promising. 4-Free-flow electrophoresis:- This approach is based on the possibility that the electric charge on the surface of X-chromosome-bearing spermatozoa differs from that exhibited by Y- chromosome-bearing spermatozoa, uses an electric field to separate spermatozoa into the two major classes. Spermatozoa are introduced into the free-flow apparatus continuously and move along different paths to be collected as two main fractions. However, the resulting spermatozoa were compromised because sperm motility was reduced. 5-Sperm sorting based on volumetric harvesting the first 22% of spermatozoa differences: to swim to the bottom of the gradient, Spermatozoa containing an X and discarding the remainder (Ericsson chromosome are theoretically larger than and Ericsson, 1999). However, the those containing a Y chromosome. There validity of sex pre-selection by this is a difference in sperm head volume that approach has been challenged repeatedly matched differences in DNA content this technique has never been shown to between X- and Y-chromosome-bearing sex spermatozoa accurately from bovine spermatozoa. A method based on mammals other than humans (Beal et al. this principle has been developed for 1984; White et al. 1984). sorting live spermatozoa by using 3-Surface antigenic differences- interference microscopy optics with a There are sex specific proteins (SSPs) on flow cytometer (van Munster, 2002). x and y chromosomes. Antibodies to Such a method, which eliminates the these SSPs were raised and used to need to use DNA-specific dyes, would be identify SSPs by affinity chromatography a highly attractive alternative method for (Blecher et al. 1999). Antibodies to sexing mammalian spermatozoa. purified female fetal SSPs caused

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6-Centrifugal counter current  To breed dairy heifers to produce distribution: female calves. In this method spermatozoa can be sexed  To produce male calves from the very spermatozoa by centrifugal counter best cows in the herd to use as current distribution using an aqueous breeding bulls two-phase system. This is a  Herd expansion: very quick chromatographic process that partitions  Sorted sperm are crayopreserved and cells into a stationary, lower phase and a used for in vitro fertilization and mobile, upper phase, repeated numerous embryo. Production without affecting times. Centrifugation was used to speed fertility in cattle, sheep and pigs. the partitioning process, so a set of 59  Commercialization of sperm sexing is partitions was done in about 1 hour. in use in cattle, horses and to a limited 7-Genetic approaches: extent in humans. This approach involves the well known  A commercial success in cattle around transmission distortion ratio of alleles at the world. the T loci on chromosome 17 in mice  2 million straws in 2007 to 4 million in placing part of this genetic system on the 2008. Y chromosome using transgenic  Sexed sperm can be used for breeding procedures. It produced a strain of mice of endangered and exotic species. that produced 66% males (217/331) in PROBLEMS OF SPERM SEXING: the course of natural mating (Herrmann  It is very expensive and has a high cost et al. 1999). In principle, this could be of equipments and also the done in any species, with either sex maintenance of these equipments is of chromosome; however, such a project very high cost. would be expensive and complicated, and  A high skilled manpower is required there are some caveats in non-murine for running the equipments. species.  About half of the sperm sample is STRATEGIES TO USE SEXED SEMEN: remains unsexeble.  Select bulls with high fertility at low  There is low sorting efficiency in many doses of sperm. of sperm sexing methods.  Use sexed sperm under excellent  Low pregnancy rate are achieved with management conditions [nutrition, sexed sperm. disease control, estrus detection, FUTURE CHALLENGES: semen handling and insemination] so  To reduce the cost of sperm sexing. as to have normal fertility.  To speed up the process of sperm APPLICATION OF SPERM SEXING: sexing by developing multiple nozzles to sort sperm in different streams.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):813-816; November-2015 Joshi et al

Essentials In Clean Milk Production S. K. Joshi1*, L. K. Babu2, S. Kanungo2 and S. Sathapathy3

1Division of Livestock Production Management, NDRI, Karnal, Haryana – 132 001 2Department of Livestock Production & Management, C.V.Sc. & A. H., O.U.A.T, Bhubaneswar – 751 003 3Department of Anatomy & Histology, C.V.Sc. & A. H., O.U.A.T, Bhubaneswar – 751 003 *Corresponding Author – S. K. Joshi E- mail – [email protected]; Mob No. - 08950169303

ilk is the main product from a be avoided by adopting the simple, basic dairy enterprise, produced rules of clean milk production. M basically as food for human SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION consumption. A dairy farmer must CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION PRACTICES therefore aim at maximizing on milk output from his/her dairy herd. At the same time Source Hygiene and Preparations the farmer must ensure that milk is  Check for mastitis with a strip cup or produced in clean and hygienic conditions any other method. so that it is fit for human consumption. The  Isolate sick animals and milk them process of production of last (Their milk milk from sterile udder of should not be mixed cow, maintenance of with good milk). proper sanitary measures  Wash udder, in storing, packaging and teats and flank of delivery of the produced the animal with milk to the consumer is clean water called as clean milk preferably add a production. The milk disinfectant. Wipe secreted into an with a clean cloth. uninfected cow's udder  Always is sterile. Invariably it groom and cut the becomes contaminated hair around the under. during milking, cooling and storage, and  Dispose fore-milk milk is an excellent medium for bacteria,  Tie tails of troublesome animals when yeasts and moulds that are the common milking. contaminants. Their rapid growth, Milker’s Hygiene particularly at high ambient temperatures Milker should: - can cause marked deterioration, spoiling  Be healthy and clean the milk for liquid consumption or manufacture into dairy products. This can

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 Maintain short finger nails and hair cut purpose-made detergents are usually (ladies can cover their heads when milking available, but otherwise, an inexpensive as guard to falling hair) mixture can be made to give a  Avoid smoking during milking time. concentration in solution of 0.25%  Be quick and efficient sodium carbonate (washing soda) and  Milk continuously (no interruptions). 0.05% polyphosphate (Calgon). Milking Environment  Rinse with cold water and place the  The shed can be permanent or movable utensils to dry on a rack upside down  Where possible provide a cement floor during the day. for easy and proper cleaning. c. Storage  Water should drain easily and away from  Utensils should be stored at night in a safe the shed and clean place, which is well ventilated.  Provide a clean feed trough, water Feeding trough and protected store. Since hay carries a large amount of  There should be a good source of water bactcria-bearing dust, it should not be fed nearby until after milking. Also silage should not be  The shed should be located away from fed until after milking because of the bad smells and odours possibility of silage flavor carrying over  It should be cleaned after every milking into the milk. There is no harm, however,  Livestock should not have access to the in feeding the grain ration at the time of shed during the day milking. Utensils Milking a. Types a. Preparation  Use seamless utensils preferably  Do not excite the animals aluminium or stainless steel  Regularize milking intervals  Use cans, sufurias or metal buckets in b. Method milking  Squeeze the teat and do not pull.  Provide a good washing place  All milk should be got from the under i.e.  Washing procedure avoid incomplete milking  Rinse excess milk with cold and clean  Use a teat dip after milking water Milk Handling  Scrub with a brush using hot water a. Filtering mixed with a detergent e.g. soap or  Use a white filter cloth detergent. Detergents contain inorganic  Filter immediately after milking alkalis (eg. sodium carbonate and  Disinfect, wash and dry the filter cloth after silicates and tri-sodium phosphate), use surface-active agents (or wetting b. Storage agents), sequestering (water-softening)  Store milk in cool and clean place agents (eg. polyphosphates) and acids for de-scaling. Many proprietary,

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 The room used to store milk should drain. Refrigerated bulk milk tanks can without other materials such as chemicals be cleaned either manually using cold and should also be lockable. or warm detergent/disinfectant c. Marketing or Disposal solutions, or for the larger tanks, by  Milk should be delivered to the market automatic, programmed equipment. In as soon as possible either case, cold water chlorinated (50  It is advisable to delivery milk early in ppm) rinse preceeds and follows the the morning and evening to avoid hot washing solution. Foremilk cups can be periods of the day. a potent source of bacterial Milking premises contamination and need to be cleaned  The milking premises should have a and disinfected after each milking. They dairy or suitable place equipped with a should then be stored in the dairy to piped hot and cold water supply, a wash drain. trough, brushes, a work surface, storage Water supplies racks and cupboards and, if necessary, a  Unless an approved piped supply is vacuum pipeline connection. In available it must be assumed that water is addition, it is advisable to have a dairy contaminated and therefore hypochlorite thermometer (0°C - 100°C), rubber must be added at the rate of 50 ppm to the gloves and goggles for use when cleaning water. Hard water (ie. high levels handling chemicals. of dissolved calcium and other salts) will Daily routines cause surface deposits on equipment and  Daily routines for cleaning and reduce cleaning effectiveness. In such cases, disinfecting vary with the size and it is necessary to use de-scaling acids such complexity of the milking installation as sulphamic or phosphoric, periodically. but will include methods of removing  When hot water alone is used, it is best to dirt and milk from the equipment begin the routine with water at not less followed by disinfection. For hand than 85°C, so that a temperature of at least milking, bucket and direct-to-can 77°C can be maintained for at least 2 milking machines, basic manual minutes. Many chemicals are suitable as methods of cleaning and sterilizing are disinfectants, some of them combined with adequate and effective. For pipeline detergents (ie. detergent-sterilisers). Use milking machines in-situ (in-place) only those which are approved, avoiding systems are necessary. particularly those which can taint milk (eg.  Milk can become grossly contaminated phenolic disinfectants). Always follow the from bacteria on ancillary equipment manufacturer’s instructions. Sodium which must also be cleaned and hypochlorite is an inexpensive example of disinfected effectively. Coolers, either an approved disinfectant suitable for most the corrugated surface or the turbine in- dairy purposes. Sodium hydroxide (caustic can, can best be cleaned and disinfected soda) can also be very effective at manually and stored in the dairy to concentrations of 3%–5% at ambient

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Indian Farmer 2(11):813-816; November-2015 Joshi et al temperatures, providing adequate contact time is given with the surfaces to be cleaned and disinfected. CONCLUSION From public’s health point of view, milk is a very good media for the development of bacteria and other micro-organisms. As such, disease hazard in public can easily be predisposed by infected milk during production, handling and marketing. So, clean milk production practices must be strictly practices in every dairy farm to prevent the occurrence of hazardous milk borne diseases which are especially important from the zoonotic point of view.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):817-823; November-2015 Yadav and Sangwan

Package of Practices for Scientific Dairy Farming

Abhey Singh Yadav1 and Sandeep Kumar Sangwan*2

1Professor and 2PhD Scholar Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar *Corresponding author: [email protected]

ivestock have been playing an  Instruments and equipments (utensils, important role in our country. Their ropes etc.) L contribution to GNP is 227 billion,  Tractor with trolley constituting 25 percent of the total GNP of  Animals Rs. 1087 billion from agriculture in 1987- SELECTION OF LAND FOR DAIRY FARM 88. This however doesn’t include their 1. Land selected for development of dairy contribution to the drought power, which farm should be cheap. Cheap land will is rather large. Animal husbandry and extend provision for ventilation to dairying have been mainly rural based, optimum. generating employment among rural 2. There should be plenty of sunlight and people and providing income to them. Our proper air ventilation. The selected livestock are generally poor producers, land should be away from the noisy because of poor feed and management, place. improper approach to breeding plans and 3. It should be at higher level than poor health management. However as a surrounding area so that flood can be result of research work conducted by the avoided and proper drainage can be scientists, much is now known about the maintained. genetic resources, their production 4. There should be provision for potential, problems, impending further electricity and water supply. Water expansion of genetic potential especially supply to the farm should be as good as due to disease, nutritional and fit for human consumption. Filtered environmental stress. Improvement river water, canal water, public health strategies have been developed and their water supply and underground water application of these strategies during the through pump etc. depending upon last 20 years has resulted in 2.5 fold availability may be used. increase in milk production. Animal farm 5. Near to the market so that setup will require capital investment which transportation cost may be reduced. includes Building will require to set-up in the  Farm building farm in following group  Office and Stores

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 Lactation animal shed, Milking parlour Selection of female breeding stock and and Young calves shed (below 6 culling of inferior cows months) The ultimate goal of a breeder is to  Older calves shed (from 6 months to 12 produce an economically viable cow months), Young heifers shed (1 to 2 having:- year old) and Older heifer shed (above  A faster rate of growth (above 350 kg 2 years or body weight more than 300 weight at first calving) kg)  Lower age at first calving (below 36  Late pregnant animal shed and Calving months) pens  Higher milk production potential (above  Bull pens 2500 kg in 300 days)  Isolation pens  Fewer dry days (60-100) and optimum calving interval. BREEDING AND SELECTION OF ANIMALS  In a herd 65-75 percent calves should The milk yield of the indigenous breeds remain in milk at any time of the year. varies between 1000 to 1800 kg per On these biases the important reasons of lactation. The average age at first calving culling of cows would be poor growth, and calving interval is much higher reproductive inefficiency, low production compared to exotic breeds. The genetic and disease, cows with highest expected improvement of local breeds through producing ability should be selected as selection is a slow process of late cross breeding stock. While those with lowest breeding has been accepted as a quick probable producing ability should be approach for dairy cattle improvement. culled. Crossbreeding Selection of crossbred bulls Crossbreeding as breeding policy will Stabilizing the exotic inheritance around th result in development of new strain of milch cattle. Choice of the exotic breed and level requires the availability of proven levels of exotic inheritance may be fixed sires of , th and th inheritance of Holstein depending upon the suitability of the Friesian. The initial selection of such young environment and resources availability. bulls should be done on pedigree basis and After creation of crossbred population, finally proven through progeny testing inter- breeding of mosaic crossbred cow both at bull mother farms and field level. population with pedigreed and progeny Unless the males comes from the elite herd tested (crossbred) sires of outstanding with their genetic merit probably merit should be taken up to in order to evaluated under the prevailing field stabilize the level of exotic inheritance for conditions, the progress achieved by best performance under tropics with crossbreeding in initial stages is likely to be prevailing environmental and managemental conditions.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):817-823; November-2015 Yadav and Sangwan lost in production and stabilization of This system is recommended because it exotic inheritance around level. overcomes the disadvantages of both tying (conventional) and keeping lose all the Herd recording time. The length wise direction of animal The maintenance of records on the farmers house should be east-west with feeding herd form an essential component of the manager towards north. Height of the shed field progeny testing programmes. The at (cm) at 175 cm in medium and heavy most emphasis should, therefore, be given rainfall areas and 220 semi-arid and arid on recording of information on pedigree, areas. The floor space requirements for milk production dates of important events, different categories are given in table:- incomes, expenses and mobility of the Housing of buffaloes animals from farms herd. Studies The dairy buildings should be constructed conducted on systems of field recording with careful planning and designing the have revealed that obtaining milk records building should be cuisely located properly only sire times over a lactation of 300 days oriented, contracted, spaced out and even at irregular intervals (once in 50 grouped the selection of site and planning days) is sufficient for field progeny testing. should receive special attention. The loose However for finding lactation production housing system is the best under our local of a cow, irregular recording at monthly climate conditions. It is cheaper to interval should be taken up. construct and the animals also remain HOUSING comfortable. Housing of cattle Table :- Floor space requirement for buffaloes Semi-loose housing system is most suitable (per head) according to prevailing conditions in our Floor space Maximum Height state. In this system animals are tied at the requirements no. of of time of feeding. Milking and treatment and Covered Open animals shed area area per pen (cm) for rest of time they are kept loose. Category (m2) (m2) Table :- floor space requirements for different Buffaloes 4 8 50 categories of cattle ( per animal) Heifers 2.5 5 30 Floor space Maximum Young 1 2 20-25 220 Type of requirement (m2) number calves animal Covered Open of animal Elder 2 4 20-25 area paddock per pen calves

Bulls 12 12 1 Table:- Per head space requirement for feeding Lactating 3.5 7 50 and water (cm) Adult female Category Length Width Height of inner Down – 12 12 1 of of wall of manger calvers manger manger Young calves 1 2 30 Adult cattle 60-70 60 50 Older calves 2 4 30 and buffalo Isolation 12 12 1 Calves 40-50 40 20 pens

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Indian Farmer 2(11):817-823; November-2015 Yadav and Sangwan

Table Daily nutrients required for maintence of cattle Live wt DM (kg) DCP (g) TDN (kg) Ca (g) P (g) 250 4-5 140 2.20 25 17 300 5-6 168 2.65 25 17 350 6-7 195 3.10 28 17 400 7-8 223 3.55 28 20 450 8-9 250 4.00 31 23 500 9-10 278 4.55 31 23 550 10-11 310 4.90 31 23 600 11-12 336 5.35 31 23 various situations the following guidelines Feed and fodder: provided for various categories of dairy Proper feeding of dairy animals for their animals can serve a good basis top intimate optimum and economic production is the a scientific feeding. key to a successful dairy enterprise Preparation of concentrate mixture Table Daily feeding for calves Depending upon the availability of Age of Whole milk Calf Succulent ingredients and requirements and calf (litres) starter fodder (kg) requirements of the animal generally two (kg) categories of mixture may be prepared. 1 – 4 3.0 ------Table Composition of concentrate mixture days colostrum Conc. Conc. 5 – 15 3.0 ------Mix. 1 mix 2 Ingredients days CP CP 16 – 30 3.5 ad lib ad lib 16% 20% days Maize/ wheat shods/ wheat 30 30 1 – 2 2.5 0.25 ad lib Barley/oats/bajra/jawar 15 10 months Til cake/ GNC/Soybean 11 18 2 – 3 2 0.50 ad lib cake/ guar meal months Linseed/mustard/cotton 11 13 3 – 4 1 0.75 ad lib seed cake Elecorticated months Wheat bran/rice bran/ 30 26 whether it is on a small or large dairy unit. deoiled rice bran It has been noticed that our farmers either Mineral mixture 2 2 overfeed their animals leading to Common salt 1 1 uneconomical production or give a low Note :- concentrate mixture 1 is fed along with nutrients due to scarcity of fodder and due leguminous fodder and concentrate mixture 2 is to lack of knowledge. In both the situations fed along with non-leguminous fodder he is at loss to make them aware about the One having 16 % CP and another contains balanced and economic feeding a scientific 20 % CP. These can be fed to the animals as feeding has been simplified to suit their indicated with the composition of different 820 | P a g e

Indian Farmer 2(11):817-823; November-2015 Yadav and Sangwan

When ample When less green When scarcity Ingredients green fodder is fodder is of green available available fodder Green fodder (kg) 30 - 35 10 - 12 2 - 3 Dry cows Straw/stover (kg) 5 - 6 7 - 8 8 - 9 Conc. Mixture (kg) 1 1.5 2.0 Pregnant cows Green fodder (kg) 30 - 35 10 - 12 2 - 3 (3 months before Straw/stover (kg) 5 - 6 7 - 8 8 - 9 calving ) Conc. Mixture (kg) 1.5 - 2.0 2.0 - 2.5 3 - 4

Legume Straw/stover (kg) Conc. Mix Non legume Conc. Mix green fodder 1 green fodder 2 Category (kg) CP 16% (kg) CP 20 % (kg) (kg) 4-6 months 7-8 0.5 1.5 6-7 1.5 6-12 months 15-20 1 1 12-15 1.5 12-18 months 20-25 1.5 1 20-25 1 18-30 months 30-35 2 1 30-35 1 Preg. Heifers3 35-40 3 2 35-40 2 months before calving categories of animal. About 20-40 g of greens has been considered for the common salt is feed daily depending upon mutations the age and production of animals. These Care and management :- two ingredients can also be incorporate in Care of calf the concentrate mixture as shown in table. Immediately after birth any membrane or Feeding of growing Dairy Heifers :- mucus around the nostrils should be Growing heifers are fed as per their body removed to facilitate normal breathing weight and growth rate when leguminous using a clean dry cloth. Shortly after birth, fodder are available, a low CP concentrate the navel cord of the calf is tied 2.5 cm (16%) and when non-legume fodder are away from its body and cut about one available a high CP concentrate (20%) can centimetre below the ligature. The navel serve the purpose. The daily relations for cord should be dipped in a 7% tincture of different age groups have been suggested iodine solution. Apply antiseptics to the in table stump for 2-3 days. The new-born calf Daily feeding schedule of growing herd should begin to breathe shortly after the Feeding of dry and pregnant cows:- umbilical cord cuts/breaks. If the calf does The average body weight of adult cows is not start breathing artificial respiration around 400 kg and according the rations should be given. This can be done by have been advised. The scarcity period for pressing and relaxing alternatively the chest wall or young-one is lifted by using 821 | P a g e

Indian Farmer 2(11):817-823; November-2015 Yadav and Sangwan

hind legs with the head in down word Care and management of pregnant cows direction and swing it; due care should be Dry off the cows 60 days before calving by taken that young one is not slipped during withholding concentrate and reducing this procedure. The cow should be allowed green fodder supply for 5-7 days and stop to lick the calf after delivery. Licking can be milking abruptly about two-third of the induced by sprinkling of a small amount of total growth occurs in the last three common salt on calves. In cold weather or months of pregnancy. The pregnant animal if the cow does not lick the calf, the calf should be fed well during this period for should be dried with clean cloths. This proper development of the foetus and for practice not only dries the calf but the maintaince of mother in good health. stimulates the calf's blood circulation. A Two weeks before expected date of calving normal calf gets up within half an hour and remove the cows to a properly disinfected assistance to weaker calf should be given. calving lines. Provide comfort bedding for Feeding of colostrum within the first hour pregnant cow. Pregnant animal should not of life is essential for calf to increase the be allowed to move for a long distance. immunity in the body of new-born. Feed Check overcrowding and slipping. Prevent the colostrum th of the body weight of injury to the udder as it distends near calving, about three days earlier to calving, the calf. Colostrum should be feed three give it light and laxative ration by times a day for first 3-4 days increasing proportion of bran of bran and Management of buffalo heifers adding gur (jiggery)  The heifers should be handled gently Care during calving and with great patience. Process of calving should occur within one  The heifers should be provided regular hour after the rupture of water bag. If there exercise by allowing them to graze is delay or other complication, help of the outside in grazing areas expert should be sought. It is better to tie  Treat the heifers against internal and the animal till the expulsion of placenta external parasites at regular intervals which is likely to occur within 6-8 hours  Extra teats if any on the udder should after calving. It should be disposed of and get clipped off by veterinary doctor pen should be properly cleaned. If the before the age of six months. placenta is not expelled within 24 hours or

 Breed the heifer only when it attains so seek the help of the veterinary doctor. proper body size and weight i.e. 275 to Some animals especially crossbred get 300 kg body weight and 30 months of oedematous swelling on udder or other age parts of the body which is just a normal  Rear heifers separately from young bulls phenomenon and usually disappears  For proper identification the best within one week after calving. However if method is hot iron branding at to 2 the swelling is hard warm and painful it years of age should be got treated wash the udder with 822 | P a g e

Indian Farmer 2(11):817-823; November-2015 Yadav and Sangwan lukewarm water containing a solution of Management of bulls potassium permanganate. Every efforts After calf hood, young bulls should be given should be made to milk the cow within two liberal amount of good quality fodders and hours. Avoid complete milking during the concentrate mixture according to its first 2-3 days in high yielding animals after nutrient requirements and use of bulls in calving. breeding season. Bull should be provided Care of milking animals with less bulky fodder. Put the nose- ring Animals should be shifted on normal by punching the nasal septum when the concentrate mixture after five days of bull is about one year of age. Bull should be calving. Concentrate allowance should be kept individual after one and an half years increased gradually depending upon the of age. Bulls should be given exercise to increase in milk yield and the quality and attain sexual activity and to improve the quantity of green fodder available. Semen quality. Bulls can be used for Generally, the concentrate mixture is fed natural service or for semen collection one kg for every 2.5 kg of additional milk after two year of age. (above 5 kg) produced by cows or 400 g per milk produced by cow. Milking should be done in calm and clean area and milking Fat (%) DCP (g) TDN (g) place, if possible in a separate milking 3.0 48 275 barn. Pre-milking solation such as washing 3.5 51 300 of cows, feeding concentrate brining in the 4.0 55 325 4.5 58 350 polls show lot be done at regular intervals. 5.0 62 375 Before milking. The udder and teats should 5.5 65 400 be washed with potassium permanganate 6.0 68 425 solution. milking should be done with full 6.5 72 450 hand in 6-8 minutes completely followed 7.0 75 475 by stripping if so required, milers should 7.5 79 500 be healthy , free from any contagious Note: 2.8 g Ca and 20 g P should be given per kg of milk production diseases and wear clean cloths, observe regular milking hours.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):824-838; November-2015 Yadav

Physical Characteristics of Indigenous Breeds of Cattle: An Overview Alok Kumar Yadav

Ph.D. Scholar, DCB, Division, ICAR-NDRI Karnal-132001 Corresponding author: - alokvet1000 @gmail.com

breed is a group of related animals with similar characters A like general appearance, size, features and configuration etc. Often, breeds resemble each other with slight morphological differences, but because of constant inbreeding in one locality, independent breeds have evolved. In Originated in Gir forests of South general, the cattle from drier regions are Kathiawar in Gujarat, it is also found in well built and those from heavy rainfall Maharashtra and Rajasthan States in areas, coastal and hilly regions are of India. The peculiar features of the breed smaller build. There are total 231 breeds are a protruding-broad and long forehead, of cattle in the world out of which 39 and pendulous forward turned ears. The registered breeds are in India. Most popular colour is white with dark red or indigenous cattle breeds in the tropics are chocolate-brown patches distributed all multipurpose (milk, meat, draught) and over the body. Entire red animals are also that only a few breeds have good milk encountered although it is usually mottled potential. Indian cattle breeds are with yellowish-red to almost black classified in to three types as under: patches. Horns are peculiarly curved, (A) Milch breeds giving a ‘half moon’ appearance. Gir cows (B) Draught breeds are good milkers and milk yield ranges (C) Dual Purpose breeds from 1200 to 1800 kg per lactation. The (A) INDIGENOUS MILCH BREEDS OF age at first calving varies from 45 to 54 CATTLE months and the intercalving period from 515 to 600 days. The Gir breed has been The cows of these breeds are high milk exported to other parts of the world. In yielders and the male animals are slow or Brazil where large herds are found, it is poor workers. The milk production of known as Gyr. Brazil has also evolved a milk breeds is on the average more than strain called Indubrasil which is a cross 1600 kg. per lactation. The examples of between Gir and Kankrej. Indian milch breeds are Gir, Red Sindhi, 2. Red Sindhi Sahiwal and Deoni. This breed is otherwise called as Red 1. Gir Karachi and Sindhi. This breed is otherwise known as Desan, Gujarati, Kathiawari, Sorthi, and Surati.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):824-838; November-2015 Yadav

which it closely resembles. The animals are usually long and fleshy and of heavier build. A number of herds of this breed are maintained in India. The milk yield ranges from 1400 to 2500 kg per lactation. The age at first calving ranges from 37 to 48 months and the calving interval from 430 to 580 days. A new breed called Jamaica The home tract of this breed is Karachi Hope has been evolved using Sahiwal x and Hyderabad districts of Pakistan. Jersey crossbreeds. Colour is red with shades varying from 4. Deoni dark red to light, strips of white. Red Sindhi animals, though small in size are very good milkers. They have a compact frame with round dropping quarters. Milk production in the institutional herds ranges from 1250 to 1800 kg per This breed otherwise known as lactation. Age at first calving is 39 to 50 Dongerpati, Dongari, Wannera, Waghyd, months and the calving interval 425 to Balankya, Shevera. Originated in 540 days. Red Sindhi females have been Marathwada region of Maharashtra state used in crossbreeding with Brown-Swiss and adjoining part of Karnataka and and Jersey to develop new breeds such as western Andhra Pradesh states. Body Karan Swiss and Jersind in India. colour is usually spotted black and white. 3. Sahiwal Age at first calving ranges from 894 to 1540 days with an average of 1391 days. Milk yield ranges from 636 to 1230 kgs. Average yield about 900 kg in 300 day. Caving interval averages 447 days. Bullocks are well suited for heavy work. (B)-INDIGENOUS DRAUGHT BREEDS OF The breeding tract of this breed is CATTLE Montgomery district in Pakistan which is The male animals are good for work and now named as Sahiwal. This breed cows are poor milk yielders and their milk otherwise known as Lola (loose skin), yield on an average is less than 500 kg per Lambi Bar, Montgomery, Multani, Teli. lactation. The colour is reddish dun or pale red, 1. Hallikar sometimes flashed with white patches. Originated from the former princely state Muzzle and eyelashes are light in colour. of Vijayanagarm, presently part of This is the best dairy breed of the Indian Karnataka. The breed is mainly found in subcontinent. It is a comparatively heavy the districts of Hassan and Tumkur in breed with a symmetrical body and loose Karnataka state. skin, when compared with Red Sindhi

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draught breed of India. Animals are very active and famous for the power of endurance. Cow are not so good millkers. They are closely related to Hallikar. 3. Khillari

The colour is grey. They are compact, muscular and medium size animal. Compact and muscular in appearance. The head is usually long with a bulging forehead, furrowed in the middle. The long horns emerge close to each other Originated from Sholapur and Sitapur from the top and are carried backwards in districts of Maharashtra. Grey-white in a graceful sweep on each side of the neck colour and have quick gait. Closely and then gradually curving upwards to resembles Hallikar breed. The animals are terminate in sharp points. The face is long compact and tight. The forehead is long with small ears. The coat colour is grey to and with a convex bulge towards the dark grey with deep shadings on the fore horns with a distinct groove running in and hind quarters. The breed is best the centre of the forehead. Long horns known for its draught capacity and turn forwards in a peculiar fashion. The especially for its trotting ability. It was horns are generally black, sometimes used in the war by Tipu Sultan for pinkish. Bullocks are regarded as fast and carrying cannons. powerful draught animals. Excellent cows 2. Amritmahal yield up to 900 to 1000 kg milk. Khillari has been exported to Sri Lanka for crossing with the local cattle for improving their draught qualities. 4. Kangayam

Originated in Hassan, Chikmagalur and Chitradurga district of Karnataka. The home tract of this breed is the former Originated in Kangayam, Dharapuram, princely state of Mysore. Compact form Perundurai, Erode, Bhavani and part of with short straight back, well-arched ribs, Gobichettipalayam taluk of Erode and powerful sloping quarters. Narrow face Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. The and prominent forehead with a furrow in animals are of moderate size with the middle. Horns are long and end in compact bodies. Coat is red at birth, but sharp black points. Grey coloured body changes to grey at about 6 months of age. with dark head, neck, hump and quarters. Bulls are grey with dark colour in hump, Amiritmahal breed is one of the best fore and hind quarters. Bullocks are grey.

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Cows are grey or white. However, animals “Jathimadu”, “Mottaimadhu”, “Molaimadhu”, with red, black, fawn and broken colours “Southern”, “Tanjore” are also observed. The eyes are dark and prominent with black rings around them. The milk yield ranges from 600 to 700 kg per lactation. Kangayam is more reputed for its draught capacity. 5. Bargur

and “Therkuthimadhu”. The breeding tract includes Nagapatinam and Thiruvarur districts of Tamil Nadu. Typically, animals are red at birth and

thereafter change to grey during Bargur is draught breed found around development. Males are dark grey with Bargur hills in Bhavani taluk of Erode black extremities whereas cows are grey district in Tamilnadu. Bargur cattle are of with light dark grey area in face, neck and brown colour with white markings. Some hip regions. There are white markings on white or dark brown animal are also seen. face, limb and tail and the marking on the Animals are well built, compact and leg resembles socks. This breed is suitable medium in size. Developed for work in for ploughing, carting, threshing and uneven hilly terrains. Known for their levelling in marshy paddy fields because speed and endurance in trotting. Color of its medium size. Most of the cows are does not change with age as in Kangayam not milked and calves are allowed to and Umblachery breeds. Head is suckle the dam. Average recorded milk brownish, well shaped, long and tapering yield is 494 Kg per lactation with average towards the muzzle. Forehead is slightly milk fat of 4.94%. prominent. Horns are of light brown 7. Pullikulam / Alambadi color, moderate length, closer at the roots, inclining backward, outward and upward with a forward curve and sharp at the tip. Cows are poor milkers and produce 250 to 1300 kg of milk in a lactation period of 270 to 310 days. 6. Umblachery A noted draught cattle breed of Tamil Nadu, Umblachery is famous for its sturdiness and strength. It derives its Pullikulam is a popular draught and game name from a small village with same breed of Tamil Nadu. It is named after its name (Umblachery) considered as native village of origin (Pullikulam in Tamil tract of the breed. It is also known as Nadu) and is also known as “Palingu maadu”, “Mani maadu”, “Jallikattu

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Indian Farmer 2(11):824-838; November-2015 Yadav maadu”, “Mattu maadu” and “Kilakattu straight backs, well-rounded barrels, maadu”. Madurai, Sivaganda and short necks and muscular shoulders. The Virudhunagar districts of Tamil Nadu forehead is broad and flat or slightly form its breeding tract. Pullikulam / convex. The eyes are large and prominent. Alambadi bulls are dark grey, almost The horns are medium-sized and stumpy, black in colour while females are white or curving outward, upward and downward. grey.The animals are small sized with The breed is mainly used for work and compact body and short legs. Muzzle, bullocks can work for long periods eyelids, tail switch and hooves are black. without any break. Average milk yield per Fore Head is broad and has a groove at lactation of Bachaur cow is 347 kg with an centre. Horns are curved outward, average milk fat of 5 %. The lactation milk upward, backward and then inward, yield ranges from 225 to 630 kg. ending with pointed tips spaced wide 9. Gaolao apart. The breed is not meant for milk production and only a few animals are milked in a large herd for consumption by herdsman. Generally, milk yield is about 1.25 Kg per day within a range of 0.5 kg to 2 Kg. The animals are also reared for manure purpose. They are active, useful The breed is found principally in the draught animals but not fast trotter. districts of Wardha, Nagpur of 8. Bachaur Maharashtra and Chindwara of Madhya Pradesh. They are white and of light built with medium height and long coffin shaped skulls. There is a close similarity between the Ongole and the Gaolao except the latter are much lighter, with greater agility. The head is markedly long and narrow with a straight profile usually tapering towards the muzzle and The breeding tract of Bachaur cattle is somewhat broader at the base of the Sitamarhi, Dharbanga and Madhubani horns. The forehead is usually flat, though district of Bihar. They are also known as it appears to recede at the top, giving a “Bhutia”. They are now mostly slightly convex appearance. The eyes are concentrated in the areas adjoining Nepal almond-shaped and placed slightly at border of India, comprising Bachaur and angles. The ears are of medium size and Koilpur sub-divisions of Sitamarhi district are carried high. The horns are short and of Bihar State. The breed has very close stumpy, blunt at the points and commonly similarity to the Hariana breed. The breed slope slightly backwards. Milk yield in is primarily utilized for draft qualities and cows is moderate and some may yield up ability to thrive with lower quality feeds. to 1000 kg milk in a lactation of about 400 Common colours of Bachaur cattle is grey days. The calving interval is about 16 or greyish white. They are compact with months.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):824-838; November-2015 Yadav

10. Kenkatha

The Kenwariya are also known as Kenkatha. They get their name from the River Ken, as they are bred along the banks of this small river in the hilly area of Bundelkhand. The Kenwariya cattle are The bullocks are good for light draft and small, sturdy and fairly powerful, varying quick, light transport. The cows are poor in color from gray on the barrel to dark milkers. The standard lactation milk yield gray on the rest of the body. The head is ranges from 300 to 500 kilo grams. short and broad and the forehead is 12. Malvi dished. Horns emerge from the outer angles of the poll in a markedly forward direction and terminate in sharp points. Ears are sharply pointed and do not droop. The body is short, deep and compact. This breed is very popular for light draft on the road and for cultivation. They are observed to thrive on poor feed. Because of the hilly nature of the region These cattle are found in Gwalior region and the poor grazing, only animals which of Madhya Pradesh and also in Andhra can cover long distances and have strong Pradesh State of India. It has been said feet can thrive. that the Malvi resembles the Kankrej in 11. Kherigarh many ways. Malvi cattle have short, deep Kherigarh is a draught purpose breed and and compact bodies. The head is short the breeding tract includes “Kheri” and broad with dished forehead. The district of Uttar Pradesh. The breed has horns, which emerge from the outer been named after this area. The breed is angles of the poll in an outward and also known by various names like “Kheri”, upward direction, are strong and pointed. “Kharigarh” and “Khari”. The Kherigarh The ears are short and pointed and not cattle are closely tied to the Malvi breed. drooping. The color is gray almost black The Kherigarh cattle are generally white on the neck, shoulders, hump and or gray in color. Horns are upstanding, quarters. The cows and bullocks curving outward and upward and thick at eventually become nearly pure white with the base. The ears are small and the eyes age. The breed is well-known for draft bright. The cattle of this breed are very qualities. They show great endurance and active and thrive on grazing only. ability to carry heavy loads on rough roads. The cows observed in the village

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Indian Farmer 2(11):824-838; November-2015 Yadav areas are observed to be poor milkers but selected cows on the farm show that they can produce 2000 to 2,700 pounds of milk per lactation. 13. Nagauri

(Morang - Nepalese hill cattle) and plain land cattle. It is also known as “Purnea”. Its breeding tract is the Pilibhit district of Uttar Pradesh. The animals of this breed possess a small, narrow face, small ears Nagauri cattle are prevalent in the former and big, bright eyes. The forehead is Jodhpur State, now a part of the State of slightly concave and often has white Rajasthan in India. The face is long and marking. The horns are long, upstanding narrow but the forehead is flat and not so and lyre-shaped. Ponwar cattle are prominent. The ears are large and usually black and white; the color pendulous. The horns are moderate in markings do not have any particular size and emerge from the outer angles of pattern, but large patches of black and the poll in an outward direction and are white are intermixed. The cattle of this carried upwards with a gentle curve to breed are active and often fiery-tempered. turn in at the points. The tail is of They are observed to thrive well under moderate length reaching just below the free grazing conditions. The bullocks are hocks and terminating in a tuft of black good for draft purposes. They are quick hair. The cows usually have well- movers. The animals of this breed are developed udders with large teats. The observed to mature late. Cows produces a Nagauri breed is one of the most famous fair amount of milk with an average yield trotting draft breeds of India and is of 459 Kg per lactation and are rarely generally appreciated for fast road work. milked even in the flush of their Nagauri cattle are famous as trotters, production. Bullocks are fast movers and being used all over Rajputana in light therefore used both for agricultural iron-wheeled carts for quick operations and transportation. transportation. They are also worked for 15. Siri all agricultural purposes, such as plowing, cultivation drawing water from wells and transportation of field produce to markets. In Barmer, Rajasthan there are good specimens of milch cows of this breed with yields as high as 900 kg per lactation. Animals of this breed are found in the hill 14. Ponwar tracts around Darjeeling in Bengal, India Ponwar, a draught breed of cattle from and in Sikkim and Bhutan. Bhutan is said North India, is believed to be evolved to be the real home of this breed. The Siri from a mix of hilly cattle has a hump that is thoracic and muscular-

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Indian Farmer 2(11):824-838; November-2015 Yadav fatty. The color most frequently seen are The bullocks are used for heavy black and white or extensive solid black, agricultural work like ploughing and in color patterns similar to that of carting as well as for transportation. The Holstein-Friesians. The animal carries a cows produce fair quantity of milk with an thick coat all the year round, and it is average of 598 Kg per lactation with generally believed that this protects them average fat percentage of 4.57%. Ears are from heavy rains and severe cold. The long and drooping. Producing on an general form of the animal is massive. The average 600 liters milk per lactation head is small, square cut and well set on. length of 280 days. The males are used for The forehead is wide and flat. The horns draught purpose. are sharp and directed forward and is 17. Punganur usually covered with a tuft of long coarse hair. The position of the hump is slightly forward compared with that of other Zebu breeds. Bulls are eagerly sought after for draft purposes due to their size and reputed great strength. Selected cows yield up to 1000 kg per lactation with The Punganur dwarf cow, which fairly high fat percentage. originated in Chitoor District, Andhra 16. Red Kandhari Pradesh, India, is considered one of the world's smallest cows. The Punganur breed's milk has a high fat content and is rich in medicinal properties. While cow milk normally has a fat content of 3 to 3.5 per cent, the Punganur breed's milk contains 8 per cent. It is the worlds Originated from Kandhar tehsil in Nanded shortest, humped cattle. Animals are district of Maharashtra, Red Kandhari is white and light grey in colour with a also known as “Lakhalbunda”. Mostly broad forehead and short horns. Its found in Bidar (Karnataka), Nanded, average height is 70-90 cms and its Latur, Parbhani and Hingoli districts in weight is 115-200 kg. The cow is an Maharashtra. Its breeding tract comprises amazingly efficient milker with an Ahmadnagar, Parbhani, Beed, Nanded and average milk yield of 3-5 Lit/day on a Latur districts of Maharashtra. It is a daily feed intake of 5 kg. It is also highly draught breed of cattle. Red Kandhari is drought resistant, and able to survive good looking with dark red colour, broad exclusively on dry fodder. Some of the fore head. Bulls are a shade darker than breed characteristics are: Back sloping cows. Horns are evenly curved and downwards from front to hind quarters. medium sized. The animals are Tail touching the ground. Slight mobile maintained under extensive management horns, almost flat along the back and system on grazing only in small herds. normally at different heights from each Small amount of concentrate is offered to other. bullocks, male calves and milking animals.

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18. Vechur is good for the health of convalescing people. 19. Motu

The Vechur Cattle is a rare breed of Bos indicus cattle named after the village Vechoor in Kottayam district of the state of Kerala in India. With an average length of 124 cm and height of 87-90 cm, weighs around 130 kg, yielding up to 3 litres of milk a day. it is the smallest cattle breed in the world according to the Guinness These dwarf cattle are used for draught Book of Records, and is valued for the purpose in hilly and undulated terrain larger amount of milk it produces relative and the breed is named after local area to the amount of food it requires. The milk "Motu" of Malkangiri district in Orissa. is believed to have medicinal qualities and Their breeding tract comprises southern easy digestibility due to smaller fat part of Malkangiri district and adjoining globule size. A recent report claims that area of Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. the milk of the Vechur cow has more of Heavy concentration of animals is found the beta casein variety A2, rather than the in Motu, Kalimela, Podia and Malkangiri variety A1 which is implicated in areas of Malkangiri district in Orissa. conditions like diabetes, ischaemic heart Sandy and clay type soil is predominant in disease and autism. The protein this area. Coat colour is mainly brown component of the Vechur cow's milk has (reddish) and sometimes grey. Few an improved antimicrobial property. As animals are white in colour. Animals of per recent findings, the anti-bacterial this breed are mostly polled and horns property of the lactoferrin protein present whenever present emerge straight and in the Vechur Cow milk is more than that upward and end with rounded tip. of the antibiotic ampicillin. Although Though the breed is small sized they are lactoferrin, present in the milk of all strong in built. The milk yield is meagre mammals, is found to have antimicrobial, and ranges from 100 to 140 Kg in a antiviral, antitumor, immunodefence and lactation with 4.8 to 5.3% fat. anti-inflammatory properties recent 20. Ghumusari studies prove that in the case of the Ghumusari breed of cattle is also known lactoferrin protein in the Vechur Cow as “Deshi”. Breeding tract includes milk, these properties are much more western part of Ganjam district and enhanced. The Vechur Ghee (clarified adjoining areas of Phulbani district of butter) produced from Vechur cow’s milk, Odisha. It is chiefly a draught cattle breed, is famous for its high medicinal values due but few animals are maintained for milk, to the presence of A2 beta-lactalbumin manure and fuel. protein and higher arginine content which

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The draughtability of bullocks is The animals are maintained in extensive considered superior than other breeds of management system. The milk yield per bullocks in the native tract. The animals lactation ranges from 915-1350 kg with are small sized and strong in built. They milk fat ranging from 4.3-4.4%. are chiefly white in color, but sometimes 22. Khariar shades of grey are also visible. The horns are medium sized, mostly curved upward and inward, but some animals having straight horns as well. The animals of this breed have a small head with flat, broad forehead, depressed in between the eyes. The animals are maintained in semi- intensive management system, and rarely fed any concentrate. Lactating cows and bullocks are fed with straw, rice bran and Khariar is named after its native tract kitchen waste. Cows are milked only once "Khariar" in Nuapada district of Odisha. in morning hours. The milk yield per Breeding tract comprises Nuapada, lactation ranges from 450-650 kg, with Kalahandi and Balangir districts of milk fat ranging from 4.8-4.9%. Odisha. Heavy concentration of animals of 21. Binjharpuri this breed is found in Khariar, Komna, Binjharpuri, also known as “Deshi”, is a Sinapali and Boden blocks of Nuapada breed of cattle found in Jajpur, district of Odisha. The coat colour of Kendrapara and Bhadrak districts of Khariar cattle ranges from light brown to Odisha. Maintained for milk, draught and grey. Horns are straight and often emerge manure. Binjharpuri is smaller upgraded upward and inward. Animals of this breed Haryana type animal. Animals are are small sized and of strong built. Hump, medium sized, strong and chiefly white in neck, and some regions of face and back color. Some animals are Grey, Black or are dark in colour. The breed is used for Brown. In males, the hump, neck and draught purpose in its native tract, which some regions of face and back are black in is hilly and undulated. The bullocks are colour irrespective of their coat color. very good draft animals are prepared in Horns are medium in size and curved upward and around the native tract for and inward. agricultural operation and transportation. However, the cows produce considerable

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Indian Farmer 2(11):824-838; November-2015 Yadav quantity of milk, often used for family consumption and even marketed at times. The lactation milk yield ranges from 300 to 450 Kg with 4 to 5 % Fat. 23. Kosali

Malnad Gidda cattle are small size animals and distributed in Malnad area of

The breed is predominantly seen in the Karnataka. The population of the breed is plains of Chhattisgarh and the breeding about 7-8 lakh in Karnataka but is tract includes Raipur, Durg, Bilaspur and showing a declining trend. This breed has Janjgir districts. The ancient name of this not been included in the list of recognized region was ‘Kowshal’. These are mainly cattle breeds of India due to lack of reared for manure, draught and milk. information about the breed. There were Most predominant colour is light red, 5 coat colours found in these animals followed by whitish grey. Few animals (black, brown, red, fawn and white, having black coat colour or red with white sometimes mixture of any 2) but black patches are also seen. Horns are stumpy, colour was predominant. The average emerging straight, then going outward, daily milk yield of elite cows was obtained upward, and inward from the polls. as 2.11 kg. Animals of this breed are Muzzle, eyelids, tail switch and hooves are playing a significant role in the rural black. Head is broad, flat and straight. livelihood of Malnad area of Karnataka in Hump is small to medium in size. Udder terms of draught, milk and manure. small and bowl shaped. Bullocks of this (C) INDIGENOUS DUAL PURPOSE breed are very efficient for ploughing in BREEDS OF CATTLE paddy fields and other operations in the The cows in these breeds are average milk paddy fields. Animals are known for very yielder and male animals are very useful efficient working ability and high disease for work. Their milk production per resistance. The average milk yield per lactation is 500 kg to 150 kg. lactation is 210 kg with an average milk 1. Tharparkar fat % of 3.5. The lactation yield ranges The original habitat of this breed is from 200 to 250 kg with average fat % Tharparkar district in the Province of from 3 to 4.5. Sind, Pakistan. The breed is also found in 24. Malnad Gidda the adjoining tracts in Rajasthan State in Malnad Gidda, the dwarf variety of cattle India, particularly around Jodhpur and native to Malnad region known for their Jaisalmer extreme shyness, has got national recognition now.

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depending on management and feeding conditions. The intercalving period varies from 480 to 630 days. Males are powerful work animals. 3. Rathi:

where excellent milch specimens are found. Otherwise known as White Sindhi, Gray Sindhi and Thari. Body colour is white or light grey. This is a medium- sized compact breed. The bullocks are quite suitable for ploughing and casting and the cows are good milch animals Rathi cattle are named after a pastoral (1,800 – 2600 kgs). Age at first calving tribe called Raths who lead a nomadic life. ranges from 38-42 months and inter The home tract of this breed lies in the calving period from 430 to 460 days. heart of Thar desert. Rathi breed, is a 2. Hariana mixture of Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Tharparkar and Dhanni breeds with a preponderance of Sahiwal blood. The animals are of medium size with a symmetrical body and a short and smooth body coat. Their udder is well developed with a prominent milk vein. The females are docile and good milkers (1325 to 2093 kg per lactation). Calving interval ranges between 445 and 617 days. The native breeding tract of this breed 4. Kankrej encompasses large parts of Rohtak, Hisar and Gurgaon district of Haryana State and is a prominent dual-purpose breed of north India. It has been extensively used in grading up non-descript cattle particularly to improve their draught capacity in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Hariana cattle are characterised by a long and narrow face, flat forehead and well The home tract of this breed is Gujarat, marked bony prominence at the centre of India. It is the heaviest of the Indian the poll. Horns are small. The muzzle is breeds. It is otherwise called as Wadad or usually black. Eyes are large and Waged, Wadhiar. Originated from prominent. Good specimens of cows yield Southeast Rann of Kutch of Gujarat and up to 1500 kg of milk per lactation. The adjoining Rajasthan (Barmer and Jodhpur age at first calving is 40 to 60 months

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Indian Farmer 2(11):824-838; November-2015 Yadav district). The animals have a broad chest, The home tract of this breed is black straight back and a well-developed hump. cotton soil along the Colour of the animal varies from silver- grey to iron-grey or steel black. The gait of Kankrej is peculiar called as 1 ¼ paces (sawai chal). Kankrej is valued for fast, powerful, draught cattle. Useful in ploughing and carting. These cows are average milkers and yield about 1400 kg under farm conditions while yield under village conditions is low. The age at first River Krishna and the adjoining areas of calving varies from 45 to 47 months and Ghataprabha and Malaprabha in the intercalving period from 486 to 510 Karnataka. The breed is also found in the days. Bullocks are fast and powerful draft districts of Satara, Miraj and Kolhapur of animals. Maharashtra. Animals are large, having a 5. Ongole massive frame with deep, loosely built short body. Tail almost reaches the ground. Common colour grey white with a darker shade on fore quarters and hind quarters in male. Adult females are more whitish in appearance. The bullocks of this breed are powerful animals useful for slow ploughing, and valued for their good working qualities. The cows are fair milkers, average yield being about 916 The native tract of this breed is Ongole kgs during the lactation period. taluk in Guntur district of Andhra 7. Nimari: Pradesh, India. Otherwise known as Nellore. This is essentially a large muscular breed suitable for heavy draft work. An average milk yield of 600-1000 kg is common. Good specimens yield up to 1500 kg per lactation. The age at first calving is 38 to 45 months and the intercalving period 470 to 530 days. Excellent specimens of this breed have Nimari cattle show a mixture of Gir and been exported to Brazil where large herds Khillari, is found in the Nimar tract of now exist. They are known as Nellore Madhya Pradesh and adjoining parts of breed in Brazil. The famous Santa Maharashtra. The breed has taken the Gertrudis breed evolved in Texas, USA, coloration from the Gir as well as its has the inheritance of Ongole breed in its massiveness of frame and the convexity of development. the forehead. It has acquired the 6. Krishna Valley hardiness, agility and temper of the

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Khillari with the formation of feet and occasional carroty color of the muzzle and hooves. The animals are well- proportioned and compact in appearance. In general they are red in color with large splashes of white on various parts of the body. The head is moderately long with a Horns emerge from outward angle; ears somewhat bulging forehead, it is carried pendulous. Large hump placed infront of alertly and gives the animals a graceful withers. They are powerful but docile appearance. The horns usually emerge in animals suitable for heavy ploughing and a backward direction from the outer carting. They are similar to Hariana breed angles of the poll, somewhat in the same with traces of Gir inheritance. This breed manner as in Gir cattle, turning upwards shows admixture of Gir, Rahi and Nagauri and outwards and finally backwards at cattle. the points. Muzzle in many animals is 10. Belahi: either copper-colored or amber-colored. There is a tendency to prominent hips common to the Gir. 8. Dangi:

Belahi is a dual type cattle reared for milk and draught by Gujjar community in foothills of Haryana. It is maintained

under low input migratory system. Belahi The home tract of this breed is cow produces about 3.25 Kg milk per day. Ahmednagar and Nasik districts of Average weight at birth was estimated as Maharashtra. They have usually broken 17.6 ± 0.51 kg in males and 15.2 ± 0.58 kg red and white or black and white colour. in females, the 3 month weights were 31.6 The animals are medium in size with deep ± 1.22 and 33.75 ± 1.42 kgs and adult bodies. The head is usually small with body weights were 304.8 ± 1.35 and slightly protruding forehead. The muzzle 266.74 ± 2.15 kg in males and females, is large, ears are small and the horns short respectively. Overall average daily milk and thick. Though the cows are not good yield and 305 day milk yield were milkers, the bullocks are popular in heavy estimated as 3.25 ± 0.15 kg and 1014.43 ± rainfall tracts. Milk yield average 530 kg 45.46 kg respectively. (range32 to 1228 kg) in an average 11. Gangatiri: lactation period of 269 days (range from Gangatiri is a dual purpose cattle breed, 100 to 396 days) .Average fat in milk is found in Eastern Uttar Pradesh and 4.3 %. Western Bihar along the river Ganga. 9. Mewati: This breed found in west Alwar and Bharatpur districts of Rajasthan.

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Agriculture Studies No. 19, Publ. by FAO, Rome, 256 pp. FAO. (2003). www. FAO.org/DAD-IS Sahoo, S. P. (1989). ‘Characteristics and performance of Ghumsari cattle’. M.V.Sc. Thesis OUAT, Bhubaneswar. Sarkhel, B.C. (2001). ‘Characterization of Nimari breed of cattle’. J.N.K.V.V. Technical Bulletin: DRS/2001/09 1-46. Swain, K. T. (2003). Performance and conformation of Motu cattle found in Malkangiri District of Orissa.’M.V.Sc. Thesis, OUAT, Bhubaneswar. Mason, I. L. 1996. A World Dictionary These cattle are well adapted to low to of Livestock Breeds, Types and medium input production system and Varieties. Fourth Edition. C.A.B. produce about 2.5 to 8.0 Kg milk a day. International. 273 pp. Colour is white. Face is narrow. Horn is ICAR (2002). Handbook of Animal short, upwards pointing and tail is Long, Husbandry. 3rd Edition, Indian black switch. Milk breed developed from Council of Agricultural Research, Hariana breed.10 years back this breed New Delhi, pp. 364-383. was at the verge of extinction, but by the Vij, P. K. (2013). Registration of effort of local Gou Bhaktas, we can see this Livestock and Poultry Breeds in breed in and around Varanasi, which are India. In ‘Sustainable Utilization 10-15 liters of milk per day. of Animal Genetic Resources of India’. Eds. ISBN, pp: 140-45 http://www.agritech.tnau.ac.in Reference: http://cowsrgreat.webs.com Joshi, N.R., Phillips, R.W. (1953) Zebu http://www.cowpedia.in Cattle of India and Pakistan, FAO http://www.nbagr.res.in/cattle.html

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Indian Farmer 2(11):839-842; November-2015 Singh

Agrotextiles - An overview Neeta Singh Assistant Professor, Department of Textiles and Apparel Designing ASPEE. College of Home Science and Nutrition Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, S.K Nagar

griculture has been amongst the to prevent the growth of injurious weeds to agriculture. most primal occupations of the Ahumankind and is still a major NEED OF AGROTEXTILES industry, globally. In this era of  They prevent the soil from drying modernization and high technological out increase crop yield advancements, it has spread its horizons  They improve product quality and started using man-made, non-  Agro textiles protects farmer from conventional textiles, called “technical harmful pesticides textiles”. This textile sector comprises of all  Thermal protection textiles are textiles that are used in growing, treated with ultraviolet ray harvesting, protection and storage of either stabilizers. crops or animals. It includes diverse items  The best-known products are shade such as fishing nets and fish-lines, ropes, netting and thermal screens, the use shade fabrics, mulch mats, woven and non- of which can save up to 40% on woven covers for crops, bird protection energy in heating greenhouses nests, etc. These textiles are driving the APPLICATIONS OF AGRO-TEXTILES sector profitably by improving the productivity and reducing the need for 1. Agro-textiles for production of crops: chemicals. The word “Agrotextiles” now is The selection of Agro-textile product is used to classify the woven, nonwoven and depends on crop needs. Selection of the knitted fabrics applied for agricultural & agro textiles is also greatly influenced by horticultural uses covering livestock the geographical location. Some of the protection, shading, weed and insect applications of agro textiles are as follows: control, and extension of the growing Sunscreen season. Agro textiles help to keep sufficient The Warp-knitted nets are used in order to soil humidity and increase the soil protect fields and greenhouses from the temperature. Preliminary studies have intense solar radiation for healthy plant shown that using woven of return gauze growth and good harvest. Sunscreen nets are possible to increase the harvest of fruits with open mesh construction are used to in a 30% under favorable conditions of control sunshine and amount of shade time and until in a 50% under unfavorable required. These net fabrics allow the air to conditions. The agro textiles are also used flow freely. So the excess heat does not

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Indian Farmer 2(11):839-842; November-2015 Singh built up under the screen. The percentage clean surface, protects from UV rays and of shadow varies according to the density creates a favorable environment for of threads. The current offer 45%, 65% & healthy plant growth. Ground covers can approximately 85% shadow. reduce the costs and minimizes undesirable herbicide use.

Bird protection nets Knitted monofilament nets (Open knitted Windshield / Wind protection nets/ nets for crop protection) offer effective Wind-breaks passive protection of seeds, crops and fruit Windshields are used in farming to protect against damage caused by birds and a fields of young plants, fruits, trees or the variety of pests. Open‐mesh net fabrics are harvest from being damaged by the wind. used as a means of protecting fruit The nets used here reduce the effects of plantation. The special open structure high winds and even help to keep out repels birds, provides minimal shading and airborne sand and salt in areas close to the excellent air circulation ‐ allowing plants to sea. Protecting plants from high winds also flourish, whilst avoiding the risk of encourages plant growth and reduces the dangerous mold developing on the fruit. number of irrigation cycles required. It also Plant net prevents plants being cooled by wind too Fruits, which grow close to the ground, can Root ball net be kept away from the damp soil by It is extremely important for safe and allowing them to grow through vertical or speedy growing of young plants such that tiered nets in order to keep the amount of root system is not damaged when they are decayed fruit to a minimum. dug up, transported or replanted. Normally Ground cover the root balls are wrapped in cloth. Elastic Ground cover is an extremely versatile net tubes are alternative to this. When the landscaping and horticultural fabric for plants are transplanted, the nets on the long‐term weed control, moisture outside do not have to be removed since conservation and separation. It effectively suppresses competitive weed growth, conserves ground moisture, maintains a

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Indian Farmer 2(11):839-842; November-2015 Singh the roots can protrude through the nets. black plastic sheet are used for this application, Bio degradable and non‐biodegradable types of mulch mats are available.

Insect meshes Various pests like Whitefly, scale insects attack some ornamental plants and Monofil nets vegetables frequently. Clearly, woven and knitted polyethylene monofilament meshes Tough, knitted Monofil, nets for windbreak to exclude harmful insects from fences and shading/ privacy screens, A greenhouses and tunnels, or to keep suitable windbreak, set at a right‐angle to pollinating insects inside, The fine woven the prevailing wind, will protect plants screens protect plants from insect attack against the harmful effects of blustery (without the use of insecticides). weather ‐ which can break young branches, damage flowers and cause leaves to dry or tear. The nets also protect against frosts and help enhance the micro‐climate. This not only safeguards the current harvest but also benefits future crops, since the woody part of the plant are protected too. Cold and frost control fabrics Cold and frost fabric can be laid directly on the plants, unlike plastic covers that can attract frost, and burn any leaf that touches

them. These fabrics protect the plant from Mulch mat frost kill during unexpected late cold snaps Mulch mats are used to suppress weed and unexpected early ones. growth in horticulture applications, It Nets for covering pallets covers the soil, blocking of light and For safe transportation of fruits and preventing the competitive wheat growth vegetables to the market the boxes are around seed links, This also reduces the covered with large mesh nets and pallets to need for herbicides required for weed stop the boxes being turned upside down. control Needle punched non-woven and

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Indian Farmer 2(11):839-842; November-2015 Singh

This prevents damage of goods during change and generate optimum condition transportation. for plant growth. Adopting the hi-tech Anti-hailstone nets farming technique, where textile structures Anti-hailstone nets are used to cover plants are used, could enhance quality and overall and fruit orchards to protect them from yield of agro-products. Textile structures in being damaged by hailstones, but does not various forms are used in shade house/ restrict their growth. The nets are poly house, green house and also in open primarily made from polyethylene fields to control environmental factors like monofilaments. temperature, water and humidity. The need Harvesting net of textile goods in the field of agriculture It is extremely helpful to those countries has been stressed and their role in the where labour charges are costlier. With the reduced usage of harmful pesticides and application of such nets for harvesting herbicides to render a healthy farming purpose, the labour cost could be reduced culture underlined. 'Agro textiles' gives considerably. They are laid on ground or multidimensional views and solutions to tied under the trees so that fruits fall the problems being faced by agro industry. directly on to them. Textiles prove to be flexible in their CONCLUSION suitability for specific geographical locations. So now it is our turn, to carefully Today agro textile plays a significant role to and beautifully shape this infant control environment for crop production, technology, to contribute to the nation's eliminate variations in climate, weather economy.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):843-846; November-2015 Yadav et al

Strategy of Amelioration of Heat Stress in Buffaloes Rekha Yadav1, Parveen Kumar2, Naresh Kumar2, Anjali Kumari3 and Narender Kumar3

1Division of Extension Education, 3Division of Livestock Production Management, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly-243122 2Veterinary Surgeon, Department of Animal Husbandry, Govt. of Haryana

n tropical and subtropical countries, animals may often be under heat I stress, when the environmental temperature exceeds the upper critical level (18 °C to 24 °C depending on the species). Environmental factors such as air temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, air flow and their interactions is responsible for heat stress in animals sweat glands. So, in buffaloes dissipation which consequently affect animal of heat by sweating is poor. If worked or performance (Sharma et al.,1983). Among driven excessively in the hot sun, a all these factors air temperature buffalo's body temperature, pulse rate, contribution in causing heat stress is respiration rate and general discomfort more than others. Asambient increase more quickly. In a trail in Egypt temperature rise, primary non- it was found that, 2 hours exposure to sun evaporative means of cooling i.e. caused temperature of buffalo to rise 1.3 conduction, convection and radiation °C, whereas temperatures of cattle rose becomes less effective and animals only 0.2 – 3 °C (Nagareenkar and Sethi, dependence on evaporative cooling in the 1981). form of sweating and panting to alleviate heat stress increase (Kimothi and Ghosh, EFFECT OF HEAT STRESS ON BUFFALO 2005). Internal physiological factors are In total milk production Contribution of also added to heat stress. For example, buffalo is 51.10 per cent (DAHDF, 2012- fatty and lactating animals have suffered 13) and performance of buffalousually more from heat stress. Buffaloes have affected by heat stress in one or other suffered by heat stress more than other ways, mainly in form of reduction in milk animals; because in buffalo physiological yield. Heat stress causes infertility in adaptation to extremes heat and cold is farm animals because it produce negative less. Buffalo skin is usually black so it is a impact on conception rates, development good heat absorbent and is only sparsely of follicles, length and intensity of protected by hair. Buffalo skin viz a viz oestrus, embryonic development (Putney cattle skin has one-sixth of the density of et al. 1989)so it is a major source of

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Indian Farmer 2(11):843-846; November-2015 Yadav et al economic loss. . Heat stress in cattle day-time but also produce beneficial causes a reduction in feed intake, weight effect on the physiological response of gains, milk production. It causes change buffaloes as the body temperature, heart in the antioxidant level and electrolyte rate and respiration rate all decreased concentration and increases lipid per when shade is provided during summer. oxidation in vivo. Cell mediated immune Many sources for shade are there butthe response is also decreased due to heat most effective source of shade is the trees stress. and plants. Because, tree provide SIGN OF HEAT STRESS protection from sunlight, as well as evaporation of moisture from their leaves Some signs of heat stress in lactating also produce a cooling effect. These animal are clear cut, especially the practices shall reduce the impact of solar reduced milk production and the heat while maximizing heat dissipation lethargic behaviour of the cows. from the animal.Even if, shade reduces Moderate signs of heat stress include heat accumulation, it does not produce rapid shallow breathing, profuse effect on air temperature or relative sweating, decrease feed intake and milk humidity (Kimothi and Ghosh, 2005). To production. More significant signs of heat alleviate heat stress in lactating cows stress, such as open mouth breathing provide a more comfortable environment with panting and tongue hanging in the holding pen. Holding pen is the out.Animal suffering heat stress will often most stressful location for milking move closer together and stand in tightly animals during periods of heat stress if it packed groups. Respiration rates will also is not shaded and cooled. A covered feed increase as cows attempt to increase manger provides shade so that cows are their heat dissipation. more comfortable when they are eating. MANAGEMENT OF HEAT STRESS Evaporative Cooling: If the animal is maintained in covered puccasheds, then In hot environmental conditions, cautious various cooling systems such as holding- management is important to easeheat pen cooling, exit-lane cooling, and free- stress and maintain high production stall cooling are there, any practice can be levels. Good management practices used but, it depends on suitability. Many comprising modification of the animal owners repeatedly bath their surrounding environment to reduce the animals to relieve the animals from heat impact of environment and at the same stress. In this methodthere is more time promote heat loss from the animal. wastage of water soinspite of this, an Heat stress in buffaloes can be combat evaporative system which uses water through diverse management practices mist with fan is more effective and also such as provision of shade, increasing air economises the use of water. Some movement and repeatedly wetting the farmers prefer sprinklers or mister, animal with cold water for greater installed on the roof or at various places evaporative cooling and sprinkler. in the barn. The use of a combination of Shade: Shade not only protect the evaporation and air movement such as animals from direct solar radiation in ‘mist fans’ are more effective, economical

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Indian Farmer 2(11):843-846; November-2015 Yadav et al and useful than fans and wetting alone. more concentration of Water sprinklers generate a large volume nutrientssothatnutrients requirement of waste water. could be accomplish. Low quality, stemy forages should be avoided because, this type of fodder generate heat by fermentation inside the rumen. High quality forages should be providedas these are digested faster and produced less heat. Increasing the energy density might require the use of greater amounts of concentrate or by-products. Increasing the energy density in feed, using high Air movement: quality forages and feeding of During hot-humid climate, for providing concentrates which helps the animalsto cooling and comfort to the animal air maintain their energy movement becomes more important. For requirements,althoughanimal consumes making the microenvironment less dry matter. On the other hand, care comfortable for animals either shift the should be taken to balance diets properly animals to shaded airy place or make the otherwise digestive disorders such as barn airy byinstalling fans or dairy fans acidosis and displaced abomasums may and different types of coolers. If air happen. Fatty feeds or calcium salts of temperature is lower than the animal's fatty acids, is the means of improving skin temperature then air movement energy supply for buffaloes in summer. increases the rate of heat loss from Buffaloes fed on such diets, have higher animal’s body surface. milk yield, a lower body temperature and NUTRITIONAL MANAGEMENT respiration rate. Oxidative damage, as a result of heat stress may be minimized by antioxidant viz. vitaminC, vitamin E, ace element like cu and cr. In a hot environment protein requirement of buffalo increases and dry matter intake decreases, excessive protein intake increases heat production and decreases reproductive performance. However, the protein supplied to lactating buffaloes during summer is not always sufficient. By adding fish meal to ration, which is a

Due to heat stress, feed intake generally by-pass protein, the milk yield and decreases which results innegative effect protein content of buffalo milk increases, on productivity leading to economic loss. but the ruminal ammonia production is When feed intake is already reduced we decreases. need special formulation which contains

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Water intake: CONCLUSION Heat stress is a cause of great concern due to greater economic loss in term of decrease productivity. To ameliorate heat stress, good management practices are the best way, which include nutritional management and infrastructure facilities for providing comfort to the animal in the event of harsh hot climate. REFERENCES During hot climate, water is essential nutrient for buffalo. Water intake is Department of Animal Husbandry, closely related to dry matter intake and Dairying and Fishery (DAHDF), milk yield. Abundant coolwater must be Annual Report, GOI, 2013. available at all times under hot Kimothi, S. P. and Ghosh, C. P. 2005. conditions. Water should be available for Strategies for ameliorating heat cows near their loafing area, either in the stress in dairy animals. Dairy Year shade of native trees or artificial shade. book.371-377. Hot weather, declining dry matter intake Nagareenkar, R. and Sethi, R.K. 1981. Association of adaptive traits with and high lactation yield requires higher mineral supplementation in ration. The performance traits in buffaloes. primary cation in bovine sweat is Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, potassium. Sharp increases in the 51(1): 121-1123. secretion of potassium through sweat Putney, D. J., S. Mullins, W. W. Thatcher, occur during hot climatic conditions M. Drost and T. S. Gross. 1989. Alterations in mineral metabolism also Embryonic development in super affect the electrolyte status of buffalo ovulated dairy cattle exposed to during hot weather. So it important to elevated ambient temperatures supplement minerals during hot climate. between the onset of oestrus and insemination. Animal OTHER PREVENTIVE MEASURES Reproduction Science, 19: 37-51. Avoid handling cattle during hot, humid Sharma, A. K., Rodriguez, L. A., weather and if it is necessary to carry out Mekonnen, G., Wilcox, C. J., stressful events (e.g. castrating, Bachman, K. C., Collier, R. J. 1983. vaccinating), do it in the early morning. Climatological and genetic effects Avoid transporting livestock in hot on milk composition and yield. weather; move between 8pm and 8am Journal of Dairy Science, 66: 119- and reduce loading density. Do not move 126. animals from a relatively cool environment to a hot environment during the summer.

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Myiasis: Diagnosis, Control and Therapeutic management Snehil Gupta1, Arjun Kasondra2, Venkata Rami Reddy Balena3, Ashutosh Fular1, Sumit Sardana3, Manu Kurian Mathew3, Ramadevi Pampana1, Vijay Kumar Jwalagatti1 and Narender Kumar4

1Division of Parasitology, 2Division of Medicine, 3Division of Pathology, 4Division of Livestock Production Management Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh -243122 *corresponding [email protected]

efore getting into the deep these dipterans are known as maggots concept, the understanding of and these are the stage infesting animal B term myiasis, scholechiasis, fly tissue. Factors attracting flies are body strike, blow, maggots, dipterans and warmth, faeces or urine odour, open strike is of due importance. The term wounds, filthy surrounding and open myiasis is an ancient Greek word source of nutrition. Such infestations are originated from μυῖα (myia) which means more common in animals, shepherds “fly” and the term was first coined by disseminating animal smell, careless Frederick William Hope, an English wound bearing humans and poor hygiene entomologist in 1840 to differentiate it associated people. Animals are easy from scholechiasis which he referred to targets because they cannot react as the infestation of tissues with effectively as humans. Some flies may lay lepidopterous larvae. Fritz Zumpt, a eggs on open wounds, others may targets German entomologist defined myiasis as unbroken skin and a few like Oestrus ovis infestation of live humans and vertebrate deposits larvae near nostrils that crawl animal with the larvae of dipteran flies, into nasal cavity and the Gasterophilus which at least for a period, feed on host’s spp. which laid egg on horse body, dead or living tissue, liquid body whereby these are ingested by host. substance and ingested food. Blow is the Based on the site of infestation, myiasis act of egg deposition by myiasis causing are termed cutaneous myiasis(skin), nasal flies. The host or the tissue infested by fly myiasis, aural myiasis(ear), vulvar larvae is called blown. Myiasis in case of myiasis and opthalmomyiasis sheep is commonly known as strike. (Rhinoestrus purpureus in man). Another Dipterans are true flies which fulfilled issue mainly raised during war is over- certain characters like a pair of functional crowdedness of hospitals and open wings, complete metamorphosis (egg, wounds that forced for compromise with larvae, pupa and adult) and it includes all hygiene resulting in Nosocomial myiasis. mosquitoes, house fly, horse fly, warble MAGGOT THERAPY fly, heel fly, blow fly, filth fly, tse tse fly and many others. Apodous larvae of It is also known as maggot debridement therapy (MDT), biotherapy, biosurgery,

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Indian Farmer 2(11):847-853; November-2015 Gupta et al biodebridement and larval therapy. wound. Blowfly myiasis alone accounts Though livestock industry bearing heavy for 170 million US$ loss to Australian losses, medical practitioner have sheep industry. developed maggots as an agent to Bowflies (Calliphoridae), botflies accelerate the wound repair process. The (Oesteridae) and fleshflies therapy undertakes advantage of the (Sarcophagidae) mainly affects the secretion of digestive enzyme as well as livestock industry causing hide loss, ingestion of debris by maggots which production loss, annoyance and increase accelerate the healing process especially the incidence of disease. Maggots are in case of chronic ulcers. MDT was identified based on structure of spiracles introduced by William S. Baer, an and cephaloesophageal skeletons. Grossly orthopedic surgeon who worked at John larvae can be differentiated into hairy Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. (Chrysomyia albiceps, C.rufifacies and It has been reported to be followed since Microcalliphora varipes) and smooth Second World War but got FDA (USA) maggots. Based on the requirement of approval in January, 2004 as a medical host infestation for completion of life device and UK National Health service cycle, myisis has been categorised into approval in February, 2004 as medicinal specific (Obligatory), non-specific drug requiring fulfilment of all licensing (Facultative) and accidental formalities. Richard Sherman, director of (Pseudomyiasis) myiasis. Monarch lab commercially generates and In Sardinia, Italy the larvae of Piophila market medicine grade maggots for the casei (cheese fly) intentionally introduced first time in world with constant supply into pecorino cheese to produce casu since 1935. Sterile Lucilia sericata (green marzu, however, it is often ingested by bottle blowfly, LB-01 strain) larvae are humans which causes pseudomyiasis most commonly exploited for Maggot resulting in fatal medical disturbances. therapy. Scott Morrison in 2003 reported Some researcher’s preferred to use term the successful treatment of equine primary flies (which initiate strike on osteomyelitis using maggot therapy. The sheep, eg. Calliphora spp. and Lucilia spp.), maggots action on wounds has been secondary flies (which lay egg on already attributed by 4 means, viz. debridement struck sheep and enhance injury, eg. (via. proteolytic enzymes like Chrysomyia spp. and Sarcophaga spp.) collagenase), disinfection (bactericidal while still others which attend the wound secretions and increase wound alkalinity in last and cause little damage (Musca by NH3 formation), stimulation of wound domestica, Fannia australis and Perronia healing( by suppressing tissue rostrata). Flies underlying each category destruction by phagocytes) and by biofilm are compiled in Table1. The key inhibition (maggots secretion antagonise identification points of flies and maggots bacterial biofilm formation). For are shown in Figure: 1. therapeutic purposes, 5-10 maggots are PROPHYLAXIS AND CONTROL applied per square centimetre of wound STRATEGIES surface area and allowed to act for 48- 72hrs and thereafter removed from the

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Prophylactic measures may be divided caudal vertebra reduces strike into those which attempt to render the appreciably. The explanation seems to host less attractive to the flies and those be that the tail, being pressed against which are directed against the flies the body of the animal, tends to flatten themselves. It includes regular grooming out small skin folds often present on of pets, timely carse of wound with either side of the vulva, which may antiseptic and fly repellent, regular become soiled when they are shearing of sheep wool, use of wire mesh prominent. The longer tail is also held in doors and windows, use of mine mesh well away from the body when the ewe nets in endemic regions, promotion of urinates. Short docking tends to cheaper traditional herbal repellants, produce a stump surrounded by docking etc. Elaborate discussion of some folds—the ‘rose tail’—which is often important measures is as discussed struck. below.  Crutching: It consists of clipping the  Selective breeding: Folds of skin in wool around the tail and in the breech the breech region predispose sheep, region in order to promote dryness in especially ewes, to strike. Efforts have this region, and it is effective in been made to eliminate, or to lessen, preventing strike for four to five weeks the influence of these features by under ordinary circumstances. breeding sheep with plain, or plainer, Machine crutching is more effective breeches and much progress has been than hand crutching, because the made in this respect, although it has machine clips the wool shorter than been necessarily slow. shears.  Mules’s operation (Mules 1935): It  Genetic manipulation: A strain of is an older surgical technique in which blowfly (translocation-male/eye a crescentic area of skin on either side colour) (TM/EC), in which females are of the urogenital area of the Merino blind and cannot survive in the field sheep is removed to flatten the skin and males are partially sterile but folding so that the accumulation of transmit the genes for blindness to excretions can be minimized female offspring, offers the possibility irrespective of age without any effect that control of blowflies could operate on weight gain. A 40% phenol solution through the majority of blowfly is applied along the prepuce of young seasons (Foster et al. 1978). wethers after shearing or crutching  Carrion disposal: Proper destruction produces a dry encrustation which or disposal of carrion is important heals leaving a scar which eliminates during those seasons when they are skin folding in the affected area of the the main breeding grounds of sheep prepuce (Hopkins 1978). Similar blowflies and there is little or no treatment can be applied to the breech competition from other species. area. Carcass should be buried deep  Docking: It has been shown that followed by a layer of line so it cannot docking the tails of lambs behind the be digged out by dogs. fourth, instead of the usual second,

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TREATMENT STRATEGY carbophenothion (0.042%), During last few decades, there has been chlorfenvinphos (0.05%), coumaphos extensive use of insecticides for the (0.05%), diazinon (0.04%), protection of sheep against blowfly strike. dichlofenthion (0.04%), dursban A number of commercial preparations, (Chlorpyrifos) (0.0125%) and butacarb highly effected in maggot wound are (0.05%). Negashunt powder containing CONCLUSION coumaphos, scavon non irritant spray and Myiasis is more or less a managemental D’Mag spray. Treatment stragegy shifted problem rather than of clinical from neem leaves to coal-tar and arsenic importance. Insecticides are hazardous dips followed by chlorinated for both environment as well as affected hydrocarbons with synthetic pyrethroids individuals so a shift towards traditional and macrocyclic lasones being the plants is need of today. Fly repellent are currently most commonly used very few in the markets, so thrust should insecticides. A common preparation be given on long lasting eco-friendly containing 0.05%- dieldrin with 0.016% formulation having repellent activity. HCH produced an immediate kill of larvae Magotted wound can lead to tetanus or with prolonged residual effect. other secondary bacterial infection The system of application should ensure ending fatally, so proper care of magotted adequate exposure. In dipping’, sheep wound is advisable Veterinarian should should be immersed for a minimum of 30 maintain a entomological box containing seconds; jet spraying should, ensure flies of that area so based on bionomics of thorough soaking of the fleece, though tip flies, timely suitable measures can be spraying with concentrated solutions adopted reducing the production loss and does not demand this since the insecticide health loss. is translocated down the wool fibre and into new wool growth. REFERENCES Occasionally local degradation of Anon, 1979. Proceedings of a workshop insecticide or inhibition of the on livestock pest management. translocation process occurs, for example Kansas State University, Manhattan, in the breech region due to soiling with Kansas, 322 pp. faeces and urine (Yeoman* and Bell Soulsby, E.J.L., 1982. Helminths, 1978). The incorporation of insecticide Arthropods and Protozoa of into an aluminium alkoxide gellant Domesticated Animals. 7th edition, avoided degradation and animals sprayed 809 pp. London: Bailliere Tindall, with such formulations were well Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. protected against breech strike. The Urquhart G.M, Annour J, Duncan J.L, Dunn insecticides in generate use for blowfly A.M, Jennings. F.W. 1996. Veterinary strike include the following: bromophos Parasitology 2nd edition, 307 pp. and bromophos-ethyl (0.05%,in dip), Wiley-Blackwell.

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Table: 1. Distribution of myiasis causing flies in different categories of myiasis based on host specificity. Category I: Category II : Category III: Specific myiasis causing flies Non specific myiasis causing Pseudomyiasis causing flies flies . Chrysomya bezziana (Old world. Sarcophaga spp.(Flesh fly) . Musca spp. (House fly) screw worm fly) . Lucilia spp. (Green bottle fly) . Fannia spp.(Latrine fly) . Cochliomyia hominivorax (New. Calliphora spp. (Blue bottle. Eristalis tenax (European world screw worm fly) fly) hoverfly or Drone fly) . Cordylobia anthropophaga. Phormia spp. (Black bottle fly) (Tumbu fly) . Wohlfartia spp, (Old World . Oestrus ovis (Sheep nasal bot fly) flesh fly) . Rhinoestrus purpureus (Horse nasal bot fly) . Cephalopsis titilator (Camel nasal bot fly) . Gaterophilus spp. (Equine botfly) . Hypoderma spp. (warble fly) . Auchmeromyia luteola (Congo floor maggot) . Cuterebra spp. (rodent and rabbit bot fly) . Dermatobia hominis (Human bot fly)

Myiasis causing flies Adult Larva

Gasterophilus (horse botfly)

Hypoderma lineatum (cattle botflies or ox warbles)

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Oestrus ovis ( sheep bot fly)

Chrysomiya bezziana (old world screwworm fly)

Calliphora spp. (blowfly)

Lucilia cuprina

Lucilia serricata

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Stomoxys calcitrans

Musca domestica

Figure 1: Key identification features of flies and maggots responsible for myiasis.

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Farm Animal Waste Utilization For Bio-Gas Production Himani Tewari*, Rajashree Rath, Jagish Reen, Kalpana Tyagi, Alok K.Yadav and Ankita Rautela

ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana-132001 *Corresponding author- [email protected]

iogas is a mixture of gas derived cakes). Dung accounts for over 21 percent from biomass like livestock waste of total rural energy use in India, and as B from animal and poultry. The raw much as 40 percent in certain states of biogas consists of methane (CH4-50- the country. The Indian government

70%), (CO2-30-40%), (H2-5-10%), (N2-1- introduced large-scale biogas production

2%), water-vapour (H2O-0.3%) and H2S in 1981 through the National Project on in traces. Organic waste such as dead biogas Development. 2 million biogas plant and animal material, animal dung, plants were in operation in 1995, and and kitchen waste can be converted into a about 10 million rural Indians were gaseous fuel called biogas. Biogas is benefiting from the electric power from produced by the anaerobic digestion or electric power generator fueled with fermentation of biodegradable materials. biogas, biogas supply as cooking fuel and

The gases CH4,H2 and CO can be also from the rich agricultural fertilizer combusted or oxidized with oxygen for the plant produces as a byproduct. the generation of gaseous fuel i.e. Biogas. Table 1: Quantity of dung required for Biogas can be used as a fuel in any various plant sizes country for any heating purpose, such as Size of plant (gas Amount No. of cooking. It can also be used in anaerobic Production /day) of wet animals digesters where it is typically used in a (m3) dung gas engine to convert the energy in the required gas into electricity and heat. (kg) 2 35-40 2-3 BIOGAS GENERATION IN INDIA 3 45-50 3-4 It has been used in India for almost a 4 55-60 4-6 hundred years. India has more cattle than 6 80-100 6-10 any other country and the cow held in 8 120-150 12-15 10 160-200 16-20 religious veneration and its products are considered purifying agents. Hence, there NEED FOR BIOGAS GENERATION is a universal acceptance of even its dung, In many developing countries like India, which otherwise would instinctively be so many people do not have access to thought of as repulsive. Cow dung is modern energy sources. Energy use in widely used in India as composted India is characterized by a high use of fertilizer and as a cooking fuel (dung traditional resources like fuel wood and

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Table 3: Average nutritive value of excreta of farm animals (% of the original matter) Species Water Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash Calcium (dung) (N2) (P2O5) (K2O) (CaO) Dung Urine Dung Urine Dung Urine Dung Urine Cattle 82.4 0.30 1.21 0.18 0.01 0.18 1.35 0.36 0.01 Buffalo 81.1 0.26 0.62 0.18 - 0.17 1.61 0.46 - Sheep 61.9 0.70 1.47 0.51 0.05 0.29 1.96 0.46 0.16 Pig 80.7 0.59 0.38 0.46 0.10 0.43 0.99 0.09 - Horse 76.8 0.47 1.29 0.30 0.01 0.30 1.39 0.17 0.45 Poultry 57.0 1.46 - 1.17 - 0.62 - - - coal. The pressure of population has solved to great extent by using biogas for reduced India's forests to a few scrubby cooking it hardly releases smoke and is trees way out on the horizon, causing almost as efficient as LPG. Also Biogas extreme fuel shortages in rural areas. To could potentially help reduce global compensate for this, about 700 million climate change. Normally, manure that is tons of cow manure produced annually is left to decompose releases two main burned for heating or cooking which gases that cause global climate change: however causes tremendous medical nitrogen dioxide and methane. Nitrogen problems. The acrid smoke leads to dioxide (NO2) warms the atmosphere endemic eye disease, and the drying 310 times more than carbon dioxide and manure is a perfect breeding ground for methane 21 times more than carbon flies of all types. The manure would also dioxide. By converting cow manure into go a long way to improving the quality of methane biogas via anaerobic digestion, the soil and hence increasing the harvest the millions of cows in the India would be if these valuable minerals were returned able to produce one hundred billion to it instead of going up in smoke. kilowatt hours of electricity, enough to Table 2: Average daily dung and urine power millions of homes across the India. production from different livestock In fact, one cow can produce enough species manure in one day to generate three Species Quantity kilowatt hours of electricity; only 2.4 KWh excreted/animal/day of electricity are needed to power a single Dung (kg) Urine (kg) one hundred watt light bulb for one day. Cattle 23.5 9.0 MECHANISM OF BIOGAS PRODUCTION Buffalo 32.5 - The bio-chemical process takes place in Sheep 1.13 0.6 three stages as shown below. Pig 2.7 1.5 Stage-I (Hydrolysis): Horse 16.1 3.6 Firstly the biomass having complex Poultry 0.04 - compound such as fats, proteins, The above mentioned problem of carbohydrates etc. are broken down into destruction of forests and heath, energy simple water soluble organic compounds need mostly for cooking purposes can be through the influence of water called

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hydrolysis. Bacteria decompose the long Moreover, they reduce the compounds chains of the complex carbohydrates, with a low molecular weight into alcohols, proteins and lipids into shorter parts. organic acids, amino acids, carbon Stage-II (Acid formation): dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and traces of The micro-organism of anaerobic and methane. facultative group (which grows in Stage-III (Methane formation): absence of O2) called acid forming In this stage the anaerobic bacteria called bacteria produce mainly the acetic acid as methane formers converts the organic and propionic acid at low temperature of acids formed in stage II into biogas having about 25° with release of CO2. In certain its main constituents as methane and cases, the acid may be produced in such carbon dioxide with other small trace of large quantities that all the biological H2S, H2 and N2 etc. These methane activity is arrested. Thus, it becomes formers are sensitive to pH changes. necessary to control the pH value of FACTORS AFFECTING BIOGAS mixture. Acid-producing bacteria, GENERATION involved in the second step, convert the intermediates of fermenting bacteria into (1) Temperature and Pressure: acetic acid (CH3COOH), hydrogen (H2) Temperature for fermentation will greatly and carbon dioxide (CO2). These bacteria effect biogas production. Depending on are facultative anaerobic and can grow prevailing conditions methane can be under acid conditions. To produce acetic produced within a fairly wide range of acid, they need oxygen and carbon. For temperature. The process of anaerobic this, they use the oxygen dissolved in the fermentation and methane forming solution or bounded-oxygen. Hereby, the bacteria works best in the temperature acid producing bacteria create an between 29°C to 41°C or between 49°C to anaerobic condition which is essential for 60°C and pressure of about 1.1 to 1.2 bars the methane producing microorganisms. absolute. This is due to fact that two

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Indian Farmer 2(11):854-861; November-2015 Tewari et al different types of bacteria multiply best in time as to keep the solid concentration these two different ranges, but the high ratio constant in the digester. temperature bacteria are much more (3) Retention Period: sensitive to ambient influences. The rate It represents the time period for which of gas production increases with the the fermentable material remains inside increase in temperature but the the digester. This period ranges from 35 percentage of methane reduces. It is days to 50 days depending upon the found that temperature between 32°C- climatic conditions and location of the 35°C are most efficient for stable and digester. The longer retention period continuous production of methane. needs larger size digester and it allows Biogas produced outside this range will more complete digestion of feed. have a higher percentage of carbon (4) pH Value or Hydrogen Ion dioxide and other gases than within this Concentration: range. The production of biogas is fastest The micro-organisms require a neutral or during summer and it decreases at lower mildly alkaline environment – a too acidic temperature during winter. If the or too alkaline environment will be temperature are lower than 20°C the rate detrimental. Ideal pH value is of gas production falls sharply and it between7.0–8.0 but can go up or down by almost ceases at about 10°C. Also a further 0.5. In the initial stages of acid methanogenic microorganisms are very forming stage of digestion, the pH value sensitive to temperature changes, a may be around 6.0 or less, however sudden change exceeding 30°C will affect during methane formation stage the pH production, and therefore one must value higher than 7.0 is maintained since ensure relative stability of temperature. methane formers are sensitive to acidity. Thus, in cold climates, it is necessary to The pH value depends on the ratio of heat the digester to about 35°C. acidity and alkalinity and the carbon (2) Solid Concentration and Loading dioxide content in the digester, the Rate: determining factor being the density of The cow dung, water and various organic the acids. For the normal process of residues from agricultural waste are fermentation, the concentration of supplied as feed to the digester. The volatile acid measured by acetic acid proportions recommended are: Cow dung should be below 2000 parts per million + solid waste 1:1 by weight and forming too high a concentration will greatly to about 10% of solid content and 90% of inhibit the action of the methanogenic water. The amount of feed supply per day microorganisms. to the digester is called loading rate. It is (5) Nutrients Concentration: dependent on the size of the plant. The The major nutrients required by the recommended loading rate is about 0.2 bacteria in the digester are N2, P, S, C, H2, kg/m3 of digester capacity. The under and O2 to accelerate the anaerobic loading and overloading reduces the digestion rate. Thus it is necessary that biogas production. The loading of feed the major nutrients are supplied in must be carried out every day at the same correct chemical form and concentrations. The carbon in

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Indian Farmer 2(11):854-861; November-2015 Tewari et al carbohydrates supplies the energy and micro-organisms since their presence the nitrogen in proteins is needed for reduces the fermentation rate. Also the building of growth of bacteria. The digested slurry if allowed to remains in bacteria responsible for the anaerobic digester beyond certain time, it becomes process require both elements nitrogen toxic to micro-organism growth. These and carbon, as do all living organisms, but toxic materials should either not be they consume carbon roughly 30 times present or their concentration should be faster than nitrogen. Assuming all other diluted by addition of water. conditions are favourable for biogas Table 4: List of Harmful Materials in production, a carbon-nitrogen ration of Biogas Digester about 30:1 is ideal for the raw materials Harmful Concentration fed into a biogas plant with 2% Materials phosphorous for maximum biological Sulphate (SO4) 5000 parts per million activity. A higher ratio will leave carbon Sodium chloride 40,000 parts per million still available after the nitrogen has been (NaCl) consumed, starving some of the bacteria Copper (Cu) 100 mg per liter Chromium (Cr) 200 mg per liter of this element. These will in turn die, Nickel (Ni) 200-500 mg per liter returning nitrogen to the mixture, but Cyanide (CN) Below 25 mg per liter slowing the process. Too much nitrogen ABS(detergent 20-40 parts per million will cause this to be left over at the end of compound) digestion (which stops when the carbon Ammonia (NH3) 1,500-3,000 mg per liter has been consumed) and reduce the Sodium (Na) 3,500-5,500 mg per liter quality of the fertilizer produced by the Potassium (K) 2,500-4,500 mg per liter biogas plant. The correct ratio of carbon Calcium (Ca) 2,500-4,500 mg per liter to nitrogen will prevent loss of either Magnesium (Mg) 1,000-1,500 mg per liter fertilizer quality or methane content. (8) Water Content: Thus, for acceleration fermentation and This should be about 90% of the weight of production of biogas nutrients like C, P the total contents. With too much water and N2 are maintaining within the the rate of production per unit volume in optimum range. Oil cakes and animal the pit will fall, preventing optimum use urine are found to be suitable nutrients of the digester. If the water content is too for this purpose. low, acetic acid will accumulate, inhibiting (6) Supplementary Nutrients: the fermentation process and hence In case of cow dung, as it contains all the production and also thick scum will be nutrients needed by organisms for the formed on the surface. The water content production of methane there is no differs according to the raw material used necessity for addition of nutrients to it. for fermentation. (7) Harmful Materials: (9) Nature of Organic materials: The micro-organisms that help to Materials rich in cellulose and semi- produce biogas are easily affected by cellulose with sufficient proteinaceous many harmful materials. The presence of substance produce more gas. Complex ammonia, detergents, heavy metals are polysaccharides are more favorable for considered as harmful substance to

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Indian Farmer 2(11):854-861; November-2015 Tewari et al methane formation while only It is found that occasional mixing allows proteinacous materials produce little the masses that float at the top in the quantity of gas. form of scum allow mixing with the (10) Reaction Period: deposits at the bottom. It helps in Under optimum condition 80-90% of total improving fermentation. gas production is obtained within a ADVANTAGES OF BIOGAS period of 3-4 weeks. TECHNOLOGY (11) Size of the Fermentation Tank: It also decides the reaction period. It is (1) The generated biogas can replace found that the biogas production per unit traditional energy sources like volume of digester is high when its firewood and animal dung, thus diameter to depth ratio ranges between contributing to combat deforestation 0.66 to1. and soil depletion. (12) Stirring or Agitation of the Content (2) Biogas can contribute to replace of Digester: fossil fuels, thus reducing the Some method of stirring the slurry in a emission of green house gases and digester is always advantageous, not other harmful emissions. essential. If not stirred, the slurry will (3) By tapping biogas in a biogas plant tend to settle out and form a hard scum and using it as a source of energy, on the surface, which will prevent release harmful effects of methane on the of biogas. This problem is much greater biosphere are reduced. with vegetable waste than with manure, (4) By keeping waste material and dung which will tend to remain in suspension in a confined space, surface and and have better contact with the bacteria groundwater contamination as well as a result. Continuous feeding causes as toxic effects on human populations fewer problems in this direction, since the can be minimized. new charge will break up the surface and (5) By conversion of waste material and provide a rudimentary stirring action. dung into a more convenient and Since bacteria in digester have very high-value fertilizer, organic matter limited reach to their food, it is necessary is more readily available for that slurry is properly mixed and bacteria agricultural purposes, thus get their food supply. protecting soils from depletion and Table 5: Optimum Level of Biogas erosion. Parameters (6) Production of energy (heat, light, Parameters Optimum level electricity). Digester Temperature 32-40 degree C (7) Transformation of organic waste into Digester Ph 6.8-7.2 high quality fertilizer. Carbon-Nitrogen ratio 30:1 (8) Improvement of hygienic conditions (substrate) through reduction of pathogens, Total solid content of 7-10 % worm eggs and Flies. substrate (9) Reduction of workload, mainly for Retention Time 30-50 days women, in firewood collection and cooking.

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(10)Environmental advantages through ADVANTAGES OF BIOGAS AS A FUEL protection of soil, water, air and (1) It mixes easily with the air. woody vegetation. (2) It is light fuel gas. (11)Micro-economical benefits through (3) High calorific value. energy and fertilizer substitution, (4) It is highly knocked resistant. additional income sources and (5) Due to uniform distribution thermal increasing yields of animal efficiency is higher. husbandry and agriculture. (6) Biogas has a high octane number. REASONS FOR SELECTING BIOGAS AS (7) It reduces pollution. AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL (8) Higher compression ratio can be (1) In India, about 700 million tons of used with biogas.

cow manure produced annually is (9) Plants capital cost is low.

burned for heating or cooking. (10) Domestic fuels for burners used in Burning of cow manure causes kitchen.

medical problems and acrid smoke (11) Non toxic to skin.

leads to eye disease. (12) Clean fuel.

(2) The manure would also go a long (13) No residue produced.

way to improving the quality of the (14) Economical.

soil and hence increasing the harvest (15) None polluting.

if these valuable minerals were (16) Can be supplied through pipe lines.

returned to it instead of going up in (17) Burns readily - has a convenient smoke. ignition temperature.

(3) Most of fuel problems for cooking (18) Uses of biogas for street lighting.

purposes can be solved to great (19) Generation of electricity. extent by using biogas for cooking; CONCLUSION also it hardly releases smoke and it (1) Producing renewable energy from almost as efficient as LPG. organic waste.

(4) Also the electricity problem can be (2) Producing valuable fertilizers for solved which is very scare especially agricultural. in rural areas which are usually very (3) Reduces global warming effect by remote and very poor. reducing methane formation from

(5) Making sustainable energy available organic waste and animal dung. in rural areas in developing (4) Methane has 21 times more global countries could lead to improved warming effect than the carbon living conditions and improvement dioxide. of the local environment. (5) Controlled parameter may

(6) Biogas is one of the best available increases the production of sources to fulfill the energy demand biogas. of the world especially in the rural (6) Bio-gas may convert into bio- areas. methane for automobile.

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Figure: Energy harvesting from sustainable biogas cycle

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Indian Farmer 2(11):862-864; November-2015 Mishra

Vaccination Failure: Factors and Considerations Adarsh Mishra

Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Madras Veterinary College, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu-600007. Corresponding Author: [email protected]

1. General principles of vaccination previous vaccination history as well as Vaccination involves the administration of nutritional status. The issues associated antigen to stimulate the immune system to with the pathogen include the level of produce specific antibodies against viral, exposure to a particular pathogen or to bacterial, and protozoan diseases. An multiple pathogens simultaneously, effective vaccination program should be virulence, survivability of pathogen in based on the certain considerations viz. environment outside the host and status of a particular disease in an area to transmission of the pathogen. Similarly, the be vaccinated, risk of exposure, immunity environmental determinants includes of the parent stocks, administration of temperature, air quality, accessibility to vaccines, cost-benefit ratio related to hygienic feed and water, herd density, vaccination etc. seasonal influence and above all any stress 2. The epidemiological triad and condition either due to transportation or effectiveness of vaccination program management conditions. For causation of a disease three factors 3. Vaccination failure play important role. These are host or the Vaccination failure denotes failure in the animal susceptible to a disease, environment surrounding the animal and the pathogen or the causative agent of the disease (Figure 1). During a disease outbreak, all of these factors come into play. Conversely, to prevent a disease and improve performance, all of these areas must be considered. The factors to be considered for an effective vaccination includes the sum total of all considerations to be taken care related to animal/host, Figure 1 Schematic diagram representing interaction pathogen and their environment. Various among pathogen (P) to its host (H) and environment (E) determinants related to animal include the production of immunity up to a protective immunity status, presence of maternal level in a vaccinated animal. This definition protection (through colostrums), age, fits well to the concept of vaccination presence of any concurrent infection, failure, only when all other determinants

862 | P a g e related to vaccine, right from its temperature, exposure to moisture and manufacturing to its storage and direct sun light can lead to vaccine failure. administration are good enough. Such kind These factors related to storage are listed of vaccination failure can be conceptualized below. Use of vaccine after expiration will in either of two ways. First is when a lead to vaccination failure. Attenuated vaccinated animal fails to produce a vaccines need to be used soon after mixing. protective level The reasons behind of antibody the vaccination even after failure resulted vaccination, from improper known as administration primary includes vaccine vaccination dosage; length and failure. The Figure 2 Causal factors associated with vaccination failure gauge of the other one is the needle to be used; condition most commonly known as proper sterile condition of needle and secondary vaccination failure, when level syringe; appropriate timing of of post-vaccination antibodies declines administration i.e. vaccination should not rapidly, so as to render the individual be too early (interference of maternal susceptible for the disease. antibodies) or too late (already in disease 4. Reasons of vaccination failure progression). Use of wrong diluents or Sometimes, a vaccine fails to confer mixing of vaccine in a single syringe may protection even after vaccination. These also inactivate modified live vaccine. reasons are either related to vaccine itself Moreover, diluents which are appropriate or the target animals for vaccination for one vaccine may inactivate other (Figure 2). vaccine. Prevalence of a particular serotype 4.1. Factors related to vaccine in a specific geographical area is one of the Vaccine failure can occur due to many most important matters of concern, while causes which are related to vaccine itself vaccinating in that area. Vaccine antigen viz. improper storage and improper should be exactly the same serotype refrigeration of vaccine; exposing the prevalent in the area. The epidemiological vaccine into sunlight which may inactive studies are to be directed to investigate the the vaccine; improper dilution of vaccine; prevalence of particular serotypes in an improper route of administration; area. The quality of vaccines is also to be improper dose of vaccine and improper monitored regularly. handling etc. The use of chemical 4.2. Host factors contributing to vaccine disinfectant on syringe and needle can failure inactivate the live virus vaccine, if there is Vaccination failure can be resulted from any residual disinfectant. Faulty storage some of the factors associated with the conditions like inappropriate storage

263 | P a g e animal or the bird to be vaccinated. These with suppression of bone marrow, which include presence of maternal antibodies, ultimately results in immunodeficiency. stress condition, age of the animals/birds Moreover, it is also noticed that an effective to be vaccinated, drug-induced vaccination even fails to protect a immunosuppression and exposure to vaccinated animal/bird against a disease. infection etc. A persistence of maternal The reason lies on the fact that animal/bird antibody is a good cause of vaccine failure. is exposed to infection shortly before or Care should be taken to ensure the status of after a vaccination. An approximately, two presence of maternal antibodies before to three weeks are required for vaccination. development of an effective immune Similarly, stress is one of the response after vaccination. Vaccine gets not important criteria to be considered while enough time to induce immunity in the vaccinating an individual. Stress may either vaccinated animal/bird, if it gets exposure be due to environmental origin to infectious agent shortly before or after a (environmental stress) or management- vaccination. Vaccination failure can also be origin (Stress due to faulty management). resulted, if animal is already incubating a Environmental stress may be due to disease during vaccination. Many of extreme weather conditions, housing infectious diseases of viral origin may also temperature, relative humidity, air-flow render an individual immune-suppressed. and concentration of various gases like CONCLUSION ammonia etc. Similarly, stress due to management may be attributable to An effective vaccination strategy lies on the transport and nutrition etc. Malnutrition is foothold of due care starting from vaccine may lead to inadequate immune response preparation to administration of vaccine to to a vaccine. The level of endogenous animals/birds and conferring adequate corticosteroids will be increased in stress immunity status to combat against the conditions, which inhibit lymphocyte disease. Vaccination failure can be avoided metabolism and proliferation. Age of the in field condition by adopting certain individual also plays a significant role in crucial measures to overcome all the causal the success rate of a vaccination factors discussed, associated either with programme. Vaccination in too early age vaccine or the target population. An results in vaccination failure. It is because effective epidemiological study is highly the immune system of neonates is not sounded for a successful disease control matured enough until a certain age. program along with a suitable vaccination Similarly, immune-suppression is also approach. resulted in older age (commonly known as immunosenescence). Several drugs viz. glucocorticoids result in immunosuppression and few anti- helmintics drugs are found to be associated

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Indian Farmer 2(11):865-868; November-2015 Wadehra et al

Micronutrients Fortification of Food Akanksha Wadehra1*, Prasad Patil2 and Avinash Ghule3

1PhD Scholar, Dairy Technology Division, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal 2PhD Scholar, Dairy Microbiology Division, ICAR- NDRI, Karnal 3PhD Scholar, Dairy Economics, Statistics and Management Division, ICAR-NDRI, Karnal *Corresponding author: [email protected]

ften referred to as “hidden nutrients to food whether or not it is hunger”, micronutrient normally contained in the food, for the O malnutrition is a serious public purpose of preventing/ correcting a health problem affecting over two billion demonstrated deficiency of one/ more people worldwide. In developing nutrients in the population or specific countries, micronutrient deficiencies are population groups (Codex Alimentarius a leading cause of preventable blindness, Commission, 1994). In short, food neural tube defects, intellectual/ fortification is the addition of key developmental disabilities, and death vitamins and minerals generally to staple during childbirth. A lack of these foods to address a nutritional gap. It is a important vitamins and minerals also has safe and an effective means of improving a profound impact on the body’s immune public health that has been used around system. Immune systems weakened by a the world since 1920s. It doesn’t require lack of micronutrients put children at an consumers to change their eating habits increased risk of illness, making them or to change their purchase patterns. more likely to miss school. Diminished SOURCES OF MICRONUTRIENTS mental capacity and increased absenteeism (due to iodine and iron Since, most populations in resource-poor deficiency) lead to lower academic settings do not have access to adequate achievement, with lifelong consequences. quantities of fruits, vegetables and meats, Adults are more likely to miss work where micronutrients are abundant, and either due to their illness, or to care for because providing vitamin tablets poses sick children. Both add to the load of logistical and economic constraints, food already overburdened healthcare fortification is a practical and inexpensive systems. Beyond the enormous health alternative. There are four primary ways implications, micronutrient malnutrition a person can get micronutrients into their has a significant economic impact. The system: Micronutrient Initiative and the World 1. Bio-fortification: eating foods that Bank estimate that the most affected have been engineered to have greater countries may lose as much as 2-3% of amounts of nutrients their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) 2. Supplementation: Taking a vitamin annually. tablet Food fortification may be defined 3. Dietary diversity: Eating a balanced as the addition of one or more essential diet

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4. Food Fortification: Through addition retardation, preventable blindness and of micronutrients to already death during child birth. They are consumed staple products. responsible for neural tube defects- the IMPORTANCE OF MICRONUTRIENTS IN second most prevalent class of birth OUR DIET defects in the world- and play a significant role in reducing the most Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals common form of birth defects. A person’s required in small amounts that are chances off dying from measles or essential to our health, development and diarrhea are between 30-50%. This growth. Micronutrients play a central role number can be significantly lowered with in metabolism and in the maintenance of proper micronutrient health. A lack of tissue function. An adequate intake these vitamins also has a profound therefore is necessary, but provision of impact on the body’s immune system. excess supplements to people who do not Immune systems weakened by a lack of need them may be harmful. Single micronutrients puts children at increased micronutrient deficiency states are risk of illness, making them more likely to comparatively easily recognized and miss school. Diminished mental capacity treated. Subclinical deficiency, often of and increased absenteeism lead to lower multiple micronutrients, is more difficult academic achievement, with lifelong to recognize, and laboratory assessment consequences. is often complicated by the acute phase Even those who are not sick suffer response. Micronutrients are found diminished ability concentrate and naturally in a variety of plant- and reduced physical and mental animal-based foods. Although, they can productivity, preventing them from now be synthesized in the laboratory, a reaching their full potential and varied diet typically provides all of the increasing the likelihood of further vitamins and minerals necessary for disease and disability. What emerges is a human health. In many cases, however, grim cycle compounded by insufficient such foods are not available and provide healthcare and education, poor a major threat to the health and sanitation, and disease.A mother who is development of populations around the lacking key nutrients not only increases globe. These are also the places where her chances of dying during childbirth, micronutrient deficiencies cause the but also risks not being able to provide greatest harm. Micronutrients are her child with the proper nutrients nature’s wonder drug. They show needed to begin life. Table 1 gives the remarkable results when added to the global impact of deficiencies of different existing food supply. Proper intake of nutrients lacking in our diet. vitamins and minerals can mean the difference between a healthy, productive life, and a life fraught with illness. Micronutrient deficiencies, which affect over two billion people around the globe today, are the leading cause of mental

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Table 1: global impact of micronutrient and other functions of the human body deficiency (commonly termed as micronutrients) NUTRIENT IMPACT OF DEFICIENCY are severe and widespread in many parts Folic acid  150,000 babies are born annually of the world. They cause an with severe birth defects due to immeasurable burden on individuals, on maternal folate deficiency health services, education systems and  Deficiency is associated with 1 in families caring for children who are every 10 adult deaths from heart disease disabled or mentally impaired. The Iodine  Annually 18 million babies are solution to control and prevent born mentally impaired due to micronutrient deficiencies is available maternal iodine deficiency and affordable. Food fortification is  Deficiency is the leading cause of increasingly recognized as an effective preventable retardation means of delivering micronutrients.  Deficiency decreases IQ by as much as 15 points Fortification of foods can provide Iron  Deficiency causes the deaths of meaningful amounts of the nutrient at 136,000 women and infants per normal consumption of the food vehicle. year Proper choice of fortificant and  Leading cause of death in child processing methods could ensure the birth  1.6 billion people suffer reduced stability and bioavailability of the productive capacity due to anemia nutrient. The level of fortification should  Impairs the mental development take into account variations in food of 40-60% of children in the consumption to ensure safety for those at developing world the higher end of the scale and impact for Vitamin A  Deficiency causes 1 million those at the lower end. Fortification premature child deaths a year  Leading cause of preventable needs to be supported by adequate food blindness among children regulations and labeling, quality  Compromises the immune systems assurance and monitoring to ensure of approximately 40-60% of the compliance and desired impact. In developing world’s children under industrialized countries food fortification 5 has played a major role in the substantial Zinc  Deficiency causes deaths of 4,50,000 children under 5 reduction and elimination of a number of annually micronutrient deficiencies. Although a  Addressing zinc deficiency in growing number of large scale children can reduce the incidence fortification programmes in different of diarrhea, which kills 9 million parts of the world are beginning to children a year, by 27%, acute respiratory infection by 15%, and demonstrate impact at the biochemical overall child mortality by 6% level and are leading to the elimination of several nutrient deficiencies, food CONCLUSIONS fortification remains an underutilized Deficiencies in intake of essential opportunity in many developing vitamins and minerals (commonly countries where micronutrient referred to as micronutrients) that are malnutrition remains a public health essential for efficient energy metabolism problem.

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REFERENCES Bhutta, Z.A. 2008. Micronutrient needs of malnourished hildren.CurrOpinClinNutr Metab Care. 11(3):309 Huma, N., Rehman, S., Anjum , F.M. Murtaza, M.A.., Sheikh, M.A. 2007. Food Fortification Strategy- Preventing iron deficiency anemia: a review.Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 47 (3): 259- 265 Lynch, S.R. 2005. The impact of iron fortification on nutritional anaemia. Best Practice and Res. Clin. Haematology, 18:333–346 Mannar, M.G. and Sankar R. 2004. Micronutrient fortification of foods- rationale, application and impact.Indian J Pediatr. 71 (11): 997- 1002 Underwood, B. 1999. Perspectives from micronutrient malnutrition elimination/ eradication programmes. MMWR- Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 48:37-42

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Indian Farmer 2(11):869-871; November-2015 Punetha et al

Management of Transition Period of Dairy Cows

Meeti Punetha1, Sanjay Singh Yadav2, Pooja Joshi3 and Alok Kumar Yadav4

1M.V.Sc. Scholar DCP Division, ICAR- NDRI, Karnal -132001 2Ph.D. Scholar ARGO division, ICAR- NDRI, Karnal -132001 3M.V.Sc. Scholar DCB Division, ICAR- NDRI, Karnal -132001 4Ph.D. Scholar DCB Division, ICAR- NDRI, Karnal -132001

or the success in dairying industry management of all phases of F production is important. India is the major contributor of milk production, and to lead it further we need to overcome the shortcomings. Transition period is the period from 3 weeks before to 3 weeks after calving. This period is of great importance and the health status of the animal during this stage is a major complicating factor for subsequent reproductive performance which results in which may cause rumen acidosis. The greater economic losses. Milk fever, cellulose rich diet cause an increase in ketosis, retained fetal membrane, metritis, cellulolytic bacteria which cause an displaced abomasums are the major issues increase in acetate production whereas the of this period. Thus the nutrition and starch rich diet cause an increase in management of cow during this period is amylolytic bacteria leading to lactic acid critical. production. The abrupt change from high Nutrition fiber during dry period to low fiber during Energy requirement is the major challenge lactation cause an increase risk of lactate in high producing cow during early accumulation. Futher, decrease in DMI lactation. Animal loose considerable body cause slow rate passage and increase the weight because of low DMI which can duration of fermentation, as a result decline upto 30% during this period. As a accumulation of acid in rumen increase and result body mobilizes its reserve situation leads to subacute rumen acidosis. particularly body fat to meet its energy Thus attempt must be made to control the demands to support milk production. Thus, lactic acid production. the cow enters into negative energy Hormonal changes balance. The change in the feed is abrupt at During late pregnancy, insulin resistance in calving cause a change in rumen flora adipose tissue and muscle increases along

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with the increase sensitivity of lipolytic fall during late pregnancy. Leptin is agent which in turn decreases the responsible for voluntary feed intake and peripheral glucose uptake and causes an plays an important role in peripheral increase nutrient flow from maternal store insulin resistance. to placenta. The further increase in Immune status demand for glucose after calving leads to Decline concentration of vitamin A, vitamin decline in circulating level of insulin. Thus, E and Zn is seen in plasma of transient cow. the concentration of insulin keeps on During this period there is plasma declining during transition period up to transient cow. During this period there is calving and the level of Growth hormone also an increase in production of Reactive increase which down regulates its receptor Oxygen Species (ROS). ROS which cause in liver and decline in IGF-1. Thus GH-IGF lipid peroxidation and thus cause an axis uncouples. This in-turn causes a direct cellular change to tissue. Immune cell action of GH on lipolysis and membranes made of high concentration of gluconeogenesis. The concentration of PUFA which make them more susceptible Progestrone also decline at the time of to peroxidation and animal suffer from calving and estrogen and glucocorticoides neutrophilia and eosinopaenia. Due to fat conentration increases. moblisation and triglyceride deposition in This change inhormonal profile not liver cells, reduction in blood cholesterol only effects the DMI but also cause an and HDL and thus the unhealthy cow have increase in moblisation of body fat from lower paraoxanase activity. adipocyte which in turncause rise in NEFA METABOLIC DISORDERS concentration. If NEFA concentration rises very high it leads to development of fatty Ketosis liver, increased risk for displaced NEB leads to decrease insulin and abomasums, ketosis, ROP and metritis mobilization of triacylglycerol which which act as a contributing factor for other deposits as NEFA. NEFA on oxidation yield acetyl coA which is used inorder to generate energy via krebs cycle. After generating energy the excess acetyl coA is diverted to produce ketone leading to temporary period of subclinical ketosis in initial month of lactation. Thus ketosis is characterized by hypoglycemia and hyperketonemia. The normal concentration of plasma ketone is less than 10 mg/dl and during clinical ketosis the health problem in post partum period. conecntartion of ketone becomes greater Leptin is another important hormone than 35 mg/dl. Inorder to prevent ketosis which is strongly correlated to BCS and it we must make attempts to increase the

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DMI of cow and increase the energy dairy cows grazing at two pasture density so as to avoid excessive weight loss allowances. J. Dairy Sci.85:1777-92. and maintain the BCS at 3.5 scale. Bell, A.W. 1995. Regulation of organic nutrient Displaced Abomomasum metabolism during transition from late Metritis, NEB, and nutrition especially pregnancy toearly lactation. J. Anim. Sci. 73: 2804-2819. calcium deficiency bacuse its role in muscle Chen, K. J., Jan, D.F., Chiou, P.W.S., Yang, D.W. tonicity, plays as important role in 2002. Effect of dietary heat extruded development of LDA. According to NRC the soybean meal and protected fat NE requirement for lactation is approx supplemented on the production, blood 1.25Mcal/kg from dry off till 21 days and ruminal characteristics of Holstein before calving. NFC should be given in cows. Asian-Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 15: 821- range of 30-35% of total dietary DM to 27. prepartum transition cow. Diet high in NFC Garnsworthy, P.C., Lock, A., Mann, G.E., Sinclair, must be fed prior to calving inorder to K.D. and Webb, R. 2008. Nutrition, promote development of ruminal papillae Metabolism, and Fertility in Dairy Cows: fro absoption of VFA produced during 2.Dietary Fatty Acids and Ovarian Function. J. of Dairy Sci.91: 3824–33. ruminal fermentation. The increase amont Grummer, R.R. 1995. Impact of changes in of propionate cause an increase production organic nutrient metabolism on feeding of microbial protein and glucose which the transition cow. J. of Ani. Sci. 73: satisfies the protein requirement for 2820–33. maintenance pregnancy and Ingvartsen, K.L. and Andersen, J.B., 2000. mammogenesis. Symposium: dry matter intake of lactating dairy cattle. Integration of CONCLUSION metabolism and intake regulation: a Transition cows because of NEB and review focusing on periparturient hormonal profile remain in state of animals. J. Dairy Sci. 83: 1573–97. lipolysis. Thus animal should be supplied Lucy, M., Jiang, H., Kobayashi, Y., 2001. Changes with increasing amount of glucogenic in the somatotrophic axis associated nutrients relative to lipogenic nutrient with the initiation of lactation. J. Dairy during early lactation. Feeding of rumen Sci. 84, E113-E119. Robinson, P.H., and J.E. Garrett. 1999. Effect of bypass fat to transient cow reduce NEB and yeast culture (Saccharomyces NEFA and BHBA level in blood which cerevisiae) on adaptation of cows to increase DMI and thus prevent production postpartum diets and on lactational disease of cattle. performance. J. Anim. Sci. 77:988-999. REFERENCES Shelke, S. K., Thakur, S. S. and Shete, S. M. 2012. Productive and reproductive Bargo, F.L.D., Muller, J.E. and Cassidy, T.W. performance of Murrah buffaloes 2002. Milk response to concentrate (Bubalusbubalis) supplemented with supplementation of high producing rumen protected fat and protein. Ind. J.of AniNutr.29: 317-23.

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Indian Farmer 2(11):872-874; November-2015 Kumar et al

Heat Stress and Its Management in Farm Animals

Manoj Kumar1, Poonam Ratwan1, Nancy Sheoran2 and Mohsin A. Mir1

1Ph.D. Scholar, DCB Division, ICAR-NDRI Karnal-132001 2M.V.Sc. Scholar, Animal Nutrition, LLRUVAS, Hisar-125001 Corresponding author:[email protected]

eat Stress is an important factor Heat stress affects the dairy farm animals that negatively affects the in several ways and decreases milk H performance and productivity production and performance of the traits of dairy animals, especially in hot animals. Some of most important results of climate or summer season. Heat stress can heat stress in dairy farm animals include:- affect the performance and health of  Behavioral signs such as shade seeking lactating as well as dry animals. Lactating refuse to lie down and in coordination. animals especially during peak of milk  Increased respiration rate and labored production and dry animals especially breathing or panting. during transition period can experience  An increase in heart rate. heat stress. Heat stress is usually seen  Excessive salivation. when daily temperatures exceed 25 C̊  Increased sweating. although humidity also plays a significant  Some changes in digestion of food such role. Like humans, in animals evaporation as reduced or absence of rumination is very important in controlling body (chewing of cud) and slower feed temperature but high humidity reduces its passage rate through digestive tract. effectiveness. Heat stress tends to be more severe in larger framed, high yielding animals because high yielding animals need to eat more and so produce more internal heat. Heat stress is important factor that reduces the dairy farm profitability and conduce to significant decrease in milk yield in dairy animals and some metabolically disorders. Heat stress can reduce productivity, cause reproductive problems such as reduced semen quality and low birth weights, and compromise the immune system.  Crowding around water sources and Effects Of Heat Stress On Dairy Farm increased water intake. Animals  Decreased blood flow to internal organs.

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 Decreased dry matter intake and feed sprinkling them with water, using fans intake. and so on.  Decreased milk production and milk  Increasing the efficiency of feed energy quality. utilization and reducing the heat  Change in body hormones level. increment of animals by feeding  Poor reproductive performance. strategies.  Low birth weight of calves.  Increase air flow over the animals.  Increased requirements of maintenance Efficient use of fans will help alleviate energy. heat stress when animals are housed. How To Minimize Heat Stress All vents should be fully open.  Lowering the environmental  Minimize time spent in holding pens temperature by modifying the structure before milking. of the shed where animals are kept or  For dairy cows in pasture-based by introducing cooling facilities. systems the use of sprinklers while the  Increasing heat loss from animals by cows wait for the afternoon milking

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Indian Farmer 2(11):872-874; November-2015 Kumar et al

reduces heat stress. Sprinklers also and we must reduce its affect on animals reduce irritation from insects. with several possible methods. More  Avoid handling cattle during hot, research is needed to develop a more humid weather. If it is necessary to efficient and sustainable production carry out stressful events (e.g. system for dairy cows in hot castrating, vaccinating), do these all in environments. Use of better the early morning. managemental practices finally reduces  Avoid transporting livestock in hot the heat stress effects in hot climate and weather; move between 8 pm and 8 am increases the performance of dairy farm and reduce loading density. Do not animals and consequently increases the move animals from a relatively cool herd profitability. environment to a hot environment during the summer.  Reduce biting fly populations (with improved sanitation, repellents and traps) which tend to cause cattle to bunch together.  Provide access to high quality forage (e.g. first cut dry hay) in feed bunks in shaded areas even if cows are also on good quality pasture. TREATMENT First immediate action for treatment of dairy farm animals should involve housing the animals down with large volumes of cold water, minimizing stress/physical exertion, placing them in the shade and provide air movement with increasing the ventilation rate. Use of large volumes of intravenous fluids and electrolytes, rectal enemas or stomach tubing with water can be beneficial methods in some conditions. Use of sodium bicarbonate with ration is another effective method for treatment of heat stressed dairy farm animals. CONCLUSION Heat stress can negatively affect the production and health of dairy animals

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Indian Farmer 2(11):875-879; November-2015 Devi et al

Livestock Behavior and its Importance

Indu Devi1, Shiwani Tiwari2, Kuldeep Dudi3 and Ranjna Sinha4

1,2,3,4Research Scholars (LPM) ICAR- NDRI, Karnal Corresponding author- [email protected]

thology or the science of animal pattern of behavior has a definite special behavior attempts to study what an adaptive function, which can be related to E animal does and why. It is useful to general function. Some of the behavioural classify behavioral patterns of animals to patterns are: understand as how they may be modified 1. SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR by the environment and how they can provide indications of normality or Each species has its own pattern of sexual abnormality in terms of production, health behavior and it is useful in implementing and general welfare. Understanding the breeding programs. Unlike in wild state behavior of a particular species is an where mating is not selective, in essential part of care and management. domesticated animal the mating is Behavioural studies can bring out controlled and can be practiced according significant impacts in lives of domestic to breeders’ choice. Under natural animals by considering the factors like conditions domestic animals exhibit a social companionship, dominance by some polygamous mating system described as animals, regular feeding, resting regimes “female (or harem) defense polygyny that and rhythms of other activities such as is, individual males gain and control access sleeping and breeding. Tinbergen (1951) to two or more females by virtue of gave stress on the importance of making a gregariousness of females and ability of complete inventory or Ethogram of males to dominate other males (Emlen and behavior pattern of every species. Each Oring,1977). In mammals, the members of animal species has its own way of family bovidae have almost similar pattern performing certain functions and very of sexual behavior. This behavior has a rarely it departs from them, for example special significance in animal breeding the ruminants characteristically clean their because of financial stakes involved. The neonates after birth, thereby stimulating copulatory process in cattle and buffaloes is reflexes of defecation and urination. The very brief in comparison to other species. study of livestock behavior is an analysis of One of the main factors hampering the potentialities of the nervous system progress in the semen collection is poor which can be viewed as the organismic libido, poor quality semen and more integration of all the physiological reaction time. The sexual behavior in processes taking place in an animal. Each females is expressed only during oestrus. Determination of oestrus time as indicated

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Indian Farmer 2(11):875-879; November-2015 Devi et al by the oestrus behavior is complicated by This behavior is exhibited by animals the occurrence of silent and false heats. during eating and drinking. For example Social ranking of bulls within groups can cattle graze 4- 9 hours per day, ruminate 4 - influence their sexual activity. The social 9 hours per day, regurgitate 300-400 ranking of bulls is largely controlled by age boluses of feed per day. Sheep and goats and seniority within the groups and as such graze 9-11 hours per day, 7-10 hours per ranking is significantly related to sexual day, regurgitate 400- 600 boluses per day. activity. In a recent study on the Grazing activity is largely confined to day behavioural temperament and libido in time and onset of grazing is closely related crossbred bulls, it was observed that most with time of sunrise. Horse graze mostly in of the bulls were slightly aggressive like winter. Cattle usually don’t go 3 miles away exhibition of sexual interest after mounting from water and sheep may travel 8 miles a and donation of semen. Indigenous bulls day. An understanding of the feeding showed better temperament as compared behavior pattern used by animals to search to their crossbred counterparts. for, to locate and to ingest food is therefore crucial to development of successful husbandry practices.

Flehman reaction, exhibited by some bulls after sniffing the genitals of another herd mate. It raises its neck, extends its chin and inhales with slightly opened mouth, tongue Feeding Behaviuor held in a flat position and upper lip curled 3. THERMOREGULATORY BEHAVIOUR so that nostrils become partly closed. The bulls showing flehman response are Thermoregulatory behavior changes are sexually more active. The information controlled by the central nervous system, available on behavioral temperament in particularly the hypothalamus. Most of the farm animals is very scarce. It would be in animals when in captivity, seek comfortable the interest of breeders to include the environment. When the animals are grazing temperament score ratings of male calves they seek shade after environment in the as one of the criterion for selection of male sun. Metabolic heat can be reduced by calves for mating programs. decreasing feed intake and it has been observed that animals generally eat less when the temperature is hot. This is a 2. FEEDING OR INGESTIVE BEHAVIOUR

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Indian Farmer 2(11):875-879; November-2015 Devi et al practical problem when the temperate play an important role in their adult breeds are introduced in the tropical areas. behavior when placed in groups. In a study on workability of indigenous bullocks vis-à-vis crossbred bullocks was affected by intense heat and they had a tendency to seek shelter after sometime. On the other hand the indigenous bullocks did not face such problem. It is, therefore, emphasized that crossbred animals be provided shady and cool environment during hot summer mouths so that they can Maternal Care (care giving) Behaviour demonstrate their potential to the maximum. 5. CARE SOLICITING (ET-EPIMELTIC) BEHAVIOUR 4. CARE GIVING (EPIMELTIC) BEHAVIOUR In most of the mammals, the new born calves are unable to take care of This is a maternal behavior, most themselves. New born calf seeks its commonly observed in all mammals. Care mother’s help by producing some noise or giving response is also termed as nursing. signal. When in distress they give distress This behavior is confined to female though call, knowledge of these and their meaning in some cases males also help the off-spring is of considerable help in management of in their tasks. The cow allows its new born young animals. Adult cattle and buffaloes to suckle. As part of dairy husbandry will make calls when they are hungry or practice, where weaning is practiced, the separated from their groups. It is common farmer then becomes the foster mother and to see the ruminants making wild calls the care giving behavior is established. This when feed is being distributed. results in a symbiotic relationship between animals and humans. The animals can 6. AGONISTIC BEHAVIOUR therefore be trained for docility and This includes fighting and hurting each tolerance towards the human handlers. One other when placed in the paddocks for the of the major constraints in the semen first time. Some animals are aggressive and collection in bulls is their level of have tendency to become bossy.This is one aggressiveness at the time of donation. The of the practical problem in group housed behavior of human handlers towards bulls animals. The animals which live on the kept for semen collection should be kind herds are dehorned so as to avoid serious and sympathetic. By careful and kind injuries. Fighting or aggressiveness is handling, it is possible to get best out of the commonly observed in males. Control of bulls in form of excellent libido and semen undesirable fighting is an essential pre- quality. It has been well established that requisite for the successful herding of cows early rearing conditions of young calves and buffaloes. This is done through the

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Indian Farmer 2(11):875-879; November-2015 Devi et al development of social relationship and information is exchanged between social organization. individual animals. Example of distress call like lambs bleat, calve bawl, pigs squeal and chicks chirp and bulls bellow deeply to communicate aggressive behaviour . If we can interpret this information correctly, it could be used to improve welfare and management assessment. Vocalization may be viewed as a subjective commentry, by an individual , on its internal state.The vocal behaviour of cattle is potentially a useful Agonistic Behaviour indicator of their physiological and 7. INVESTIGATORY BEHAVIOUR psychological functioning.Vocalization Each animal has curiosity and tendency to provide information on age, sex, dominance explore the environment in which it is status and reproductive status of caller placed. Whenever the animal is introduced animal. Vocal behaviour is valuable in into a new place, its first reaction is to welfare of animals. Particular state of mood explore it with the help of sense organs. As or emotions may be communicated by a part of successful management practice it vocalization. For these reason, analysis of is required that some adjustment time be farm animal’s vocal behaviour has gained given to animals when introduced in new increasing interest in the last years and a herds or groups. Exploratory behavior is variety of attempts to decode meaning has behavioural expression of curiosity and been made. stimulus situations that evoke curiosity and 9. ALLELOMIMETIC BEHAVIOUR fear are similar but the difference between Animals of a species tend to do the same situations is of magnitude ( Hinde, things at same time, which is due to mutual 1966).Low level of stimulation elicit mimicking behaviour. For example cattle exploration and high level evoke fear with and sheep tend to graze at the same time threshold between two responses and rest and ruminate at the same time. depending on animal’s internal state. Pigs, Range cattle gather at the watering place horses and dairy goats are highly curious, about the same time each day because one investigate any strange any strange object, follows the other. This behaviour is approach carefully, sniffing and looking as important for a producer as he may they approach. observe the herd with little difficulty, also 8. VOCAL BEHAVIOUR OR useful in driving groups of animals from (COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOUR) one place to another and give safety to The vocalization of cattle provide group of animals. conspecifics with meaningful information CONCLUSION about the caller and some type of

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Indian Farmer 2(11):875-879; November-2015 Devi et al

Each of the pattern of behavior discussed pattern and their limitations, but also the above, has at least tendency to draw stimuli which produce that behavior. It has animals together with the exception of become increasingly clear that there are agonistic behavior which has the effect of many ways in which ethology can help with keeping animals at a distance. A sound welfare of animals and therby ensuring knowledge of animals anticipated behavior more benefit from more sensible is very useful in handling and restraining husbandry. Thorough understanding of loose animals. Every farmer must have a behavior patterns peculiar to a species is an working knowledge of behavior of the essential part of the successful care and species he is dealing with. Understanding management. the behavior of domestic animals involves not only knowledge of its basic behavior

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Indian Farmer 2(11):880-883; November-2015 Gamit et al

Role of Information and Communication Technology In Livestock Sector:

An Overview

P. M.Gamit 1, S. S. Parikh2, V. V. Gamit 3, G. B. Solanki4 and P. U. Gajbhiye5

1,2,3,4Assistant Research Scientist, 5Research Scientist Cattle Breeding Farm, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, India Corresponding author: [email protected]

ivestock systems occupy about 30 education system is for enhancing per cent of the planet’s ice-free teaching, distance learning, video L terrestrial surface area (Steinfeld conference and animal science research et al., 2006) and are a significant global (Tiwari et al., 2010). One of such asset with a value of at least $1.4 trillion. important ICT tool is National Reference This system employs about 1.3 billion Centre for Veterinary Epidemiology people globally and directly supports the developed a web-based National livelihoods of 600 million poor Information System (NIS) and a smallholder farmers in the developing Geographical Information System (GIS) to world (Thornton et al., 2006). Livestock collect and manage data. Surveillance sector plays a multi-faceted role in socio- data are displayed to the user in different economic development of rural ways: reports, tables and interactive households. Livestock is an important maps (Conte et al., 2005). component of the agriculture system, There are many modern ICT tools providing an additional source of income like geographic information systems, and nutritional cover to a large section of global positioning system, database the rural population, particularly the management system, computer aided disadvantaged and poor households design, computer network technologies, (Singh et al., 2007). Information and artificial intelligence/ expert systems, communication technologies broadly decision support system / information refer to set of activities that is facilitated system and learning management system by electronic means the capturing, which can be incorporated at many storage, processing, transmission, and stages in a livestock production systems. display of information. Application of ICT A Geographical Information System (GIS) in livestock sector is for awareness for is a computer system for processing, various aspect of livestock production storing, checking, integrating, management, research, education, dairy manipulating, analysing and displaying. farm management, agribusiness, disease The data is related to positions on the surveillance, learning management surface of the earth. It is then presented system, data analysis, biological database, cartographically, graphically or as a dissemination of information (Meena and report. GIS can help identify clusters of Singh, 2013). Role of ICT in veterinary disease, manage and predict disease

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Indian Farmer 2(11):880-883; November-2015 Gamit et al outbreaks, identify risk factors, assess milk, Elimination of unfair practice, sample and population distributions, and Record keeping, Billing is achieved. The supplement other areas of food safety GCMMF – Amul has taken the initiative of and animal health surveillance and installing the AMCUS – Automatic Milk research. The geography-centric nature Collection Unit Systems at village of GIS helps in understanding the societies to enhance the transparency of dynamics of animal health and the spread transaction between the farmer and the of disease. GIS can be used to produce Co-Operative Society. These systems not maps of disease incidence, prevalence, only ensured the transparency but also mortality, morbidity on farm, province, gave Co-Operative societies a unique region, or national levels. In case of an advantage by reducing the processing outbreak of an infectious disease, GIS can time to 10 percent of what it used to be provide an excellent tool for identifying prior to this. The Dairy Information and the location of the case farm and all farms Services Kiosk (DISK)- model has built at risk within a specified area of the upon the existing application by outbreak. expanding the database of the milk Global positioning system is a societies to include a complete history of space-based satellite navigation system milk cattle owned by the member that provides location and time farmers. The details such as the breed information in all weather conditions, and a history of diseases, inoculation, and anywhere on or near the Earth where artificial insemination are maintained in there is an unobstructed line of sight to the system. The data history on milk four or more GPS satellites. The speed of production by individual farmer is also communication and accuracy of the available in the database at the collection global positioning system (GPS) function centers. Artificial intelligence is a branch integrated on mobile phones is of great of computer science for designing and advantage for farmers who are developing of helping machines to find increasingly using this technology. solutions of complex problems in a more Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use human-like fashion. AI programs that of computer systems to assist in the achieve expert-level competence in creation, modification, analysis, or solving problems in task areas by optimization of a design. CAD software is bringing to bear a body of knowledge used to increase the productivity of the about specific tasks are designer, improve the quality of design, called knowledge-based or expert improve communications through systems. An expert system is a computer documentation and to create a database program designed to simulate the for manufacturing. Automatic Milk problem-solving behaviour of a human Collection Unit Systems at village who is an expert in a narrow domain or societies to enhance the transparency of discipline. transaction between the farmer and the Information system is Co-Operative Society. Timely, accurate a software system whose main purpose is & transparent milk collection, Reduction to publish and maintain data by of waiting time, Decrease in wastage of using hypertext-based principles. With

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Indian Farmer 2(11):880-883; November-2015 Gamit et al the help of this system, users can retrieve In India as per NSSO (2005) about the relevant information in quick time at 5.1 percent of the households have some single window. Web-based Information kind of access to modern technology in System uses Internet web technologies to relation to animal husbandry activity. deliver information and services, to users Among many factors education, income or other information and social category of farmers are systems/applications. A new breed of important socio-demographic factors Information Systems (IS) known as affecting the adoption of ICT based Learning Management Systems (LMS) are information systems (Jabir Ali, 2012). evolving to enable learning in Education is one of the most important organizations. IT-based learning and indicators of adoption of ICT and an teaching are becoming a pervasive increase in education positively technology for the academician and influences adoption of ICT to improve researchers working in the area of farm practices (Agwu et al., 2008). ICT biological sciences too. E-learning tools use in dairy farm entrepreneurs in applications and processes include Web- Banaskantha district (Gujarat) is about based learning, computer-based learning, 30 % most visited web sites, 32.5 % virtual education opportunities and surfing web sites and 37.6 % know digital collaboration. Modern ICTs—such agriculture and animal husbandry as the Internet, mobile phones, television websites (Ghasura et al., 2011). and radio—have the ability to deliver Management of a dairy enterprise relevant and timely information that has always been versatile. Hence, there is facilitates making informed decisions to a requirement of developing effective use resources in the most productive and information systems for planning and profitable way (Ekbia & Evans, 2009). monitoring of livestock development In modern age, one of the programs, improving livestock services important contributions of ICT in and enabling learning for capacity livestock sector is development of building that uses ICT effectively and electronic tags for unique identification of efficiently. Further, use of modern ICT as animals by using RFID (radio-frequency a means to precision farming has the identification) chips, which are cheap, potential to improve productivity and unique and tamperproof. Through a contribute to more sustainable magnetic reader one can get information smallholder livestock production systems about the animal, which includes date of under event of drivers of development birth, breed, milk yield, owner etc. change and climate change. Automatic identification of individual REFERENCES animal helps in improving the farm management practice and welfare of Agwu, A. E., Ekwueme, J. N. and Anyanwu, animals. Although RFID is being very A. C. (2008). Adoption of improved widely used in many of the organized agricultural technologies farms because of its unique advantages disseminated via radio farmer (Ruhil et al., 2013). programme by farmers in Enugu

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