The Hague International Model United Nations 2020 | 26th January 2020 – 31st January 2020 Forum: Advisory Panel
Issue: Stabilising the Kurdish Region to Prevent Further Conflicts
Introduction
Starting with the French Revolution in 1789, the notion of nationalism drastically rose and set the course of territorial formation that will take place in the upcoming centuries. While many states were empires prior to the revolution, accommodating people diverse ethnicities, nationalism changed the perception of a national formation and divided populations based on one’s ethnicity instead of other identification parameters. With such a drastic change, numerous nations were formed, including 54 states in Africa, Israel in Middle East, and many others in South Eastern Asia. With an ethnic root correlating to a nationality, numerous minority movements commenced and many resulted with successful state secessions or formations. However, one that failed and became a geo-political significance is the Kurdish state, which theoretically never gained full independence. Kurdish people, being the largest ethnic group without a fully independent state, have been spanning a vast territory encapsulating regions in Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Armenia. The territorial span can be viewed in the image to the right.
The Kurdish presence in the region stretches to a distant past as people of Kurdish ethnicity were considered to be the indigenous people of the Mesopotamian plains- region located between Tigris and Euphrates. Furthermore, Vilayet-i Kurdistan (Kurdish State within the Ottoman Empire) was quite similar to an autonomous state during the Ottoman Empire’s jurisdiction over the region. However, then with the establishment of modern states, specifically Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran, Kurdish independence became a struggle with global involvement.
Over the 20th century, there have been independently coordinated Kurdish independence/ autonomy struggles respectively in Turkey, Iraq, and Syria, while not having almost any conflict in Armenia. The conflict in Turkey involved multiple rebellions in multiple cities while the conflict has been having a sharp severity peak since the 1980s with the rise of Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK). On the Iraqi side, Kurds have been equipped with many more national right compared to the Kurds in neighbouring states. Furthermore, Iraqi Kurds have been well represented through the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP).
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Though there have been numerous clashes in Iraq as well, a Kurdistan Regional Government was established in 1992 as an autonomous state; yet, its independence referendum in 2017 was not acknowledged by almost any state. Finally, Kurds in Syria have been struggling to exercise their national rights over the past century. With the arousal of the Syrian Civil War, Kurdish militias have been actively defending regions of Kurdish majority.
Without much international consensus on the issue, Kurdish people have been struggling to gain independence and recognition. CONCERNING THE MOST RECENT EVENTS, AN UPDATE REPORT WRITTEN BY THE THIMUN FOUNDATION WILL BE PUT ON OUR WEBSITE SHORTLY.
Definition of Key Terms
State Actor
State actors are nation states with international recognition. State actors are also known as de jure entities, meaning that they are based on rightful entitlements. While the term is quite comprehendible, many sub-disputes in this research report denotes state- non-state disputes.
Non State Actor
Non-State actors that lack an international recognition. Many of the non-state actors are de facto entities, which either lack legal entitlements to officially have a nation state or acting in somehow autonomous manner while lacking official recognition. Such examples include the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).
Autonomy
The term autonomy denotes right to self-rule. Within the context of this issue, autonomous states mainly are de facto states with set of recognized rights to self-rule and have an internal jurisdiction. An example is the Iraqi Kurdistan (KRG), which tough is autonomous, lacks international recognition and representation.
Internal Colonization
Internal colonization has been present for centuries and has been mostly used by the Ottoman Empire for populating the Balkan regions with Turkmens for unifying the population. Such a process mainly aims to prevent any rebellion or secession attempt and cultural assimilation for maintaining unity within the state. This method was mainly used by Iraq to prevent a Kurdish secession or autonomy in Northern Iraq.
Ba’athisim
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Ba’athism is a nationalistic ideology aiming to create a unified Arab State. The ideology was in effect in Egypt during the Naser administration and in Iraq during the Saddam administration. The ideology mainly aims to eliminate any possible threats to a unified state, which has been a Kurdish state for the Ba’athist Iraqi administration and Israel between 1960-80 for its bordering Arab states.
Background Information
The report will be delivering a brief overview of the Kurdish history in this section. The subsequent subsections will mainly respectively analyse the Kurdish conflicts in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq.
As mentioned in the introductory section, the Ottoman Empire had a state named Kurdistan. Then with the World War 1 approaching to an end with the Treaty of Sevres, leading to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and its territory, some of the Kurdish groups entertained the opportunity and sought independence. Prior to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, an Ottoman commander, Nihat Pasha, negotiated the Kurdish independence. However, with the initiation of the rising founder of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, Nihat Pasha was indicted and the promised region’s independence was not approved by the Turkish National Grand Assembly (the Parliament prior to Turkish Republic). In the meanwhile, 1922- 24, the Kingdom of Kurdistan existed in Iraq, which was later dissolved due to war with Ba’athists (ones demanding a unified Arab State in the region). Additionally, the Turkish Republic suppressed multiple Kurdish revolts 1925, 1930, and 1937 as a response to the Republic of Ararat, which was mainly established by Kurdish forces backed up by the British. As mentioned, with a war broking out in Iraq between 1960-70, Kurdish citizens were unsatisfied with limited ruling, alongside limited access to cities such as Kirkuk (Kerkuk), an oil rich territory. Though Iraq was not willing to provide a fully independent state to Kurdish people within Iraqi territory, an Iraqi-Kurdish stateman devised boundaries for an independent Kurdish State, which included a wide-spanning territory in Eastern Turkey. However, the result was unsuccessful on the Kurdish front as many of the rebellions were suppressed violently, eventually setting Martial Law in Kurdish majority cities of Turkey.
Kurdish Conflict in Iraq
This conflict is mainly described as a sequence of events where Kurdish forces were creating a insurgency with the objective of an independent Kurdish nation. This conflict aroused after the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the end of the first World War.
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As mentioned, the conflict initially aroused after the WW1. With Iraq remaining under the British mandate, Mahmud Barzani conducted multiple armed rebellion against the mandate forces. Barzani was mainly representative of the Kurdish population, whose family carried the leading role within the Iraqi Kurdish conflict. On top of not being successful in his rebellion, Barzani was exiled to India, which was under British control at the time. As soon as he managed to return, he was once again appointed as a governor in Northern Iraq, which led him to execute the second series of rebellion. Eventually, he declared himself the king of the Kurdish Kingdom, a state that existed only between 1922-1924. However, the British forces clearly outweigh the Kurdish ones, reinstating the British centralized governance in the region.
The second set of impactful revolts (1931) were executed under Ahmed Barzani’s governance. Ahmed Barzani’s success was mainly in unifying the Southern Kurdistan (Iraqi Kurdistan, as visible in the map to the right). Southern Kurdistan was mainly populated with diverse Kurdish tribes that remained distant prior to the first World War, and such a unification was a major show-off of strength towards the internationally recognized government. However, the Barzani forces were defeated by the Iraqi forces, which were backed up by the British. As a result, the Kurdish opposition took a more underground-like stance. In short, though the Kurdish forces were defeated for multiple times, it maintained a steady resilience to the Iraqi military, drastically making Kurdish nationalism a more prominent and popular notion.
The final revolt during the Kingdom of Iraq period took place between 1943-45. The revolt resulted in a defeat for the Kurdish forces, eventually exiling Mustafa Barzani.
Afterwards, the 1958 Iraq coup d’État took place, demolishing the kingdom and establishing the current day Iraqi state. The new Iraqi president invited Mustafa Barzani back to the country from his exile and promised a Kurdish autonomous state, in exchange for support for his policies. Simultaneously, Barzani started leading the Kurdish Democratic Party in Iraq. While he was supported by the Iraqi government, Barzani’s objective was not mere autonomy, yet an independent state. Hence, the first Iraqi-Kurdish war erupted in 1960s. The war concluded with thousands of causalities. The diplomatic aspect was concluded with Iraqi-Kurdish negotiations, eventually establishing an autonomous state in the northern Iraq. Additionally, a ceasefire was established between 1970-1974, aiming to successfully implement the
Page 4 of 15 | Research Report The Hague International Model United Nations 2020 | 26th January 2020 – 31st January 2020 negotiated terms. However, Kurdish full autonomy and incorporation into government bodies failed drastically.
Subsequently, the second Iraqi-Kurdish war erupted. Tough the Barzani led forces assumed it be a symmetric warfare, the Iraqi army clearly outweighed the Kurdish forces in terms of weaponry. The war ended as a major defeat for the Kurdish Democratic Party.
The next incident took place due to the Baathist government of Iraq. The Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) rebelled against the Iraqi government upon KDP’s defeat in the second Iraqi-Kurdish War. However, the rebellion failed as well due to lack of international support. Another stimulant for the PUK rebellion was the Baathist policy in Northern Iraq. As Northern Iraq was populated by numerous minority groups, the government executed an internal colonization for Arabization of the region. The government’s attempt to shift the demographics was through violent means as well, especially in mid-1970s with Saddam Hussein’s policies.
The Iraq-Iran war erupted in 1980, which also targeted the Kurdish population living in Iraq. Areas with Kurdish majority population were internally colonized; however, some regions maintained certain both armed and unarmed groups. With Saddam Hussein’s commandment in 1983, many Kurdish men were abducted, sent to a prison in Southern Iraq, and tortured. Furthermore, multiple chemical attacks were executed on Kurdish populated regions.
The most significant event, from a global perspective, of the Iran-Iraq War was the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. With the US-led coalition defeating the Iraqi troops in Kuwait, numerous rebellions erupted in Iraq. One of them was the Kurdish rebellion led by Massoud Barzani. The Kurdish administration trained the Peshmerga forces and managed to capture multiple towns, including Kirkuk. However, the Saddam administration was quite concerned about Kirkuk due to its heavy oil reserves, which was rapidly recaptured by Saddam.
The conflict experienced a watershed on 2003 with US invasion of Iraq. The Peshmerga forces were well equipped with heavy weaponry and army training. Though US was claiming an anti-terror operation would take place, more than 300 causalities took place on the enemy (from US perspective) side.
Since the US invasion of Iraq, the dispute became much less tense. On 2012, the issues of territorial jurisdiction once again aroused and the KRG administration requested an official secession. The Iraqi government requested KRG’s jurisdiction over certain regions and Peshmerga to cease its existence. Minor clashes continued over the years.
With the Syrian Civil War rising, Northern Iraq was mainly populated by a Kurdish population as ISIS forces were approaching Northern Iraq, stimulating withdrawal of the Iraqi administration’s forces. The ISIS involvement enabled KRG to assume jurisdiction over regions with oil pipelines. Research Report | Page 5 of 15
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Finally, in 2017, the KRG held an independence referendum, whose results were not recognized by any country- aside from Israel. As the KRG administration did not cancel the referendum, Turkey, Iran, and Iraqi forces invaded a disputed region in Northern Iraq.
Kurdish Conflict in Syria
Just as a very brief overview of the Syrian Civil War, please read this paragraph to fully comprehend the current situation within Syria. With an Arab Spring in Syria in 2011, due to civilian unrest from government policies, a civil war erupted. A Free Syrian Army grew among the civilians and managed to be the main non-proxy opposition to the government led forces. The Assad regime has been mainly backed up by Russian Federation and Iran, while Free Syrian Army has been backed supported by the US-Led counter terrorism coalition. On the other hand, the entire Syrian territory was threatened by ISIS forces, who managed utilize the authority lack across the Syrian territory for gaining autonomy. Over the past year, ISIS’s power drastically alleviated, eliminating it as a threat. However, the lack of authority is still present in Syria with Kurdish forces aiming to gain their own independence as well.
The conflict here denotes the armed disputes between Kurdish forces, namely the YPG, and Islamist factions to the Northern Syria. Though Northern Syria was populated by Kurdish majority population, such Arab/Islamist factions aimed to dominate the region, prominent examples include Al- Qaeda. Therefore, the Kurdish forces, YPG, strived to retrieve the area from such groups and gain autonomy in the region named Rojava, in the map to the right Furthermore, the region highlighted on the map borders with the Turkish Republic, which later erupts a macro-scaled state- non-state armed conflict.
On July 2013, the YPG forces managed to take over the Al-Nusra headquarters near Ras Al-Ayn and with couple of days, multiple cities were cleared off of Islamists- al-Nusra forces- as well. Furthermore, YPG forces managed to capture a dam in Tal A’lo, enabling them to gain resources. However, by the end of July 2013, ISIS and Al-Nusra forces- in coalition- managed to expel any Peshmerga forces and Kurdish civilians from Tell Abyad.
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On August 1 of 2013, ISIS took control of Kobani, which hosts the YPG headquarters. Furthermore, Kurdish civilians from Raqqa and Aleppo were captured and mascaraed in ISIS ruled territories. Kurdish forces took on an offensive in November 2013. Upon YPG capturing approximately forty towns in Northern Syria, the Democratic Union Party (PYD) declared autonomy in Northern Syria. Multiple clashes took place until February 2014, which ended with Kurdish, allegedly, autonomous government declaring that there will not be any further offensives.
On May 2014, Islamic State forces held a series of kidnapping operations. Kidnapping a total of approximately 450 civilians from al-Bab, the hostages were forces receive Salafi Islam education.
On July 2014, Islamic State commenced an attack against Kobani, YPG’s capital. Multiple villages were captured by ISIS, leading to a Kurdish convention in the region where forces from PKK and YPG joined to defend Kobani. As a result, the state was well defended and ISIS was defeated in that battle. However, ISIS managed to re-capture approximately 70 villages in Kobane, resulting in a refugee flow of Kurdish civilians to Turkey.
September 2015 accommodated clashes between Al-Nusra and YPG forces near Aleppo city. The region was a key location to the Syrian rebel forces; hence, the situation disrupted the Syrian Civil War as well, postponing Free Syrian Army’s control in cities surrounding Aleppo. November 2015 was a victory for the PYD as well. Upon Free Syrian Army’s victory against ISIS in Al-Hasakah (to the south east of Rojava), PYD greatly regained a Rojava territory.
Since the clashes in 2016, numerous other battles took place. While the Free Syrian Army is aiming to defend the country from both ISIS and Russian backed Assad forces, YPG is aiming to maintain a Kurdish unity in Rojava.
Links to have a look at: - BBC Turkey's Syria offensive explained in four maps
- Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Turkish_offensive_into_north-eastern_Syria
- Foreign Policy https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/12/21/turkey-syria-kurds-invasion-trump/
- The Sun https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/10102610/turkey-attacking-syria-border-map- background-tension-explained/
- Crisis Group https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/eastern- mediterranean/syria/b72-steadying-new-status-quo-syrias-north-east
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
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Kurdish Regional Government (KRG)
Kurdistan Regional Government is the executive branch of the Kurdish autonomous state in Northern Iraq. The state was led by Masoud Barzani, the initial president. Currently, the state is ruled by Nechirvan Barzani. Though the state is equipped with autonomy, the state leaders are represented in the Iraqi national parliament through the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP). The KRG gained its autonomy upon multiple rebellious insurgencies in Northern Iraq. The Government is equipped with its own military as well, namely the Peshmerga forces. Tough the state decided to secede from Iraq in 2017, the Iraqi federal court overruled the referendum, maintaining the autonomous state. The KRG’s military experienced multiple clashes with the federal government; however, with the US invasion of Iraq in 2003, the clashes became much less frequent, deeming KRG a geopolitically strategic ally for the United States. The territories under de facto KRG control include Duhok, Erbil, and Sulaimaniya; the territories under Peshmerga control extends ahead from the KRG territory as well.
PYD
PYD translates as the Democratic Union Party, which was founded in North Syria. The party is deemed to be one of the strongest representatives of democratic values, human rights, and democratic socialism in the Middle East. The party’s aims include an autonomous Kurdish state in the Rojava region, available in the penultimate map of the previous section. Unlike many other Kurdish opposition parties in Syria, PYD did not join the Kurdish National Council (KNC) and managed dominate Rojava as its singular Kurdish party that would establish a progressive and ethnically diverse society. In terms of international recognition and relations, PYD has been an ally with the US due to its ability to fight ISIS and strategic importance within Northern Syria. On the other hand, Turkish Republic has been exhibiting an inconsistent stance towards PYD. The Turkish administration initially allowed any PYD member to have a free travel right to Turkey within the first couple of years of the Syrian Civil War. However, with ISIS offensive in Kobani, Turkey retracted any form of support to PYD and deemed it an extension of PKK, hence a terrorist organization.
YPG
YPG is translated as the People’s Protection Units. Tough the group is affiliated with the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), the Unit was initiated by the PYD, hence defending the Rojava region against both the Assad dominated forces and ISIL. The greatest victory was YPG’s defeat of ISIL in the Kobani Siege, which enabled the Kurdish administered regions in Southern Syria to remain unified. Furthermore, due to its strategic alliance with PYD and ability to fight ISIS in Syria, YPG has been receiving heavy military support from the United States.
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ISIL
Islamic State of Iraq and Levant has been actively fighting in the Syrian territory for establishing a state administered with Sharia Law. Aside from its sparse involvement in the Syrian Civil War, ISIL has been fighting YPG for gaining territory in Northern Syria and access to the Turkish border, creating a passage. Furthermore, due to the resourceful nature of the Northern Syria territory, ISIL has been dedicating a special set of offensives to the region. However, with a strong Kurdish stronghold in Rojava, ISIL hasn’t been able to capture the region. Furthermore, with the Syrian Civil War approaching to an end, ISIL administered territories are drastically diminishing.
Important Note: The author of this report intentionally did not include internationally recognized states in this section as their respective policies should be well outlined in the policy statements. However, experts are strongly recommended to go over the Background Information section for a detailed overview of the international actors’ involvement with the conflict.
Timeline of Events
Iraqi Kurdish Conflict Timeline
Date Description of event 1921 Kingdom of Iran established under British supervision. First Barzani rebellion takes place against the British jurisdiction and a Kurdish Kingdom 1923 is declared, though lacking international recognition. Iraq admitted to League of Nations without any Kurdish autonomy within its territory, 1932 leading to another uprising. The second Barzani uprising takes place and multiple cities are shifted to Kurdish 1943 jurisdiction. Kurdistan Democratic Party’s first national convention. The convention is blocked by 1946 Iranian forces, leading to Mustafa Barzani’s exile to the Soviet Union. Iraqi Kingdom is overthrown, paving the way for a Kurdish Democratic Party reunion. With 1958 the new constitution recognizing Kurdish national rights, Barzani returns to Iraq. 1960-1961 Iraqi-Kurdish relations deteriorates and KDP is demolished by the government. Beginning Kurdish autonomy granted in Northern Iraq. of 1970 An autonomy agreement is granted and the national constitution modified for recognizing March 1970 the Kurdish national rights. August Kurdish civilian unrest due to the autonomy agreement not being properly implemented. 1971
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Iraqi government proposes a renews autonomy deal. The deal is refused by Barzani due March 1974 to the exclusion of Kirkuk. June 1975 Patriotic Union of Kurdistan founded. 1979 Massoud Barzani appointed as the new leader of Kurdish democratic party. The Iran-Iraq war erupts. The Kurdish forces take advantage of the situation and work 1980 closely with the Iranian forces. 1983 Iraqi-Kurdish ceasefire, commencement of autonomy negotiations. KDP-PUK-Tehran joint conference on cooperation takes place. Forces of PUK and KDP 1986-1987 merge, alongside receiving Iranian aid. With tension rising in Iraq-Iran war, thousands of Kurdish civilians are displaced and many 1988 remain dead due to chemical attacks to Kurdish populated towns. Autonomy negotiations being and a Kurdish safe space region is created for refugee April 1991 inflow and security. July- Oct. Kurdish-Iraqi clashes take place. 1991 May 1994 KDP-PUK civil war erupts, creating an intra-Kurdish conflict. September KDP, with support from Iraqi government, defeats PUK and establishes its parliament in 1996 Erbil. September Upon PUK capturing the city of Sulaymaniya, the entire Northern Iraq Kurdish region is 1998 divided into two administrative jurisdictions, creating instability within the region. October KDP and PUK agree to consolidate until a new election can take place. 2002 March 2003 US led invasion of Iraq begins, bringing multiple cities under heavy bombardment. US led forces invade Baghdad, ending the Saddam jurisdiction and capturing other April 2003 strategic cities such as Kirkuk and Mosul. April 2005 PUK head appointed as the interim Iraqi president. June 2005 Barzani elected as the president of the autonomous Kurdish region in Northern Iraq.
Rojava Crisis Timeline
2011 Syrian Civil War begins, creating authority gap across the country. Kurdish Autonomy is gained in Northern Syria, and protection units formulated 2012 under the YPG. Urbanization takes place across Rojava, strengthening the autonomous Kurdish 2012 state in Northern Syria.
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Liberated cities of Northern Syria are democratized through establishment of 2013 press freedom and elections. September 2014 ISIS executes its Kobani siege operation. 2014-2015 YPG manages to resist ISIS siege in Kobani. SDF merges with YPG in its fight against ISIS, liberating multiple towns within a November 2015 short period of time (2-3 months). December 2015 Rojava Federation established in Northern Syria. 2016-2017 Major cities cleared-off of ISIS jurisdiction. Turkish invasion of Afrin, a city distant to the civil war and Kurdish majority January 2018 population, displacing 300 thousand Kurdish civilians. January 2019 Turkish President Erdogan claims the city of Manbij. A final offensive against ISIL took place, demolishing the entire ISIL February 2019 administration.
Relevant UN Treaties and Events
As the conflicts at hand have been mostly between a state and a non-state actor, the United Nations involvement has been quite limited.
● Condemnation of suppression towards Iraqi civilians, especially the ones in Iraqi Kurdistan. The Security Council demanded Iraq to cease any form of political repression in order to maintain peace and stability within the region. (S/RES/688) ● United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq was established in 2003, upon the US-led invasion, for the country’s redevelopment. The resolution also aimed maintain stability within Northern Iraq with the Kurdish population (S/RES/1500). ● Though the report will not be specifying the particular resolution numbers, the United Nations Security Council passed multiple resolutions declaring ceasefire in Syria for both the Syrian Defence Forces and the proxy powers present in the region, mostly US, Iran, and the Russian Federation. Such resolutions mainly aimed shifting the focus towards the elimination of ISIS administration within the region as well as the elimination of civilian causalities.
Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
• US invasion of Iraq
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o Though the invasion might not necessarily be a solution to the problem, it mainly aimed to minimize Al-Nusra influence over Northern Iraq and Saddam Hussein’s influence over the Middle East. Invasion taking place in 2003, US-led coalition’s troops remained in Iraq until 2011 for “maintaining stability” in the region. The invasion, for eight years, minimized the clashes between Kurdish and Iraqi forces. However, upon US forces retracting, clashes immediately continues. Therefore, the 2003 invasion did not yield a long term sustainable solution. • Kurdistan Regional Government Autonomy o Upon Middle East drastically dissolving into numerous nation states, the Kurdish population remained as the only ethnicity without a state. Furthermore, considering the lack of national rights of the Kurdish population in Iraq- due to the Ba’athist policies- autonomy became inevitable. Therefore, KRG’s initial autonomy in 1970 was a watershed for resolving the conflict. • Resolving the Syrian Civil War o Though the title here is quite a broad one, steps taken towards the resolution of the Syrian Civil War have been essential to maintain stability in Northern Syria. While the internal disputes between Free Syrian Army and government administered forces may not be resolved, a joint set of offensives against ISIL forces have been essential to resolving the conflict. • The Solution Process (for Turkey)
Possible Solutions
As mentioned in the previous sections, the conflict involves numerous non-state actors, groups that might not be directly under UN Security Council’s resolution; therefore, negotiation among different nations and non-state actors becomes inevitable to fully resolve the issue.
Firstly, the internal dispute within Syria should be finalized and an immediate ceasefire should be declared and a diplomatic solution should be sought. Considering the currently collapsed nature of the Syrian Arab Republic, an internal restoration should take place where Kurdish autonomy should have an interstate dialogue with Rojava, Syrian Arab Republic, and the Turkish Republic leaders.
A similar restoration should definitely take place for Iraq as well with interstate dialogue taking place between the Iraqi administration and the Barzani administration.
Furthermore, Kurdish civilian rights should be recognized in any state hosting Kurdish civilians in order to maintain both public prosperity and civilian rest.
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