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Turkish Modernity and Kurdish Ethno-Nationalism a Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School Social Sciences of Middle East Technic

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Turkish Modernity and Kurdish Ethno-Nationalism a Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School Social Sciences of Middle East Technic TURKISH MODERNITY AND KURDISH ETHNO-NATIONALISM A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY MEKİN MUSTAFA KEMAL ÖKEM IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN POLITICAL SCIENCE APRIL 2006 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof. Dr. Sencer AYATA Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. Feride ACAR Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Prof. Dr. Ayşe Güneş Ayata Supervisor Examining Committee Members Prof. Dr. Gencay Şaylan (AU, FPS) Prof. Dr. Ayşe Güneş Ayata (METU, ADM) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pınar Akçalı (METU, ADM) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ceylan Tokluoğlu (METU, SOC) Asst. Prof. Dr. Kürşad Ertuğrul (METU, ADM) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last Name :Mekin Mustafa Kemal Ökem Signature : iii ABSTRACT TURKISH MODERNITY AND KURDISH ETHNO-NATIONALISM Ökem, Mekin Mustafa Kemal Ph.D., Department of Political Science and Public Administration Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Ayşe Ayata Güneş April 2006, 343 pages This dissertation analyzes the context and discourse the Kurdish ethno- nationalism have emerged in modern Turkey. In a critical survey of a selected Kurdish nationalist theories, it tries to analyze the historical and contextual trajectory the nationalist discourse have assumed vis-à- vis Turkish modernity. A particular emphasis is given on how and on what basis Kurdish nationalism has questioned the formation and the sources of the legitimacy of the Turkish state and its role in the making of Turkish modernity. Kurdish nationalism, in doing so, defined and instrumentally utilized ethnicity, along with other aspects of cohesion such as Islam, socialism and traditional tribal solidarity since the 1920s. This study argues that modern Kurdish nationalist movement emerged by divorcing itself from the Turkish left in the 1960s. It proliferated in the 1970s and spiraled down to separatist violence in the 1980s. Violence has dominated and synchronized Kurdish nationalist discourse in the 1990s. It sought for international recognition and independent sovereignty by targeting the legitimacy of the Turkish state. The Kurdish nationalist movement moved along, in discourse and practice, around the issues related to the Turkish state, which has evolved with the changing and diversified context of international rights. Keywords: Turkish Modernity, Kurdish Nationalism iv ÖZ TÜRK MODERNLİĞİ VE KÜRT ETNİK MİLLİYETÇİLİĞİ Ökem, Mekin Mustafa Kemal Doktora, Siyaset Bilimi ve Kamu Yönetimi Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Ayşe Ayata Güneş Nisan 2006, 343 sayfa Bu doktora tezinde çağdaş Türkiye’de Kürt milliyetçiliğinin oluştuğu bağlam ve söylemi incelenmektedir. Bazı seçilmiş Kürt milliyetçiliği kuramları eleştirel biçimde tartışılarak, milliyetçi söylemin Türk modernliği karşısında izlediği tarihsel ve bağlamsal değişim çözümlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Kürt milliyetçiliğinin, Türk devletinin meşruiyetini ve Türk modernliğinin oluşumundaki rolünü nasıl ve hangi temelde sorguladığı üzerinde özellikle durulmuştur. Kürt milliyetçiliği bunu yaparken, 1920’lerden bu yana İslam, sosyalizm ve geleneksel aşiret dayanışması gibi diğer birleştirici ögelerin yanında, etnisiteyi de araçsal biçimde tanımlayarak, kullanmıştır. Bu çalışma, modern Kürt milliyetçi hareketinin 1960’larda Türk solundan ayrılmayla ortaya çıktığını öne sürmektedir. Bu hareket, 1970’lerde aşırılaşarak, 1980’lerde ayrılıkçı şiddete yönelmiştir. Şiddet, Kürt milliyetçiliği söylemini egemenliğine almış ve eşsesli hale getirmiştir. Türk devletinin meşruiyetini hedef alarak, uluslararası tanınma ve bağımsız egemenlik elde etmeyi amaçlamıştır. Söylemde ve uygulamada, 1920’lerden bu yana değişen ve çeşitlenen uluslararası haklar bağlamında, Türk devletinin meşruiyetine ilişkin etkenlerle birlikte hareket etmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Türk Modernliği, Kürt Milliyetçiliği v To my dearest wife, Güldem and sons, Alp and Can vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Ayşe Ayata Güneş for her guidance, encouragement and patience as well as her invaluable criticism and insight throughout this research. I wish to thank Prof. Dr. Gencay Şaylan, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pınar Akçalı, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ceylan Tokluoğlu and Asst. Prof. Dr. Kürşat Ertuğrul for their useful suggestions and comments. I gratefully acknowledge the support and patience of my family and my colleagues. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAGIARISM…………………………………………………………... iii ABSTRACT.……………………………………………………………. iv ÖZ.…………………………………………………………………….… v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..……………………………………………. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS.……………………………………………….. viii CHAPTERS 1. INTRODUCTION.…..…………………………………………….. 1 1.1 Scope of the Study.…..….…………………………………….. 3 1.2 Areas of Problem.………...………………….……….………... 6 1.3 Theoretical Premises and Hypotheses.……...…………....……. 14 1.4 Methodological Concerns and Literature.……………….…….. 19 2. MODERNITY, NATIONALISM AND ETHNICITY.……………. 26 2.1 The Double Experience of Modernity and Nationalism: Between History and Theory.……………………………………… 27 2.2 When and What is a Nation?.………………………………….. 34 2.3 Ethnicity as a Theoretical Concept and as an Ideological Tool 42 2.4 Phenomenology of Ethnicity: Primordialist and Perennialist Conceptions.……………………………………………………….. 46 2.5 Class versus Nation..…………………………………………... 51 2.6 Does Ethno-nationalism Exist?.……………………………….. 60 3. A CRITICAL REVIEW OF THEORIES OF KURDISH ETHNICITY AND NATIONALISM IN MODERN TURKEY.…….. 69 3.1 Primordialist Conceptions on Kurdish Ethnicity.………….….. 74 viii 3.1.1 Bender: Territorial Primordialism.……………………… 74 3.1.2 The “Turkic Descent” Debate: Çay and Türkdoğan.….... 80 3.2 Perennialists/Ethno-symbolists.....…………………………….. 85 3.2.1 Non-contextual Analysis I: Yıldız and the Exclusive Symbols of Turkish Modernity.………………………………. 86 3.2.2 Comparative Symbolism.……………………………….. 93 3.3 Modernist Paradigm.…………………………………………... 100 3.3.1 Beşikçi: From “under-underdevelopment” to “decolonization”………………………………………………. 102 3.3.2 Constructivist Nationalism.…………………….……….. 109 3.3.3 The PKK: Revolutionary Modernizers?..………………. 113 3.4 Transcending Turkish Modernity……………………………… 119 3.4.1 Non-contextual Analysis II: Yeğen’s Foucaultian Archaeology..………….……………………………………… 121 3.4.2 Theories of Transcending Turkish Modernity Re-visited 131 4. KURDISH NATIONALISM AND THE LEGITIMACY OF THE TURKISH STATE.…………………………………………….……... 137 4.1 On the “genealogy” of Kurdish Nationalism.…………………. 139 4.1.1 The Ottoman Polity and Kurdish Ethno-political Reaction……………………………………………………….. 139 4.1.2 The Ethnic and Religious Exclusion Debate……………. 148 4.1.3 The Problem of Mobilization…………………………… 157 4.1.4 A Kurdish Proto-nationalism (1919-1930)?..…………… 159 4.2 Turkish Modernity and International Legitimacy..……………. 171 4.2.1 Reading the Ottoman/Turkish Modernity as a System of Legitimacy…………………………………………………….. 172 ix 4.2.2 The Kurdish Nationalist Claims for International Legitimacy 1919-1930..………………………………………. 180 4.2.3 The Path to Nation-statehood in the Inter-war Period…... 188 4.2.4 Incorporation and Parliamentary Politics 1930-1960…… 196 4.3 The Emergence of Modern Kurdish Nationalism in the 1960s 204 4.3.1 Decolonization and the Changing Context of International Legitimacy……………………………………… 205 4.3.2 The Legalization of Revolutionary Kurdish Nationalism 211 4.4 The Consolidation of Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Turkey 223 4.4.1 The Burgeoning Minority Rights in the post-Helsinki Era: A Case for Non-Colonial Liberation?…………………… 224 4.4.2 The PKK Movement: Legitimacy by Violence?.……….. 233 4.4.3 Re-legalization, Non-parliamentarianism and the ‘Peoplehood’ Project………………………….………………. 247 5. CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………. 269 BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………. 280 TURKISH SUMMARY .………………………………………………... 323 CURRICULUM VITAE ………………………………………………... 343 x 1. INTRODUCTION This research intends to study the complex relationship between Turkish modernity and Kurdish nationalism. The question of legitimacy that has constituted a contextual area for the two, has changed with the shifting and sometimes conflicting perceptions of modernity. My main thesis will be that Kurdish nationalism in Turkey has emerged, moved and consolidated with the question of the legitimacy of the Turkish state. The main theoretical framework in this study will be based on the understanding that nations are modern political phenomena. The distinctiveness and historicness of ethnic, cultural, religious and social ‘qualities’ in human collectivities help, but do not make nations and nationalisms. It is ‘modernity’ that defines the political form and relations between the nations. It was the changing socio-economic conditions in history that brought the need for the absolutist state and a secular national polity within it in the 16 th and 17 th centuries of Western Europe. The nation-statehood became the international norm of sovereignty in the 17 th century. The conditions of its recognition increasingly involved the norm of legitimacy, which evolved with the accelerated expansion of Europe in the 18 th and 19 th centuries, toward Eastern
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