Dynamics of Kurdish identity formation in the Kurdistan Region-Iraq between 1991 and 2014 By: Dilshad H. Khdhir SID: 4078663 Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2015 Abstract This study is built around two core questions. Firstly, what constitutes the formation of Kurdish identity in the Kurdistan Region-Iraq (KRI)? Secondly, what have the inner dynamics of this process been since 1991? Two major theoretical approaches are used to address these questions, namely ethno-symbolism and political discourse theory (PDT). These theories are utilised to approach the research questions on two levels: the cultural-historical and the political; and result in four major findings regarding the inner dynamics of collective identity formation in the KRI. Firstly, it is found that actors active in the process of collective identity formation are primarily nationalist political parties and intellectuals. Secondly, that Kurdish identity in the region forms around ‘Kurdish’ ethnic, cultural and historical features. Thirdly, that a large set of cultural and historical tools have been utilised to produce Kurdish identity in the KRI. Fourthly, that different forms of Kurdish identity have been produced in the KRI, meaning that Kurdishness in the region is split, fragmented, relational and crisis-ridden. This study also argues that the process of Kurdish identity formation in the KRI from 1991 to 2014 can be divided into three I historic phases. The first of these stretched from 1991 to 2003 and saw the ambiguous development of a traditional Kurdish ethno- nationalist identity; the second lasted from 2003 to 2009 and saw the development of an ambiguous Kurdish nationalist identity; whilst the third stretches from 2009 to the present and has seen Kurdish identity acquire a civic character in response to newly emerged political, social and economic conditions in the KRI. The study also combines the theoretical and methodological approaches of ethno-symbolism’s culturist approach and PDT’s social constructionism in order to develop an approach suitable for studying the complexities of Kurdish identity formation in the KRI. The resulting argument is that whilst Kurdish cultural and historical features play an essential role in producing the Kurdish identity in the KRI, this identity is produced in the discursive realm by competing social and political actors, each of which seeks to hegemonise their own particular form of Kurdish identity. II ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my deepest appreciation and thanks to a number of people who contributed one way or another in the production of this work. I first would like to thank my supervisors Dr. Tony Burns and Dr. Vanessa Pupavac for their constructive feedback and comments and their continuous support from the early days of my study. From the school of Politics and International Relations I would like to thank Veronica Blake and Gail Evans for their valuable support and guidance. I am also thankful to a number of friends whose help and support contributed in the completion of my research: Muslih Irwani and Seevan Saeed for their continuous support and valuable ideas; Murad Hakeem and Salah Sidiq for helping to reach a number of my interviewees; and Barham Salih for his personal support all the way through my study. I would also like to thank all my interviews for taking time to participate in this study. Last but not least, the completion of this thesis would have not been possible without the tremendous help and support which I received from my wife Naz and her family throughout the duration of my study. III Table of Contents Table of figures ............................................................................. IX List of tables .................................................................................. XI Abbreviations .............................................................................. XII CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................. 1 1 Introduction ............................................................... 1 1.1 The story of identity ............................................................2 1.2 Why Kurdish identity? Why Iraqi Kurds? Why 1991? .............3 1.3 The rationale ......................................................................5 1.4 Contributions made by the research ...................................17 1.5 The argument ...................................................................18 1.6 Methodology .....................................................................20 1.6.1 Methods of data collection ..........................................23 1.7 Structure of this study.......................................................30 CHAPTER TWO ...............................................................33 2 Literature Review ......................................................33 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................33 2.2 Ethnic identity...................................................................36 2.3 Political space ...................................................................43 2.4 The X factor ......................................................................50 2.5 Structural factors ..............................................................53 2.6 Identity as cultural variable ...............................................55 2.7 State-building ...................................................................62 2.8 Nation-building .................................................................66 2.9 Media discourse ................................................................67 2.10 Conclusion ........................................................................73 CHAPTER THREE .............................................................74 3 Historical and socio-economic background..................74 IV 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................74 3.2 Pre-twentieth century: Kurds and their origin .....................75 3.3 Twentieth century, historical overview: the emergence of Kurdish discourse on identity .............................................84 3.4 From Iraqi Kurdistan to the Kurdistan Region of Iraq ..........88 3.4.1 Iraqi Kurdistan since the Kingdom of Kurdistan (1922- 1924)........................................................................88 3.4.2 Kurdish fight for national right and Iraqi response .......91 3.4.3 Autonomous Kurdistan Region 1970-1974...................95 3.4.4 From ‘North of Iraq’ to ‘Kurdistan Region’: Uprising 1991 and the Establishment of Kurdistan Regional Governments...........................................................103 3.5 Governing Kurdistan Region ............................................106 3.5.1 Instability and Conflict: the intra-Kurdish fighting, 1994 – 1998 .......................................................................110 3.5.2 Particracy, single-Party Administration of KDP and PUK, and Power Sharing...................................................116 3.5.3 A unique opportunity................................................121 3.6 The Economy of Kurdistan Region ....................................125 3.7 Reform or change: Emerging Opposition in the politics of Kurdistan Region.............................................................132 3.8 The Profile of Kurdistan Region: Essential Facts ................135 3.8.1 Population and area: ................................................135 3.8.2 Political life:.............................................................136 3.9 Conclusion:.....................................................................138 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................ 140 4 The ethno-symbolic approach ................................... 140 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................140 4.2 The starting questions .....................................................140 V 4.3 The ethno-symbolic conception ........................................143 4.3.1 Ethnie vs. Nation .....................................................143 4.3.2 Nationalism .............................................................148 4.4 Ethno-Symbolism in details: ............................................151 4.4.1 Routes of nation formation .......................................152 4.4.2 State institutions .....................................................158 4.5 The Kurds and Kurdistan: nation, identity and nationalism 161 4.5.1 The problem of definitions ........................................162 4.5.2 Can Kurds produce a nation? ....................................165 4.5.3 Memories and their lack ...........................................170 4.5.4 Cultural and political nationalisms .............................173 4.5.5 Definitional remedies ...............................................180 4.6 Conclusion ......................................................................182 CHAPTER FIVE.............................................................. 184 5 Cultural analysis ...................................................... 184 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................184 5.1.1 Hypothesis ..............................................................185 5.2 Signifying Kurdish identity ...............................................186 5.2.1 Common history and culture.....................................189