RESTORATION! OF DEVASTATED

IKLAHD FORESTS I» SOUTH

VIETNAM

VOLUME III : LIST OF TREE SPECIES

( APPENDIX IV )

C.F.W.M. von Meyenfeldt

D. Noordam

H.J.F. Savenije

E.B. Scheltens

K. van der Torren

P. A. Visser

W.3. de Voogd

Wageningen-1 97

Cover: Aerialvie wo fa bom bcrate rfiel d ina n inlandfores ti n BienBo aProvinc e ,Sout hVietna m ,take no n8 Augus t 1971. Picture:Arthu rH .Westin g (HampshireCollege) .

Contents

PART A : INTRODUCTION TO THE SPECIES LIST

1. General 2. Requirements to the species 3. Comment on the species list 4. Evaluation 5. Research Literature

PART B : THE SPECIES

Tables 1. Tree qualities of special importance to a specified object of planting 2. The climatic typeso fSout h and their Dounderies (after Schmid, 1974) 3. Explanation of used abbrevations 4. Evaluation table

APPENDIX

TREE SPECIES FOR THE RESTORATION

OF INLAND FOREST AREAS

OF SOUTHVIETNA M

PARTA

INTRODUCTION TO THE

SPECIES LIST

Genenal

As can be read in themain-repor t agrea t variety of devastated inland forest areas has to be taken into consideration for (re)afforestation. Artificial regeneration will play an important role in obtaining a new or restored forest cover. On account of the present environmental situation,socio-economica lan d political factors,th e function(s)o f the forests to be created will differ fromplac e to place;thi s will have its implications on the subject(s)an d method(s)o f (re)afforestation and the choice of thespecies . In order to make possible a good choice for a certain objective andplan ­ ting method on a certain site,a large amount of species was studied. Inpar t A the requirements to species for a certain object ofplantin g are shortly discussed, followed by an explanation to the specieslist,whil e inparagrap h 4 an evaluation of the three species isgiven ,largel y by means of a table. Finally some remarks aremad e about the role of research related with the choice of tree species. Inpar t Bth e description of the species isgiven .

Requirements to the species:

A tree species should meet two series of conditions to come into considera­ tion for planting: a) Criteria independant of the aimed object of (re)afforestation: Primarly a speceis must be selected on climatic and soil conditions preferred by it.Importan t climatic criteria are temperature (mean, extrems),precipitatio n (quantity,distribution ,lengt h of dry period) and relative humidity,whil e wind occassionally plays apart . Important soil criteria are: soiltype,effectiv e depth,texture ,drainage ,ferti ­ lity,pH . b) Criteria related to the object of (re)afforestation: To come into consideration for a certain object a tree should meet a number of specific qualities torealiz e this object. Tree qualities of special importance to a specified object of planting are summerized in table 1.Whe n selecting species for a certain object, firstly qualities required for this object must be considered,bu t sub­ sequently attention should bepai d to otherpositiv e qualities of a species, in order to perform asmuc h as possible otherobjectives . Qualities, like the ease of seed supply and nursery techniques are not taken into account,bu t they may play an important role in further selection.

Comment on the species list

At first a list of 300potentiall y interesting specieswa s compiled,base d on a number of publications (NGUYEN VAN THAI?NGUYE N VAN THAN,1971 , SCHMID, 1974,THIÉBAULT , 1961 and STUDYTEAM TROPICAL FORESTRY, 1973). Both indigenous and exotic species from the Southeast Asien region,a swel l as exotic species from Africa,America ,Australi a and the Pacific Islando occurred on the list. The species were extensively studied by means of literature revies,resultin g inth e abondonmerit of agrea t number of species,o n the one hand due to the scanty publicity given to anumbe r of species on the other hand because a certain amount of species was found unsuitable forplantin g inSout h Vietnam. Finally 112 species remained; they arepresente d inpar t B. These species are described asmuc h as possible systematically under the following headings: 1) Name Trade name,principall y according to FAO (1960)an d THIÊBAULT (1961); indegenousnames .

Naturalarea ;habitai ;altitudina l range (some times under 3);ecology ; distribution outside the naturalregion . 3) Climate Data inrelatio n with temperature,precipitatio n dry period are listed here (mostly these aredat a from the natural region); also tenderness to frost,drought ,win d etc.;i fknow n climatic conditions inwhic h the species occurs inSouth-Vietna m are listed here. 4) Soil In literature data about soilrequirement s aremostl y very vague and brief;typificatio n of a soil seldom attaches to any current soil classification.

Size and physiognomic characteristics of stem (+ bark), crown and root system are mentioned here (if known). 6) §îiYi£ïiïy£S Successively discussed are (if known): seed,nurser y (techniques), planting stock,plantin g techniques (mixtures),maintenance ,an d eventually natural regeneration. 7) Growth^yield The data listed here,ar e commonly not from South Vietnam,bu t from more or less comparable regions elsewere;thes e data should be seen as a rough indication,o f the production of the species.

8) Plotsi_diseases and calamities etc. Only theprincipa lplot s and diseases (mainly from the Southeast Asian region)ar ementioned ; ifpossibl e inclusive the controlmeasurements . 9) i?ood_qualities Technical and mechanicalproperties . 10) Use Both the use afterwoo d and other parts of trees are listed here. 11) Remarks 12) Evaluation Based on the preceding information and the knowledge of the Vietnamese conditions,th eProjectgrou p has tried to indicate where the species may beplante d (see also section 4) 13) Literature The number listed here correspond with the used literature sources in the literature list.

Evaluation

The data obtained from literature,an d given in Part B are summerized,an d to a certain extent evaluated in table 4. The following headings are distinguished: U -H Ô>

ë S fB i-t Q, & a) Climate: Usually sufficient data on climate could be obtained from literature tomak e possible the classification in one ormor e of the climatic types of South Vietnam, as distinguished by SCHMID (1974), inwhic h the species may have a good to fair development. The climatic types arepresente d in table 2. b) Soil_reguirements: Information about the soilrequirement s was usually scarce or absent in the available literature. Sometimes an indication about the soil conditions could be concluded indirectly from other data. Ifpossibl e species requirements to soil depth,soi l fertility and soilmoistur e are listed. c) Soilaccordin g to the legend of the FAO (Unesco SoilMa p of the World (1968). Indicated is the possibility ofplantin g on theprincipa l soil units of South Vietnam, sometimes by means of x if only little is known about soilrequirements ,but ,i fpossible ,mor e exact through a capital letter e.q. D, indicating a subunit.Onl y the four subunits,abou t which information canb e obtained from the description of the species, are distinguished. Inth e case of E and Gplantin g is usually marginal on the soils of other subunits of the soil unit concerned, inth e case of D orP planting ispossible ,bu t growth is generally as good or even better on soils of other subunits. ^ 25i?£ïiY§-°?_EiSBÎi58: 0ne or more objects are listed here.Th e first mentioned object is themos t suitable,th e last one the least suitable objective to be fulfilled by the species. e) Method_of_p_lanting: Method(s)ar e given which are expected to be successful. f) Origin: Indicated is whether the species is indigenous or exotic. s) ?i55îïSS_ÊïESï!èf5£Ë_i5_§°H't:n Yïiï5ê5: Information under this heading ismainl y based onANONYMU S (1935/1936), MAURAND (1943), NGUYEN VAN THAI?NGUYE N VAN THAN (1971). h) Remarks:

The signs used in the table are explained in table 3.

Considering the often uncomplete or unreliable information, especially about the soil,tabl e t should be seenmerel y as an expedient by the first selec­ tion of species for a certain site. The information of the table should further be verified and tested,an d the extant knowledge and gained experience should be fully worked into it. GO) CU •se

0> O, > m 8Ü -o O u O 4) o •3 S 3 «TL

(3 » £ £ ii m «

•o o c flj -O % g s - o o

a o o cj CJ o

: e.x > -H t)

3 m u- E SES u •H 4J e £ S >V* -rH •u ra c 0) 41 fc go b aE . :*. 4-> © c *-> o I*H e tj .x: 0) ra o; o nj -rt 3 sX .e U C & u +> .H UO 0) ai v —> !C 14H q u *n e u 0) o •o •i ^ s 3 01 10 3 O 3 0 -C e > "O 3 3 01 6 -

ABLE 3: Explanation ofuse d abbrevations

) Objectives of planting soil improvement : S.I. particle board P.B. soil conservation : S.C. fibreboard F.B. reforestation of Imperata: R.I. pulp and paper P.P. fuelwoo d : F minorproducts M.P. charcoal : C shade trees S.H. poles + smallwoo d : P+S shelter trees S.T. sawnwood : SW ornamental tree O.T. veneer/multiplex : V.M. ornamental carving o.e.

) Soilrequirement s - to fertility: tolerates poor soil (=D subunits) requires rich soil (- E subunits) - to depth :tolerate s shallow soil (=lithi c phase) requires deep soil - tomoistur e :tolerate s no stagnating water requires good drainage tolerates periodical drainage tolerates periodical drought highmoistur e requirements tolerates short inundation tolerates longerinundatio n

) Soil classification - Soil-Units used (according to FAO/UNESCO SoilMa p of theworld , 1968). R Regosols C Cambisols Lc chromic Luvisols A Acrisols N Nitosols F Ferrasols J Fluvisols Vp peltic Vertisols G Gleysols - Sub-Units,wit h possibilities for planting of this species Dystric Eutric Gleyic Plinthic Others Some or all sub units of this unit show good possibilities for growing this species Planting impossible

Method of planting complete planting :c . mixture agro silviculture :a . natural regeneration enrichment planting :e . P- Cont.TABE L3 :

5) Indegenouso rexoti c exotic:— Indigenous:+

6) Experiencei nSout hVietna m yes:+ no: —

7) Others unknown uncertaino r : 0 inspecia lcondition s: ( ) Research

The establishment orregeneratio n of forests requires a careful planning for justified landuse. Inman y cases it is a difficult,expensiv e and above all time-consuming process; profits are gained only after aver y long time. Previously it istherefor e necessary to carry out careful experiments,i n order to avoid the use ofwron g species orwron g methods. InVietna mmor e or less experience exists with the listed species. The lesser known ones should be selected by means of elimination trial fields. Selection ofpromisin g species occurs in so called testing trial fields. For exactmethod s ofthes e trials is referred toBURLE Y 8WOO D (1976). Species aboutwhic h some experience exists inVietna m will still require research in thefiel d ofnurser y techniques,method s of establishment, maintenance etc.,i n order to adapt the different methods as good as possible to theVietnames e conditions.

LITERATURE:

Anonymus (1935/36). Compte-rendu des Travaux,tom e II.Institut e des Recherches Agronomiques et Forestières. Burley &Woo d (1976). Amanua l on species and provenance research with particular reference to the tropics.Tropica l Forestry Papersno .10 . Common wealth Forestry Institute. FAO (1960). Standard nomenclature of the exportable timbers of the Asia-Pacific region. FAO/Unesco (1968). Definitions of soilunit s for the SoilMa po f the World. World SoilResource s Report no. 33,Rome . (Supplement dated 29th September 1970). Nguyen-Van-Thai SNguyen-Va n Thon (1971). La station expérimentale forestilre de Lang Hanh.p 64-94. Schmid,M . (1974). Vegetation duVietna m Mémoires 0RST0M no. 74.Paris . Studyteam Tropical Forestry. (1973). Afforestation of Eroded Soils in Java ().A review of literature. StateAgricultur e University, Wageningen,Th e . Thiêbault,A . (1961). Nomenclature des bois tropicaux. Association techniques internationale desboi s tropicaux. -*-*-t-rjL>j,Mfl|ftj«yPJ !ï«5Rf;AR*RJRScSR5js3(5>J5| K *î° 1 &oo +5^ -0O»O(0* 1 4- |. | c. Il, | I • o 1 | IOO | 1 | 1 + + i m* & J ' 1 I 1 1 1 1 - - - - • — IH a 'Ii ' c | » I ; 4 ft 1 . - H a « a o 'H n -4 a toi a a _ O O

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TREE SPECIESFO R THE RESTORATION

OF INLAND FORESTAREA S

OF SOUTHVIETNA M

PARTB

THE SPECIES

9 -

1. Aaaaia aiœicuiiforrrris Cunn. Mimosacae

Name:

2. Area,ecology : Thursday Island and other islands inth e Torres Strait (North ofAustralia) , from sea-levelu p to 600m . The species isa strong light demander. Successfully introduced inEas t Africa, ,Malaya ,Indonesia , North Borneo and several other countries.

Climate -Rainfall : In natural range amea n annualrainfal l of 1500-1750m n and a dry season of 6month s (ofwhic h 5month swit h lesstha n 25 mm a month). Planted inWester n Bengal in climates with annual rainfall of 1000-1400 mm. Temperature: In the natural habitat amea n annual temperature of 26-30 C.

Soil: Tolerates fairly poor soils.O n poor lateritic soils growth is still good.A s the species stands lack of oxygen,i t canb e expected to grow on heavy soils,particularl y usefulo npoo r sterile and sandy soils.Ver y promising on the degraded soils of tin-tailings inMalaya ,an d coastal wastelands of Tanzania.

5. Treecharacteristics - Stem: An evergreen tree,u p to 15m ormor e in height and 60 cm in diameter. Stem: poorly formed. Coppices well. Crown: Low starting heavily branched,moderatel y dense,broad . Rootsystem: well-developed, deep.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Flowering and fruiting isalmos t continuous. Number of seedspe r kilogram 53.000-62.000.The y keepwel l (at least I5 year), when stored air-tight. Nursery^technigue: Germination capacity of good seeds up to 75%whe n sown in full sunlight.Pretreatmen t hastens germination. Germination starts at the sixth day,afte r 2-4 weeks 80%o fth e seedlingshav e appeared. Çï§BïiSS ËÎÎS^ §BË ÏËStSiSHf.1 Plantation establishment ismos t commonly done by direct sowing in lines 1mete r apart. InZanziba r planting is done with seedlings 60-75 cm high,whic h give betterresult s on sandy soils when burried to a depth of about 45 cmabov e the collar. InMalay a small natural seedlings,transporte d into veneer tubes,ar e often used because nursery germination is uncertain. Spacings of lxlm , 1.8x1.8m , 2x2m , 2.5x1 m, 2.5x2.5m , 3x1m , 3x3m and 4.5x4.5m areuse d indifferen t countries under different conditions.Whe n production is doneb y means of coppicing, the stool has to be at 50 cm in height. In Indonesia planted mixed with Cassia siamea. Naturalregeneration : Natural seedlings areplentiful .

7. Growth,yield : Initialgrowt h isver y fast. Indonesia: at the age of 4year s growth inheigh t of 10m and in diameter of 6.6 cm,a t 8year s these figures are 16m and 15 cm and at 12year s 18m and 20cm . Ina rotation of 12year s themea n annual increment in volume is 17 m3/ha. -1 0-

Malaya:Tree splante da stube dseedlings ,a t1.8x1. 8m o nclay ,ar e9-1 2m highafte r3 year san dhav eshade dou tdens e Imperata grass,surviva lbein g 100percent . WestBengal :Tree sar e1 1m highan d19. 5c mD.B.H .afte r2 3years .Mea n annualincremen to f5. 7m /h aafte rI tyears .

Pests,disease san dcalamities :I nZanziba rseedling sar eattacke db ybug s Capsidae; rootsar eattacke db ybug so fcockchafer s Melolontha sp.an d eelworms. InIndi adamag eb yth ewood-ro tcausin gfungu s Ganoderma applanation and theroot-ro tcausin gfungu s Ganoderma lucidum. InMalay afata linfestatio no fshoot san dtransplant sb y Hypothenemus dimorphus. Goodhos tfo r Loccifer laoea. Sensitivet oweed san dfire . Seedlingsar ereadil ybrowse db ycattle .

9. Woodproperties:Re do rgreyis hbrow nwood ,heav y(sp.gr.0.77) ,stron g anddurable .

10 . uses:Th ewoo di so fver ygoo dqualit yfo rfue lan dth etre eproduce sa usefullitter . Thespecie si sver yusefu lfo rcheckin gsoi lerosio nan di trapidl ysmother s grass Imperata.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Specie ssuite dfo rcomplet eplantin gfro msea-leve lu pt o 600m i nmoist yclimate s(1200-175 0mm )wit ha lon gdr yseason ,o nvarie d soils.Woo dver ysuitabl efo rfuel ,bu tth especie si sparticularl yvalu ­ ablefo rcheckin gerosio nan dsmotherin g Imperata grass. _

13. Literature:33 ,47 ,59 ,73 ,151 ,178 ,191 ,195 ,216 .

2. Acacia catechu Wind Mimosaceae

Tradean dindigenou sname :Cutc htree ,(India) ,Khai rtre e (Pak.),.iï-siat - nua(Thail.) ,Sundra ,Sha .

Area,ecology :Indigenou st oIndia ,Pakistan ,Burma , ,fro m sea— levelt o100 0m .I nshingl yan dsand yalluvia lriver-bed swhic har edr y formos to fth eyear ,an di ndr yfores thighe rgroun dan do nwoode dsavanna . Sometimesfoun di narea swit hheav yrainfall ,provide d itdoe sno thav et o completewit hlarge rtrees ,becaus ei ti sver yexactin ga sregard slight . Producesrootsucker ssuccessfull ytrie di nIsrae lan dIndonesia . -1 1-

3. Climate -Rainfall : In itsnatura l habitat annual rainfall may range from 500 mm to over 2150-3750mm ,an d it stands dry seasons of 7t o 8months . o o Temperature: extremes from -1 to 49C . Frost hardly.

4. Soil: Tolerates very poor and dry,sand y or rocky soils and adr y season of seven to eight months.Doe s not tolerate compact clay and poorly drained soils. It thrieves best on well drained sandy soils.I t grows also on ferritsols,ari d shallow,ston y soil and even on sheet rock.

5. Treecharacteristics: Small,deciduou s tree,attainin g 15m inheigh t and 1 m in diameter. Stem: Rather crooked coppices well,whe n not too old;doesn' t coppice under shade. Bark: Thick,grey . Crown: Right,feathery ;branchlet s armed with twin hooked prickles. Rootsystem: Intensive.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Seedling age very early. Seed isusuall y available annually in unlimited quantities (India). Number of seeds to the kilogram: 15.000-40.000.Keep s fairly well,whe n stored dry; 6mont h to ayea r at themost . Germination: 70-75 percent (India). Seeds very liable to attack. The seedy require no specialpreparatio n to stimilate germination. ?i§5ïî5S_lî°£!S: Sometimes planted inbamboo-basket s or as stump. Planting_technique: Seedlings cannot withstand the shock of transplanting. Therefore direct seeding is themos t commonly used method, special on the wetter sites.Sowin g inrow s 2m to 3m apart on well-tilled soil. Frequent weeding essential the first three years.Thinning s necessary from the second year onward.Al l shadeseve n lateralmus tb e removed. InBurm a numerous plantations have been formed on the agrisilviculture system,th e seed being dubbled 1.8x1.8m or 0.9x3.6m or 2.7x1.2m apart. Inman y casesmixe d plan­ tations of Tectona grandis and Acacia catechu have been formed in this way. Naturalregeneration : Regenerates freely in nature when undergrowth and weeds are removed.

7. Growth,yield : It isrelativel y fast growing. Diameter: 25 cm at 5years ;1 6 cm at 10years ;3 0 cm at 15years .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Fomes badins is one ofth e principal decay organisms in India;th e host isno t killed but the timber is destroyed. In India Ganodevma lucidum is one of theprincipa l root-rot organisms;th e same as with Phellinus gilvus. Grazed by cattle and wildlife Parasitic lianes frequently. Cause considerable damage.

9. Woodproperties: Sapwood sharply demarcated from the heartwood,wid e yellowish white or yellow;heartwoo d deep red orreddis h brown,darkenin g on exposure; hard to very hard;heav y to very heavy (Sp.gr.0.92-1.1 8air-dry) ; very strong and tough;highl y refractory and liable toend-splittin g and surface- cracking during seasoning,shoul d be converted soon after therain s and -1 2-

stackedproperl yunde rshade ,wel lprotecte dfro mrapi ddrying ;i sreporte d tokiln-seaso nwell ;ver ydurable ,resistan tt otermites ;har dt osa wan d machine;ca nb efinishe dt oa nextremel ysmoot hsurgac ean dpolishe dwell .

10. Uses:Woo duse dfo ragricultura limplements ,carts ,wheels ,oi lcrushers , postsunde rwate rconstructio nan dtoo lhandles . Extremelygood-fue lan d charcoal. Theheart-woo di sboile dfo rth eextractio no fcutch .Th ebar kyield sa tanninextract .Th ecutc hi suse dfo rdyerin gan dtanning . Theleave sar eusefu lfodde rfo rgoat san dsheep .I ti sa nimportan tspecie s forafforestatio ni ndr yan dari dregion ,eve ni nver ypoo ran drock ysoils .

11. Remarks:Thre evarietie sar edistinguished : a.var . eatechu b.var . cateahuoides c.var . sundra.

12. Evaluation:Specie ssuite dfo rcomplet eplantin gan dplantin gi na nagri - silviculturesystem ,fro msea-leve lu pt o100 0m ,o nalmos tan ysoi l(excep t onheav yclay) ,i ndr yzone sa swel la so nmor ehumi dsites .Importan tfo r erosiacontrol .Produce sver ygoo dfue lan dcharcoal ,cutch ,tannin ean d cattlefodder .

13. Literature:29 ,47 ,68 ,71 ,73 ,110 ,167 ,192 ,195 ,203 ,204 .

3. Acacia fcfrnesiana (L)Will d Himosaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou sname :Cassi eflower ,Swee tAcaci a(generall yused ) Aroma(Philip.) .

2. Area,ecology :I ti snativ et oAmerica ,fro msouther nTexa sthroug hCentra l Americat oChile ,bu tno wwidespread ,distribute dthroughou tth etropics . InVietna mi ti sfoun dlocall yi nth edr ycoasta lzon eu pt o600-70 0meter s abovesea-level .I ti splante dextensivel yi nIndia ,Ira qan dth eMediter ­ ranean.Basi na sa hedge .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Fon di narea swher eth eannua lrainfal li s400-50 0mm . Occursi nVietna munde ra climat ewit hles stha n150 0m mo frai npe ryea r and6 dr ymonth s( <5 0mm) . Inth ephilippine ssuggeste dfo rarea swit h adr yseaso n( <5 0mm )o fles stha n4 month sa swel la sfo rarea swit ha dryseaso no f4- 6months . Temperatures:Mea nannua ltemperatur ei nVietna m2 6C ;i nth ePhilippine s alsofoun di nlowlandzones .I ti sno thard yi ntemperature sbelo w- 5C .

4. Soil:Growin gver ywel lo ncoasta lsand san di tma yhav egoo dprospect s 13

for degraded and sandy sites and eroded sites. InAustralia n formed useful for cultivating on heavy days and silts inland hot riverine localities.

Treecharacteristics - stem:Larg e thorny bush or small tree,usuall y 3-4 m; rarely 10m high,wit h darkbrown,smoot h bark.

Silviculture - Seed: 10.000-12.000 seeds/kg seeds profusely eachyear . They are hardcoated and can be stored in the open or in sacks without losing much viability for anumbe r ofmonths ,bu t they are susceptible to insect attacks. Germination is slow,an d ittake s a long time untill the last viable seed has germinated, resulting inuneve n size of seedlings.T o hasten germination the seeds are treated with sulphuric,acid ,til l the seedcoat ispaperthin . Average germination of 70%afte r hot water treatment. Eî§5ïï2S_ËÏ°c'<: Tallplant s of at least 50 cm high should be used (forplan ­ ting on coastral sands). ?è55îïEë-ÏË£Î)ni9ye: Planting should be done in large and deep planting holes with some good soil as refill.Aroun d the tree a deep basin has to be formed to catch as much rain aspossible . Important to at the beginning of the rainy season. Ifpossible ,a weekly watering of 51 /plant during the first dry seasonwoul d greatly increase the survival of the seedlings on coastalsands .

Growth,yield : rather fast growing.

Pests,disease s and calamities:

9. Woodproperties: Lightyellowis h brown,occasionall y filled with dark gummy deposits.

10. Uses: Itmos t important possibility is that for erosion control,an d soil- conservation on sandy and degraded sites. It can furtherb e used infence s and in shelterbelts.Th e flowers are used for parfumfabrication, the wood forpost s and fuel, the leaves as fodder, although it isno t very attractive because of the large spines. Further the tree delevers gum of good quality and tannin from barle and fruits.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Suitable species for erosie control and soilconservation on coastal sands and degraded sites inth e region with a "climat semi-aride et chaud" up till 600m above sea-level.

13. Literature: 40,92 ,167 ,203 ,216 . -1 4-

4. Aoaoia mearnsii DeWill d Mimosaceae Syn. A. decurrens Willd. var. mollis Lindl. Syn. A. mollissvma Willd.

1. Tradean dindigenou s name: Blackwattle .

2. Area,ecology : Naturalrange :Tasmania ,Victoria ,Queenslan d (extra tropical), SouthAustrali a southo fth eMurra y Desertan dMoun t Gambier districtan d New South Wales,i nflatland ,lo wan dmediu m altitudemountainou s country. Inth emois t sclerophyllous forest inhighe ran dcoole r sites,formin gth e second storey of Eucalyptus globulus forest.Th especie s isa moderat e light- demander. Itha sbee n planted inman y partso fth eworld, bu tparticularl y inSout h Africa,betwee n 600an d140 0m asl . Further planted ata larg e scalei n East Africa (between 1500an d245 0m asl), Indiaan dSr iLank a (1200-1800m asl), Java (1000-2000(-2800)m asl )an dothe rcountries .

3. Climate- Rainfall :I nth ewinte rrainbel to fAustrali aan dextendin g into the summerrainfal l zoneo fQueenslan d with 900-1650m mo fannua lrain . Demandsa tleas t 500m mo fannua lrain ,i nSr iLank a undera rainfal lo f 2500mm .I nSout h Africa growsbes ti nth emis t beltare ao fNata lwit ha mean annualrainfal lo fove r89 0mm ,usuall y more than 1000mm .Ver y adapt­ able. Doesno tstan d severedrought . Temperature:I nAustrali a mean annualtemperature so f7-1 0C .Doe sno tstan d severefrost .

4. Soil:I tadapt s itselft oth epoores t soils.Sand y loam ispreferable .I n South Africath esoil s chosenar edee p doleretico rsandstone ,ofte n with anadmixtur e ofgranit e detritus.I nJav amostl y plantedo nric h deep,well - drained vulcanic grounds.I nSr iLank ao npeat y soils.

5. Treecharacteristics: InAustrali aa medium-size d treeu pt o2 3m i nheigh t and6 0c mi ndiameter .Wher e introducedth etre ereache s usually larger dimensions. Stem:Rathe r straight long clearbole . Crown:Ligh trounde d andpersisten t leaves.Branche s stay longo nth etree . Root-system: Superficial.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seeding 5-10year .Seed salmos t every year,continuous . Numbero fseed spe rkilogram : 60,000-80,000.The ykee p very welldr yfo r severalyear swithou t damage whenkep t insacks .Germinativ e capacity very high. Pretreatment bydroppin gth eseed s intoboilin g wateran dallowin g themt ocoo li ni tdurin g 12hours .Jus t enoughwate rt ocove r itshoul db e used.Afterward sth eseed sar ewashe d severaltime si ncol d watert oremov e theattache d mucilage. Planting technique: Cannot standth eshoc ko ftransplanting ,therefore , direct seeding isth eonl ymetho d adopted. Very intolerant ofcompetition , especially from grassan dshoul db esow ni nlan d whichha sbee n completely cultivated,afte r souring seedsar ecovere d toa dept ho fabou t 5cm .Th e seedi ssow no nth econtou r inrow s2. 5m apart ,o ri na spacin go f3x 1m . Severalweeding sar eneede d inth efirs t yearwhe nth eyoun g seedlingar e - 15-

very sensitive. Starting from the third year,weedin g becomes unnecessary owing to the rapid initialgrowt h of this species.Thinning s reduce the stand to 1000 per hectare in 10years .Grow n on rotations of 5, 8o r 10years . Mixture with other species failed. Natural regeneration: After clear-felling. If theslas h isburnt ,prolifi c seeding occurs. Burning is themos t simple and most rehable method,bu t it has been condemned as it leads to soil deterioration and because of the intensive needs of thunnings.

7. Growth,yield : Rate of growth very fast,reachin g 12-15 m in 5t o 6years . Mean 10m in height and 25 cm indiamete r in 10years .Mature s in about 10-12years . On Java mean annual increment ofra w bark and timber (including thinnings) of 3020k g and 18m per hectare.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Black wattle is not resistent to and isofte n killed by them. In humid conditions damage by bugs of the genus Helopeltis, the green cockchafer Eualova viridus, wood borers in the living trees (Platypus solidus), the grubs of Agrofis sp (seedlings),an d the fungi Phytophora and Covt-ioum salmonicolor. Alsodamag ecause db y Cortieium javanioum, Hymeno ahaete noxia, Pomes australis, Amrillaria fuseipes and A. mellea. Collar rust due to a Hymenomyaete is favily frequent inAsia .Gumm y exudations through cracks in the bark are also frequent,bu t the cause and remedy have not yet been found. Die-back of unknown cause known as kipka bus disease in East Africa.

9. Woodproperties :Ligh t yellowish to light red;moderatel y hard to hard; heavy (Sp. gr. 0.79-0.8"+ai r dry);stron g and durable.

10. Uses: The bark isric h in tanning of good quality.Th e wood is used for fuel, charcoal,poles ,withie s pitprops,smal l timber,an d hard-board.

11. Remarks: O n Java plantation establishment with the agrisilviculture system. The species can cause exhaustion of the soil. Seeds available in large quantities from ,Sout h and East Africa. Breedings experiments with this species are being done in SouthAfrica ,an d development of a highyieldin g strain has been inprogres s forman yyears . Hybridize very easily with other Acacia spp.

12. Evaluation: Species suited for complete planting and a system ofagrisilvi ­ culture,fro m 800-1800 m above sea-level,o n a great variety of soils and an annualrainfal l of 800-1600 mm. Produces a valuable tannin and other less important products as fuel wood and poles.

13. Literature: 2,47 ,68 ,70 ,71 ,73 ,126 ,163 ,167 ,182 ,195 . 16

5. Aeroearpus fraxinifoliue Wight Caesalpiniaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Shingl e treeo rIndia n Ash.Kuranjan ,Mundan i (India),Yedam a (Burma).

Area,ecology : Nativet oth ewet ,mixe d evergreen forestso fIndia ,Assam , andBurma ,wher e iti sfoun da sscattere d individuals.I tappear s onburne d spots.Moderatel y light-demanding. Introduced intoman y partso f Africaa sa nornamenta l treea thighe r elevations.

Climate- Rainfall :I ti sa tre eo fth eheav y rainfall areasa tmediu m elevations,bu ti ti scultivate d asa shad e tree undera rainfal lo fa tleas t 2100mm/year .I nplantation san dtria l plots undera semi-humi d tropical climate [+150 0mm/year )an da dr yseaso no f4- 5month s (<3 0mm )i na numbe r of countries rapid initial height growthfo rsevera lyear sha sbee n followed by stagnationan dhig hmortality .Als oa tlo welevations ,eve ni nrelativel y moist conditions disappointing resultsma yfollo wa ver y promising start (FAO, 1974). Temperature:Mea nannua l temperature 24-2 8C ,ver y sensitivet ofrost .

Soil: Bestgrowt ho ndee pwelldraine d clayloam soils.Her eroot sma ypénétrâ t as deepa s4. 5m .Poore r growtho nshallo w soilsan dsoil s witha dens e sub­ soil.

5. Tree characteristics -Stem :A larg e tree witha straight ,cylindrica l bole oftenbuttresse d stem.I treache s 30-36m ,occasionall yu pt o6 0m i nheigh t and over1 m i ndiameter ,wit ha clea r boleo f45 m . Bark:Thin ,ligh t grey. Leaves: Bipinnate,wit h threeo rfou r pairso fpinna e eachabou t 30c mlong ; young leavesbrigh tred .Decidious.

6. Silviculture -Seed : 13,000-32,000 seeds/kg,wit ha fairl y high germination capacity. Nursery:Th esee d ispregerminate d inmois t sterilized sand after treatment to stimulate germination.Thi s treatment isimmersio ni nboilin g waterfo r a few seconds,followe db ysoakin g inth esam e waterwhil e cooling forabou t 12hours ,o ralternatively ,immersio n insulphuri c acido fspecifi c gravity about 1.7fo r2 0minutes .Germinate d seed ispricke dou tint opot si nful l sunlight. Planting stock: Seedlingsar eread yfo rplantin g threemonth s aftergermina ­ tion,whe n theyar e30-4 5c mhigh . Undera semi-humi d tropical climate stumpplantso rlarg epotplant sar ere - commanded. Undera humi d tropicalclimat e large stumpso rlarg epotplant s mayb eused . Sometimes A. fraxinifolius isplante d asbi gstripling ,whic har esometime s rootpruned. Wildlings from selected treesar esometime s used inIndia . Planting_technioiue:Plantation s need tob ekep t freeo fgras san dweed s until!th ecanop yha sclose d sufficiently tosupres s them.I nNigeri a this wasa tth een do fth esecon d season after plantinga t1. 8m spacing .Thinni i ofth ebes t plotsi spropabl y necessary inth ethir do rfourt hyear .I nol d -Im­

plantationsth e crown spread is very considerable and it isnecessar y to

thin to awid e final spacing. In evergreen forests in India used for groupplanting in the centre of large gaps. Natural_regeneration: ^or India rainforest the following is given: Being a more light-demanding species,i t is so that right from the start,weeding , raking of the soil and gradual opening of the canopy allhel pnoticeabl y in taking the tender recruits progressively to the sapling age.

7. Growth,yield : Under natural conditions the tree may attain a considerable size,u p to 60m in height and 240 cm in diameter above buttresses. It is very fast growing inyouth . Ina trial plot in Zambia a topheight of 26 m in 23 yearswa s reached,bu t much faster annual height increment has been reported from younger plantings,wher e top height increment of 1.3-3.0m/yea r were achieved for agesbetwee n 2\ and 7jjyears .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: So far this species has been remarkably free from this,thoug h Atractomorpha crenulata Fabricius,a n insect,i s reported to be injurious inmurserie s and young plantations in India,b y defoliating seedlings and transplants. Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss)Karst , a cosmopolitian fungi, is causing root and buttrot. The sapwood ishighl y susceptible to insect and fungus attack.

9. Wood properties: Sapwood and heartwood sharply differentiated; sapwood light yellowish,heartwoo d light pinkish or reddish brown with darker streaks; soft tomoderatel y hard;moderatel y heavy (sp.gr . 0.52-0.70airdry) ; strong; moderately refractory, seasonswel l ifprotecte d against too rapid drying, green conversion isth e best method,ca n be kiln-seasoned; not durable; highly susceptible to insect and fungus attack;part y treatable with pre­ servatives;eas y to work and saw,finishe s well and takes ahig h polish; crn bepeele d easily and isver y amenable to gluing.

10. Uses: The timber isuse d mostly forplanking , flooring and shingles, furmiture,heav y packing cases,crates ,boxe s and plywood fortea-chests . After treatment it canals o be used as railway sleepers and leaves of doors and windows.

11. Remarks: I na trial at Lang Hanh 78 stumps and 78nake d root plants were used. Theplant s showed a good growth in the nursery but a slowgrowt h after planting out (possible reason see3) .

12. Evaluations: Aarooarpus fraxinifolius showsbes t promise forplantin g under a "climat submontagnard humide"an d the "climat submontagnard semi-humide" with a short dry season onmoderatel y deep to deep day-loam soils.Th e stagnations in growthwhic h was observed in Lang Hankmigh t be caused by the dry season which is too long (4month s with less than 50 mm). Suitable for planting in the open,bu t also for enrichment planting.

13. Literature: 47,75 ,156 ,158 ,167 ,194 ,195 ,203 . - 18 -

6. cordifolia Hook Rubiaceae Syn. Nanolea oordifolia Willd.

1. Name -Tradename : Haldu (India). Indigenous name: Gâo -Wan g (Vietnam),Hna w (Burma), KhVao (Khmer).

2. Area,ecology : Occurs throughout tropical Asia scattered in dense dry forest and sometimes indens e semi-deciduous forest,fro m sea-level to 1000m . It isa light-demanding species,bu t itneed s light shade in the first few years. Also in South Vietnam the tree is found in these forests among others in the Cheo-Reo depression,Darlac ,Haut e Cochin Chine and along the Donnai river. Planted in trial in Nigeria and .

3. Climate -Rainfall : In itsnatura l habitat it varies from 900-3700mm , with 4-6 dry months. Inth e dry regions the tree is found along rivers and round edges of swampy depressions. In South Vietnam it occurs under a "climat semi­ humide et chaud" and a "climat semi-aride et chaud". Température: The absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 30 -38 C, the absolute minimum from -IC- -10 C.

4. Soil: The tree attains its best development on well-drained soils,fo r instance granite sands.O n compact day soils with poor drainage the tree is stunted and tends to become stag-headed early.

5. Treecharacteristics :Ver y big tree,u p to 50m in height and 1,5 m in dia­ meter. Stem: Under forest conditions the tree produces a long straight clean bole, which isofte n buttressed and fluted at the base. Inmor e isolated positions a thick bole is found. Bark: Grey, exfoliating inputche s which leave indentations,pinkis h inside. Crown: Large;i n isolated positions,massiv e branches and a spreading crown. Leaves: Cordate,deciduous ,leafles s for 1-2 months. Root^system: The taproot thin,wit h fair length in first season; in second season considerable thickening.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Extremely tiny: 10,700,000 seeds/kg,wind-dispersed . They keep well for at least a year in closed glass containers. The germina­ tion capacity increases during the first year's storage. Pretreatment by soaking in water during 12hours . Nursery: Sown in seedbeds or better in seedboxes,o n very fine sandy soil with a very light topping of ash or wood charcoal. Screen essential for protection against sun and rain. Frequent and very light watering. At 2 or 3 months,linin g out a 10 x 10 cm on beds or in pots. The seedlings are ready to plant after one year. Planting_stock: Plants with abal l of earth round the roots or potplants should be used,becaus e of the liability of the seedlings to drought. Two-year-old stumps were successful in India. Also Wildlings can be used. Planting_technique: Direct seeding is seldom a'success ,becaus e of the delicate seed and young seedling. Planting at the start of the rainy season, - 19-

spacing2 x 2 m .Afte r transplantingth esoi lroun d theplant s shouldb e kept well-loosened andfre e fromweeds . Naturalregeneration : Bare ground isessential .Actuall y good regeneration hasbee nobserve d onlyo nprotecte d spots.Coppice s easily.

7. Growth,yield : Fairly good:6 m a t7 year s with6 5c mi ndiamete r from coppice measurements;othe r measurements show slow increment:6 m a t1 4year s with 6c mdiameter .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Graze d bywildlif ean dlifestock . Inth e nursery damping-offb y Fusarium Phytium and Rhizocoatoixia spp. Seedlingsliabl et odrought .

9. Wood properties:Yellow ;Sp .gr .0.48-0.74 ,moderatel y hard,moderatel y durable.Easil yt owor kan dt opolish .

10. Uses: Incaspentr yan dcabine t making,fo rtoys ,bobbins ,brus hback san d curving,agricultura l implement.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Th especie s shouldb econsidere d forplantin gu ptil l100 0m elevation under semi-humid tosemi-ari d climates.Shoul db eplante d onwell - drained soilsfo rtimber .

13. Literature:46 ,68 ,71 ,180 , 195, 203.

7. Agathis australis Salisb. Araucariaceae Syn. Dammaraaustralis DDon .

1. Name -Tradename :Kaur i (thisnam e isuse d forothe r Agathisspp . too). Indigenousname :Cowdi e Pine,Ne wZealan d Kauri (NewZealand) .

2. Area,ecology : Indigenoust oth etemperat erainforest so fth eAucklan d Provinceo fNort h Island,a sfa ra s3 8 southern latitude,wher e iti s regardeda son eo fth emai ntree-species . Inth enatura lregio ni tshow spreferenc et oth epoo r soilso nth ehil ltop s (concurrence). Itha sbee n over-cut inNe wZealand ,an di ti sno wprotected . InNe wZealan d iti splante du pt o100 0k mbelo w3 8 southern latitude. Successfulplantation sar ereporte d inPuert o Rico (1958)o nlaterit e (plinthite)soils .I ti sa semi-light-demandin g species. Kauziproduce s ingeneral ,adequat e quantitieso fseed . - 20-

3. Climate -Rainfall : In the natural region occurring under climates with high rainfall (3000mm .annually )an d a high relative humidity. Planted in climates with at least 1500mm . Temperature: Below an annual temperature of 17 Cther e isalmos t no growth. Between 17-21 C it grows slow. Inregion s where the temperature (during the growing season) is below 24 C for a longer period,th e species cannot compete with species which are better accomodated to such cold situations. It is fairly frost resistant; in its native region Kaut-ioccur s in areas with 25-50 yearly frosts. In the native region it is found up to 600m . above sea-level. In warmer climates it isplante d between 1500-1800 m.

4. Soil: It is found on various soiltypes . Best growth is encountered on deep,fertil e soils with pH 6.5-7.0. It stands stagnating water. When planted on poor soils (pH 4.5-6.0), inoculation with mycorrhirors seems to be necessary. In Puerto Rico A. australis isplante d on laterite soils and shows gocd development (may be as aresul t of manuring). Nitrogen often is a limiting factor for good growth, so it isnecessar y to underplant with greenir.ar.ur e on e.g. laterite soils.Kauz i impoverishes the soil due to the acid litter itproduces . This results in increased leaching of minerals and podrolisation.

5. Tree characteristics: Sometime s aver y large tree up to 54m . in height and 6.5 m. in diameter,usuall y 24-36 m. high and 2.4-3.6m . in diameter. Stem: A straight,cylindrica l bole,clea n up to 30m. ; bark;thick , falling in large flakes;ver yresinous . Crown: Very large,heav y crown,consistin g of horizontal,whorle d branches. Root-system: The seedling initially develops a short taproot without laterals The mature Kauzi has a well-developed, superficial root-system.

6. Silviculture - Seed: 30,000-50,000 seeds/kg. Under natural conditions the seed loses its viability quickly. Storing the seed for 2year s is possible at temperatures of 1-4 C. When stored at the same time atmoistur e content of 35-40% the viability of the seed may be increased. Nursery: (): seeds are sown on seedbeds and are highly covered; light overhead cover after sowing is established to prevent drying out of the plants and to protect against heavy rains;germination s starts within 7-14 days and has been completed 3week s after sowing (germination 25-60%). After germination the overhead cover should give only a slight shade,i n order to prevent damping-off. InNe w Zealand the plants are tended in the nursery for 2years .On e or two seasons before planting they are lined-out at 30 x 10cm . A light cover which excludes +_ 50%o f the direct light, is maintained. After the first year periodicalwrenchin g is done to promote the growth of fibrous roots and to get an improved shoot/root-ratio (Kauri ischaracteris ­ tically a tap-rooting species). Regular weeding isnecessary . Prior planting the plants are puddled and placed inwoode n boxes containing soil (50tree s perbox) . Planting_stock: Cleft grafting on 4-year-old seedlings as grafting stock showed to be a safe and cheap technique for vegetative propagation of Kauri- penstrees . -2 1

Planting_technigue:Du et oimpoverishin g thesoil . A. australis shouldb e mixed with otherspecies . Naturalregeneratio n: Limite d because ofth eroo t competition underth e mothertree.

7. Growth,yield :

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Damping-of foccasionall yha scause d heavy damage inhumi d conditions (Fusarium spp); applicationo fPotassiumper - manganate inth eearl y stageswil l destroyth efungi . Phytophora cinnamoni causes heavy clilorasis,followe db ydyin go folde rplants . Inth eearl y stagesth eseedling sar ever y susceptiblet odraught .Th etip s ofth eseedling s sometimesar eeate nb yrats ,an dsparrows .

9. Wood properties:Yellowis hwhit et ore dan dbrown ;moderatel y heavy (Sp.gr . 0.58 at16 %moistur e content); very strong,toug han ddurable .

10. Uses: Iti sa ver y useful tree:genera lbulling ,flooring ,panelling , furniture carpentry,railwa y sleepers,shipbuilding . Resin (copal)i sobtaine d fromal lpart so fth etree ,an dlarg e quantities of fossilresi nhav ebee nobtaine d from siteso fancien t Kauziforests . Mucho fi ti suse d inth emanufactur eo fpaint ,varnis han dlinoleum .

11. Remarks:Th ewoo d isver y similart otha to f Agatihis alba.

12. Evaluation:Specie s suitablefo rplantin g under (semi)humid climates from sea-levelu pt o150 0m .o nrelativel y fertile,dee p soils.Purpos eparticu ­ larly sawnwood.Mixin gwit h other species,an dgreen-manurin gar erecommanded .

13. Literature: 42, 101,155 ,195 , 200.

Agathis dammaraRic h Araucariaceae Syn. A. alba Jeffr.= A. loranthifolia Salisb. Syn. A. philippinsis Warb.

Name- Tradename : Kaupi (prefixedb yth enam eo fth esupplyin g country). Indigenousname :Bindan g (Sarawak),Dama r (minyak)( ,Java) , Mengilon (North Borneo),Almacige r ().

Are,ecology : Itha sa fairl ywid edistributio n from IndoChin athroug hth e Philippines,Malag at oWes t Irianan dPapna ;wher ei ti sfoun d inth emixe d rainforest formations.I ti sa tre eo fth euppe r canopy. Inmos to fit srang ei ti salmos ta hil lfor m speciesoccurrin ga tlevel s of 300-1500m .wher ei treache sit sbes t formbetwee nabou t 500-1200m . above sea-levela sa scattere dan dlocall y commontree ;occasionall y found - 22 -

at sea-level (Southern Curzon, in Serawak very common on podsols in the Lowlands),bu t in such cases occurring mostly as smallertree . It isa shade bearing species.Th e species is used for reforestation with inth e natural region: Philippines,Wes t and Middle of Java (in hill country and lover moutains), East Java (on the rainy south-western slopes of Idjen), Malaysia.

3. Climate -Rainfall : The species requires a humid tropical climate with at most 1dr y month. Plantations inregion s with 3dr y months failed. Annual rainfall 3000-4000 mm.

Soil: It requires a moist,well-draine d fertile site,wit h a humid atmosphere. It doesno t tolerate stagnating water.

Tree characteristics: I t is a very large tree of 45-60(70)m . in height and 100-140(200)cm . indiamete r in hilly country. On the plains of Sorawak and Brunei it isusuall y smaller,attainin g a diameter of at most 1 m. Stem: Straight,roun d bole without buttresses. Self-pruning is rather bad, but inclos e stands a great part of the trunk is free ofbranches . Crown: Deep,conical ;branche s are radial,an d may droop or turn up at the ends,an d vary inthickness . Ç22ï~ëY§ïëï: T^e smaller trees have a thick conical tap-root,wit h thin, horizontal side-roots. Several big 'sinker'o r 'peg'root sma y develop, whichpenetrat e the soilverticall y (down to 12 m.). Sometimes big swollen superficial roots may occur.

Silviculture - Seed: The tree fruits frequently,fruitin g and flowering during the whole year,bu t the cones take two years to ripen;see d from ripened cones; 6,000-8,000seed spe r kg (2500pe r liter); seed hasa short viability innatura l conditions:viabilit y after 10day s is zero). Inth e Philippines cold storage at 2-5 C and 6-10% moisture content isrecommande d for storage ofmor e than oneyear ;fo r shipment of seeds isrecommended : packing in moist charcoal (200 gr.wate r to the kg of charcoal,abou t § liter pulverized charcoal to the kg of seed); a viability of 50%afte r 4weeks . The seed must be sown retained immediately after arrival. Nursery: After 24hour s of soaking inwate r seedsar e sown.A slight shade must be given (e.g. leaves of ). Caremus t be given at time oftrans ­ planting inorde r to prevent damaging of the tap-root.Afte r 1-1.5 year, when the plants are about 30cm , in height and gradually accustomed to more light,the y will beread y for planting in the field. Planting_stock: Stump plants (shootlength 15 cm.)gav e a good survival,bu t due to slow development the use of stumps isno t recommended. In the Philippined and in Java the use ofWildling s gave excellent results. Wildlings can be obtained in great numbers by clearing the ground vegetation under the mother-tree and loosening the soil. Planting outmus t be done before the plants reach a height of 40 cm. Naked-root planting isno tre ­ commended. Planting technique: On Java,th e species isplante d under shade (e.g. Croteïarra spp., Tephrosia spp. In the Philippines the species is used for underplanting or enrichment planting. It is also planted on cleared areas, but mixing with other species isrecommende d in such cases.Th e use of different planting methods may be explained by the different provenances of the species. -2 3-

OnJav aa spacin go f1 x 3 m .i scommon .(Interplante dwit hothe rspecies) . Upt oth e2 0 yearthinning smus tb ecarrie dou tever y5 years .(5 %c f Hart: 18%).A ligh tlow-thinnin gi srecommended ;high-thinnin gwil lbenefi t thebackwarde dtree sto omuch ,whic hi sno tdesirabl efacin gth enecessar y selection.Afte r3 0year sheavie rthinning s (5%= 21 )mus tb ecarrie dou t every1 0years ,t oge ta stronge rdiamete rgrowth .Prunin gi sdesirabl e (poorselfpruning) . Natural_regeneration:Unde rartificia lstand sthi si squit epossibl eir . a shelterwood-system.

7. Growth,yield :Th egrowt hi nth eyout hi sslow .I nshad egrowt hma yste pa t all;bu topenin go fth ecanop ywil lresul ti nfas tregrowth .Afte rth e difficultmitia lperio d ingenera lth egrowt hi sfaste rther eafter . OnJav ao nmoderat esite sth eheigh to fth ebes ttree safte r1 0year si s 16m .an dafte r3 0year s3 3m .Th eyield sar ever yhigh .Pulpwoo dproductio n ina 25-year srotatio nyield s68 8m /h a( =27, 4m /year/ha) .Sawnwoo dpro ­ duction(50-year srotation )yield ssom e2 5m /year/ha .

8. Pest,disease san dcalamities :O nJav aattack so f Corticwn salmonieolcv are commoni nplantation ,causin gth edeat ho fman ytrees ;a rus t (Aeddi.ur. fragiforme) inBrune ilead st oth edeat hi nth enursery ,an dseriou sdamag e ofsapling so nUltisols .Contro li nth enurser yb ysprayin gweekl ywir h Agrocide,o rth eremova lan dburnin go finfecte dmaterial . Pruninga tolde rag ema yresul ti nrottin go fth ewounds . Theseed sar elikel yb eeate nb yrat san dmice . Inth eearl ystage sth eplant sar ever ytende rt osun-scorc han ddrought .

9. Woodproperties :Sapwoo dno tsharpl ydemarcate dfro mth epinkis hbrow nheart - wood;sof tt omoderatel yhard ;ligh tt omoderatel yheav y(sp .gr ,0.39-0.6 3 airdry);glossy ;moderatel ystrong ;no tver ydurabl ewhe nexposed ;season s well;ver yeas yt owork ;subjec tt otermit eattac kwhe nuse dfo rinterio r work;take spreservative seasily .

10. Uses:I ti ssuitabl efo rgenera lconstruction ,patter nmaking ,drawin gboards . Iti sver ysuite dfo rrotar yvenee ran dplywoo d (iti sfre efro mknot san d peelsweel ,an dth evenee ri seasil ydried) .Als ofo rmatches . Thespecie si ssuite dfo rth epul pan dpape rindustry .I ti sn ospecie so f badqualitie sfo rfuelwoo dan dcharcoal .

11. Remarks:Th especie si sth esourc eo fth eresi nknow na sManil acopal ,whic h isuse di nth epreparartio no fspecia lpaint san dvarnishes .Locall yth etree s weretoppe dheavil ywhic hha slea dt odeclin eo fth e Agathr.8-forests.I nth e Philippinesi ti sno tallowe dt ocu t Agathis, becauseo fit svaluabl eresin . InMalaysi ath especie si srecommende dfo renrichmen tplantin g(1 2x 2 —. .) becausei ti sa soi lexhaustin gspecies ;i tha sa stron gabilit yt oregenerate ; duet oth ecrown/stem-rati o (asmal lcrown )a hig hyield:h ama yb eexpected . Thetaxonom yo f Agathis isi na stat eo fconsiderabl econfusion .Ther ear e numerousspecie sdescribe di nMalesi awhic hdiffe rver yslightly . Accordingt oWhitmor e(1977 )th ewhol eo fMalesi afro mNe wBritai nt oMalay a andSumatr ai soccupie db ya singl especies ,Agathis damnara, withthre e allopatricsubspecies .Differen tsort so f Agathis describedar egive na -2 4-

provenancenam ea swel la sa botanica lone .T olin ki nwit hname si ncurren t usagewhic har eno tfollowe dhere ,th ecommone ro fthes ear eadde di nparen ­ thesese.g . A. dammara, Javaprovenanc e(loranthifolia) . Other Agathis spp.lik e A. beooarii Warb., A. becking MeyerDrees , A. oelebioa (Koorders)Warb . A. hamMeye rDree sma yb econsidere da ssynonym s orgeographica lsubspecie so f A. dammaraals o A. borneënsis (fromth epeat - marsheso fSout hKalimantan )an d A. flavescens (fromth emontan eforest s (1200-2000m. )o fMalaysia )ma yb especia lform so f A. dammara.

12. Evaluations:Specie ssuitabl efo rplantin gi nhumi dclimate sespeciall yi n thesubmontagnar dzon ean dslightl yhigher ,o ndeep ,well-draine dfertil e soils. Objectiveso fplantin gca nb eth evaluabl eresi nveneer/plywood ,pul pan d paper,construction-woo do rmatches . Progenytrial st ofin dth emos tsuitabl esubspecie sfo rVietname scondition s areadvised .

13. Literature: 46,78 ,101 ,132 ,193 ,216 ,220 , 222.

9. Agathis palmerstonii F.Muel l Araucariaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Queenslan dKauri ;thi snam ei suse dfo rthre eclosel y relatedspecies : A. palmerstonii F.Muell , A. robusta F.M.Bai lan d A. miarostaakya J.F.Bail yan dC.T .White . A. palmerstonii ismor eexactl yname dNort hQueenslan dKaur io rNorther n KauriPine .

Area,ecology :Th enatura lhabita ti sfoun di nth ecoasta lzon eo fNort h Queenslandbetwee n1 5 and1 9C ,wher eth especi eoccur sscattere di ndens e lowlandforests .I sfoun du pt o120 0m .abov esea-level .Plante di namon g othersSout hAfrica .

3. Climate- Rainfall :1270-203 0mm./yea rwit h4- 6month swit hles stha n5 0mm . buta tmos t2 month swit ha rainfal lo fles stha n3 8mm . Temperature:Averag e24-2 6C ,temperatur ei nth ecoldes tmont h14-1 8C , extremes4 0C an d- 3C .

Soil:Deep ,moist ,loam ysoils ,bu tals oo ndr yston ysoils .Se eals o A. robusta.

Treecharacteristics :Generall y A. palmerstonii issomewha thighe rtha n A. robusta. Heightsu pt o4 8m .an ddiameter su pt o3 m .ar erecorded . Sometimesclea ncolumnar ,branche sbol eu pt o3 0m . 25

6. Silviculture- Planting_technigue :I nQueensland ,spacin g3. 6 x3. 6m. ,a firstthinnin goccur sa tth eag eo f8 o r9 years ,whe nth etree swer eabou t 2.4m .i nheight .Th enumbe ro fstem swa sthe nreduce dt o65 0pe rha . Asecon dthinnin gwa scarrie dou ta t1 5t o2 0years ,whe nth etree sha da heighto f6. 5m. ,reductio nt o40 0stems/ha .

7. Growth,yield :I nQueenslan da 37-year-ol dplantatio n showeda mea nannua l incremento f13, 5m /ha/year .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :

9. Hoodproperties :Se eals o A. vobusta.

10. Uses:Simila rt othos eo f A. vobusta.

11. Remarks:Distinguishe d from A. vobusta byit ssmalle rnarrowe rleaves . Propablyonl ygeographically .

12. Evaluation:Se e A. vobusta.

13. Literature:19 ,72 ,101 .

10. Agathis vobusta (C.Moor ee xF .Muell )F.M .Bai l Araucariaceae Syn. A. bvowm-i (lemaire)L.H .Bail y

1. Name:Sout hQueenslan dKauri . Seeals o A. palmevstonii.

2. Area,ecology :Nativ et oQueensland ,wher ei toccur si na smal larea ,withi n 60mile so fMaryboroug han do nFrase rIsland ,fro msea-leve lu pt o9.0 0m . Iti sa dominan tspecie si nth erainforest . Plantingtrial si namon gother sIndia , ,Maritius ,Rhodesi aan dSout h Africa.Onl yi nth elas tcountr ya rathe rfas tgrowt hwa sobtaine di na plantationa t9 0m .abov esea-level .

3. Climate- Rainfall :I nare aorigi nannua lrainfal l1000-150 0mm. ,wit hmor e thanhal ffallin gdurin gsummer .Eve ni nth edries tperio dther ei sseldo m lesstha n3 8mm .pe rmonth . Temperature:Se e A. patmerstonii. Ataltitude sove r60 0m. ,ther ear e 2Ô=3Ô~frôstsa year .

Soil:I tgrow salon gvalleybottoms ,o nsmal lflat san do nth eslope so fth e coastalranges .I ti sno texactin gi nit ssoi lrequirement san dgrow so n granitican ddee psand ysoils ,a swel la so nalluvium . - 26

Tree characteristics - Stem: Large tree,usuall y 36-42 m. inheigh t and 90-120 cm. indiameter . The trunk of the mature tree has the symmetrical form; it is free of branches,straigh t with very little taper and sometimes up to two-third of the tree height. Bark: Brown,smoot h on the upper part of the tree,rough , scaly at the lower part by shedding of small rounded flakes;rathe r thin. Crown: Abrupt change from the top of the trunk to a large,heavil y branched and spreading crown. Leaves: Adult:opposit e or subopposite, shortly stalked,elliptica l 5-10 cm. length,gloss y dark green above,slightl y paler below. Thick and leathery.

Silviculture - Seed: 20,000-25,000 seeds/kg. Under natural conditions they retain their viability for at most two weeks. By storing them inmois t charcoal thisperio d can be increased till 4weeks . Planting technique: Direct sowing is usually not done because ofth e short viability of the seeds. Seefurthe r A. alba.

7. Growth,yield : Ina 35-year-old plantation in India trees were observed with a height of 24m . and 45 cm. in diameter. Ina 32-year-old South-African plantation trees were at least 20m . high and 27cm . indiameter .

8. Pest,disease s and calamities: Defoliation by Conifericoccus agath.id.es is reported from Australia. The affected trees are often attacked by fungi and . The seed of A. vobusta is sometimes subject to fungi-attack Fusarium.

9. Wood properties: Ver y light in colour,lo w density (sp.gr . 0.48-0.53),lo w durability and strength,bu t good toughness. Soft,eas y toben d and work, takes stain and polish readily.

10. Uses: Highclas s joinery and cabinet timbers where lightness and ease of working are important. Good veneer timber for plywood. Special uses are:batter y seperators,butte r boxes,linings ,vats ,matches . Found suitable forproducin g wrapping papers,writin g and printing papers and rayon gradepulps . Resin isobtainabl e from the tree.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Best possibilities for this species inregion s with a "climat humide submontagnard" on deep soilsderive d from granite on colluvium or alluvium,an d in low hillland. It mayb e grown for plywood and sawnwood.

13. Literature: 19 ,98 ,99 ,101 ,157 ,195 . -2 7-

11. Albizzia falcatarùa (1.)Fosb . Mimosaceae Former name: A. faloata (L.)Backe r Syn. A. moluccana Mig.

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Djeu ndjin g (India).

2. Area,ecology : Indigenoust oth eMolluccas ,introduce d inJav aan dthe n distributed throughout theFa rEas tan dAfrica .A tman y places growna sa shade treefo rte aan dcoffee .Establishmen t only inth eopen ,evergree n species. Even fairly large trees coppices freely.

3. Climate -Rainfall : 2000-2700mm .pe rannun ;dr yseaso nno tto osever e(a t least israin y daysi nth edryes t4 months .Lo wproductio n inarea s with dry season. Température: Grow su pt o150 0m . above sea-level,bu tbes t growtha tlowe r elevations (<80 0 m.). Should notb eplante d inarea s with strongwinds .

4. Soil:Wil lgro wo na wid evariet y ofsoils .Excellen t growtho nfertil esoils , but growsreasonabl y wello nth epoores t soils,a slon ga sthe yar eno twater ­ logged.Ca nb euse do nrock y soils. Yving plantsca nstan d lack ofoxygen . It issai dt ohav e soil improving properties.

5. Tree characteristics: Shortlived speciesu pt o2 5years . Stem: Very largetree ,u pt o4 5m. ,generall y 30m. ,a clean ,straigh t bole upt o2 0m. ;rapi d selfpruningo fth elowe r branches. ; Bark: Thin,smooth ,grey . Crown: Branching high up,flattoped ,ligh t foliage,intoleranc e ofshad e and crown competition. Root-system:Extensiv e shallowrootin gan dstrongl y developed deeper rooting system;rootnodules .

6. Silviculture -Seed : 40,000-55,000 airdry seeds/kg. , Pretreatment(b yimmersio nfo r1 2t o2 4hour si nwate rwhic hha sjus t reached boiling point,an dwhic h should thenb eallowe dt ocoo lwhil eth eseed s soak, finally rinsed incol d watert oremov emucilag e- o rtreatmen t with concen­ trated sulfuric acidfo r2 0minute s followedb yimmersio n during 24hours) . Germination capacity 90%;store d for3 month si nairligh t tinsha sgive n 87% germination,fo r3 year s gave 20%. i Nursery: Sowingi sdon ei ndrill s 15cm .apar tfo rtransplantin g and4 5cm . apartfo rstoc kt ob estumped ,wit hth esee d spaced about 5cm .apar ti n thedrills .Th ebed s shouldb ewel lmanure d with dung to;giv ea neve n crop of seedlingsan dt opromot e nodule formation onroots .N oshad e required whenmulche d with jungle litter.Germinatio n starts after 2days ,th eseed ­ lings growver yrapid ,the yar eread y forstumpin ga t5- 6months . ?i5SïiS6_SÏ2£!S: ®ntintailing s planting isdon e either with small natural seedlingsi ntubes ,o rnurser y grown seedlingsi ntube s8-1 0cm .high . Normally transplants intube sar eread yfo rplantin g outa t6 0cm .tal li n 4-5months . - 28-

Stumps with steralength 5-20 cm.,rootlengt h 20cm . and rootcollardiameter 0.5-2.5cm .giv e thebes tresults . Plantjng_technigue: Direct sowing onburne d Imperata grassland by broad­ casting at a rate of 50,000 seeds/ha.Plantin g sites are cleared of all overhead cover,spacin g is wide to avoid frequent early thinnings. At Java a spacing of 3x 2m . is applied,a t the Phillippines 3x 3o r 4 x 4m . are used. Thinnings are necessary to reduce the initial stocking to 250 stems/ha at 4-5 years,an d to about 150stems/h a at 10year s on a good site. In Indonesia thinnings every 2year s and from the 10 year every three years to reach at last a S% of 35.Fir e protection isessential . ^ËÏKSi-EîSêïïfESÏ^SS1 °n burned clearings natural regeneration often appears in abudence and in such conditions the seedlings spring up so vigorously that they soon outdistance all competition.

7. Growth,yield : Propably the fastest of all Malaysian trees; it is very fast growing. In the following table some results of trialfieldsunde r favourable condi­ tions in Indonesia are shown.

Age Topheight S% Stems/ha Basal Mean Mean M.A.I ap,ea thickness height yr. m. m /ha cm. m. m /ha

3 16.0 25.0 720 9.9 13.2 14.5 35.0 6 26.0 27.5 225 13.0 17.1 25.5 47.5 9 32.8 30.0 120 15.5 40.5 32.7 51.0 12 37.8 32.5 76 17.5 54.1 37.8 51.8 15 39.2 35.0 60 19.0 63.5 39.2 47.8 Out: GRIFFIOEN,1954afte r BECKING (personal comm.)

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: InMalaysi a the following pestswer e observed: defoliating insects,snail s and squirrels,bu t none of them is of economic importance so far. The species isver y tender to fire at allage s and liable to windbreak in youth.

9. Wood properties: Lightbrown,wit h slight pink tinge;ligh t (sp.gr . 0.30-0.50] not durable,bu t the sapwood absorbes preservatives readily. Quick sawing and seasoning required after cutting.

10. Uses: The wood is suitable for light packing cases and planking. Considered very satisfactory forrotary-peelin g for veneers.Goo d papermakin j properties with a satisfactory yield of pulp;pul p could be used for low-gradi printing orwhit e wrapping paper. Poor firewood! Used for reclamation ofdeforestate d sites,eithe r as a nurse crop and soil improver for later underplanting with more valuable timber species,o r for pulp production. Usefull for killing outgrass ,i nMalay a established by broadcasting seeds on burned Imperata fields. BEOWNE (1955), however,state s the species needs someattentio n at first whensown ,i n Imperata- grassland and that it doesno t cast enough shadeto . -2 9-

killth egras sdirectly ,bu ttha ti twil lonl yweake nth egrass .

^i. Remarks:Th especie si suse do nth ePhilippine si na agrisilvicultura lsyste m witha rotatio no f8 years . InIndonesi ath eforestworker sar eallowe dt ointerplan t A. falcataria plantingswit hfoodcrop sdurin gth efirs tyear . Thespecie si softe ninterplante dwit h Leuaaena leucocephala.

12. Evaluation:Show sgoo dopportunitie sfo rplantin gunde rth eclimates :"semi - humidee tchaud "an d"humid ee tchaud "a swel la sou tlowe raltitude sunde r theclimates :"semi-humid ee thumid esubmontagnard" . Itca nb eestablishe do nal lkin do fdegrade dope nsites ,wit hwell-draine d soils,e.g . Impevata grasslandsafte rburnin go nerode dsites ,bulldozere d terrains,preferabl yunderplante dwit hfo rinstanc e Leuaaena leucocephala. Thepurpo xma yb esoi lconservation ,soi limprovement ,pul pproduction ,o r eventimbe rproduction .

13. Literature:36 ,38 ,46 ,65 ,95 ,113 ,135 ,167 ,195 ,203 ,216 .

12. Albizzia lebbek (L.)Benth . Mimosaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Kokk o(Burma ,India) . Indigenousname :Mar a(Sr iLanka) ,Pru k (Thailand),Son gRan g(Vietnam) , Siris(Pakistan )an dTeki k(Indonesia) .

2. Area,ecology :Natura lhabita tar eth eplain san dfoothill si nIndia ,Burm a andth eAndaman sfro msea-leve lu pt o120 0m. ,wher eth especie soccur si n densesemi-deciduou san ddens edr yforests . Veryadaptabl especies ,whic hca ngro wi na ver ywid erang eo fclimate san d soils,whic hha sle dt oit sbein gplante dthroughou tth eworld . Normallya semi-light-demander ,bu tals oi nthi srespec tver yadaptable .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Normall y 1500-2500mm. ,bu tfoun dals oi nsemi-ari d regionswit hrainfal lo f60 0mm. ,mostl yoccurin gdurin gsummer ;dr yseaso n 4-5(6)months .Youn gplant sar esomewha tdrough tresisten tespeciall yi n thefirs tyear . Temperature:Ca ngro wu pt o150 0m abov esea-leve li nth etropica lzone ; frosttender. Liablet ob ethrow nb ywind .

4. Soil:Ma yb ewidel yvarying ;does ,however ,no ttolerat eslat yan dextremel y södicsoils ;maximu msolubl esal tpercentag e0.11% ,maximu mp H8.7 .

5. Treecharacteristics :Moderat esize do rlarg etre etha tca nattai na heigh t of3 0m .an da diamete ro f1 m . Stem:Form sa shor tbol ei nth eopen ,bu ti nth efores ti tproduce sa lon g stpitgWrboleT 30

Bark: Dark grey,rathe r rough,wit h irregular cracks,re d or crimson inside. Crown: Broad in the open; in the forest wide spreading, umbrella shaped. Leaves: Deciduous. When cut twice ormor e often a year untill they form a sward,th e species remains evergreen. Ç°2ÏIËY5îê5: Forms a very deep running taproot,fro mwhic h the lateral roots arise; the root-system is largely superficial. Soil improving properties.

6. Silviculture - Seed: 7000-9000 airdry seeds/kg. Seeds annually. Extraction from the pods by opening or cracking with the hand. Advisable to collect the seeds from the trees as soon as possible,becaus e they are very subject to the attack by insects or destroyed by rotting after rain. Seeds keep very well: oneyea r ormor e in jute sacks under room condi­ tions. Little loss when stored for 4t o 5years .Hig h germinative capacity after treatment either by soaking during 15minute s in strong sulphuric acid andwashin g or overthrowing with boiling water followed by soaking during 24hours . Nursery_:Th e seed may be sown at the beginning of the rainy season in drills not less than 20 cm.apart ,th e beds being watered regularly but moderately and kept well weeded; the young plantswil l beread y early in the next rainy season. Planting stock: Stump plants canb e used,whe n seed is short.Th e use of unpruned plants is not advisable. Coppices easily. The tree grows readily from cuttings,roo-shoo t cuttings. Planting technique: Direct sowing is themos t usualmethod ; sowing in rows at 2x 5m . onwell-tille d soil with two or three weedings per year during three years.Transplants ,spacin g 3x 3m . or 3.5 x 3.5 m. (India). The tap­ root should not be damaged. The area planted should be cleared of competing vegetation by repeated cultivation. Naturalregeneration : Naturalreproductio n is scarse.

7. Growth,yield : Rapid growth: diameter 80 cm. at 12years ,14 0 cm.a t 30 years under favourable conditions.

8. Pest,disease s and calamities: Seeds are frequently attacked by many insects and require insecticidal treatment for storage. No serious diseases of the adult trees is reported.

9. Wood properties: Sapwood sharply differentiated from the heart-wood,whit e oryellowis h white,heart-woo d brown todar k brown;moderatel y hard to hard; moderately heavy (sp.gr . 0.64,ai r dry);strong :moderatel y refractory to seasoning with a tendency for end-splitting and surface-cracking, conversion as soon as possible,seasonin g under cover,well-protecte d against rapid drying,ca nb ekiln-seasoned ;durabl eunde r cover,bu tmoderatel y durable when exposed;heart-woo d difficult,sap-woo d easily to treat with preserva­ tives;rathe r difficult to saw and work,take s an excellent polish;decora ­ tive teneers can be made out of itb y slicing or sawing,no t byrotar y method.

10. Uses: Fairly good construction timber for ornamental,use d in carpentry and especially for framework. Possible fuelan d pole species indr y areas;ever ­ green fodder crop inCub a (leaves andpod s contain till 30%crud e protein). 31

11. Remarks:I fplante d forfuel-woo d rotation 10-15years ;fo rfurnitur e longer e.g. 30years .

12. Evaluation: Possible speciesfo rreforestatio n ofdegrade d open terrainsi n the climates CSAC,CSH Can dCSHS .Th ewoo d productsma yb euse d forfuel , poleso rconstructio n timber.

13. Literature:65 ,70 ,71 ,73 ,74 ,89 ,92 ,lit ,167 , 195, 203.

13. Albizzia lucida Benth Mimosaceae

1. Name- Tradename : Burmese Siris. Indigenous_name: Thanthat (Thailand),Banx e (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : Occurs from Nepal eastwards;inth esub-Himalay a tractan dth e eastern Himalayan valleysu pt o60 0m. ,in•India ,Bangladesh ,Burm aan dAssan . Founda sa rul e along streamsan do nothe r moist places.I nBurm a inlowe r mixed forestan duppe r mixed deciduous forests. In South Vietnam occurringa sa shru bo rsmal ltre ei nth ethicke t ("hallier"). Outside itsnatura lrang e iti softe n planted along avenuesan di ngardens . Appearst ob esomewha t shadebearing .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Norma lrainfal l from 1150-5000mm .o rmore ;i nSout h Vietnam 15ÖÖ-2ÖÖÖ~mm.,wit h 3-4dr ymonth s (<5 0 mm.). Temperature:I nit snatura lhabita tth eabsolut emaximu m shade temperature varies from 37-4 2C ,th eabsolut e minimumfro m2 -1 3C ;i nSout h Vietnam found undera "clima t semi-humide etchaud" ,wit ha naverag eyea r temperature ofmor e than2 1C .

4. Soil: Appears onalluvia l soils.

5. Tree characteristics -Stem : Information about«thi s.-i nsomewha t confusing: TROUP (1921)mention s it'asa larg e tree,whil eRAMES H-RA Oe tal . (1972) givesth efollowin g description: smallt omedium-size d tree 12-15m .i nheight , witha clea r boleo f4.5- 6m . Probably these differencesar ea resul to fdifference s insite . Bark:Almos t smooth,wit hhorizonta lwrinkles ;thin ,greyish . Crown:Full ,handsom e dark foliage. Leaves: Leaflets feweran dlarge r thani nothe r specieso fthi sgenus ;th e treei sleafles so rnearl y sofo ra shor t timei nth eearl y parto fth eho t season;the y usually turnyello w before falling. Root-system: Long spreading lateralroot snea rth esurfac eo fth eground , whichproduc ea prolifi c cropo froo t suckerst oa considerabl e distance fromth etree . 32

6. Silviculture -Seed : 19,000-21,000 seeds/kg. Inpods ;mos t pods fall during theho tseaso nan ddehisc ea sa rul e after falling;the yar ecarrie d byth e windt osom e distance ofth etree .Som e pods dehisce onth etree . The seeds germinate readily,bu ti tseem s that they loose their vitality more quickly than those ofothe r specieso fAlbizzia . Nursery: Fresh seed should besow ni nth enursery-bed s early inth edr y season,th ebed s being kept wellwatere d andweede d andshade d fromth esu n duringth ehea to fth e day. ?iS5ïiBS_§ï2£!S: Transplanting ofroo t suckers isrecommanded . Also cuttings of one-year-old shoots givea goo d result,whe n theyar edippe d ina growt h regulator during 24hours ;1 0pp mindol e butyric acid gaveth ebes tresults , also indole propionic acidan d2,4- Dgiv e goodresults . Planting technique:Transplantin g canb edon e without much difficulty both inth efirs tan di nth esecon d rainy season;thoug h this shouldb ecarrie d outa sfa ra spossibl e inwe tweather .

7. Growth,yield : Seedlingsraise d atDehr a Dunshowe d only moderate growth during thefirs ttw oyears ,nurser y raised transplants havinga maximu m heighto fabou t 14cm .an d3 5cm .b yth een do fth efirs tan dsecon d seasons respectively.

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :A numbe ro fborer s have beenrecorde di n thedea d anddr ywood . Seedlings proved very sensitivet odrought .

9. Hood properties:Se eA .lebbek .

10. Uses:Th ewoo d isuse da sconstructiona lan dcabine t woods;highl y valued for decorative work,interio rdecoration ,furniture ,panellin gan dveneers . Itha sbee nreporte d ahos t treefo rla c(Tachardia )i nAssam . The seeds whichar eric h inprotei n havebee n reported aslikel yt ob e suitable forth epreparatio n ofadhesive s forcommercia l ply-wood.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Ma yb econsidere d forplantin g inhumi d andsemi-humi d climates upt o60 0m .probabl y ondeep ,well-draine d soils. Possible purposes;saw ntimbe ran dveneers ,whil e alsoth eseed sma yb euse d forproductio no fadhesives .

13. Literature:84 ,147 ,167 , 180, 203.

14. Albizzia pvocera Benth Mimosaceae Syn. Mimosa elata Roxb.

1. Name- Tradename :Whit e siris,tal lAlbizzia . Indigenous_name: Safed siris (Ind.Pakistan) ,Wero e (Indonesia),Si t(Burma ) 33

Area, ecology: Light demanding species found throughout South East Asia and Northern Australia in open forests and low lyingmois t savannas,ofte n gre­ garious. Found from sea-level up to 1200m . but most common up to 800 m. Found often on alluvium along streams and even in swampy places. At many places a common species inmixe d forests,generall y on moist alluvium. At some places in swamp forest. In South Vietnam found in the shrublayer of the Imperata savanna and the open forest. It isa characteristic species at Darlac. It is introduced in some African countries and Puerto Rico.

Climate - Rainfall: 1000-5000 mm-,wit h a dry season of 3-4 months within its natural habitat,bu t planted under climates with 4-6 or evenmor e dry months. The species isver y drought resistent. Temperature: In its natural habitat the absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 37 -41C ,th e absolute minimum from -1-18 C.

Soil: No specific requirements,bu t for favourable growth physically good soils arenecessary . Very common on stony,periodicall y or nearly constant dry soils.Abl e to grow on very shallow soils or very moist soils.Poo r growth on very fertile soils. The species makes fewdemand s on nitrogen and mineral content of the soil.

Tree characteristics:Thoug h itca n grow into a large tree till 28m . and 80cm .diameter ,usuall y it ismuc h smaller and sometimes shrublike. Stem: Tall,erect ,wit h a long,clea n bole,ofte n branching at a considerable height. Bark: Smooth,ligh t yellowish orgreenis h grey,exfoliatin g inthi n flakes, red inside. Crown: Rather light. Leaves: Almost leafless for a short time during the hot season. Root^system:Form sver y long,til l 30m. ,littl ebranchin g lateralroots , w,Ltha smallmai n root-system on impermeable,poo r soils. On rich well-drained soils a more compact and deeprunnin g system. Young plants can stand lack of oxygen for sometime . Root-nodules present.Root-sucker s are formed.

Silviculture - Seed: 30,000-41,000 airdry seeds/kg. Pods falldurin g the hot season,dehiscen d before or about the time of falling. Retains vitality for at least oneyear ,whe n stored dry and dark in airlight tinsafte r four years 56%germination ;pretreatmen t with hot water hasten germination; germinates readily inmois t soils especially inth e full light. Nursery: Sowing isdon e innurser y beds in the dry season, indrill s 20 cm. apart,th e seeds 5cm . apart in the drills,lightl y covered. Planting_stock:A . procera canb e propagated quite successfully by stump, stick orroo t planting between April and December (in India)provide d that the peakrain y period and the early summer drought are avoided. Stumps, 10-20 cm. Stem, 20-40 cm.roo t and a collar diameter 0.5-1 cm.giv e a good result. Stem cuttings failed,roo t cuttings of at least 15 cm.an d more than 1 cm.diamete r gave a good result,bu t they sprout twoweek s later than stumps. Planting technique: Direct sowingha sprove d tob emor e successful than transplanting,provide d regular weeding and loosening of the soil is carried 34

out;line-sowin gver ysuccessful ,give seas yweeding ,5-1 0seed spe rhole . Transplantingca nb edon ei nth erain yseason ,preferabl ydurin gwe tweather , witho rwithou t(1-year-ol d seedlings)pruning .Spacin gi npur estand s 2x0.5m. or3x0.5m . givesclosur ei nabou tthre eyears .Tree swhic har e droppedbehin dan dsuppresse di ndens estands ,wil ldi ea sa resul to flac k oflight .Thinnin gi snecessar yafte rnin eyears . Duet oth eligh tcrow nmuc hmaintainanc ei srequired .Therefor eth especie s isofte nmixe dwit hothers ,b ywhic hals oth estemfor mimproves . Whenmixed ,spacin g3 x 1 m .A tJav aofte nunde rplante dwit hArtocarpu s integrifoliao ngoo dsoil san dEugeni apolyanth aWigh to nles sgoo dsoils . Underplantingwit hshad ebearin gspecie sshow sgoo dpossibilities .

7. Growth,yield :Fas tgrowin gtree .I nNort hIndi ai tha sa mea nannua ldiam ­ eterincremen to f1- 4cm. ,reachin g40-6 0cm .diamete ri n3 0years .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Youn gplant sar esometime sdamage db ytop - borers.Seed sar eles ssubjec tt oattac kb yinsect stha nthos eo fA .lebbek . Theseedling sar esomewha tfrosttender .

9. Woodproperties :A sA .lebbek ,bu tsomewha tlighte r(sp .gr .0.55-0.78 , airdry),an dles sdurabl ewhe nexposed ;comparativel yeasie rt osa wan d machine.

10. Uses:Woo di suse dfo rhous eposts ,agricultura limplements ,pole san dfuel . Thespecie si ssuitabl ei nwindscreens ,a si tha sa ligh tcrow nan di ti s windresistent. Furtheri tca nb euse dfo rreforestatio no fdegrade dsite swit hshallo w soils(i nthi scas egrowt hi spoor )a sa nurs ecro pan da sa soi limprove r formor evaluabl especies .

11. Remarks:Line-sowin gi nconjunctio nwit hth eraisin go ffiel dcrop si spos ­ sible.

12. Evaluation:Seem sa suitabl especie sfo rsoi limprovement ,als oo nshallo w andston ysoils ,i nlowlan darea su pt o80 0m .elevation ,wit hsemi-ari d tosemi-humi dclimatologica lconditions . Mightb econsidere dfo rus ei na mixtur eo nImperat agrassland swhic har e burnedbefor esowing . Tob euse da sa nurs ecrop . Besidesth eabov ementione duse si tdeliver sa fairl ygoo dqualit ytimber .

13. Literature:51 ,109 ,114 ,166 ,167 ,180 ,195 ,203 ,216 .

15. Aleurites moluacana (L.)Willd . Euphorbiaceae Syn.A. triloba Forst

1. Name- Tradename :Kemiri ,candl en utree ,India nWalnut . Indigenous_name:La i(Vietnam) . 35

2. Area,ecology : Native to the Malayan Archipelago and some islands in the Pacific.Naturalize d in India,Sr i Lanka,Madagascar ,Hawa ian d the West-Indies. It is found here from the lowland plains up to 1000m . Light demanding species,whic h cannot stand shade.

3. Climate: Th e climatic requirements are not very specific. Rainfall: Probably about 1600-2400 mm./year with at most 30rain y days in the four dryest months.Abou t 2-4 dry months. Temperature: Meanyea r temperature between 27 C at low elevations and 20C at 1000m . elevation.

Soil: Rather good growth onrelativel y poor soils.Occur s onpoor , stony and vulcanic soils.Les s suited to poor marl soils. Not very specific in soilrequirements .

Tree characteristics: Tre e up to 40m . inheigh t and 100 cm. indiameter . Stem: Straight,no t buttressed. Bark: Smooth,dar k grey,doubl e thickness 2cm . Crown: Branching low,dom e shaped,rathe r dense,evergreen . Leaves: Ovale or lanceolate,som e leaves tri-lobed. Root-system: Young plants cannot stand lack of oxygen for 22 days.

Silviculture - Seed: 90 seeds/kg,6 0 seeds/1.Flowerin g during the whole year, from the fifthyea r onwards.Fruit s are gathered from thegroun d as soon as they have fallen. Seeds are extracted right after collection to avoid fermentation and heating. The seeds can be stored in the open or in sacks without losingmuc h viability for anumbe r ofmonths .Ca nb e stored inairtigh t containersfo ra t most 10months .Hastenin g of germination by scarification,b y burying the seed in the ground (after collection seeds are dried for three days under the sun, placed alternatively with ordinary garden soil ina container and covered with Imperata grass.Sprinkle d with water till the seedshells begin to crack after about a week), or by fire treatment (seeds are spread on the ground covered with dry grass which is set on fire;a s soon as the grass is burned the seeds are put into cold water,whic h causes the cracking of the seed coat). Germination capacity of fresh seed is40% . Nursery: Seeds are sown indrills ,shadin g isrecommended . First seedling after 2-4 weeks,80 %o f germinating plants have appeared after ljan d 2 months (unless pretreatment is applied). Irrigation may be used;method : flood beds. Planting stock: Balled plants of 40 cm.heigh t may be used. Stumpswer e not very successful. Planting technique: Direct sowing is often done;sowin g ata spacing 3x 1m . on cultivated patches 30t o 90cm . indiameter ,5 seed spe r spot. Interplanting with Leucaena leucocephala. Balled plants also ata spacing 3x 1m . Inth e Philippines A.moluccan a isplante d afterwards shifting cultivation practises. A guarantee on the selling of the nuts isgive n byth e Bureau of Forest Development. Thinning isdon e according to the following schedule onJava . 36

Age Stems/ha

3 34 1000 6 35 325 10 36 168 15 38 95 20 40 66

Growth,yield : Rapid growth in youth and a fast closure of the canopies, especially on suitable soils. From the results of some trial fields in Indonesia the following appraissal of the development of A.moluccan a isdrawn .

Age Mean diameter Mean height Mill logs m /ha Mean annual increment (years) (cm.) (m.) standing thinnings m /ha./yr volume

3 11.3 9.2 48 20 22.7 6 22.6 16.5 101 53 29.0 10 34.8 22.8 175 74 32.2 15 50.5 29.0 270 95 34.1 20 64.3 33.0 353 83 33.9

For the production of sawn wood arotatio n of 20 years is sufficient.

Pest,disease s and calamities: Considerable damage to plantations is some­ times caused by squirrels,Seurie s planteni and S. nigro vittatus,whic h brows« thebar k of stem and thick branches causing dying of topsan d branches. Ganoderma lucidum,a wound parasite,ma y invade trees with reduced vitality, through theroots ,causin g a white soft decay of the lower part of the stem.

Wood properties: White,withou t heart wood,ver y soft,ver y light (sp.gr . 0.35 airdry),weak ,no t durable. Should be worked and seasoned quickly to avoid blue staining; shrinksan d twists slightly and isver y easy towork .

10. Uses: The nuts are rich inoi l and sometimes string together for use as candles. The oil is said to be less valuable than that of A. fordiian d A.montana .Th e oil isuse d to make paint,varnish , linoleum and wood preservatives.Th e timber is used for packing cases. Possibly there areperspective s forpape r industry andmatches . The wood canb e peeled. Poor fuel wood,no t suitable for charcoal. Leaves areuse d for mulching agricultural crops . Ornamental tree in some countries.

11. Remarks: —

12. Evaluation: Suitable species for planting on degraded, stony or relatively poor soilsunde r semi-humid climatological conditions from the lowland up to about 1000m . altitude.Wil lyiel d a lot of useful products even on relatively poor soils. 37

Mayb euse d inagrisilvicultura l systems although iti sadvise d tomi xwit h soil improving species,especiall y onpoor ,degrade d soils.

13. Literature:6 ,36 ,47 ,107 ,132 ,135 ,195 , 216.

16. Alstonia soholaris (L.)R.Br . Apocynaceae

1. Name -Tradename : Pulai; this name isuse dfo ral lAlstoni a spp. except A. angustifoliaWall . Indigenous_name: Mo-cua (Vietnam),Shaita n (Burma).

2. Area,ecology : Originating inth eevergree n forestso fSouth-Eas t Asiaan d Australia.I tgrow s inarea su pt o90 0m .elevation .Th etre ei snowher e very abundant orgregarious . Found inSout h Vietnam onth eplatea uo fHau t Chhlong,Bla oan dth elo whill s ofHau t Cochinchina. Locally insecundar y forest.

3. Climate -Rainfall :Foun d mostly inintermediat ean dwe tzones .I ti srar e indr yzones .Annua lrainfal lo fa tleas t 1250mm .I nVietna m ina climat e with more than 2500mm .an d0- 3dr ymonth s (<5 0 mm.). Temgerature:Mea nyea r temperature 21-2 4C ,als o found inarea swit ha mean year temperatureo f3 2C i nIndia .

4. Soil:Occur s inSout hVietna m ondee pwell-draine d reddish brownlatosols . InIndia ,however ,plante do nsoil swit ha plinthit e layera t6 0cm .depth .

5. Tree characteristics: Small tree,commonl y with severalboles ,o rlarg etree , attaining 36m .i nheigh tan d9 0cm .i ndiameter . Stem:Tal lstem ,ofte n flutedan dbuttressed . Bark: Grey,yello w inside;exudin g abundant milky juice whencut . Crown: Narrow domed;dee pan ddens eo rultimatel y diffuse with whorled, spreading branches;smal li nrelatio nt osiz eo fbole . Leaves: Dark green,leathery ,shin y leavesi nwhorl so f4 t o10 ;exud e latex whenbroken .

Silviculture -Seed : 10,000-20,000 seeds/kg.The yar esmal lan dpapery-winged . Floweringan dfruitin g inApril-Jun e (SriLanka )an dals o October,November . Thematur e follicles should becollecte d welli ntim e fromth etrees ,afte r which theyar edrie dt odehiscence . Nursery:Th eseed s shouldb esoake d during 24hour sbefor e sowing.The y should be covered witha thi n layero fsoi lan dwaterin g shouldb edon e lightlyan d regularly.Germinatio n startswithi n about 12day san dcontinue sfo rabou t three months.Germinatio n capacity 50%.Plan tar eread y forplantin gou ti n 9 to1 2months . Planting_stock: Basket plants,plai n plantsan dstump shav e done fairly well inroutin e gardentrials . 38

Plantso f22-4 5cm .i nheigh tar eused .Stump so f6 mm .diameter ,5 cm .ste m and 30cm .roo t gave100 %surviva lafte rtw oseasons . ?ï5SïiSS_î5£!îSi3aS: Shouldb eplante d inth eopen .Remain sdorman t under shelter,unti lth ecanop ywa sopene d up.Bes tplante d incleare d andburne d areas,wit hth efirs trains ,a t1. 8x 1. 8m . Cleanweedin g essentialafte rth efirs tmont han dtwic emor edurin gth efirs t year.A tabou t 1.50m. ,a tth een do fth efirs tyear ,hig h slashingo fweed s and climber cutting shouldb ecarrie dout .

7. Growth,yield :

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :O nSr iLank a subjectt oattack sb ylea f rolling caterpillar.Applicatio no finsecticid e possible innursery ,bu t uneconomical inth efield . Black Milldew (Meliolaalstonia e Koord.)o nth eleave si nJava .Anthracnos e (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz)cause s leafspots,canker san ddiebac k inth ePhilippines .

9. Wood properties:Sapwoo d paleyellow ,hear twoo dno tdifferentiate db ycolour , softan dligh t (sp.gr .0.52) ,require scarefu lseasonin gt oavoi dblue - staining.Susceptibl et oinsec tattack .

10. Uses:Wood :boxes ,matches ,furnitur e insidework ,scabbards ,fue lwood ; possiblefo rrotar yveneer . Thebar kha ssevera lpurpose si npharmaceuti c industry.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:T ob eplante dfo rtimbe ro nmoderatel ydee pt odee p soils;e.g . reddishbrow n latosols,unde r semi-humidt ohumi d climatesu pt oabou t 900m . elevation.

13. Literature:47 ,51 ,118 ,132 ,148 ,167 ,180 ,192 ,203 ,216 ,218 , 220.

17. occidentale Anacardiaceae

Name- Tradename :Cashe wnuttree .

Area,ecology :Nativ et otropica lAmeric aan dth eWes t Indies;i twa sintro ­ duced inAfric a severalcenturie sag oan dha sbecom enaturalize d inman y places. Iti swidel yplante dmainl yi nWes tAfric aan dIndia . 39

3. Climate -Rainfall : Occurs under very different rainfall types,i n India under climates with annualrainfal l ranging from 500-4000mm . However, in areas with abundant and uniformly distributed rainfall,th e flowering and fructification is low,an d the quality of the fruits ispoor .Th e best flowering and fructification occurs under climates with rainfall between 800-1800mm . and a dry season of 6-7 months (< 50 mm.). Inarea s with 800-1000 mm.,however ,rainfal l isofte n too unreliable to give goodresults . Température: nut tree is sensible to cold and above 600m . the pro­ duction is strongly decreasing. Inarea s with a good cashew nut production,th emea n maximum temperature in the dry season is 25 -30 C and theminimu m temperature 12 -19 C; in the rainy season these are 30 -32 C and 20 -24 C respectively. Relative humidity: If this is high throughout theyea r the tree is suffering from insects and anthracnose. In the dry season relative humidity should be low. Altitude: Forproductio n purposes it is commonly found in low lying coastal areas. Requires a lot of sunshine for a good nut-production.

4. Soil: Best growth on deep,well-drained , light to sandy soils including latosols,an d it will tolerate a high degree of plinthization. Deep soils are required because of the deeply penetrating,fas t growing tap root. Does not stand stagnating water. Itdoe s poorly onheav y clay soils and other compact soils. For production often planted on coastal sands,i.e . in India,Tanzania , WestAfric a and Brasil. Ondune s only for soil protection. If soilfertilit y is too low,th e production ofnut s islow ,an d the nuts are small-sized.

Tree characteristics - Stem: Medium-sized tree,til l 12m . high,usuall y 7-8 m.,wit h a short bole. Crown: Very broad,require s full light,especiall y when grown for fruits and nuts. ^°2îlSÏSÏêE: A verv l°n6 taP root is formed ina short time: in 4month s 80cm. , in 2year s 2meter s ormore .

Silviculture - Seed: 150 seeds/kg.See d production starts inth e 5thyear . In Indiath e seeds are picked inJanuary ,the y are dried, selected and stored in bags. For plantation selected mother trees are used for seed. Planting stock: Potplants of 3t o 4month s are used inarea s where the young plants may suffer from the attack ofmonkeys ,pal m rats,boars ,hare s and hornbills. Two-t o three-month-old potplants are sometimes used indr y areas in order to improve the possibilities of survival. Inpractice ,however ,a betterdevelopmen t isattaine d by direct sowing. Planting technique: Direct sowing is themos t common way ofraisin g aplan ­ tation. In India it isdon e at thebeginnin g of therain y season ina moist soil. In Senegalunde r drier conditions cashew is introduced by'direc t sowing fresh nuts,tw o per planting spot severalweek s before therain s ares ex­ pected. This early sowing is considered to be vital for succes,a s it enables theplant s to develop sufficiently good root-systems to survive subsequent breaks in the rains during the first year. The bestresult s are obtained 40

when the seeds are sown with the tipdownward s or sideways,an d it is simpler to use sowing sideways. A good account of site preparation is given by FAO (1974afte r GIFFARD*, 1966)fo r Senegal. The sitemus t be completely free from allshrubl y andwood y growthan d stumps. Clearing and site preparation are done with a heavy disc-plough (e.g. 150C kg. "Rome"plough). Where possible the plantations areraise d with taungya,usin g millet or grond nuts as the agricultural crop. The spacing depends strongly on thepurpos e ofth e plantation. For soilcon ­ servation close spacings of 2x2 m., 2x3 m., 3x3 m.,4x4 m. and seldom 5 x 5m . are used. In wind breaks the spacings are 0.5 x 1m. ,1 x 1 m., 1 x 2m. , 1x 3m . or 2x 3m . Where grown primarly for fruit and nuts the tree requires full light and much more room therefore wider spacings are necessary: six to ten meter spacings inbot h directions are common. In India a spacing of 8x 8m . is considered as economically most favourable. For fruitproductio n the amount of trees isreduce d till 90 to 120 trees/ha. Thinnings start in the 3th or 4thyear ;th e amount of trees is gradually reduced inorde rno t to take away all the protection for the soil. Indrie r savanna areaswit ha dry tropical climate,complet e elimination of weed competition for available soil moisture isnecessary ,and , in the case of taungya,clos e supervision may be necessary to see that cultivators do not allow the agricultural cropst o compete with the cashewplants .

7. Growth,yield : The fruit is the most important product of the tree. Trees start bearing when 5year s old and continue production up to 30t o 50 years of age.usuall y arotatio n of 40-45 years is used in India. Inth e sixth year theyiel d is 170-180 kg nuts/ha.Maximu m production may be 1,700 kg./ha./year. According to FAO (1974)on e hectare of well-grown,middl e aged cashew plan­ tationwill ,unde r favourable conditions,yiel d up to 2,800kg ,givin g about 675k g of Kernels.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Termites canb e troublesome,especiall y in theheavie r soils with ahig h humus content.Nea r the seacrab s sometimes completely destroy plantations byremova l of the nuts after sowing or by nipping of theyoun gplants . damage canb e controlled by application of insecticides but no satis­ factory method of controlling crab damage has so farbee n found and planting on littoral sands has had to be abandoned. Palmrat s are themos t serious of the other pests and attempts at controlling themb y means of an anti-coagulant poison (Turagil)hav e shown initial succes

9. Wood properties:Useles s for timber.

10. Uses: Particularly inWes t Africa cashew isprimaril y planted for protection of the soilan d provision of shelter from the wind. Valuable secondary benefits are the production of cashew nuts and cashew

* Giffard,P.L . (1966). Certains aspects économiques desplantation s en savane. Utilisation de 1'Anacardium occidentale et l'Acacia albida au Sénégal. Paperpresente d to theWorkin g Groups on SavannaForest y at Zaria,Apri l1966 . Dalear,Senega l(Mimeographed) . m

appleswhic h bring inconsiderabl e revenue.I nhighe r rainfall areasth e tree isprimaril y grownfo rit snuts ,e.g .i nIndia .Th ewoo d issometime s used forfue lwood ,bu ti ti sno tmuc h liked asth ebar k contains oleoresius which cause sparking with attendant riskso ffire . Canb euse d forreforestatio n ofdegrade d sites,an ddunes .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Anacardium occidentale canb eplante d forcashe wnu tproductio n inth edrye r partso fth e"clima t semi-humide etchaud " zonean dth ewette r partso fth e"clima t semi-aride etchaud " zone,althoug h inth efirs tth e relative humidity inth edr yseaso n probably isto ohigh .S oth ebes t oppor­ tunities arei nth elatte r zonewit hrainfal l between 1000-1500mm. , e.g. inmos to fth ecentra l coastalplain san dpossibl y inth eChe oRe odepression . Itca nb eplante d ondeep ,well-drained , light extured soils,fo rinstanc e coastal sands,colluviu metc . Besides itca nb euse d forerosio n control inarea s with semi-arid tohumi d climatesu pt oelevation s without frosts,o npoo rt over y poor soils,whic h should bedee pan dwell-drained . Thebes t possibilities,however ,ar eshow n by erosion controlo ndeep ,well-draine d very poor soilse.g .dunes ,a sfo r other soilsmore suitable speciesar eavailable .

13. Literature:73 ,75 ,93 ,145 ,177 ,195 ,203 , 216.

18. Anogeissus acuminata Wall Combretaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Yo n(Burma , India). Indigenous name:Ram ,Si n(Vietnam) .

2. Area,ecology : Indigenous toIndia ,Burma ,Thailan d andInd o ,extendin g toth eborder so fth edr yzones .A deciduou s tree found typically alongth e bankso fstreams ,bu ti nBurm a alsofrequen t inth euppe r mixed deciduous forestswit h teakan dit sassociates .Mos t plentiful,however ,i nth elowe r mixed deciduous forestso fth eplains . Extends into low-lying swampy ground,wher ei ti son eo fth emos t characteris­ tic specieso fth eperiodicall y inudated fresh water swamp forests,bu ti s also commoni ncertai ndr yregion sfo rexampl e inope ndr yforest .I nSout h Vietnam found inth eCheo-Re o depression alongrivers ,i nth ecoasta l zones asa nimportan t species -together with angustifolia-o fth e dense deciduous forestso nth efoo t slopeso fhills ,i nDarla can dalon g the Donnairive r indens et osemi-dens e deciduous foresto nyoun g lava flows.

3. Climate- Rainfall : 750-3000mm .o rmore . InSout h Vietnam under semi-arid to semi-humid climates,i nth efirs t generally along streams.I nIndi a best growtho fplante d treesunde ra rainfal lo f750-125 0mm . Température:I nit snatura l habitat absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 38-15°C ,th eabsolut e minimum from M--1 3C . Altitude:Mos t common inlow-lyin gareas .I nVietna mu pt o60 0m .abov e sea-level. 1+2

H. Soil: Often found on alluvial soils alongriver s and on colluviuman d the lower parts ofhills .Ca n stand inundation for some time,bu t isals o found on dry,shallow ,poo r soils.O n the latter being of smallsize . Planted trees showed the best growth on deep loams.

5. Tree characteristics: Large handsome tree,bu t often smallan d deformed due to pollarding in India. Stem:Tal lstraigh t bole,attainin g up to 80 cm. indiamete r whenwel lgrown . |ark: Nearly black,cracked , inBurm a often covered with small globular pustules. Crown: Gracefuldroopin gbranches .

6. Silviculture -Seeds :40,00 0seeds/kg . Seeds are produced from the 8thyear . Fruits fall as soon as they ripen.Th e seed is very infertile;possibl y production of quantities of fertile seeds only in certainyears . Germination capacity nevermor e than 3%. ÇïâSSèS6-ËÏ2S!S: Best results in survival and subsequent height growth were obtained with stumped one-year-old nursery-raised seedlings. 5§ÏHï5i_SëSSSêî§ïï2S: Naturalreproductio n of this tree in Burma often very good,youn g plants sometimes forming dense even-aged thickets,particularl y onalluvia l ground,o n places where seeds have been washed intoheap s along with silt.

7. Growth,yield : Fast growing;plante d trees in Indiareache d 12m . inmea n height and 7-10 m. in mean diameter in 10years .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: In Indiaan d Pakistan. Somemoth shav e been recorded on Anogeissus,Badani a exclamationis, Euproctis guttata,Maurill a iconica,non e of thesebein g a majorpest .

9. Wood properties:Resemble s thiso f other Anogeissus spp. Sapwood pale yellow toyellowis h grey,turnin g greyish brown with age;hear t wood small;har d and heavy tover y heavy (sp.gr .0.87-1.04 , airdry), strong and very tough, difficult to season as it isliabl e towarping ,splittin g and surface-crackini Green conversion during or at the end of the rainy season followed by Stackini under cover for slow drying isrecommanded ;ver y durable; difficul t to saw but canb e turned,machine d and finished to a smooth surface.

10. Uses: Timber a well-known substitute for hickory ( spp.)an d ash (Fraxinusspp. )fo r tool handles and helves.Highl y esteemed for agricultural implements,an d universally used for this. Also suitable for stretchers, cots and allpurpose s where great shockresistenc e and hardness are necessary Suitable for overhead electric transmission poles. Also a good fuelwood .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Seems arathe r valuable timber species for planting under semi- 43

aaridt osemi-humi d climatesu pt o60 0m .o ndee p loams,derive d from alluvium, colluviumo ra tfoo t slopeso fhills .

13. Literature:46 ,47 ,167 ,180 ,195 , 203.

19. Anthoaephalus ehinensis (Lank) Rubiaceae Rich,e xWal p Syn. A. cadarnbaMiq .

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Kelempaya n (Malaysia,Indonesia) ,Kadamb a (Indonesia),Lara m (Sabah),Ga o(Vietnam) .

2. Area,ecology : Widely distributed throughout tropicalAsia ,fro m Indiat o West Irian (Indonesia).Ofte n occurringi nriparia nforest so nstrip so f flat land subject tooccasiona l flooding,alon gth ebank so fman yrivers . A secondary tree oftenassociate d withOctomele ssumatrana .A ligh tdemandin g species successfully introduced inSout h Africa,Puert oRic oan dothe r countries.

3. Climate- Rainfall :I nit snatura lhabita ta rainfal lo f1500-500 0mm . an­ nually. Probably capableo fgrowin gi nregion swit ha maximu mo f3 dr ymonths . Temgerature:Absolut e minimum temperature 3C ,absolut emaximu m temperature 38°CT Altitude: Common fromsea-leve lu pt o100 0m .

4. Soil: Prefersdeep ,mois tbu twell-draine d alluvialsoils ,loam y textured. However,th especie sals oha sbee nreporte da theavy ,poorl y drained clayey soils. InBorne oth especie sha sals obee nrecorde do nshallo wclaye y soils athill-ridges .I nJav ath especie s seemst ooccu runde rbrackis h conditions too.

5. Tree characteristics:U pt o4 5m .tal lan d1,0 5m .diameter . Stem: Smallbuttresses ,straight ,tall ,rathe r slender,clea nfo rmos to f itslength .Coppice s freely. Bark:Grey ,almos t smootho nyoun gtrees ,late rbecomin gmor eo rles s fissuredan dflaking . Crown: Consistso fsmall ,radia lbranche sa tth ever y top,slightl y drooping at their ends. Leaves: Opposite,simple ,drooping ,thin ,leathery ,oval ewit h short tips, moreo rles sheart-shape da tth ebase . Root-system:Moderatel y resistantt olac ko foxygen .Youn gplant sdi eafter 27day so flac ko foxygen .

6. Silviculture -Seed :18-2 6millio n seeds/kg.,airdry .Th eseed sar edisperse d by variousagents :birds ,bat san dothe ranimals ,win dbu tprobabl y mainly bywater .Germinatio npe rcen to ffres h seedsi sver yvariable ,generall y low: 25%.Whe n storedi nairtigh tboxes ,abou t2 month si na refrigerato r 44 a higher germination percentage,u p to 95%i spossible .Whe n stored in that way,seed s can keep their viability for about 2years . Nursery: After the fruits are dried; the seeds are air-dried for about 1C days. The very fine seeds are mixed with sand. Sowing in trays in a soil- medium of which the pH is about 4.6-5.1i norde r toreduc e damping-off. Germination starts after 12-20 days. Fresh seeds germinate at best under shade,olde r seeds in full overhead light. In the beginning watering -two to three timesa day- is necessary. After 3-4 weeks,whe n 2.5-3 cm. tall, seedlings are transplanted in pots or bags. Young seedlings are liable todrough t and toomuc h moisture,s o they have to be covered. Planting stock: When 3-6-month-old seedlings are planted. Balled plants and stumps of 30 cm. height and 1cm . diameter atroot-colla r are used. Planting technique: Direct seeding isunreliable .Taungy a planting at spacings of 3*1.5m. or 3* 2m .wit h interplanting of Leucaena leucocephala is possible. Also mixutures with shade-bearing trees aremade . Natural_regeneration: Fruits are readily eaten by cattle and other (birds)an d the seeds are spread by theseagents . When the rainy season begins,larg e numbers of seeds arewashe d onto heaps together with silt,germinatio n under such circumstances often take place in dense masses.Als o small seedlings are washed away. Cattle israthe r important agent in securing naturalregeneration . Seedlings often come up in considerable quantities ingraze d areas or inplace s where cattle is kept together;th e young plants are browsed down regularly,bu t if cattle is kept out for some time saplings shootu p and establish themselves. Reproduction also has a tendency to spring up on newly exposed ground, for example on the sides of new road embankments.

Growth,yield : Very fast grower,especiall y from about the second to about the twentieth year. Growth-rates atdifferen t agesar e shown inth e following table.

Age Mean height (m.) Meandiam . (cm.) Mean annual increment (m /ha./y)

5 14.0 16.5 20.0 10 21.4 29.1 24.0 20 32.1 50.6 26.2 30 38.6 66.3 23.9

Pests,disease s and calamities: Damage by cattle,dee r and banteng. Seeds are eaten by ants,bird s and other animals.Defoliatio n is caused by caterpillars,especiall y Arthroxgista hilaris,ofte n indens e plantations. Young seedlings are liable todamping-off . In India fungi-attack by Gloeosporiium anthocephali has been recorded.

Wood properties: Sapwood not sharply differentiated from heart wood; soft, very light (sp.gr . 0.43 airdry);rathe r strong;shoul d be seasoned care­ fully to avoid sap-stain;ver y low durability when exposed oruse d in contaci with the ground works;split san d peels easily. 45

10. Uses:Excellen t wood fortea-boxe san dsuitabl efo rmatches .I tha sals oa possibilitya spulp-wood ;th efibre ,althoug hrathe r resinous,ha sa goo d length,bu tbleachin g isno teasy .Fir ewoo dan dcharcoa lhav ea lo wquality . Alsouse dfo rligh t construction-works,veneer ,plankin gan dothers .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:No tnativ et oVietnam .Ver y useful,fast-growin gan dsoft-woode d species. Requires generally moist,dee pan dwell-draine d soils. Suitablefo r complete planting includingtaungya-systems .I tma yhav eprospect s inen ­ richmentplantin gi nlo wstructure d thicketso rscru bvegetations .Coul db e mixed with shadebearin g tree species.Suitabl e speciesfo rreforestatio n of siteswhic har eno tsufficientl y covered withvegetation ,provide d that soilpropertie sar eno ta limitin g factor.Show s good promisea spul pwoo d supplier.

13. Literature:31 ,46 ,85 ,96 ,107 , 203.

20. Araucaria ounninghamii Sweet Araucariaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Hoo ppine . Indigenous_name:Colonia lPine ,Richmon d River Pinean dWhit ePine ,

2. Area,ecology :Th eHoo ppin eha sa wid e altitudinalan dlatitudina lrange , fromPapu a- Ne wGuine aan dWes t Iriana tabou t8 S latitud ewher e iti s found from sea-levelu pt o240 0m .elevation ,throughou tth elengt ho f inNe wSout hWale st oabou t3. 3S latitud ewher ei ti sfoun d fromsea-leve lu pt o90 0m . Itha sbee nplante da sa nexoti ca.o .i nMauritius ,Kenya ,Sout hAfrica , Malaysia,Nigeri aan dRhodesia .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Hoo ppin ei snaturall y suitedt oarea swit h summerrainfal l anddr ywinters .Bu ti tha slimite d prospectso fgrowin g inarea swher e rainfalli suniforml ydistribute d throughoutth eyea ran dn odr yseason . Rainfallrequirement srang efro m 1000-1500mm .pe rannu mwit hmos to fi t fallingdurin gth esumme rmonths . Accordingt oFA 0(1974 )i ti sver yresisten tt operiod so fdrough to fu pt o 3o r4 month s( <3 0mm. )an di tdoe sno tsuffe r fromth edr yharmatta nwin d inNort hNigeria . Isals oplante d ina climat ewit h400 0mm .i nIndi aan dFA O(1974 )advise s toexten d testsfro m semi-humid tropicalclimate st ohumi d tropicalclimates . Température:Mea nannua ltemperatur evarie sbetwee n2 1C t o2 7C an dtha to f thecoldes tmont hi sbetwee n9 an d1 6C .I nsouth-eas t Queensland upt o2 0 frostday sa yea rma yoccur . Accordingt oNTIM A (1968,afte rCROME R ,1940 )th ecritica ltemperatur eo f two-year-old stocki s-7. 2C .

* Cromer,D.A.N . (1940).Fros tresistenc eo fHop ePine .Austr .For .5 (1). 46

4. Soil: Grows on a large variety of soils,provide d that they are well-drained and kept moist all the year round. Itparticularl y favours soils derived frommetamorphi c rocks,basalt s and granite and for best development requires deep,moist ,fertile ,claye y loam. Thep Hmus t beroun d 6.0-6.5.; too acid soils are unfavourable. Hoop pine is found on less deep soils in New South Wales.Respons e on nitrogen fertilizers on poor soils is high.

5. Tree characteristics: The tree grows very large and generally attains heights of 30-46 m. and diameters of 60-120 cm.,bu t dimensions of 60m . in height and 150-180 cm. indiamete r have been recorded. Stem: Straight,wit h very little taper and oftenu p to two-thirds of the totalheight .Th emai n stem ispersisten t to the top of the crown. Bark: Persistent over the whole of the trunk,t o the small branches.Har d and rough,wit h horizontal crades forming circular hoops or bands and rec­ tangular strips.Thick ,ver y dark brown or black onth e surface and red when cut.Th e New Guinean strain has a very scaly bark which peels off in thick papery layers horizontally, giving the stem aringe d appearance. Crown: Almost spear headed outline,compose d of open storied whorls of hori­ zontal to ascending sticklike limbs.Gringe d and tufted with dark dull green foliage. Leaves: Needles are stiff and squamiform. Root-system: Seedlings develop long and strong tap roots with many lateral roots. Somemycorrhiza e are in association.Mycorrhiza l fungi are necessary fora good development of Hoop pine seedlings inpur e culture.

6. Silviculture - Seeds: 2700 to 4400 seeds/kg;Hoo p pine seeds every year, from the 15t o 20yea r onwards but heavy seedfall only occurs in every 3 to 4 years during which large quantities of fertile seedsma y be obtained. Collection of cones from selected trees should begin when the first trace of browness is observed on the cone. Cones are collected from the tree,col ­ lection should be correctly timed because cones collected at thepea k of the season contain the highest proportion ofmatur e and fertile seeds. Germination capacity is high when fresh and if collected when justripe . Losesviability"i n a fewmonth s unless stored underrefrigeratio n in tightly packed containers and never kept atroo m temperature. Storage at a tempera­ ture of -12C preferably in coprasacks . Coldstored inQueenslan d (at 2 -7 C)seed s retain their viability for up to sixyears . Nursery: For successful production of seedlings the nursery should be sited on light loam,dee p fresh and porous.Heav y day soilswhic h lack aeration should be avoided. The best soil pH is 6.0-6.5. Seeds should be sown on loosened,leve l and lightly waterd beds. The sowing season depends on the rate of growth of the seedlings,whic hma y vary from place to place but also from nursery to nursery at a certain place. It takes roughly 10-15 months to produce plantable seedlings. There are three methods of sowing the seeds,(a )broadcast , (b)i n drills 15 cm. apart and (c)directl y into tubes of compacted loam. Broadcast method is standard in ;densit y of stocking isaime d at 85-130 plants perm ,an d inAustrali a also drill sowing is standard. (Aim: 8plant s per 30 cm. drill). InNort h Nigeria seeds are pregerminated in sterilized moist sand and pricke out intopolythen e pots as they germinated. Seeds should be treated with an appropriate fungicide topreven t damping-off 47

(i.e. Captan 50a t therat e of 1100g . per 100 kg. of seed). The bedsar e covered with 2cm .o f Araucaria sawdust ,althoug h also saw dust from hard wood speciesma y be equally suitable provided it is treated with a fungicide. Newly sown beds are given shade by plastic netting or slats within one week from sowing. In New Guinea the shade is gradually removed after twomonths , but full light is not admitted untilnearl y one year after sowing. InQueens ­ land 50%shadin g isprovide d from the end of the first week till about 5month s after sowing.Durin g the sixthmont h the shade is gradually opened out and at the end of thismont h it is completely removed. Light watering is given 2o r 3time s awee k during germination. The soil should be keptmois t but notwet . Planting_stock: The long taproo t isprune d by undercutting by means of a sharp blade at a depth of 15-18 cm. below ground level.Liftin g for tubing is done somemonth s later from completely shaded beds. Plants are graded and only the standard stock should be tubed. Tubing isth e transfer of seedlings from the seedbed to a column of soil held by ametal , plastic or bamboo tube 20 cm. high and 5cm .diameter . The optimum shoot: root ratio isfoun d ina sandy potting medium 54% coarse sand,28 %fin e sand, 11% silt and 7% clay;optimu m pH is 6.0-6.5. But every ample supply ofblac k or dark grey soilwit h sufficient plant nutrients,whic h binds well, isno t sticky when moist,an d leaves the tube easily at planting,ca nb e used. Tubing should be done at least 5month s before planting in the field indul l rainy weather.Period s ofhig h wind and/or lowhumidit y should be avoided.

Newly tubed plants should be given full shade.Thi s is gradually removed to give full light at least onemont h before transferring to the planting site. Spacing of tubed plants 20x 5cm . (from stem to stem). Plantingtechnique : Direct sowing isno ta common practice and it is not recommanded. Planting inAustrali a is done in the area with the rain forest vegetation type.Close d forest on sites should be clear felled and burnt a short timebefor e therain y season begins.Fir e breaks are saved,becaus e of the fire sensivity ofth e species.Th e usually sites are not stumped or ploughed. On grasslands ploughing is possible onreasonabl e slopes and im­ proves early growth by reducing grass competition. Themos t desirable size is 40cm . For grassy areas inNe w Guinea 45-60 cm. stock is selected. At planting the soil should be damp in the upper 20-25 cm. Planting should cease ifn orai n falls for about onewee k or during periods of hot,dr y winds. Spacing NewGuine a 2.5 x 2.8 meters.Tendin g in the first four years is important. It isessentia ltha t plantations are kept free of weeds until the trees have closed canopy. Intensity of tending depends on localconditions . InQueenslan d tending costs are reduced by permitting grazing in 3-4-year-old compartments. Pruning prescriptions differ for different localities.Roughl y the first pruning isdon e when 75%o f the stand exceeds 5o r 6m. and when canopy closure is complete. Highprunin g ist oa height not taller than 6-7.6 m. from the ground,whe n 75% of the stand exceeds 14m . It hasbee n found that basal area is a very usefulbasi s for control of Hooppin e thinning experiments.Experiment s inQueenslan d showed that the maximum basalare a increment is about 2.1 m /ha.an d is associated with a stand basalare a of 27.5-32 m /ha. It is important for each country to develop a pruning and thinning schedule suitable to itsparticula rarea . Underplantingo fHoo p Pine under healthy five-year-old stands of Pinus taeda and Pinus elliottii on infertile lateric podsol (unsuited to Hoop Pine in 48

complete planting)ha s been successful. Probably the critical factor is essentially one of nitrogen supply. Naturalregeneration : Attempts made in Australia and New Guinea to regenerate Hoop Pine naturally were not successful.

7. Growth,yield :Unde r suitable plantation conditions the growth ofHoo p Pine is satisfactory,thoug h not rapid. It is slow growing in the nursery and during the first fiveyear s after planting out,afte r which it is accelerating. Intabl e 2 the expected production ofa 55-year-old plantation with a site- index of 26m . (dominant height at 25 years of age)ar e given.

Table 2.Yiel d of Hoop Pine 2.7 x 2.4 m. Queensland 3 3 Pulpyiel d m /ha. Mill logsm /ha. Thinnings 116 217 Final cut 12 490

Total 128 707 3 Totalmea n annual increment is 15.2m /ha./year. In 25-year-old plantations at Mauritius amea n annual increment of 18m /ha./year and 15m /ha./year were found onrespectivel y site quality 1an d 2.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Whit e gruls are said to be one of the most serious insect pests innurserie s in New Guinea and Australia. Control by treatment with Arsenate of Lead at spraying gammexane (1kg./50 01 . water). Hylurdrectonus araucariae,a small scolytid beetle may cause complete de­ foliation ofHoo p Pine onpoo r sites inbot h plantations and naturalforests . Damping-offma y result inth e death of seedlings. It is caused by a variety of soil inhabiting fungi. Preventionb yavoidin g excessmoisture ,weedin g frequently and regulating seedling density,an d using wellrotte d organic matter. Controlb y Thiotox and Captan or Cuprox (100g./2 1 1.).Roo t rot caused by Fomesnoxius ,resultin g in the death of the plant is common throughout plan­ tation inNe w Guinea. Control by treating old stumpswit h creosote. InPapu a chlorosis ofth e planting stock because of the highp H (7.0)o f the soil,whic h made irondeficient .Ver y susceptible tofire .

9. Wood properties:Araucari a wood isnote d for itshigh t colour and in distind growthrings ,ligh tt omediu m weight (sp.gr . 0.56) and ease ofworking . It seasonswel lbu t the presence ofmor e compression wood,whe n grown under poor conditions,i s a serious defect.Th e wood fibres are long. Mechanical and strenght properties of the wood are good. It iseasil y treatei with preservatives and finishes well. Easily glued. Sometimes fuzzy sapwood,susceptibl e to blue stain and moulds.Lo w resistenc todecay . It is free fromresin s and lacks odour.

10. Uses: Sawnwoo d for inside building constructions,furniture ,outsid e doors and frames,sheath s etc. (appropriate preservatives should be applied). Containers,boxes ,crates ,stick s and boxes inmatc h industry,fenc e pickets andman y other usest owhic h it isadapte d duet o its uniform texture, freedom fromresin s and lack of odour. 49

Veneeran dpl ywood :al lAraucari a speciesmak e excellent materialsfo rth e manufactureo fthis .Pul pan dpaper :woo d residues andmaterial sfro m thinning canb eused .Pul p comparable with thato fth ebes t European softwoods .

11. Remarks:a )Althoug hno tsignificantl y morphologically different therei sa n indication thatth eAustralia n strainan dth eNe wGuine a strainar edifferen t infor man dmanne ro fdevelopment .I ti simportan tt ofin dou twhethe r prov­ enancedifference sar esignifican t botha sregard s latitudean daltitud e above sea-level.I nvie wo fth edifficult y andexpens eo fobtainin g seedi t isa matte ro fhig hpriorit yt odetermin e whichar eth eprovenance s best suitedt oth evariou splantin g sitess otha tultimatel y seed importsca nb e confinedt othos eprovenances . b)Beside sth eexpensiv e seed,als oth eestablishmen t costsar ehigh . c)I ti ssuggeste d toplan t some selected Araucariasa sa navenu e treeo r ornamental tree.Th esee do fthes e treesca nb euse d forplantation sestab ­ lishment.

12. Evaluation:Hoo pPin ei sa ver y attractive species forplantin g becauseo f itsexcellen t timberan dpulpin g properties combined withrapi d growth(a t anolde r age)an dalmos t perfect bole form. Itca nb eplante d underth e semi-humid climates fromsea-leve lu pt o1,20 0m .an dpossibl y alsounde r humid climatesi nth esam erange ,o ndeep ,fertile ,well-draine d soils,wit h a favourablepH . Possibleo npoo r soilswit hth eapplicatio no fN-fertilizers . Underplantingunde rpin e forests also givea goo d possibility.

13. Literature:15 ,73 ,75 ,91 ,111 ,160 , 195.

21. Araucaria hunsteinii K.Schu m Araucariaceae Syn. A. Klinkii Lauterbach

1. Name- Tradename :Klink iPine . Indigenousname :Rass uo rPai .

2. Area,ecology : Indigenoust oNe wGuine awher ei ti sfoun d growingi nmoun ­ tainousarea sa televation so f610-152 5m .abov e sea-leveli nlatitude s 5°-10°S. Klinki Pinean dHoo p Pinear efoun d here inth esam e localitybu tno tequall y mixed.Bot h speciesten dt ob egregariou s withon especie so rth eothe r pre­ dominating.Emergen t treei nassociatio nwit h somerainfores t species.Bes t developmenta televation s between 760-1220m .Plante di nMalay ai ntrial . More shadebearin g thanHoo pPine .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Mea nannua lrainfal li nth enativ eare ai sbetwee n160 0 and 1850mm .Mea nmonthl yrainfal lneve r below7 6mm .• Temperature:Maximu m temperatures 32C fo ral lmonths .Mea nmonthl y temper- âtûrës'between26-32° Can d18-19°C .Relativ e humidityrangin g from72 %- 82 % inth emornin gt o49-61 %a t3 p.m . 50

4. Soil: Occurs on slopes of pleistocene lake and alluvialdeposit s which form clay loams and loamy days,wit h amoderat e drainage. There isa tendency towards alkalinity. InMalaysi a planted on heavy clay loams derived from granite,o n a well-drained hillside .

5. Tree characteristics: Magnificent tree up to 46m . too 85 m. inheight . Stem: Clear cylindrical and straight bole about halfo f the totalheight , up to 43 m. to the first whorl of branches.Diameter s of 3m . are very common. Bark: Oftenmor e than 2.5 cm. thick,reddis h brown,roug h and exudes a colourless resin copiously. Inner bark rich red that pales to pink in its deeper portion. Crown: Loosepyramida l form. Leaves: Tending tob e at the tips of thebranches . ?22ÏI§Y5îëm: Seedlings develop strong tap roots and are slow to produce lateralroots ;n o satisfactory top:roo tratio .

6. Silviculture - Seed:2,20 0Seeds/kg. ,collecte d from selected trees,pre ­ ferably young mature trees,bu t alsoyoun g trees and late mature trees nay be satisfactory. Seed collection when the majority of the seeds has an embryo which exceeds 13mm . The seed loses itsviabilit y atth erat e of 10%o r even more a week during the first four weeks,thereafte r the loss of viability increases rapidly,eigh t weeks after collection viability is completely lost. 50% Retention of viability after 18month s when stored sealed andmois t at 3C Seeds should be sown immediately after collection orremova l from cold storage Germination capacity then fairly high. Nursery: Bed preparation,see d treatment and sowing:se eHoo p Pine. Shade and/or light requirements are significantly different.Ful l overhead shade preferably on the day of sowing;bes t shoot development when 75%shad e for first fewmonth s and 50%shad e forth enex t threemonths .Remova l of shade in two steps following this,ful l exposure 2week sbefor e tubing. Four months after germination reduction to 130 seedlings perm seed bed. Heeding should be done intensively by hand. Planting_stock: Lifting and tubing: see Hoop Pine. Root wrending severalmonth s before tubing isadvocated . A light textured soil inth e tube isessentia l for Klinki Pine. Fifteenmonth s is the optimum age for tubing Klinki Pine,i n order to obtain the highest proportion of suitable seedlings of 15-23 cm. high. With improved nursery soilthi s optimum height would bereache d in 9-15 months.Transplantin g as soona s the plants are large enough to handle is suggested. In New Guineath e most satisfactory stock forplantin g is large two-year-old stock 30cm .an d higher,wit h well- developed lateralroots . Planting technique: Klinki Pine is advised forplantin g on lands previously bearing high forest. It should not be planted onridg e tops or areas with strongwind s as topsma y blowout . Sitepreparation : the area should be felled well inadvance , involving brushing,fellin g and burning to dispose the felled material. Inarea s sub­ ject to termite attack burning should be very thorough inorde r to reduce the amount ofwood y material whichwil lassis t inreducin g the termite population. Ploughing isusuall y not economically. Planting (see also Hoop Pine)shoul d be done without any disturbance of the soil surrounding theroots .Dept h of planting isver y essential;i t isre - commanded thatplant s should notb e planted deeper than 2.5 cm.belo w normal level,bu tshallo wplantin g is harmfullan d should be avoided. 51

Spacing 2.8 x 2.5 m. (1500 plants/ha.). Correct tending in the first two years isparticularl y important, involving the removal of undesirable weed growth in the first and second year,prefera ­ bly by grubbing or hand pulling. Pruning see Hoop Pine. Thinnings are carried out according to the following schedule.

Predominant height No.o f trees to be retained

15m . 865 per ha. 18m . 618 perha . 21m . 420pe r ha.

It is thepractic e inNe w Guinea to coat all stumpsan d wounds of the remaining stemswit h creosote. The thinning intensity have to be determined for each particular area. Natural_regeneration: Natural seedlings are present in the forest floor,bu t apparently these are not sufficiently abundant for use inregeneratin g the forest. Natural regeneration systems hasno t been givenmuch ,i f any consideration.

7. Growth,yield : Klinki Pine starts slower than Hoop Pine,bu t itmake s up on the latter 16.5year-ol d trees ina New Guineaplantatio n had a predominant height (mean height of tallest 49 trees perha. )o f 28m. , a mean diameter 34 cm. at 336 stems/ha.A t 716 stems/ha.thes e were respectively 27m . and 25 cm.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Termit e damagema y be serious.Coptoterme s hyclopex and C. elisae attack young trees.Contro lb y Aldrinan d Dieldrin. Hylurdectones araucariae Schedl.a smallleafmine r attacks 10t o 12-year-old plantations inregion s 1100-1350 m. above sea-level in New Guinea. Also in natural stands. Miliona isodoxa,a attacks leaves and twigs ofAraucari a and the larvae cause serious damage toleaves . Armillarvia and Fomes attack plantations fromwhic h hard woods have been recently cleared. Root rot from seedlings is caused by Fusarium spp. in the nursery. Minimization of the incidence by chemicalsterilizatio n of the nursery soil. Damage by wind toyoun g seendlings.A s Hoop Pine it isver y fire sensitive and also chlorose is found in the nursery.

9. Wood properties: SeeHoo p Pine,howeve r lighter colour,i tha s a silky lustre, even more appreciated than that of Hoop Pine (sp.gr . 0.45).

10. Uses: See Hoop Pine;especiall y attractive forveneers .

11. Remarks: Cost s of establishment operations are indicated by some figures fromNe w Guinea: 135-167mandays/hectar erequire d foroperatio n up to,bu t excluding,firs t thinning. See alsoremark s b and c under HoopPine . 52

12. Evaluation:Thi sspecie sseem smos tsuitabl efo rplantin gi narea swit ha "climathumid esubmontagnard "fo rth esam epurpose sa sHoo pPine . Noexac tsoi lrequirement sar eknown ,bu tKlink iPin ewil lprobabl yd owel l ondeep ,fertil et omoderatel yfertile ,moderatel yt owell-draine dsoil s witha p Hwhic hi sno tto olow .

13. Literature:1 ,15 ,73 ,104 ,111 ,154 ,160 ,195 .

22. Artocarpus hirsuta Lam Moraceae

1. Name- Tradenam e:Ain i(India) . ï54iSSB2u§_S§!5Ë:"i tna i(Vietnam) .

2. Area,ecology :Nativ et oth eevergree nforest so fth eWester nGhat si nIndia , wherei ti sfoun dscattere du pt o120 0m .I tca nstan dshade ,bu tshow sth e bestgrowt hi nth eful llight . Plantedi nth emois tzone so fSout hIndia .Coppice swell .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Require sprobabl ya tlas t175 0mm .pe rannum ,wit ha veryshor to rn odr yseason .

4. Soil:Th especie sha sn ospecia lrequirements .I tshow sa goo dgrowt ho n plinthitesoils ,a tth efoo to fhill so nweathere dforests ,o nslope san d ondee pric hsoils .

5. Treecharacteristics :Larg etree ,u pt o4 5m .i nheigh tan d1. 5m .i ndiam ­ eter. Stem:Straight ,clea nbole . Crown:Dense . Root-system:Lon gta proot ,wit hman ylatera lroots .Rootsucker sar efound .

6. Silviculture- Seed :140 0seeds/kg .Abundan tsee di sproduce deac hyear . Muchi slos thowever ,becaus eth efruit sar eeate nb ymonkeys .See ddispersi o bybirds .Th eseed slos ethei rviabilit yquickly ,the ygerminat eeasily . Plantingstock :Stump sfro m3-year-ol d seedlings,2 5cm .ste man d5 cm .roo t givea 52 %success . Plantingtechnique :Direc tsowin gi srecommende dbecaus eth eseedling sar e difficultt otransplant .Spacin g1. 8x 1. 8m. ,5 t o6 seed spe rhole .I nth e dryseaso nsom eshad ei snecessary .Therefor eundersowin gi softe ndon ei n olderplantations .Use dfo rartificia lregeneratio nunde rshelte rwoo dafte r removal,o fth elowe rcanop ytree san dshrub s byplantin gou ta t3. 6x 3. 6m Seeals oAcrocarpu sfraxinifolius . Naturalregeneration :Thi si sseldo mfoun dbecaus eo fth eheav yshad ea tth e forestfloor .Natura lregeneratio nma yb eimprove db ycleanin gth eroo ma t thefoo to fth emothe rtree . 53

7. Growth,yield :A tfirs tslowly ,afterward sfast .Annua ldiamete rincremen t 2.5cm .Reache sa heigh to f9m .i n5 years .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Defoliatio nb yinsect s(Atractomorph a crenuletai nIndia .Seed sar eattacke db yinsect s(Araeceru sfasciculati s inSouth-eas tAsia . InIndi ath ewoo di sliabl et oattac kb yborer s(Sinoxylo natratum) . Verysensitiv et o fire.

9. Woodproperties :Youn gplant sar ebrowse db ydee ran dmonkeys .Yellowis h brown,moderatel yhard ,moderatel yheav y(sp .gr .0.50-0.80) ,durabl ean d froma ver ygoo dquality .

10. Uses:Th ewoo di suse dfo rth ebuildin go fhouses ,boats ,furnitur ean d manyothe rthings .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Suitabl efo rplantin gi nth ewettes tpart so fSout hVietna mu p to120 0m .o ndee po rmoderatel ydee psoils ,wit hth epurpos eo fwoo dpro ­ duction.Complet eplantin go rplantin gunde ra ligh tshelter .

13. Literature:47 ,51 ,194 ,195 , 203.

23. Artocarpua integrifolius h.f . Horaceae Syn. A. heterophyllusLa m A. intégra Mevr. A. integrifolia L.

1. Käme- Tradename :Jac ktre eo rJac kfrui ttree ,o rJak . Indigenousname :Mit-na i(Vietnam) .

2. Area,ecology :Probabl ynativ et oIndi awher ei toccur si nth emois tever ­ greenforest si nth eWester nGhats .No wwid esprea di nth eplain san dfoot ­ hillso ftropica lAsia ,fro msea-leve lu pt o120 0m. ,wher ei ti sfoun di n semi-deciduousforest stoo .A ligh tdemandin gspecies ,bu ti tca nstan d someshad edurin gth eearl yyears .Coppice swell . OutsideAsi aplante di nman ycountries ,lik eKenya ,Jamaica ,Uganda ,Zanzibar .

3. Climate- Rainfall :I trequire sa tleas t175 0mm .o frai ni nit snativ earea , witha shor tÊ2- 4months )o rn odr yseason . Température:Mea nannua ltemperatur eabov e2 0C ;monthl yvariation si ntem ­ perature3- 5C . Altitude:Bes tgrowt hbetwee n600-120 0m .abov esea-leve li ndistributio n area. 54 t. Soil: Grows on deep fertile,alluvia l soils,bu t can adapt itself to shallow, rocky soils. Poor growth on sandy soils and plinthite soils.

5. Tree characteristics: Secondary sized tree,tha t canattai n 25m . in height. Stem: Short,thic k bole. Bark: Rough,dar k brown, innerside light yellow or pinkish,excude s a milky latex when cut. Crown: Irregular, low starting,dens e round. Leaves: Large,dar k green,elliptical ,coriaceous ,evergreen .

6. Silviculture - Seed: 100 seeds/kg. Lose their viability, if the moisture content becomes too low. Cannot be stored long (less than 3months) . Can be stored in jute sacks in the shade;bette r is storage at a temperature near the freezing point. Nursery: Sowing under a light shade,pricke d out inpot s at twomonths , transplantation to the permanent site at 1year . Planting stock: Planting with balled stock since this species does not stand transplanting naked rooted. Planting technique: Direct sowing is often applied because of the vulnerable taproot . It is done on shifting cultivation plots or intaungy a systems. This is done at the beginning of the rainy season.Bot h direct sowing and transplants have a spacing of 3x 3m . In Sri Lanka direct sowing is done together with Papaya. In SriLank a planted in lines,togethe r with Chloroxylon swietenia,Tecton a grandis and Swietenia macrophylla. Distance between lines 10m. , inside the lines 3m . At first very good results,graduall y itappeare d however that Swietenia eliminated the other species,s o that a better balancing in the mixture is required. Natural regeneration: This ispossibl e in the plantation if effective ways ofprotectio n against grazing animals,especiall y hares canb e found.

7. Growth,yield : Slow growth in first twoyears ,afterward s rapid. In SriLank « on very good soilafte r twoyear s theheigh t was 1m. , at 20year s 18 m. with a diameter of 25 cm.

Pests,disease s and calamities: Snails,defoliator s and flying ants are themos t important pests. Root rot is caused by Fomes spp.Furthe r no serious cases are reported. The seedlings are frost-an d drought tender.Youn g plants and also the fruits are eaten by cattle,har e and other grazing animals,especiall y hares are destructive.

9. Wood properties:Brigh t yellow,graduall y turning red;moderatel y heavy (sp. gr. 0.52-0.75);moderatel y strong,moderatel y durable and rather easy towork .

10. Uses: Chiefly known for its enormous fruits (Jack)whic h are relished for their taste and valued asa food. The timber ismuc h used in cabinetmakin g and for frame work. The species yield a dye,use d fordyein g monks'robe s inBurma . 55

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Th especie si ssuitabl efo rplantin gunde rth eclimate ssemi - humidesubmontagnar dan dhumid esubmontagnard .Possibilities ,however ,als o atlowe relevation swit hadequat erainfall . Themai npurpos eo fplantin gwil lb eth efruits ,bu tals oth ewoo di suseful .

13. Literature:47 ,71 ,73 ,195 ,201 ,203 ,216 .

24. Azadiraohta indica A.d eJussie u Meliaceae Syn. Melia azadiraohta L.

Name- Tradename :Neem . Indigenousname:Sa uda u(Vietnam) ,Maranyg o(Philippines) .

Area,ecology :Nativ eo fth edrye rpart so fIndi aan dBurma ,thi stre ei s oneo fth emos tusefu lan dwidel yplante dtree si nth edr ytropica lclimat e typesi nAsi aan dAfrica . Iti sa light-demanding ,usuall yevergree ntree ,commonl ygrow na sa villag e tree,a si tgive sexcellen tshade .

Climate- Rainfall :Require sa tleas t45 0mm .o frainfall ,bu tdoe smos t satisfactorywher eth erainfal li s60 0mm .o rmore .I fgroun dwate ri spres ­ enta ta dept ho fno tmor etha n1 8m .a tth eheigh to fth edr yseason ,i t willgro wsatisfactoril yunde rlowe rrainfal lconditions .Give nadequat e groundwate ri tstand satmospheri cdrough tan dhig htemperature swell ,thoug h inNigeri asom edryin go fth eleave si nth ehot ,dr ywind sha sbee nreported . Neemgrow sfairl ywel lwit hmuc hhighe rrainfall ,bu ti sles suse dthere , asothe rmor eusefu lspecie sar eavailable .Numbe ro fdr ymonth s( <3 0mm. ) 6 to8 ;numbe ro fver yrain ymonth s( >10 0mm. )2-5 . Temperature:Averag eannua ltemperatur e2 6-3 2C ,i tstand smaximu mshad e temperaturesa shig ha s4 9C ;doe sno tstan dcold .

Soil:I ti stoleran to fa wid erang eo fsoil sconditions ,provide dth esoil s arereasonabl ydee pwell-draine dan dno tto oacid .Th eminimu mp Hshoul dno t bebelo w6 ,an da p Habov e6. 5i spreferable .I tgrow so nsands ,silt san d heavyclays ,includin gvertisol san deve no ndr yston ysoils ,soil swit h induratedplinthite ,degrade dsoil san dsalin esoils . Bestgrowth ,however ,o ndee pligh ttexture dsoils .To oaci dsoil so rto o densestockin gi nrelatio nt oavailabl emoistur ear esuggeste da scause s ofdeat ho fplantatio ntree si nNorther nNigeria . Inth esam eare ao ni nfertil eaci dsand sNee mappear st ohav econsiderabl y improvedbot hth enutrien tconten tan dth ephysica lcondition so fth esoil . BothP an dN fertilizer shav eshow na significan theigh tgrowt hrespons eo n poorsoils ,bu tn oworthwhil eresponse so nbette rsoils .Benefitia leffec t ofN onl yi fplent yo fmoistur ei savailable . 56

Treecharacteristics :Moderate-size dt olarge ,usuall y 12-18m .high ,some ­ timesu pt o2 0m .heigh tan d1 m .diameter . Stem:Moderatel ythick ,furrowe d longitudinallyan dobliquely ;dar kgrey , reddishbrow ninside . Crown:Fairl ydense ,rounded . Leaves:Glabrou simparipinnate ,ca nstan dshad ei nyouth . Root-system:Dee prunnin gta proot ,an da superficia lroot-system .

Silviculture- Seed :400 0seeds/kg .Th eNee mfrui ti sa drupe .Abundan t seedbearin gfro mth eag eo f3- 5years .I tshoul db ecollecte db ybeatin g downfro mth etre ewhe nfull yripe ,whic hi sabou tth emont ho fJun e(India) , andth epul premove dbefor esowing .Th esee drapidl ylose sit sviabilit y andmus tb euse dfresh ,i.e .withi na wee ko rtw oafte rcollection .Averag e germinationcapacit yo ffres hsee dabou t75% . Nursery:Afte rsowin gth eseed sar elightl ycovered .Fas tgrowin gan deas y tohandle . Planting_stock:Plantation sar eusuall yraise dfro mone-year-ol dstump so r three-months-oldcontaine rplants .On ewaterin gi sneede di ncas eo ftrans ­ plants.Bar eroo tseedling swer euse di nNort hNigeria . P-'-SSÏîSS-ïëEÎîSiauê1Direc tsowin gi sonl ydon ewhe nplent yo fsee di savaila ­ ble.Sowin gi nline s3 m .apar to ncultivate dsoils ,possibl yi ntaungy a system.Plantin gi sdon edurin gth efirs train so nwell-cleare dsites .Alon g contourplantin gi nlines . Beinga stron gligh tdemander ,adequat espacin gi srequired ,fo rinstanc e 2.4x 2. 4m .i snorma li nNort hNigeria ,whe ngrow nfo rpole so rfue lo na n eight-year-rotation.I fgrow nfo rtimbe ro nlonge rrotation si trequire s regularthinning .Experiment si nth edr yzon eo fNigeri ahav eshow ntha t theinitia lheigh tgrowt han dth eindividua lste mdiameter sar emarkedl y reduceda tclose rspacings .I nIndi aNee mi splante di nagrisilvicultura l systemsdu et oth ehig hcost so ftillag ean dweeding ;spacin g3 x 3 m .o r more. Itcoppice san dpollard swell . Muchmaintainanc ei srequire duntil lclosure .Nee mi smixe dwit hothe rspe ­ cies,eg .Dalbergi asissoo ,t osuppres swee dgrowth . Natural_regeneration:A ver yabundan tnatura lregeneratio ni sfoun di nNee m plantationsa si tseed sver yabundant .I nNigeri ai ti sexpecte dtha tplan ­ tationswil lbecom enatura lforests ,whic hwil lexpan da sa resul to fsee d dispersionb ybirds .

Growth,yield :Rathe rfas tgrowth ,dependin go nth esoi ltype ,spacin gan d climate. Theeffec to fsit ei sshow ni nth efollowin gtable : 3 Sitequalit yclas s Crop Averageheigh t(m. ) M.A.I,m /ha./y r

1 Firstrotatio n 11.3 18.7 Coppice 11.3 18.4 2 Firstrotatio n 9.1 11.4 Coppice 9.1 10.9 3 Firstrotatio n 7.0 6.1 Coppice 7.0 5.8 4 Firstrotatio n 4.9 2.2 Coppice 4.9 2.2

Thefigure sar efro m8-years-ol dNee mplantation sa tspacin g2. 4x 2. 4m . inNort hNigeria . 57

In the next table the effect of spacing on height growth isgiven .

Spacing (m.) Height (m.)

0.9 x 0.9 2.0 1.8 x 1.8 2.6 2.7 x 2.7 2.8 3.7 x 3.7 3.4 5.5 x 5.5 3.8

Some other figures indicate that the grovrchma y vary strongly: onpoo r soils in India a plantation of 44-years-old trees reached an average height of 10m . with a diameter of 25 cm.;o n the contrary onver y good soils with irrigation after 16year sa n average diameter of 42cm . isrecorded . Neem yields 17-25 tons of fruits/ha./year.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Pulvinari a maxima green,th eNee m scale is a pest of Neem in India,Pakistan ,Malaysia ;th e tree becomes conspicious sometimes with sootymoulds . Corticum salmonisolor Berk, and Br.,a fungi causes the pink disease in India, resulting in destruction of thebar k and the outer layers of wood,dyin g of branching and wilting of their foliage. Dendrophtoe falcata (L.f.)Etlingh ,mistletoe ,i s a wide spread parasite on trees in southern Asia,particularl y injurious to saplings,th egrowt h of which becomes suppressed and sometimes permanently stunted. At the end of the long dry season canker-formation sometimes occursdu e to thesudde n uptake ofmuc hwater .

9. Hood properties: Sapwood grey,hear t wood red; hard,rathe r heavy (sp.gr . 0.70-0.80); durable.

10. Uses: From the 8-10thyea rNee m is cut for fuelwoo d and poles,i n longer rotations good timber for furniture isgrown . From the fifth year the seedsyiel d an oilmainl y used for lighting purposes and in small quantities for soapmakin g and formedica lpurposes .I t can be purified and used for themanufactur e of soaps,desinfectant s and emulsifying compositions for insecticidal sprays. The oil cake obtained isa good fertilizer. The kernel contains 40-45%oil . Further Neem is often used in shelter belts,a s a villagetre e forshade , and for reforestation for soil conservation and -improvement on degraded soils in dryareas . Finally a study in India has shown that the closely related Melia azedarach is a very promising species forwrapping ,writin g and printing paper,pro ­ vided the trees are grownno t toofast .

11. Remarks: Closely related with Neem isMeli a azedarach L. This species is less drought resistent and it can stand frost.Seed s areviabl e for oneyear . Mainly as a amenity tree in areaswit h medium rainfall,e.g .Cyprus , North ,Eas t Africa,Sout h Africa,Brasi l and Argentinia. Can bemultiplie d by cuttings. 58

12. Evaluation:Th especie sseem sespeciall yimportan ti nSout hVietna mfo r plantingo ndeep ,degrade dsoils ,fo rsoi lconservatio nan dsoi limprovemen t undersemi-ari dclimate san dpossibl ysemi-humi dclimate si nth elowlan du p to60 0m . Forwoo dan doi lproductio ni tma yb eplante dunde rsemi-ari dconditions .

13. Literature:22 ,25 ,4 770 ,71 ,73 ,75 ,111 ,154 ,187 ,195 ,203 .

25. Balanocarpus heimii King Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Chengal . Indigenousname :Chenga i(Malaysia) ,Takien-cha i(Thailand) .

2. Area,ecology :Souther nThailand ,Mala yPeninsula ;occur si ntropica llow ­ land,fro msea-leve lu pt o90 0m. ,o ngentl eslope san do nmois ttil lswamp y localities.

3. Climate- Rainfall :Th especie soccur si na nare awit ha dr yseaso no fles s thantw omonths .Annua lrainfal l190 0mm .o rmore .

Soil:O nsoil swit ha ligh ttexture ;no to nFerralsols .

Treecharacteristics :Ver ylarg etre etil l6 0m .high . Stem:Clea rbol eo f21-3 7m .Diamete r100-13 0cm. ,mea n8 5cm .Smal lbut ­ tresses. Crown:Ope nstructure ,wit hsom ever yheav ybranches .

Silviculture- Seed :Flower san dfruit sfreel ywhe nabou t2 0year sold . Seedsgerminat ereadil yan dseedling ssee mt onee da considerabl eamoun t ofatmospheri cmoisture ,lik ei nth eshad eunde rfores tconditions . Plantingtechnique :Th especie si splante dou ti nlines ,wit hth eline s orientatedE- Wan d1 0m .betwee nth elines .

Growth,yield :Slo wgrowt hi nyouth ,wit hmaximu mgrowt hwhe nreachin ga diametero f2 5cm. ,whic hdiminishe swhe nreachin ga diamete ro fmor etha n 80cm .I n13 0year sth especie sca nattai na diamete ro f7 0cm .an da yiel d of27 5m /ha .

Pest,disease san dcalamities :I nseedling sa shoot-bore ro fth egenu s Laspeyresia;i nth esee dbeetl eCoccotrype sgraniceps .Th ewoo di ssuscep ­ tiblet odryro tan dtermites .

Woodproperties :Afte rdryin gth epal eyello wt obrownis hhear twoo d ishar < andheav y(sp .gr .0.59-0.8 1ai rdry) .Th ewoo di srathe rresisten tt oins e attacksan ddecay ;difficul tt oseason . 59

10. Uses:Th ewoo di shighl yregarde dfo rheav yconstructions ,fo rsleepers , bridgetimbers ,pole san dma yb euse di ncontac twit hth eground . Theresi n(Dama rpenak )i sobtaine db ywoundin gth e tree.Tappin gth etree s forth eresi nwil lapparentl ycontinu et oyiel dfo ra ver ylon gtim ewithou t seriousdamage . li. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Specie ssuite dfo rintroductio ni nlin eplantings .Th ewoo dan d resinar ever yvaluable .

13. Literature:73 ,86 ,87 ,193 ,197 .

26. Beriya covdifolia (Willd.)Burre t Tiliaceae Syn. Berry a arnnonilla Roxb. Syn. Berrya mollis Wall.

1. Name- Tradename :Trincomale . indigenous_name:Halmill a(Sr iLanka) ,Petwa n(Burma) .

Area,ecology :Souther nIndia ,Sr iLanka ,Burma ,Malaya nPeninsul aAndamars , N'icobars.I toccur sfro msea-leve lu pt o60 0m. ,i ndens edr yforest ,mixe d deciduousfores tan ddense ,semi-deciduou sforest . Astron glight-demander ,require soverhea dligh tfo rgrowth ,bu ti nth e seedlingstag ea certai namoun to fhig hshad ei sbenificial . Introduceda.o .i nNigeri aan dofte nplante di nsouther nIndia .

Climate- Rainfall :Annua lrainfall :1000-300 0mm .o rmore . Température:Absolut emaximu m4 3C ,absolut eminimu m4 C .

Soil:I tthrive sbes to ndeep ,mois talluvia lloam so fgoo ddrainage ; toleratesa poo rdrainag ebu tn odrought .

Treecharacteristics :Tal lerec ttree ,2 5m .i nheigh tan d40-6 0cm .i n diameter. Stem:Clea rbol eo f1 5m .I tcoppice swell . Leaves:Deciduou sfo ra shor tperio da tth een do fth edr yseason .

Silviculture- Seed :I tseed sprolificall yan dappear st osee dever yyear , butth esee di sno tstorable .Germinatio ni sgenerall ypoo r(20%) . Nursery:Sowin gi sdon ei nnurser ybeds ,th esee dcovere dwit ha sprinklin g ofsoil .Growt hi srelativel yslow .Th e6-months-ol dnurser yseedling s averagesabou t10-1 5cm .o fshoo tan da simula rlengt ho fta proot . Plantingstock :a )Naked-root ,afte r8-1 0months ,an db )a sstumps :th e seedlingso nth enurser yha st ob ethinne dt oa spacin go f1 5x 1 5cm. ; plantingwhe n1. 5t o2 year sold ,wit ha mea ndiamete ro f2 cm .Th estum p 60

hasdimension s of 3-4 cm. above ground and 20cm . beneath the earth. Stuaps are the best material for raising this species artificially. (Survivals: 70-75%). ÇiâEîèSë-ÏSS^ïSHë1 Stumps are very sensitive to competition. In Sri Lanka used for enrichment planting (in groupes). Trenches are dug around the newly planted tree topreven t root-competition. Natural_regeneration: In Sri Lanka silvicultural operations are carried out to assist thereadil y occurring regeneration,b y opening the canopy, cutting theunde r growth and poisoning the unferior speciesb y frill-girdling.

7. Growth,yield : One of the faster growing economically valuable hard wc;ds of the dry zone,wit h a diameter of 20 cm. in 20years ,3 0 cm. in 30 years and 10 cm. in 60-80years .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: In Sri Lanka seedlings are attacked by a defoliator;Nygmi a flava. In the Philippines Pellicularia rolfsii (seedling blight)occurs . InNigeri a attacked by a fungus of Nectria type.

9. Wood properties:Th e wood is heavy (sp.gr . 0.94 air dry);no t fibrous, durable and strong elastic,goo d mechanical properties.

10. Uses: For building construction,shaft s and boat building. Also furniture and for arrack casks (arrack palmwine).

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Species suitable for enrichment planting indr y forest types, from sea-level up to 600m . The soil has to stay humid. Of importance as producer ofvaluabl e hard wood.

13. Literature: 71,82 ,128 ,192 ,195 ,203 .

27. Bisehofia .javaniea Bl. Staphyleaceae

1. Name - Tradename: Bishop-wood. Indigenous name:Gintunga n (India), Gerondjing (Indonesia),Teru m (Thailand) Uriam (India,Pakistan) ,Bintunge n (Malaysia),Nho i (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology :Ver y widely distributed in tropicalAsia ,fro m north India to China,Mala y Archipelago,Polynesi a and TropicalAustralia . Characteris­ tic tree ofmois t shadyravines ,river-banks ,swamps ;foun d inevergreen - forests but also in dry savannah tracts.Bot h in lowlands and mountainous regions. Nativet oVietnam . Introduced inEas t Africa,Sout h Africa. 61

3. Climate -Rainfall :Variabl e conditions. In South Africa planted ina rain ­ fall zone of 1475mm . annually. Altitude: Up to 1500m . At Java generally up to 1300m .

•+. Soil: Prefers deep,loos e soil with sufficient water content. Swampy ground but also sandy alluvial soils of dry savannah forest.

5. Tree characteristics:Ver y big tree up to 45m . tall and 1.50 m. in diam­ eter. Stem: Often poorly formed, sometimes steepbuttresse s up to 3m . Bark: Dark grey to purple-brown, shaggy-scaly,fairl y smooth,sof t juicy astringent cortex. Crown: Large,shady ,irregular ,dense . Leaves: Dark green trifoliate leaves,leaflet s ellipticet o ovate,papery , drying chocolate-brown.

6. Silviculture -Seed : 70,000-93,000 seeds/kg. Canb e stored for only a few weeks. Nursery: Fresh seeds germinate well after 2-3 weeks.Shoul d be sown in porous soil in beds or inboxes ,kep t under shade and copiously watered. After germination beds are often covered with straw.Fertilit y of fresh seeds, 50%.Transplant s easily. Stumps satisfactorily. Planting_stock: At Java planted inbamboo-pot s at a spacing of 2x 3m . Planting_techniglue: Sometimesmixe d with Calophyllum inophyllum at a spacing of 1x 3m . also direct seeded,the n saturated soil isnecessary . Natural_regeneration: Especially indr y regions the tree fruits sometimes abundant. Germinates inver y moist ground. Sensitive to drought;whe n covered with earth or leaf-litter germination percentage ismuc h higher than on bare soil. In the alluvial or swampy ground it is probably customary for much of the seed to become covered before it germinates.

7. Growth,yiel d: Fas t growing. Mean annual increment in Indiaabou t 1.3 cm. in diameter. At Javamea n height of 7.5 m. in eight years,wit h an average diameter of 10.5cm .Prune s very well.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Insect attacks by Metanastriahyrtac a and .Als o termite-attack. Main fungi are Colletrotrichum gloecosporioides (anthracnose)a t Java and Fomes lamaoensis at .

9. Wood properties:Ver y heavy,sp .gr . 0.59-1.02,averag e s.g.0.7t .Strong . Durability variable.No t resistent tomarine-borers .Sapwoo d readily treated with preservatives,hear t wood isn't.Shrinks ,warp s and splits heavily. Seasoning has tob e carried out carefully,kiln-drie s satisfactorily. Very susceptible to rot and termite attack; sapwood attacked by powder-post beetles,als o longhorn and ambrosia-beetle attack havebee n recorded. Despite its hardness,eas y to work,make s a smooth surface. 62

10. Uses: Suitablefo rplantin g inhighland sfo rgenera lconstruction ,provide d thetimbe ri sprotecte d against weatheran dtermites ;flooring ,roug hfurni ­ ture,agricultura l implements.Als o suitablefo rcharcoal .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Bischofi a javanicarequire sfo ra goo d growtha deep ,loos e soilwit h sufficient water content.I nJav aa sever ebore rattac k inyout h brought aboutth efailur eo fpoo rgrowt ho fman y plantations,especiall y on lessgoo d soils.Unde r favourable conditionsth etree sgro wou tdespit e borerattac kan dthe n showa fairl y rapid growth.Goo drecover ywhe n pruned. InJav ai ti sno trecommende d forfurthe r trial;ma yb econsidere d forth e high landso fVietna m forgenera l constructionpurpose san dsuppl yo fchar ­ coal.

13. Literature:49 ,88 ,115 ,195 ,203 , 220.

28. Borribax malabaricwn DC Bombacaceae Syn. Satmalia malabarica Schott8 Endl .

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Kat u Imbul(Sr iLanka) ,Simul ,Sil k cottontree , Red cotton tree (India),Ga o(Vietnam) ,Roh aPzapho k (Kkmer),Ma ynghi u (Laos

2. Area,ecology : India,Burma ,Sr iLanka .Mos t commono nfla talluvia lgroun d nearrive rbanks .Altitudina lrange :0-120 0m .Th etre ei sa stron g light- demander.Successfull y introduced inN-Borneo ,Malawi ,Uganda ,Unio no f South-Africa.

Climate -Rainfall :Thrive sbes ti na humi d tropicallo wlan d climate,bu t noti nth emos t arid partsi nth ecountrie so foccurrence .Annua lrainfal l 750-4500mm .o rmore . Temperature:Maximu m temperature 35-49C ,minimu m temperature- 4t o1 8C .

Soil: Best developmento ndee palluvia ldeposit s containinga lo to fsand ; onbadl ydraine d ground growthi scomparativel y slow.On eo fth ecommones t treeso npatche so fshallo wsoi loverlyin g hard calcareoustufs .Th especie s canb econsidere da ssoi l- indefinite .

Tree characteristics:Ver y largedeciduou stree ,attain sa heigh to f4 0m . anda diamete ro f12 0cm .abov eth ebuttresse s (3.60m .abov e ground-level). Stem:I nth efores t itsoo n losesit slowe rbranche san dform sa clea nbol e of 24-30m .i nlength ,wit ha straigh t cylindricalstem . Crown:Horizontall y spreadingbranche si nwhorls . 63

6. Silviculture- Seed :Afte r 1yea ra germinatio ncapacit yo f30-70% ;afte r 2-3year s20% . Nursery:Sowin g7- 8cm .apart ,completin ggerminatio nafte r3 weeks .Seedling s aresubjec tt oth eattack so fvariou sanimals . Plantingstock :Cutting swer etried ,bu twithou tsuccess .Plantin gi nlittl e basketsgiv eth ebes tresults ,bu tthi si sver yexpensive :82 %survival . Withbar eroot s62% .Stum pplantin gals oi spossible :surviva l66% .

7. Growth,yield :Annua ldiamete rgrowt hunde roptimu mcondition sc .2, 5cm. , attainingi n3 0year sa diamete rgrowt ho f6 0cm .Heigh tgrowt hi nth efirs t year1,5 0m .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :I nMalaysi aan dsom eothe rcountrie sth e beetlesHypomece ssquamosu san dXystrocer aglobos aoccur . InTaiwa nth efungu sCorticu msalmanicolo r(Pin kdisease) .I nSr iLank ath e fungusFome slamacensi s(brow nroo trot) .

9. Woodproperties :Whitish ;soft ,ligh t(sp .gr .0,25-0,4 5ai rdry) ,perishable ; becomesdiscoloure d ifno tquickl ysawn .

10. Uses:Fo rroug hplanking ,lik etea-chests ;furthe rfo rmatche san dpape r (Thailand).Th eflos sfro mth esee dpo ti sutilize di nIndi afo rstiffin g cushions.

11. Remarks:It slarge ,flesh yre dflower sar eedible .

12. Evaluation:Specie ssuitabl efo rcomplet eplantin gi na taungya-system ; growso nmos tsoils .Th ewoo di sno tver yvaluable .Produce sals onon-woo d products.

13. Literature:47 ,118 ,192 ,195 ,203 .

29. Calophyllum inophyllum L. Guttiferae (Syn.Clusiaceae )

1. Name- Tradename :Alexandria nLaurel ,recommende d ist ous eCalophyllu m prefixedb yth enam eo fth esupplyin gcountry ;thi snam ei suse dfo ral l Calophyllumspp . Indigenousname :Hu- u(Vietnam) ,Kathin g(Thailand) ,Poo n(Burma) ,Bitao g (Philippines),Njamplun g(Indonesia) .

2. Area,ecology :A littora lspecies ,nativ et oth eIndo-Pacifi cstran dflor a fromIndi at oFiji . Iti sa ver ycommo ntre eo fth erock yan dsand yshores ,ofte ngrowin gdow n toth eedg eo fth ese aan du pt o700-80 0m .abov esea-level ,bu ti ti sno t foundi ndens eforest sfa rfro mth ebeach .I ti sa nevergree nlight-demandin g 64

species. Within the naturalregio n it is planted on coastal sands. It is introduced inNigeria ,Ugand a and Zanzibar (within the natural forest on sites where the natural forest isdestroye d by inundations;als o planted on coral areas).

3. Climate -Rainfall :A s a consequence of its natural distribution it grows under arang e of tropical climates. Inth e Philippines it isplante d in climates with a dry season up to 4-6 months.

4. Soil: It growsbes t on deep soils near the coast and will thrive on pure sands just above the high water table. But itwil l also grow satisfactorily from seed on light inland soils.

5. Tree characteristics: A moderate-sized low-branching treewhic hma y attain 1,20 m. in diameter and 15-20m . inheight . Stem: Short,bole ,commonl y leaning,ofte n crooked without buttresses. Crown: Dense and dark,gloss y green with largeascendin g branches.

6. Silviculture - Seed: It takesman y years to come into flower,onc e it has started itflower s frequently,ofte n twice ayear .Th emedium-size d fruits should be collected from the ground soonafte r falling to avoid detioration and damage by insects and rodents,7 8 seedspe r liter.Du e to the hard seed-coat the seed can be stored formonth s in the openair . Germination is slow without pretreatment: it starts after 57day s and lasts about 53 days. When the complete seed-coat isremoved : start germination after 23 days, duration 39 days. Planting technique: In Java direct seeding is practized (fresh seed: 1 seed per planting hole,ol d seed: 3 seeds per planting hole). For thereforestatio n of constant sands inth e Philippinesplant s of at least 50cm . are used. They are planted in large and deep planting holes with some good soils as refill.Aroun d the plants a deep basin isforme d to catch as muchrai n aspossible . Plantingmus t bedon e at thebeginnin g ofth e rainy season. If possible,weekl y watering isdon e during the first dry season by which survival is greatly increased. Frequent weeding is necessary,especiall y onnon-coasta lsites .

7. Growth,yield : Itgrow s rather slow. InZanziba r itgrow s about one meter annually after initial establishment.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Blac k coffe scale,Saiseti a nigra,a n insect feedso n the sap of the shoots and leaves. Thalassodes quadraria,a moth,sometime s causes severedefoliatio n of indi­ vidualtrees .

9. Wood properties: Sapwood paleyellow ,hear twoo d cedar brown;hard ; sp.gr . (at 15%moistur e content): 0,64; strong taugh; seasons well; durable for interiorworks ,bu tmoderatel y durable in contact withground ; difficult towor k due to interlocked grain. 65

10. Uses:I ti sa specia lpurpos ewood ,whic h isno teas yt oge ti nlarg edi ­ mensions.I ti suse d forboa tbuilding ,boa t knees,doors ,flooring ,vehicl e wheels,furnitur ean dcabine t work,gu nstocks ,musica linstruments . The treeha sa grea t numbero fuse si nnativ emedicines ;practicall yal l partsar eused .

11. Remarks: —

12. Evaluation: This species seemst ob esuitabl efo rreforestatio n ofcoasta l sandsi nclimate swit ha dr yperio du pt o6 months .

13. Literature:23 ,46 ,47 ,102 ,103 ,132 ,135 ,193 ,195 ,203 ,216 , 221.

30. Carallia integerrimx A.DC. Rhizophoraceae Syn. Carallia lucida Roxb.

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:San gm a(Vietnam) ,Tramen g (Khmer),Maniawg a (Burma),Caralli a (U.K.).

2. Area,ecology : Occursnaturall y inSoutheas tAsia ,fro m India,Sr iLank a and Nepalt oChina ,an dals oi nAustralia .Mos t commono nmois t localities, inhumi d evergreenan dsemi-evergree n forests,alon g streamsan dmoist , shadyravines ;als oi nswam pforest .Fro m sea-levelu pt o120 0m . InSout hVietna mth etre eoccur so nth efollowin g localities: a) Inth e"Climate s semi-humides etchaud ssu rbasaltes" ,a sa smal ltre e orshru bi nth e"halliers" . b) Inth e"Climate s humides submontagnards",1s ta sa smal ltre eo rshru b inth eshrub-laye r ofth e"Forê t dense sempervirentesu rterre sbie n drainées"o nbasalti c table land (700-1100m .abov e sea-level);an d 2nda ssmal ltre ei n"hallier se tbambousaies "o nwell-draine dlocali ­ ties (SCHMID, 1974). It coppiceswell .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Annua lrainfall : 1250-5000mm .o rmore . Température:Maximu m 35-43C ,minimu m 1-18C .Th eyoun gplant sar eno tver y frost tender.

4. Soil:I nIndi ath etre eprefer sa rich ,dee pan dmois t soil.

5. Tree characteristics:Moderate-size d tolarg eevergree n tree,15-2 5m .high , witha diamete ru p60-7 0cm . Crown:Dense .

6. Silviculture- Nursery : Reproductionb yseed ,sow ni nnurseries . Planting stock:Reproduce s freely fromroot-sucker san dcuttings . 66

Planting technique: Sowing inth e field was not successful. Theyoun gplant s are sensitive to drought;the y show thebes t growth under slight shade,o ngroun d kept well watered but loose.

Growth,yield : Slowdevelopmen t during the first two seasons,reachin ga height of 12-34cm .a t the end ofth e second season. Thereafter growth ismor evigorous ,wit ha tth e end ofth e fifth seasona mean heighto f2. 3 m. anda diamete r at thebo x of the stem of9 cm .

Pests,disease s and calamities:I n India theyoun g plants suffered much from the attackso f crickets.Th ewood ,dryin gi nth e forest,i sattacke d by the borer Stromatium barbatum.

9. Wood properties:Th ewoo d ishard ;heav y (sp.gr .0.70-0.7 9ai r dry); very perishable when exposed or incontac t with the ground;ver y ornamental.

10. Uses: Furniture,fishin g stakes and ornamental work;als o good fuelan d good charcoal.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Species suitable for themor e humid climates,fro m sea-level up to 1200m. ,o nrelativel y rich andmois t soils.Th ewoo d is valuable for thehome-industry .

13. Literature: 147,167 ,180 ,203 .

31. Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae

1. Trade and indigenous name:Amalta s (India),Ng u (Burma),Trenggoeli ,Tanggol j Klobor (Indonesis),Ded o (vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : From India throughout Southeast Asia.Wide ecologicalrange . Present inmois t evergreen forest aswel l as indr ydeciduou s forest.Als o occurring inyoun g secondary forests and openvegetatio n types. InVietna m it isfoun d inth e semi-arid region ofChe o Reo inwoo d land forest,asso ­ ciated with speciesa sTerminali a corticosa,Buchanani a sp.,Hiptag espp . and several Dipterocarpaceae. The species is shade-tolerant and drought resistent. InIndi a leafless fora ver y short time orhardl y atall .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Rangin g from 500t o 3000mm . annually and more. Temgerature:Maximu m temperature about 38-49 C,minimu m temperature about -4~-~Ï8ec7 Altitude: From sea-levelu p to 1200-1300meter . 67

4. Soil: Various soil types.Bot h fertile,permanentl y humid soils and unfertile, periodically dry soils. In Java the species prefers generally good,well - drained soils. In the Cheo Reo semi-arid region ofVietna m the species has been found on old alluvialmor e or less sandy,soils .

5. Tree characteristics: Medium-sized to large tree,8-2 1 m. tall and 48-75 cm. diameter. Stem: Often rather crooked. Coppices vigorously. Bark:Greenis h grey; smooth up tomiddl e age,late r turning reddish brown and exfoliating in hard scales.Th e bark contains about 12%tannin . Crown: Broad,rathe r open,lo w branched. Leaves: Pari-pinnate,4- 8 leaflets. Root-system: Young plants develop a fast-growing taproo twit h only few side-roots. Partly superficial root-system. Root suckers freely produced. Young plants aremoderat e resistent to failure of oxygen.

6. Silviculture - Seed: 5,700-10,400 seeds/kg. Ovate,light-brown ,hard-scaled . Keepwel l 2-3 years in air-tight boxes.Store d seeds seem togerminat e even better than fresh seeds.Pretreatmen tb y soaking inho twate r during 4-5 minutes hastens germination,bu t others say germination isdecreasin g in that way. It seems lessrisk y to soak the seeds inwate r during 5days . Nursery: Seeds should be sown in seed beds indrill sabou t 25 cm.apar t and regularly watered. Germination usually occurs inth e first rainy season, though some of the seedsma y stay dormant tillth e second year. Transplanting requires some care,bu t can be done satisfactorily. Planting stock: In Java stumps did well, (shoot length: 5cm. ,roo t length: 20cm. ,roo t collar diameter: less than 1 cm.). Stem cuttings failed. Root cuttings of 10 cm. length and 1 cm. diameter did very well.Als o basket planting proved successful. Planting technique: Direct sowing showed morerisk s concerning survival, but plants had quicker growth. Inpur e plantations the species is often bad shaped also atnarro w spacings.Mixture s with species asSchleicher a oleosa, polyantha and Terminalia belerica could improve its form somewhat, but Cassia,althoug h standing amoderat e amount of shade,ha s been suppressed inmixture s (Java). In pure plantations inJav a plant distances of 1.5 x 1.5 m. and 2.5 x 2.5 m. have been used; inmixture s itha sbee n planted at spacings of 0.5 x 1m. , 1x 1m . and 1x 1.5 m. Naturalregeneration : It appears that assistance isnecessar y inob ­ taining natural reproduction. Jackals,monkeys ,pig s and other animals broke up thepod s inorde r to eat the pulp,thu s scatter the seedso r swallow and disseminate them. Highmortalit y of seedlings is caused by damping-off where weed growth isheavy . Germination if favoured when seedsbecom eburie d (e.g. protection against sun-drying and from seed-eating by animals).

7. Growth,yield : Inyout h slow growth,bu t subsequently faster.A fairly long taproo t isproduce d at an early age. Inmixture s with oleosa, when thinned timely,a mea n height of 13.5m . and 14cm . diameter at 12year s ofag eha sbee nmeasured .Unde r favourable conditions a diametergrowt h of 1.4-1.5cm . ayea r at a rotation of 16year s ispossible .Th e growth in the first four years is about 0.6 m. per year.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Beetl e attack by Hypomeces squamosus and louse attack by Aonidiella orientalis havebee nrecorded .Als o caterpillar 68

attackb yman y species sucha sLepidopter a sp.,Catopsili a spp.,Hyposidr a talaca.Als obore r damageb yXyleute s personaan dZeuzer aspp . Drywoo dca nb eattacke db yStromatiu m longicorne.See d attackb ya beetle , Caryoborusgonagra .

9. Wood properties:Hear twoo d sharply demarcated fromth esapwood ;sapwoo d greyishwhit et oligh tyellowis hbrown ;hear twoo dyellowis hre dt obric k red;har dt over y hard;heav yt over y heavy (sp.gr .0.71-1.1 2ai r dry); strongan dtough ;highl yrefractor yt oseasoning ,subjec tt osever e cracking, splittingan dwarping ;shoul db edrie d slowly,kil nseasonin gpossible ; durable;difficul tt osa wan dwork ,take sa goo dan dlastin gpolish .

10. Uses:Use da swin d break,soi l improveso fdegrade d soils.Goo d construction wood,hous eposts ,carts ,agricultura limplements . Barki smuc hi ndeman dfo rtannin gan dth epul po fpod si sa stron gpurga ­ tive. Deliversgoo d fuelwoo dan dexcellen tcharcoal .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Cassi a fistulai snativ et oVietnam ,presen t inth esemi-ari d region inwoo d land forest.Fo ra favourabl e growthth especie s needsmoder ­ ately good,sufficien tdee p soil.I ti sdrough tresistant .I nplantatio n trialsi nJav ath especie s showedt ob eno tver ypromising ,becaus eo fit s irregulardevelopmen tan dba dfor m evena tnarro wspacings .Incremen tan d yieldwer esmall ;ver y subjectt ocaterpillar-attack . Investigationsar erequire d inVietnam ,t okno wth epossibilitie so fthi s speciesfo rplantin gi nthi s country.I tma yhav ea possibilit y inenrich ­ mentplantin g inwoo d land forests especially inth esemi-ari d region.Coul d beuse dfo rfue lwoo dan dcharcoal .

13. Literature:38 ,115 ,167 ,195 ,203 , 216.

32. Cassia siamea Lamk Caesalpiniaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou sname :Angkan h (KhmerRepublic) ,Djohar ,Djoewa r(In ­ donesia),Ma yX athon e (Laos),Muông ,MuSn gde n(Vietnam) .

2. Area,ecology :Nativ e inSoutheas tAsia ,fro m India,Sr iLanka ,Sumatr a (Indonesia)t oIndo-China .Ofte npresen ti nope nterrain so rsecondar y forests.I nVietna mi tha sbee nnote doccasionall y inmois t semi-deciduous forest,bu ti tha sprove d successfuli nsevera llocations .Exoti can dsucce s fuii nman y countries,e.g . ,Jamaica ,Jav a (Indonesia),Kenya ,Nigeria , Tanzania.

3. Climate- Rainfall :Optimu mrainfal lfro m 500t o100 0mm .annually ,bu t capableo fgrowin gi na rainfall-zon eo fles stha n60 0mm. ,ofte npresen t inregion swit h about6 dr ymonths . 69

Altitude: In its natural distribution range up to 1200m . above sea-level.

4. Soil: Wide variety of soil types.Grow s best onmois t well-drained, sandy soils,bu t capable of growing or.heav y alluvial soils,provide d they are not inundated. Experiments at the experimental station ofTrang-Bô m in Vietnam, showed that the species resists inundation to amaximu m of a few weeks. Itgrow s also on poor,bu t physically not too unfavourable,soils .

5. Tree characteristics: Moderate-sized. Usually 10-20m . tallan d 40-50 cm. indiameter . Stem: Straight but often angular. Coppices very well. Bark: Greyish brown,smooth , slightly fissured longitudinally. Crown: Conical,evergreen ; on good soilsdense ,o nrathe rpoo r soils more open. Wide spreading branches especially in theopen . Leaves:Alternate ,bipinnate . 3y heavy sunshine ittend s to put its leaves parallel toth e sun-rays. Root-system: The seedling develops a tap root of 1.5-2.5m . long in the first two years.Late r on side roots are produced,extendin g to 4 meters from thebas e of the tree. When stumped,th e taproo t is less longer and sideroot s are formed directly. On the whole theroot-syste m is rather superficial. Whenyoun g the species is fairly resistant to lack of oxygen.

6. Silviculture -Seed :Fruitin g at the age of 3-5 years.Win d dispersed seeds. About 34,000-40,000 seeds/kg. Mature fruits are collected and sun-dried. Seedskee pwel l forabou t 3years . Nursery: Fresh seedsgerminat e well. Germination capacity about 60-70% after 9-12 days. One-month-old seeds germinate after 20-24days . Pretreatment by soaking in cold water and 10minute s soaking inconcentrate d sulphuric acid or soaking inho twate r will improve germination. Planting stock: Stumpsprove d to be successful; (shoot length 10cm. ,roo t length 30cm. ,diamete r of root-collar less than 1 cm.). Root-an d stem- cuttings often fail. Planting technique: Direct sowing gives good results onric h soils.Fo r production of fuelwoo d inVietna m line sowing at intervals of 3-4 m. to a totalo f 2500plant s per ha hasprove d successful.Fo r charcoal production line sowing at intervals of 2-2.5 m. ispractized ;afte r the second year a light thinning is carried out which results ina stocking of 5000 plants per ha. In enrichment planting usually stumps areused . Line planting in Vietnam with a soil cover of Indigofera teysmanii and valuable hard wood species,whic h need a little shade in the earlyyears ,give nb y Cassia siamea, hasprove d ausefu l system. Spacing 8x 1m . or 8x 1.5 m. Also suitable fortaungy a planting. In line sowing at intervals of 2.5-4 m. about 3-5 kg seeds/ha.ar e needed. Naturalregeneration : Naturalregeneratio n canb e abundant,bu t is soon setback ,eve nb y a little shade.

7. Growth,yield :Ver y fast grower,especiall y inyouth ,eve n onrathe r poor soils.Whe n stumped,tree sreac h a height of 3.2 m. after oneyear ,whil e one-year-old seedlings were 1.8 m. tall. At 3-5 years of age,5- 8 to 10 coppice shoots of 2-3 cm. diameter and 5-6 m. height are formed in oneyear . After 4years ,6- 7 cm. indiamete r and 8-10 m. height.A large number of shoots tend to exhaust the trunk. Therefore thinned,abou t 1yea r after explotation so 2-3 shoots at one trunk are left.I nVietna m at the Trang-Bôm 70

experimental station itwa s calculated that 15cm . diameter at an age of 8-10 year was the best size for fuelwoo d production. The optimum density should be about 2500 trees per ha.yieldin g about 175m of fuel wood. Charcoal production could at best be derived from trees of 5-10 cm. diameter at a rotation of 3-5 years.Dependin g onmoistur e content 1m could yield about 86-121kg .o f charcoal.Th e sprouts are very vigorous and even capable of resisting intensive grazing. In Ghana under favourable conditions a height growth of Itm . after 5year s and a yield of 150-510m at a rotation of 5-8 years has been possible. In Tanzania a height growth of 1.2-1.8mete r per year and ayiel d of 140-175m /ha.a t a seven-year-rotation was recorded.

Pests,disease s and calamities:Leta l borer attack by Xyleutes persona and Zeuzera sp.ha s also beenrecorded . Very resistant to termites. Caterpillars may cause severe damage to the leaves,especiall y Catopsilia spp. In Vietnam especially Catopsilia crocale hasbee n noticed. This caterpillar species prefers a constant moderate humidity; the attack starts at the transition of the dry and wet season and continues during thewe t season.Natura l ene­ mies are birds who eat the larves,an d insects as Canthecona furcellata and Sycanus sp.whic h attack the Catopsilia spp.Th e treeswhic h are moreresis ­ tant against attack by Catopsilia spp. are very vigorous and the leaves of these trees are tougher. Selection and breeding could open a way to solve the Catopsilia-attack problem. Very susceptible for root fungi,i n the first years inTanzani a especially Polyporus sp; in Ghana especially Phaeolus manihots,als o attacks by Ganoderma lucidum.

9. Wood properties: Sapwood and heart wood distinct; sapwood pale yellowish white to greyish brown,hear t wood dark brown to nearly black;moderatel y hard to hard;moderatel y heavy to heavy (sp.gr . 0.61-0.89 airdry) ; seasons well; rather durable;shrinks ,warp s and crashes little;rathe r difficult to work.

10. Uses: Heavy construction works,thoug h in small sizes available.Als o suit­ able for handles,mallets ,walkin g sticks,furniture .Deliver s excellent fuelwoo d and charcoal.

11. Remarks: I n India Cassia siamea has been planted as a host for the lac inset Laccifera laccawhic h produces a certain secretion product (lac)whic h has several industrial uses.

12. Evaluation: Cassia siamea Lamk. has a proper growth onver y poor,bu t phys­ ically not too unfavourable,soils .O n shallow soils the tree remains small In pure plantations,narro w spacings are recommended in order to avoid heav branching and diminish thepossibilit y of a dense undergrowth at narrow spacings the tree inclines to growu p lanky, so that thinnings have to be done regularly. InVietna m Cassia siamea has proved to be a useful species. Both stumped and sown. Suitable in complete planting,a swel la s in taungya and enrichment planting. Planting with a soil cover of Indigofera teysmanii and mixed with hard wood species asMesu a ferrea showed tob e a good systen Also the "regenerationmixte"-system , used in order to suppress uneconomic bamboo species has proved successful. It isa fast grower,whic h resultsi r 71

agoo dyiel do fwoo da ta nearl yage .Afte rth eearl yyout hth especie si s sensitivet oroo tfungi ,whil eals oCatopsili aattac kcoul db esevere .It s superficialrootin ginduce smutua lcompetitio na ta ver yearl yage ,there ­ forei tshoul dalway sb emanage do nver yshor tcoppic erotations .Th especie s deliversa ver ygoo dfue lwoo dan dcharcoal .I flarge rtree sar ewanted ,a widespacin gi sessential .Als ouse di nwin dbreak san da sa cove rcrop ; theleave sca nb euse da scattle-fodder .

13. Literature:38 ,39 ,47 ,71 ,115 ,135 ,147 ,167 ,195 ,203 ,216 .

33. Casuarina cunninghamiana Mig. Casuarinaceae (= C tenuisßima Hort)

1. Tradean dindigenou sname :Rive rOak ,Rive rShe-Oak ,Cree kOa k(Australia) , Filaod eCunningham .

2. Area,ecology :Natura lregion :a tre escattere dthroughou tEaster nAustralia : Queensland,Northsout hWales ,Ne wCaledoni aoccurrin gfro msea-leve lu pt o 1000-1100m .Th etre egrow smainl yo nrive ran dstrea mbanks ,especiall y inth ebel tbetwee nnorma lwate rleve lan dmaximu mfloo dlevel .Sometime s occurringi npur estand salon gwate rcourses . Thespecie si splante di nman ycountries : ,Brasil ,Uganda , SouthAfrica ,Malawi ,Kenya ,Botswana ,Thailand .

3. Climate:I nAustrali ath eclimat evarie sfro mtemperat et otropical . Rainfall:Averag eannua lrainfal lrange sbetwee n500-150 0mm. ,bu ta si ti s ariverai nspecies ,rainfal lalon ei sn oindicatio no ftota lmoistur eavaila ­ blet oit . Temperature:Mea nannua ltemperatur ebetwee n13-2 7C .Som earea sexperienc e upt o6 0frost sa year ,whils tother sar efros tfree .

4. Soil:Th esoil s- i nth enatura lregio n- rang efro mgoo dqualit ysilt y loamsthroug hsand st oshingl eterrace so fol drive rcoarses .I tonl ythrive s wello nhumi dsoils . InThailan dC .cunninghamian ai splante do nsoil sconsistin go fsandy ,allu ­ vialdeposits ,wit ha rainfal lo f185 0mm .annually .

5. Treecharacteristics :Th etre ei sth elarges to fal lAustralia nCasuarinas , with21-3 0m .i nheigh tan d45-75(120 )cm .i ndiameter ;i nope ncountry , however,i tma yb eonl y1 2m .hig han d3 0cm .i ndiameter . Stem:Ver ystraight . Crown:Wit ha slende rmor eo rles sdroopin gbranchlets .Mal ean dfemal e flowerso nseperat etrees . Leaves:Sof thandsom efoliage .Th efalle nneedle smak ea nexcellen tmulch .

6. Silviculture- Seed :I tseed searly ;usuall yfrequent ,goo dsee dproduction ; _ 440,000-550t000 sêêds/kg(Morocco )u pt o1,650,00 0seeds/k g(Argentina) ; seedskee pwel lfo r1- 2year s(drie di nsun) ;germinatio ni sgenerall yTo w 72

but literature israthe r conflicting: 20%i nMorocc o and 75%i nArgentina ; germination starts between 10-14 days after sowing. Nursery_ (Thailand): In March sowing in seed beds, lining out inJun e intrans ­ planting bedswit h 15x 15 cm. spacings (maybe 20x 20cm . is better). Screen protection of the seedlings is given with a gradual removal of the screens 5month s preceding transplantation. Transplantation takes place as soona s the first rains have sufficiently moistened the soil. Planting_stock: Propagation is also doneb y layering subsequent basket planting (very expensive,poo r root-system). Planting_technique: In Thailand the Casuarinas are planted for fishing poles in Imperata fields with a spacing of 2x 4m. ; sowing of Cassia siamea pits between the rows at planting time is advised. Before planting root stocks are broken up and destroyed with arotar y hoe. The Cassia will be grown ina n 8-years-rotations for fuelwoo d supply. On sites without Imperata a spacing of 2x 2m . without intersowing of Cassia siamea is applied. A 15-18-years-rotation ispropose d with the thinnings every 5years .

Growth,yield : After 6years ,1 5m . inheigh t and 15cm . indiameter . In Egypt fastest growth after 6thyea r ina rotation of 18years . InRhodesi a a 20-years-old sample plot contained treeswit h diameters ranging from 15-65 cm.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: InAustrali a the larvae of themoth ,Pern a exposita feeds on the leaves. No serious diseases are reported.

9. Woodproperties :Dar k reddish or purplish brownhear twood ;moderatel y heavy (sp.gr . 0,92 air dry);moderatel y strong and very taughwhe n seasoned; moderately durable.

10. Uses: InAustrali a thetimbe r isuse d forhead s of cashs axe-handles and ornamental turnery,als o for shingles and bullock yokes.I t is an excellent fuelwood . InThailan d used for fishing poles and fuelwood . The tree is planted for ornament,shade ,shelter . The foliage provides an excellent mulch,an d isals o suitable as a drought fodder.

11. Remarks: I n Australia the tree is often underplanted in Eucalyptus-plantation Planted outside its naturalhabitat ,th eRive r She Oak shows the ability to grow satisfactorily on comparatively dry soils.

12. Evaluation: The species may havepromis e inreforestatio n of Imperata-fields, ina complete planting system. Itproduce s a usefultimbe r for fuel,poles , domesticuse .

13. Literature: 40,68 ,99 ,143 . 73

34. Casuarina equieetifolia L. Casuarinaceae

1. Tradean d indigenous name:Tjemara ,Aroe ,Ro e (Malaysia),Tjamar a laoet (Indonesia),Filao ,Duong-lie u (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : FromNortheas t andNort hAustrali a and coastalarea os f tropicalSoutheas t Asiaan d EastAfrica . Commonbeac h species,occurrin g gregarious wherever sandy beaches occur.Successfull y introduced inman y tropicalcountries .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Mea nannua lrainfal l 700-2000mm . Dryperio d ofabou t 6-8 months.I n India inregion swit h 800mm . ofrainfal l concentratedi n 3months .I nTanzani a planted inth e 750-1200mm .rainfal lzone ,wit h opti­ mumgrowt h at 1000mm .o frainfall ,110 0mm .a t135 0m . above sea-levelan d 750mm .a t180 0m . abovesea-level . Temperature: Absolutemaximu m temperature 45C an d absoluteminimu m temper­ ature5 C . Sensitivet o frost. Altitude: Mainly at sea-levelbu tals oplante d athighe raltitudes .

4. Soil: Deep,well-draine d sandy soils.Unsuitabl e for clayey soils and soils witha n unpermeable layer at lesstha n 1-1.5 m.depth .It ssal t tolerance ishigh .

5. Treecharacteristics :Normall y 25m . tallan d 60-80cm . indiameter ,ma y attain 35m . height and 1.80 m.d.b.h . Stem:Straight ,clea nbol eo f10-1 5m .Twiste d growth.Ste mofte n fluted andknotty . Crown: Conical,lon gbranches ,light . Leaves:Ver yreduce d assimilating surface,needl elike . Root-system: Verysuperficial ,bu tgoo d soilfixin gproperties .I nyout h high,bu t later onmoderat eresistanc e to lack ofoxygen .Nitroge n fixation by root-nodules ofabou t 60kg .pe rha .pe ryear .

6. Silviculture- Seed :Ver y light.700,00 0seed/kg .Ca nb estore d for2 year s atlo wtemperature s(- 3C- + 7C )an d lowmoistur e content (6-16%). Nursery- Seedshav et ob e sown insee d traysunde r cover.Germinatio n starts after 4-10 days. Germinationpercentag egenerall y low:abou t 20%.Trans ­ planted when5 cm .high . Planting technique:Plante d in thefiel dwhe n30-6 0cm .high .I n Pakistan planted ata spacin g of 2.5x 2. 5m .an d 1.2x 1. 2 m. InIndi agoo d results with3 x1 m . spacing.I nJav aals o3 x1 m. ,o nsoil so flowe rqualit y 2x 1 m . InSout hVietna m planted at 2.5x 2. 5m .an d2 x2 m . Planting holes of 45x 4 5x 4 5cm .I nsecon d yearweedin g andwaterin g arenecessary , inthir dyea r onlyweeding .Ofte n interplanted withLeucaen a leucocephala; Salviaoccidentali s orothe r cover cropsar eals opreferable .Mixture swit h Vitex spp.o npoo rsoil sar erecommended .

7. Growth,yield :Fas tgrower .Firs tyear s 2-3 m.pe ryear .Mea nannua lvolum e increment inJav a infirs tyear sabou t 7-11.5t o 13m /ha .dependin g on soil quality. InSout hVietna m about 56m /ha .i neigh tyears . 8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Heav y damaget oth este man dbranche sb y borers,a sZeuzer a sp.an dHypsipyl a robusta. Also attackedb ybeetles ,a sAnoplophor a chinensisan dleaf-eatin g Hypomeces squamosus;a short-snoote d weevil.Leave s also attackedb ya caterpilla r Prodenialitura . Trichosponumvesiculoru m causesth eblac k blister diseaseo rCasuarin awilt . Where itoccur sth ediseas e isth emos t important maladyo fCasuarina ;som e lossesu pt o75 %hav ebee nrecorde d inSout h India. Other fungi-attackb yPseudomona s solanacearum (bacterialwilt) ,Fome sbadiu s (yellow spongy rot),whe n injured. Ganoderma lucidaoccur si ncas eo fde ­ creased vitality.

9. Woodpropertie s: Hard ;ver y heavy (sp.gr .1. 0a t15 %moistur e content); strong;season smoderatel y well;moderatel y durable;difficul tt owor kan d saw,bu tfinishe s well;repute d todul ltool srapidly ,bu tsai dt ob enon - siliceous;hear twoo d difficult totrea twit h preservatives,sapwoo d readily treated;resisten t todry-woo d termites.

10. Uses: Suitablefo rhouse-constructio nunde r coveran dfo rtemporar y piling. Promisingfo rtool-handles .Casuarin amake s excellent charcoalan dfue lwood . Toodens efo rplywoo d manufacture.Almos t certainly unsuitable forchip -an d fibreboar d duet oth ehig hdensity .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Casuarin a equisetifolia isa ver y usefultre ei ndun efixation, forwhic h iti sno wbein g planted inVietnam .Als ouse dfo rerosio ncontrol . Leavesdelive ra goo d cattle-fodder.Casuarin a isals o suitablefo raffor ­ esting Imperata-fields.It ssal ttoleranc ean dnitroge n fixationar epleasan t characteristics.Deliver sgoo d charcoalan dfue lwood .

13. Literature:6 ,23 ,35 ,36 ,41 , 45,48 , 49,61 ,65 ,73 ,89 ,92 ,94 , 114, 121,122 ,135 ,137 ,152 ,184 ,195 , 203.

35. Casuarina .junghuhniana Miq Casuarinaceae (= C. montana Junh)

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Tjemara ,Ber gtjemara ,Tjemar a gunung (Java); Bunggo,Kadj a (Sunda);Adja u (Timor);Mountai nSh e Oak.

2. Area,ecology :Nativ eo fMiddl ean dEas tJava ,th eLesse rSund aIslands , Celebesan dTimo ri npure ,ope nstand si nth elo wland san dlo wmountains : 400(800)-3000m .Commonl y found along streamsan di nth evalleys . Iti sa pionee r species,regularl y foundo nperiodicall y burnt areas.A sa n exotic successfully planted inNorthwes t Indiaan dKenya . 75

3. Climate -Rainfall : In the natural region (1000)1500-3000(4500) mm./year and 1-4 dry months. It can tolerate a dry season of 4-6 months,bu t seems tob e less drought resistant than C. equisetifolia.

4. Soil: It prefers awell-draine d humid soil,bu t will grow on fairly poor sandy soil. It cannot tolerate saline soils.Th e Tjemara seems to thrive well on heavy marlsoils .

5. Tree-characteristics: Moderate-sized to large tree,u p to 35m. , usually 25m . high and a diameter up to 150 cm.,usuall y 60-80 cm. Stem: Straight bole,wit h orwithou t shallowgroove s often with spiral growth,withou t knots small or no buttresses. Crown: Normally narrow pyramidical. Leaves: Soft needle-like foliage.Th e characteristics arever y similar to those of C. equisetifolia.

6. Silviculture -Nursery : Propagation normally well by seed. Planting stock:Th e variety which is generally planted intropica l Asia hasn o male inflorescence. Thus propagation needs tob e done by layering: branches 1cm . in diameter are ringed and the wound is covered with earth ormos swhic h should be kept permanently moist.A t the end of the month, after roots have formed,th ebranc h is cut off and planted. When 6month s old,th e branches are transplanted to the site at a spacing of 1x 2m . Layering is a good,bu t expensive method. Better ist o import the seed from e.g. Indonesia.

7. Growth,yield : In Thailand: rapid growth on good soil: 20m . in 10years , diameter c. 20 cm. In India it grows evenmor e rapid: 5-6 m. at the age of 2years .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Th e species isno t resistant to white ants. It isver y susceptible to fire due to the thick ground cover of "needles", but itregenerate s easily after afire .

Wooood properties: Light brown to dark red;hard ;heav y to very heavy (sp.gr . 0 .90-1.18);ver y strong; strong tendancy to shriek or split;moderatel y durable; difficult to work

10. Uses: Usable for heavy indoor constructions,bu t notver y much used for this purpose due to its hardiness and tendency to split. It isver y suitable for posts and firewood, and gives an excellent charcoal.

11. Remarks: I n pure stands normally a denseundergrowt h of different soil- protecting' specie s is found.Th e tree neither easily overgrows Imperata- vegetation nor suppress it. The species is said to be soil improving. 76

12. Evaluation:Th especie s seemst ob esuitabl e forcomplet e planting introp ­ ical low-mountain climates witha dr yperio du pt o1- 4month so npoo rwell - drained soilsfo rth epurpos eo ffirewoo d productionan dpos t production.

13. Literature:38 ,65 ,71 ,95 ,108 ,110 ,131 , 195.

36. Cedrela odorata L. Meliaceae (= C. mexicana Roem.)

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Cedar ,Ciga r BoxCedar ,Spanis h Cedar.

2. Area,ecology : Indigenoust oTrinida d andTobag oan dcontinenta l Tropical America: from Mexicot oBrazi lan dPeru . InBeliz eth etre ei scommonl y found scattered inrai nfores t from sea-level upt o60 0m .o na variet yo fsoils ,bu tchiefl y onlimeston e formations. The tree grows typicallyo nslope san ddoe sno ttolerat e swamps.I nTrinida d alsowidel y distributed both inrai n forestan di nsemi-deciduou s forest types.I nrai n forest reaching thegreate r dimensions. The tree isdeciduou san di sa stron g light demander.I tdoe sno tcoppic e - except whenver yyoun g -no ri tproduce s root suckers. Successfully introduced into severaltropica lcountrie s comprising Philippine; Indonesia (Java)betwee n 400-800m. ,Nigeria ,Sierr a Leone,Sout hAfrica , Australia.

Climate:I ngenera lgoo d growth inwar m tropicalclimates . Rainfall:I nth enatura lhabita t varies from 1500-5000mm. ,wit ha dr yseaso n from Februarit oMa yan da lon gwe tseaso n duringth eres to fth eyear ,usu ­ allywit ha shor tdr yperio d inAugus tan dSeptember .Rel .humidit y 75-85%. Planted successfully inJav abetwee n 400-800m .i nregion s withoutdr yseaso n anda nannua lrainfal lo f2500-300 0mm . Temperature:I nnatura lhabitat ,mea nmaximu m temperature 37C ,mea nminimu m temperature +_2 0C .

Soil:Th especie s needsa goo d drainagean da fairl y rich soil.Fin edevel ­ opmento nlimestone .I ti sver y intoleranto fwate r logging.Mor e success willb eobtaine d onwell-aerate d rather poor soiltha no nill-aerate d rich soil.

Tree characteristics: Cedar isa giganti c treeu pt o5 0m .i nheigh tan d 1-2m .i ndiameter . Stem: Straight largean dwit h buttressed base. Crown:Huge . Root-system: Superficial,thi smake sth etre ever y susceptiblet owind - throwing. 77

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seeds at an early age and almost every year,i nJav a twice ayear ; seed collection on the trees (Java: June/July and November/ December,West-Indies :April/May) ; 30,000-50,000 seeds/kg; germination capacity: 60-90%, starts in about 12days . Stores well up to 2year sa t 2-4°C. Planting stock: Stumps and transplants.Stripling s are used too inNigeria . Vegetative reproduction ispossibl e by means of marcotting;withi n 4-5 weeks a well-rooted plant arises. In Venezuela Cedarwa s grafted onSwieteni amacrophylla ,bu t the graft suc­ ceeded slowly. InAmeric a transplanting in the field occurs at the end of the dry season,whe n theplant s are 10cm . in height;th e roots are cut back at 15 cm.

Planting_technia[ue: InTrinida d ingenera l a spacing of 1,5 x 1,5 m. or 1,8 x 1,8 m. is used,bu t experiments are done with spacings varying from 1,2 x 1,2 m. up to 3,0 x 3,0 m. Broadcasting inrow sals o is a generalwa y to establish plantations;earl y thinnings are carried out inorde r to prevent thin,whipp y plants. Natural_regeneration: In Latin-America natural regeneration is tried with the intention to avoid the transplanting shock,whic h increases the suscep­ tibility toHypsipyla-attacks . InNigeri a in 25-years-old plantations seed production was plentiful from the 15th year and naturalregeneratio n had begun to appear.

7. Growth,yield : Growth is fairly fast averaging about 1,2 m. per year when young. Itwil lattai n a height of 30m . in 40year s on a good site. In Java,i ndifferen t experimental plantations height of the best trees at the age of 9year s varied from 11,2m . to 19,3m . (mean height from 9,7 to 17,4m .) . Themea n diameter varied from 15-20 cm. ForJav a mean annualin ­ crement per ha.varie d from 7-28 m . In Trinidad aproductio n of 17-28m /ha./year and inNigeri a 455m /ha.i n 40year s isreported .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Inth e natural region the larvae of the moth,Hypsipyl a grandella bores and kills the young growing shoots ofCeda r and other Meliaceae. The shoot borer is not yet observed at large scale in Southeast Asia.Th e coccusFerrisian avirgat a sometimes causes considerable damage to young shoots. In and Nigeria some attacks ofbar k and wood-boring beetles arere ­ ported. In Mexico sun-scorch ofyoun g plants is observed.

9. Wood properties: Ceda r isb eregarde d as the premier soft wood of Trinidad. Light brown; light,sp .gr . 0,38-0,64 (15%moistur e content); strong; seasons well; durable;th e wood contains 0,5-3% volatile oil,whic h gives the Cedar resistance to decay and insect attack;eas y towork ;pleasin g appearance.

10. Uses: Multiple usable:veneer ,paneling ,ciga r boxes,furniture ,racin gboats .

11. Remarks: Th e species iswort h to consider as an alternative to the usual mahoganies where the latter proved difficult. The species is closely related with Toona ciliata (Syn.Cedrel a toona). 78

Cedrelaodorat aan dC .mexican aar eofte n considereda s2 different ,bu t very closelyrelated ,species .

12. Evaluation:Th especie si ssuitabl efo rcomplet eplantin g intropica l climateswit ha dr yperio d upt o4 month so nwell-drained ,fertile ,dee p soils.

13. Literature: 20,36,68 ,70 ,73 ,106 ,107 , 145.

37. Ceiba pentandra Gaertn Bombacaceae Syn. Ceiba thormingii A.Chev . Syn. Eriodendron anfraatuosum D.C.

1. Name- Tradename :Kapo k tree,Ceib a (E.),Silk-Cotto nTre e (India). Indigenous_name:Kankantr i (Sur.),Fromagie r (F.),Kapokboo m (Neth.).

2. Area,ecology : Pan-tropical,betwee n 16 Nan dS .Occur s inth edeciduou s dry forestsa swel la si nth eevergree nrai nforest ;i nGhan aals oi nth e mixed deciduous forest.Occur sals oi nmars ho rseasona l swampformations . Inth efores ti tflower s irregularly,i nth esavanna h eachyear .A secondar y light-demanding species from theupper-store yo fth eforests . Introduced a.o. inZaire ,Ghan aan dTanzania .

3. Climate- Rainfall : Tropical climate,wit ha nannua lrainfal lo f80 0mm .o r more.

4. Soil: Ceibaca ngrow no nmediocr e soilsprovide d theyar epermeable .Th e soilsca nb erecen t alluvial sands,brow n sandsan deve n lateriticclays .

5. Tree characteristics:Ver y large deciduoustree ,attainin ga heigh to f 45-60m . Stem:A clea rbol eu pt o3 5m . inth eforest ;bi gbuttresse s till7 m .tall ; diameter abovebuttresses : 1.2-2.0m .I nth eforest sth eyoun g stemsar e prickled,o nth esavanna h theyaren't .I tcoppice sfreely . Crown:Big ,wid e spreading,wit h heavybranches ,ofte nradia lt oth estem , and sometimesth esid ebranche s againvertical .

6. Silviculture- Nursery : Sowing indrills ,24-3 0cm .apar tan donl y lightly covered with earth.Seedling sar eshade duntil lthe yar eabou t 12-15 cm. highan dthe n exposed toth e sun. Planting stock: Striplings (stem length 45-60cm. ,roo tprune dt osom eexte r arerecommended .Plante d asclod-plant so rnake d rootplants .Propagatio n also easy from cuttings,fo rwhic h onlyverticall ygrowin g branches should beused . üi22iïnS_ÏS£!}5:'-3HË:Th e striplingsar eplante d when8 t o1 2month sold ; spacing about 5.5x 5. 5m .advised .I nforme r FrenchEquatoria lAfric ai t 79

wasmixe d with Casuarina equisetifolia.Three -t ofour-year-ol d orolde r treesar euse dfo rth egrowt ho fpeppe r inJava .

7. Growth,yield : Inyout h iti sa fairl y fast growingtree . Kapok-yield at3 year so fage :150-30 0 kg./ha.;yiel da t8 year so fage : 800-1600 kg./ha.;yiel d inth eadul t stage: 2000-4000kg./ha./year .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Th efollowin g insectsar eo fimportance : the store-insect Araecaerus fasciculatus (seed),th ebark -an dwoo d borers Batocerarufomaculat aan dChrysochro abicolor ,th efoliag e eating beetle Hypomeces squamosus (short snouted weevil)i sespeciall y activei nnurseries , and finallyth ecitrus-meat ybu gPlanocociu slilacinus . The following fungiar eo fimportance :Armillari amellea ,Fome slamaoensis , F. lignosus,F .noxius ,Physalospor arhodin aan dUstulin adeusta .

9. Wood properties:Sof tan dlight ,no tdurable ,discolour s easilyan dver y inflammable.

10. uses:Th etre ei sprincipall y utilizedfo rth eseed-po d floss (kapok),fo r stuffing cushionsan dmatrasses . The wood issometime suse dfo rcanoe san dboxes ;mayb e itca nb euse dfo r paper.I tca nb euse d inth eveneer-industry .

11. Remarks:Worl d productiono fkapo k isroun d 100,000ton sannually .Man-mad e fibresar ea nimportan t substitutefo rkapok .Therefore ,a larg eexpensio n ofth eworl d kapokmarke t isno tt ob eexpected .

12. Evaluation:Th especie si ssuite dt ocomplet e plantingan dplantin gi na taungya-system,o nmos t soils,provide d theyar ewell-drained . Thewoo d isno tver yvaluable ,bu tth eproductio no fkapo kca nb ever yim ­ portant.

13. Literature: 47,125 ,145 ,192 ,198 ,203 , 212.

38. Choloroxylon swietenia D.C. Meliaceae

1. Name- Tradename : (East Indian)Sati nwood . Indigenous_name:Burut a (SriLanka) ,Bhez a (India).

2. Area,ecolog y:Nativ et oth eIndia nPeninsul aan dSr iLanka ,commo ni ndr y typeso fmixe d deciduous forest.U pt o45 0m .abov esea-level ,bu tgenerall y not found above24 0m .i nlocalitie swit ha rainfal love r165 0mm .a year . It'sa stron g light demander,althoug hth eseedling srequir e protectionfro m thesu ni nearl yyouth . Thetre e coppicesan dproduce sroo t suckersabundantly .Th etre ei sleafles s 80

from February till May. Sucessfully planted in Nigeria.

Climate -Rainfall : Mean annual rainfall: India 750-1600mm. ,Sr i Lanka 1250-2100mm . (although seldom found in localities with rainfall above 1650 mm.). Temgerature: In India it occurs in dry hot regions: absolute maximum temper­ ature: 47C ,absolut e minimum temperature: 2C ,mea nmonthl y temperature: 28C ,mea n monthly maximum temperature: 29 C,mea n monthly minimum temper­ ature: 19°C.

4. Soil: In the Indian Peninsula it is common onmetamorphi c rocks,sandston e and laterite,provide d the soil is not stiff and clayey; itwil lgro w on bare rocky ground and on poor soils if they are well-drained and contain a large proportion of sand or gravel;eve n found onvertisols .Bes t growth on sandy loams.

5. Tree characteristics: A moderate-sized tree,15-2 1m . inheigh t and up to 1 m. indiameter . In dry localities only 3m . high. Stem: Rather short bole,u p to 9-12 m. free from branches. Crown: Spreading,light ,feathery . Leaves: Glaucous green,pinnate ,aromatic .

6. Silviculture -Seed : Flowers from March tillApril ,fruitin g from May till August;generall y abundant seeding every year. Seeds do not retain their viability for long. Germination starts 1-2 weeks after sowing;germinatio n capacity of57% . Artificial regeneration is possible by direct seeding and nursery-plants. Nursery: Seedsmus t be sown inwel l prepared porous soil free fromweeds . First 3month s the plants have tob e kept under a light shade. Survival percentage: 70%.Afte r 6-8 months the seedlings are 10-15 cm. in heigth. Planting stock: After 2year s the plants are transplanted into the field as stumps (shoot: 5cm. ,root : 18 cm.,roo t collar diameter: 1-1.4cm.) . Percentage survival50% . Planting_technique: In case of direct seeding it isrecommende d to sow in strips cleared in existing forest orbetwee n lines of other species intro­ duced a fewyear s before. Frequent weeding is necessary. Naturalregeneration : Naturalreproductio n is the best onwell-draine d light sandy soils,fre e from heavy weed growth,an d with protection against the sun in early youth. Natural reproduction often springs up in clearings along lines in the forest. Development will be favoured by gradual opening the canopy near seed bearers and subsequent regular weeding. InNigeri a ina 20yea r old plantations on shallow laterite-pan soil the species coppiced well with profuse natural regeneration.

7. Growth,yield : In India and Sri Lanka growth israthe r slow: after 20year s a diameter of 15 cm.; 30years : 30 cm.; 75years : 45 cm.;an d after 125 yea 60 cm.Annua ldiamete r increment of 0,8 cm. inth e earlier years to 0,4 cm. at later stages. In case of stumpplantin g 2m . of growth in 5year s is reported. In Madras it isreporte d that coppice growth often exceeds 1.2-1.3cm . in diameter 81

per annum. InNigeri a height growth averaged 15m .i n2 0years .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Pest sar ecause db yAonidiell a orientalis and theHypsipyl arobusta . In Indiaan dSr iLank ath emajo rmoul d diseasesar ePin k disease (Corticura salmonicolor),an dwhit e spongiro t(Fome s caryophylli). Susceptible tofire ,bu ti tha sa grea t powert orecover .Th especie si s selected bydee rt oru bth evelve t from theirantlers .

9. Wood properties:Excellen t timber:ver y hard,heav y (s.g.0.88-1.04 )an d durable.

10. Uses: Much indeman d forcabinet-making ,high-grad e furniture,veneers , ornamentalworks ,tools ,railway-sleepers .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Chloroxylon swietenia seemst ob esuitabl efo rtria li nlowlan d climates witha dr yperio du pt o4- 6months ,i na line-plantin g systemi n existing foresto ra sa nunderstore y species infores t plantations.

13. Literature:47 ,81 ,128 ,195 , 203.

39. Cirmamomm camphora Nees Lauraceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Campho r tree;Japanes eo rFormosa ncamphor .

2. Area,ecology :Th enatura lhabita to fth etre ei sfro m SouthVietna mt o China (Shang Hai), Taiwanan dHain u (). Evergreen tree;stand sa fai r amounto fshade ,bu tdevelop sbes twit ha fairamoun to flight . Iti sintroduce d inman y partso fth eworld :Australia ,Birma ,India ,Kenya , Tanzania,Borneo ,etc .

3. Climate:Th emos t extensive natural forestsar efoun di nTaiwan ;th eclimat e ismois tan dtropica lt osub-tropical . Rainfall:Well-distribute d with mosto fi tfallin g during summer: 1250-2000mm . yearly.I nSr iLank a successfully plantedu pt o150 0m .abov e sea-levelwit h anannua lrainfal lo f270 0mm .o rmore .I nIndi aan dBurm ai tseem st od o besta tlo wt omoderat e elevations (1000m. )wher erainfal li sabou t 1500mm . andmore . Temgerature: Minimum temperature 9C . The specieswil lthriv eunde ra wid e rangeo fclimate s throughout thetropi ­ calan dwar m temperate partso fth eworld . 82

4. Soil: Best growth on a deep well-drained fertile sandy loam. Itwil l not thrive on stiffbadl y drained soils. InMalay a it appears to thrive on poor laterite soils with good drainage. Onpoo r ground the growth isusuall y stunted.

5. Tree characteristics:A large tree attaining a height of 30m . and a diameter of 60-80 cm. in its natural habitat. Stem: When grown in theope n the tree tends to branch low,formin g a short thick bole,massiv e branches.Whe n grown in a dense forest the tree forms comparatively straight cleanboles . Crown: Inth e open dense,rounded . Root-system: Tends tob e superficial.

6. Silviculture - Seed: InJapa n trees produce seed at the age of 20-25years ; 7000-12.000 seeds/kg.;befor e sowing 24hour s soaking inwater ; germination 40-80%; germinates slow,th e top of germination is sometimes after 65 days of laying-out the seeds;unde r natural conditions seeds can be stored for atmos t half ayear . Nursery:Raisin g from seed is themos t satisfactory. In Dehra Dun (India)sowin g inboxe s with well-worked porous soil is common. Sowing depth +_ 1cm. ;boxe s under shade,prickin g out during the first rainy season inth e nursery (spacing 15-20 cm.)o r inbaskets . Çi2Sîï2S_SÏ2£^: Planting in the second rainy season,eventuall y trimming the long taproot s and pruning down the stem. Layering is fairly successful but slow. Branch-cuttings usually not successful;roo t cuttings,abou t 6 cm. or more in length,prove d very successful.Roo t suckers are used too. ?i52£l2§^SS^SiSHË 1 ^n Tanzania planted on old forest soils overlying igneoi rocks. Establishment by planting stumped nursery seedlings or transplants, or natural root-suckers from existing plantations,spacin g 2.4 x 2.4 m. in prepared pits. In Indiafo restablishmen t of distillation plantations spacing 1.8 x 1.8 m. to 2.4 x 2.4m . are found to be suitable.

Growth,yield : Under favourable conditions the growth is very fast: in the natural habitat the tree canreac h a height of 1.8 m. and a diameter of 15 cm. inte nyears . In SriLank a under favourable conditions the tree attains a height of 5.5-6 m. and a diameter of 15-18 cm. in 5years .

Pests,disease s and calamities: In Taiwan sometimes affected by Fomes lama- oensis. Damage by Glomerella cinnamomi is encountered in several countries

Wood properties: Heart wood pale tomediu m brown,sometime s with stripes; fairly light (sp.gr . 0.48-0.64);rathe r hard and somewhat coarse; it is reported to drywithou t difficulty; tends to warp but works easily; said to bedurable .

10. Uses: Wood isuse d for furniture,chests ,poles ,fuel . The tree is also usefula s shelter and shade tree.Th e camphor is alsoa n important produd 83

For the camphor-production allpart s of the tree are adequate. InPlantation s this product canbes tb e obtained from the leaves and twigs. Therefore,th e plants are grown inbushlik e form which is quite easy to get because of the strong coppicing capacity. Yield per ha. (1800-3000 plants/ha.): 150-200 kg. of camphor.

11. Remarks: Campho r isno w made synthetically.

12. Evaluation: Due to its qualities it seems a good plantation tree in lowland climates with 1500 mm. of rainfall or more onwell-draine d soils.

13. Literature: 46,68 ,86 ,193 ,195 ,203 .

10. Cofdia alliodora (Ruiz &Pav )Oke n Boraginaceae

Name -Tradename : Salmwood,Laurel . Indigenous name:Laure l bianco or negro (CentralAmerica) ,Bojo n (Mexico, Beiice), Cypre (Trinidad and Tobago),Pardill o (Venezuela).

Area, ecology: Laurel is indigenous to Centralan d South America from 25 North latitude along the western coast ofMexic o to 25 South latitude in Misiones,Argentina . It is relatively common in South Mexico,Centra l America and northwest South America. It is also found onmos t islands in the West Indies. Throughout itsrang e itrarel y grows at elevations above 1000m . and it isgenerall y found below 500m . It'sa pionee r species,relativel y rare in natural forest. It'sver y shade untolerant. It is commonly found -sometimes inpur e stands-wher e high forest hasbee n disturbed. Coppicing and epicormic branching are common on cut or injured young trees. Root suckers are common. Planted as exotic in Mauritius,Nigeria ,Sierr aLeone .

Climate -Rainfall : Annualrainfal l (1000)1400-3000(5000)mm . Mostly in climateswit h 2t o 3(4)dr ymonths .Optimu m growth occurs intropica l moist to wet zones of Central America and northwest South America. (Annualrain ­ fall 2000-5000 mm.)I n dryer zones growth ismuc h slower. Temgerature: Inmois t to wet zones,mea n annual temperature of 24 C ormore .

Soil: Cordia is quite tolerant of most soilcondition s but itwil l not grow wello n degraded sites nor on poorly drained soils. The following site-soil conditions havebee n reported acceptable for Cordia growth: Calcareous soils,mois t well-drained sites,loos e soilsderive d from diorite and shales,dee p clays,poo rrock y soils.I t isplante d with success on sandy soils.

Tree characteristics: It is a medium-sized to large tree.Unde r optimum conditions it can reach a height ofmor e than 30m . and a diameter of more 84

than 1m . Stem: Bole ismarkedl y light-coloured, slender,cylindrica l and often free ofbranche s up to 50-60% of the totalheight ,eve n in open-crown individuals; buttresses small,althoug h they may extend 1-1.5 m. along the bole on shallow soils. Crown: Small,moderatel y dense. Leaves: Usually deciduous during the dry season. Root-system: Large spreading,superficia l latered roots;whe n soil conditions are favourable,a deep tap root is formed. The tree is considered to be very wind resistent.

Silviculture - Seed: Seeding starts between 5-10 years ofage ; flowering initiates near the end of the growing season;fruit s persist for a few weeks after maturing. Per kg. 20,000-40,000 seeds;germinatio n occurs 5-20 daysafte r seeding (ifmoistur e is present). Viability of fresh seeds ishig h (80%)bu t it decreases rapidly under natural conditions (within one month). Seed may be satisfactorily stored by drying to 10-25% of initial moisture content and refrigerating to 5C in sealed containers. Nursery: () Seeds are sown inboxe s containing vermiculite; boxes should be covered with glass to prevent excessive drying.Whe n the new leaves begin to develop the seedlings are transplanted inpot s orbed s (initial spacing 20-30cm.) . Planting stock: A great variability is common innurser y stock and, though survivalremain s high even after planting, it is advised to select only the better stock. The better seedlings can be planted after 2-6 months. Planting in pots and balled earth planting have been successful (Trinidad). Saplings 3 m. high were planted with 100%surviva l (Costa Rica). Stumps did well too (Puerto Rico,Cost a Rica)with : stem 5cm. ,root s 15 cm.,roo t collar 1.0-1.5cm . Wildlings have given a high survival and a fast growth in PuertoRico . Planting technique: Due to its fast initialgrowt h a spacing of at least 2 x 2m . isrecommended . Self-pruning occurs rapidly evenwhe n trees are grown in the open. Spacings of 2.5 x 2.5 m., 2x 4m. , 3x 3m . and 3x 4is . arereported ; 3x 3m . was used in a taungya plantation (Turrialba,Cost a Ric It appearst o growbes t when secundary bush is allowed to form a lower canopy Because of its light crown it can be underplanted with other commercial tree species or perrenial agricultural crops. Direct sowing was only occasionally successful.Superficia l soil preparation and burning seems to be necessary. Naturalregeneration : So far,natura l regeneration encouraged by men has not beenver y successful,excep t through weeding onceth e seedlings are estab­ lished.

Growth,yield : Growth of seedlings ingenera l isfast : 1-2 m. annually. Plantation data at Los Diamantes and Turrialba,Cost aRica :

Years Height Diameter m. cm.

3 5.2 9 6 7.5 8.7 10 12.5 16 21 25.5 30 Average tree diameter innatura l standswa safte r4 0year s7 9cm . 50year s 89cm . 60year s 91cm . Ir.Sierr a Leone in12-years-ol d trialplot sth etree s were 18m .tal lan d 23 ca. indiameter .

Pests,disease san dcalamities :Misletoe s (Loranthaceae)ar ea nimportan t pest,whic h insom e caseswil lb efata lt oth etree . The most important disease inPuert o Rico,Guatemal a andTrinida d isth e canker-causingrus t Puccinia cordiae,whic hoccur smainl y whenth etree s are planted underto owe tconditions .Th ecanke r occurs primärlya tth ebas e of young lateralbranches .A nope nwoun d isforme db ywhic h other fungima y enterth etree .

9. Moocpropertie s:Tw otype so fwoo dar egenerall y recognized',laure lbianc o (light coloured throughout)an dlaure lnegro (light sapwoodan ddar kbrown , often variegated heart wood;difference sar eprobabl y duet oth eag eo fth e -ree ort opeculiaritie s ofgrowt ho findividua l trees.Specifi c gravity varies considerably 0.29-0.70;mechanica lpropertie so fCordi aar eabov e average forwood so fcomparabl e density,excep t stiffness;i ti sver y resistant to termite attack,susceptabl e todeca y (under tropical conditions),i ti s r.otresistan t tomarin eborers ,i ti sdifficul t totrea t withpreservatives ; it vorks easily,finishe s smoothly andpolishe s well;i tglue sreadily ; wood seasons readily,i tca nals ob ekil ndrie d rapidly with little resultant defect;fe wshrinkage .

10. Uses: Iti swel l suited for: frame construction,furniture ,floorin g veneer and plywood,bridg e decking,railwa y ties. No reports couldb efoun do nit spul pan dpape r propertiesno ro nit sper ­ formance inparticl e board.

11. Remarks: Cordiai squit evariabl e throughout itsrange ;i nCost a Ricai t consistso fa tleas ttw odistinc t races,s oseed sfo rexoti c plantations shouldb erequeste d frommatchin g habitat conditions.

12. Evaluation:Th especie si suse da sa shad e treefo rcaca oan dlowlan d coffee plantations (CostaRica , ,Venezuela) .I ti sals o useda sornamenta l tree. Based onit sgrowt h data,th especie si sconsidere d tob esuitabl efo rlarg e scale plantations,provide d thatth eaffectin g variability canb eidentifie d and controlled.

13. Literature: 68,116 , 145.

41. Cpgtoxylon arboreeoene Blume Hypericacae

1. Name -Tradename : Geronggang ' Indigenous name:Geronggan g gajah (Malaysia). 86

Area,ecology : Widely distributed throughout Malaya -except Perbis and Kedah- Burma,Sumatr a and Borneo.Ver y common in peat-swamp forest,als o in dry land forests at elevations up to 1700ra. Specie s is characteristic of old secundary forest on poor soils;stron g light demander; frequent flowering; evergreen. InMalay a it is the dominant tree over large areas of old secundary forest,ofte n in association with Tristania sp.

Climate -Rainfall : In Malya 2000-3000 m.. and more,mostl y falling between October and March (north-east-monsoom).N o dry season. Température: Average (lowland)temperatur e 26-27 C. Average minimum temper­ ature 24°c7

4. Soil: Species isver y adaptable to awid e variety of soils and many occur in swamps and on podsols,bu t prefers the less extreme types and reaches itsbes t development onfairl y well-drained ground in lowland forest.

5. Tree characteristics: Tree of medium to large size,t 2m . high; 60-70 cm. (200 cm.)diameter . Stem: Without buttresses;lo w branching. Bark: Dark brown. Crown: Rounded . Leaves: Small.

6. Silviculture -Seed : The seed is not easy to collect,an d the germination percentage is often rather low. Naturalregeneration : Often abundant and vigorous wherever gaps occur in the forest;ric h stands of Geronggang are ususally a signo f past clearings, and heavy fellings generally result ina n increase inabundance .

7. Growth,yield : The trees are growing fast.Youn g trees often show an annual diameter increment of 1.0-1.5cm . In lowland secundary forest near Kuching (Malaya), on land believed to have been formed about 60year s ago,almos t pure stands of Geronggang approached big timber size.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Geronggan g logs arerapidl y destroyed by termites but appear fairly resistant tofungi . Big trees are often hollow.

9. Wood properties:Ver y light (sp.gr . 0.36-0.71);soft ;sapwoo d whitish ex­ uding a sticky brown sap;hear t wood isbrigh t salmon pink;grai n straight, texture rather coarse but even;unde r tropical conditions not durable; moderately strong; easy to work,take s preservatives easily;th e wood peels well; easy to saw and polish; the wood contains some silica;tendenc y to split.

10. Uses: Useful,ligh t general utility timber. It serves well for interior joinery,a s shelves,an d itmake s a satisfactory plywood. 87

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Geronggang mightb ea ver yusefu ltre efo rth ereafforestatio n of pooro rdegrade d soilsi nlowlan d climateswit hn odistinc tdr yseason .

13. Literature:46 ,171 ,193 ,217 , 221.

42. Cunninghamia lanoeolata Hook Taxodiaceae Syn. C. sinensis

1. Name- Tradename :Chines eFir .

2. Area,ecology : Indigenoust oCentra lan dSout hChina ,Taiwan, .Nort h Laos and NorthVietnam .I ti sfoun dbetwee naltitude so f500-180 0m .i nmountai n valleys,sometime s forming largestand san dals omixe d with Pinusmassoniana . It'sa light-demandin g species,tha tdoe sno tlik e competitiono fshade - bearing species.Durin gth efirs tyear si tcanno tstan d fulllight ,bu t prefersa ligh t lateralshade .I tcoppice swhe ncu tback .Th etre ei splante d undera wid e rangeo fclimate s ((sub)tropical,temperate) : Malaysia,Mauritius , Malawi,Sout h Africa, ,Grea tBritain .

3. Climate -Rainfall :I nth enatura lregio ni ti sfoun d witha nannua lrainfal l ofmor etha n Ï5ÖÖmm .an da dr yseaso no fles stha n3 months . Tennjerature:Mea ntemperatur eo fth ecoldes tmont h0-1 5C ;mea n temperature ofth ewarmes tmonth : 26-29C ;absolut eminimu m temperature:-2 0C ;mea n annualtemperature : 15.1-22.1C . The species seemst ohav egrea tadaptibilit yt oclimati cconditions .

4. Soil:I tprefer swell-draine d sandyt oloam y soils. InChin ai tform s largeforest sparticularl yo n(red )sandston e soils. It seemst orequir e higherqualit yo fsoil stha nth eothe rconifers .

5. Tree characteristics:A handsom etre eu pt o25-3 0m .i nheight ,sometime s upt o4 5m .an da diamete ru pt o2. 0m . Stem:I nth enatura lfores tth ebol ei sremarkabl estraight ,lon gan dclea r ofbranche su pt ohal fo fth etree .I nth eope nth ebranche sar eretaine d much lowero nth etrunk . Bark: Brown. Crown: Pyramidical;branchin g lessregular ,whorle dwhe nth etre ebecome s older.

6. Silviculture- Seed : 5-7mm .lon gan d3- 5mm .wid e (4300 seeds/kg.). Under dry conditionsth esee dma yb estore du pt oon eyear . Nursery: (China)Seed sar ebroadcaste do nirrigate d beds (30gra mo fseed/ m ); germinationpercentag e 50%resultin g ina plan tdenstit yo f650/ m .Maximu m sowing depth:2. 5cm. ;germinatio ntake splac ei nabou t 3week s following sowing. The young plants are sensitive to sunburning,especiall y when the air is dry: therefore it is necessary to establish a light shade during the hot hours. Planting_stock: Propagation may be effected by seed, sprouts and cuttings. Direct seeding isno t used. ?ia2îi2§_î2£22ï!lH2: Field planting takes place when the plants are one year old. Theplantin g area must be cleared in such a way that a light lateral shade ismaintained . Themos t applied spacing is 2x 2m . During the first 4-5 years theplantation s must be extensively protected against fire and frequent weeding is necessary. In China thinnings are carried out every 5year s starting at an age of 15years . Naturalregeneration : Induced by maintaining some seed trees. Regeneration by maintainance of the best coppice shoots has been successful inTaiwan .

7. Growth,yield : It isa fast grower till the 20thyear . In Brazil (22 North latitude, 500-600m . above sea-level)i n 24year s a mean height of 21m . and,a diameter of 21 cm. has been reached (= annual volume increment of 22m /ha.). In Java (1500m . above sea-level)afte r 17years :diamete r 31.3 cm.,heigh t 19.6m. ,annua lvolum e increment 15m /ha. In China ina natura l stand (not thinned) in Hu Nan province:

Age Diameter Height Annual volume increment in cm. inm . per tree in dm

5 2 1.75 0,5 10 7.5 5.75 16 15 12.4 9.55 48 20 15.5 12.20 56 25 16.9 13.90 37

Recommended rotation for pulp wood: 15years ;fo r sawnwood : 40-50years .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: The seedlings are sensible to damping-off (Fusarium spp. and Rhizoctonia spp);fo rprotection ,th e soil is sterilized to control it (China). Another fungi (Pestalotiopsis funerea)als o causes damping-off of young seedlings especially onhumi d sites (India).

9. Wood properties:Pal eyello w to almost white;flagrant ;soft ;ver y light: sp. gr. 0.4 (at 7%moistur e content); very durable (itsresistanc e to insed and moulds isconsiderable) ; easily worked.

10. Uses: In China it is considered as the best construction wood:hous e buildi indoor carpentry,masts ,planking ,bo x making and largely for coffins. The wood isver y suitable for paper making.

11. Remarks: 89

12. Evaluation: Cunninghamialanceolata ,whic h producesa usefu l timber,seem s tob esuitabl e forplantin g inregion s above 600m .wit hmore than 1500mm . ofrain ,o nwell-drained ,deep ,an dfertil e soils.Complet e planting will beth ebes t system.

13. Literature: 17,91 ,101 , 195.

43. Dalbargia latifolia Roxb. Papilionaceae

1. Name -Tradename : Rosewood,Bomba yblackwoo d (India),Jav a pallissander. Indigenous name: Sonokling (Indonesia),Sonosoenga e (Java).

2. Area,ecology : Natural distribution: India,i nth esub-Himalaya n tract from Oudht oSikhim ,Chot aNagpur ,Central ,Wester nan dSouther n India,usuall y scattered inmixe d deciduous forest orgregariou s inpatche s onalluvia l flats.Altitudina l range from 0-900(1350 )m . Iti sa deciduou s (nearly evergreen),semi-ligh t demanding species,whic h tolerates amoderat e amounto fshad e especially inyouth .I tcoppice s well. Introduced asa nexoti ci nJav a (between 0-600m .i nth elowlan d monsoon- forests),Sr iLanka ,Kenya ,Nigeri aan dTanzania .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Annua lrainfal l varies from 750-5000mm .I nth eseedling - stagei tsuffer s from drought,bu ti nlate r stages iti sdrought-resistant . InJav ath especie sdevelop s welli nclimate s with 2-5dr ymonths ,bu ti t willtolerat e climates witha dr yseaso no f6 months . Temparature:I nth enatura l habitat:th eabsolut e maximum shade temperature: 35-48C ;absolut eminimu m temperature: 0-6C ;somewha t frost-tender.

4. Soil: Species growso nsoil sderive d from many materials,includin g gneiss, laterite,boulde r depositsan dalluvia l formations. Best development ondee p andmois t soils,particularl y nearperennia l streams.I twil lgrow n fairly wello nvertisol s andals oaccomodate s itselft opoor ,dr yston y soil,where , however,i tdoe sno treac h largedimensions .I trequire s good drainage. InJav aplante d onstony ,infertile ,periodicall y dry,shallo w soils.

5. Tree characteristics:I ti sa larg e tree,28(40 )m .i nheigh tan d80(160 )cm . indiameter ,wit ha spreadin g crown. Stem: Seldom columnar,wit h deepgrooves ;i nope n stands,ofte n crooked, with low-branching. Crown:Mostl y densean ddeep ,conica lo regg-rounded ; indens e standsth e crown isumbellate . Root-system: Inyout ha ta proo twit hfe wlaterals .Whe nth etre e isolde r itpossesse sa well-develope d deeproot-syste m andmoderatel y long super­ ficial roots.Th eroot so fyoun g treesar ehighl y resistant tooxygen-deficit . Root nodules present. 90

6. Silviculture -Seed : Does not seed annually or as regularly as D. sissoo; fruiting: December-April (India)o r September-November (Java); seedingage : 6-10 years;20,000-28,00 0 seeds/kg.; seed isdifficul t to extract from the pods. Pods arebroke n and pieces of seed +po d areuse d (11,000/kg.); germination very fast: starts in 4t o 6 days after sowing;germinatio n per­ centage: 60-70%; seeds keep fairly well, one year,a tmos t in sealed tin. Planting stock: Regeneration by suckers gives good results provided that there isplent y of rain and the soil is fairly rich. Regeneration by young plants may be good or bad depending on the locality. . The best method is to use one-year-old plants either cut down to half-stems or as stump plants. InJav a stumps are used with following dimensions: root length 20cm. ,shoo t length 20 cm.,diamete r less than 1.5 cm. Root cuttings longer than 15 cm. and a diameter bigger than 1cm .als o showed good results. Stem cuttings were not successful. Planting_technig^ue:A close spacing is recommended because into o open a position,th e tree is apt to become crooked and toranchy. On bad soils: 2 x jm . to get a fast closure of the canopy and thepossibilit y of selection Onmoderatel y good soils a wider spacing of 2x 1m . or 2x 2m . is used in Java. Direct sowinggive s good results provided that it isdon e in well- tilled soil and frequent weeding is carried out;thre e meters spacing between the rows,an d 500 seeds per 100m . of row. Naturalregeneration : Generally good,provide d the seedling in its early stages isprotecte d against the sunan d severe drying out.Moreove r the undergrowth should not be toodense .

7. Growth,yield : In Indiarat e of growth is fairly low: at 10year s ofage : 6 m. high,4- 5 cm. in diameter.A diameter of 0.60 m. isreache d between the age of 100-150years . The growth of the seedling ismoderatel y slow during the first year,bu t in the following years rather fast,especiall y when regular weeding and watering isdone . InJava :o n good soils height growth is fast: 2m./year ,o n bad and moder­ ately good soilsdevelopmen t is satisfactory: 1-1.5 m./year. InGadungar. , Java,o n good soilsmea n annualvolum e increment during first 15years : 15m /ha.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Seedlings and saplings are frequently browse by livestock and game. Pests of little importance caused by Xyleborus fornaticus and termites (Coptotermes sp.). Seedlings are liable to damping-off. InJav ayoun g plants are damaged by an unknownmould ,whic h is only letal inver y early stages. Locally serious damage is done by aroo t mould (Ganodermasp.) . The species is less fire-resistant than teak.

9. Wood properties:Hear t wood sharply differentiated from the sapwood;sapwoo c yellowish white with pinkish cast,hear t wood usually lightpurplis h brown to deep purple;hard ;heav y tover y heavy (sp. gr. 0.70-1.22);ver y strong and tough,eas y to season; slight tendency to shrink;grea t tendency to war very durable; sapwood very liable to insect attack and decay;Rosewoo d is less easy towor k than Sissoo;turn s wellan d isgoo d forcarving ,take s very good polish; not very suitable for plywood or peeling. 91

10. Uses:Fo rheav y construction,eve ni nconstruction si ncontac t withth e ground. Very ornamental. Iti slargel y used forfurniture ,veneer ,multiplex ,woo d carving,agricul ­ turalimplements . Sapwood only suitablefo rfir ewood .

11. Remarks:Th especie s isofte nuse da sa shad etree . InJav a considered asa suitabl e speciesfo rplantin go nerode d soils. Dalbergia cochinchinensis (Trac,Vietnamese) ,th ehabita to fwhic h extends overThailan d andIr.dc-China ,ha sver y closely related characteristics.I t seemst otolerat e drought evenbette r thanDalbergi a latifolia.I ti softe n found inwoodlan d orsavann a woodland.

12. Evaluation:Rosewoo dma yb eplante d inVietna munde ra wid erang eó fclimates , withbes t growtho ndeep ,well-draine d soils.Complet e plantingwil lb eth e bestmetho do fplantatio n establishment.

13. Literature:6 ,23 ,38 ,58 ,65 ,68 ,71 ,76 ,95 ,110 , 114,115 ,135 , 167, 195, 203.

44. Dalbergia siasoo Roxb. Papilionaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Sissoo . Indigenousname :Siss u shisham (India),Sonosissoo ,Sonow asess o (Java).

2. Area,ecology :Natura lrange :Throughou tth esub-Himalaya ntrac tfro mth e Indust oAssam ,an di nth eHimalaya nvalley susuall yu pt o100 0m. ,some ­ timesascendin gt o150 0m .I tgrow smos t typicallyo nalluvia lplain san d inth ebed so frivers ,bu tspring sals ofreel yu pwhereve rth eminera lsoi l isexpose d (land slips,hil lsides ,ne wenbankments) .I nth ealluvia lsite s thesetre egrow s gregariously andform spur estand so rmixe d standswit h Acaciacatechu . Sissooi sa stron g light-demander;i ttolerate sonl y slight shadewhe nyoung . It coppices vigorously. InIndi ath especie si scultivate do nlarg escale .A sa nexoti c introduced successfully ine.g .Sr iLanka ,Israël ,Jav a (Lowland monsoon forests), Ghana,Kenya ,Malawi ,Nigeria .

3. Climate- Rainfall :I nnatura lhabita ta nannua lrainfal lo f750-5000(6600 )mm . Thetre ei so fa smal l sizewhe nrainfal li sbelo w100 0mm .I nth eseedlin g stageth especie si ssensitiv et odrought ,whe nolde rdrough tresistant ;the n it eventolerate s droughts lasting7- 8months . Temperature:I nth enatura lhabitat :absolut eminimu m temperature:- 4 to5 C , absolutemaximu m temperature:+4 8C .Th especie si smoderatel y frostresis ­ tant,especiall yth etre efro mth eHimalaya nvalleys . The speciesi ssuitabl efo rplantin g intropica llowlan d climateswit ha dr y seasonu pt o4- 6dr ymonths . 92

4. Soil: The speciesrequire s porous well-drained soils;thrive s onver y poor, rocky or sandy soils.I t avoids badly drained tracks and too compact clays. It is slightly salt resistant: it thrives on soils containing 0.15% soluble salts in the surface soil and 0.45% in the subsoil.Maximu m pH: 8.3 (surface soil)resp . 9.8 (subsoil). Very good development on deep,irrigate d soils.

5. Tree characteristics:Usuall y a medium-sized tree but under favourable con­ ditions it can attain a diameter of 80cm . and a height of 30m . Stem: Somewhat crooked,an d straight logs of some length are difficult to obtain. Crown:Usuall y light;deciduou s for a short time. Root-system: The seedling forms a strong,fas t growing tap root. In the seedling stage the species isver y resistant to lack of oxygen. The root-system can extend to a considerable distance:th e taproo t often dies,bu t the laterals may attain considerable length and thickness (up to 10m . in length). The lateral roots spread at a depth of a few centimeter to about 60m . below ground surface frequently sending up root suckers, more especially where the roots have come to the surface. The form of the root-system gives the species itsresistanc e todrought .

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seeding age: 3-5 years; it ordinärlyproduce s an abun­ dant crop of pods each year; fruiting time:November-Januar y (Bangladesh), January-February (United Provinces),March-Apri l (Java). Per pod 2-3 seeds,ripene d pods are black; seeds are difficult to extract from pods, seeds are therefore sown in thebroke n pods; dry pods with wings 13,000-15,500/kg.,seeds :49,000/kg. ;germinatio n starts after 8-10 days with a germination percentage of 80%o rmor e when fresh; stores well dry in sealed tins for 12-18month s or possibly more. Nursery: Production ofplantin g stock inth enurser y generally shows good results. Planting_stock: Direct sowing isdon e when sufficient amounts of seeds are available. Inmos t cases (Java)stump s (shoot length 5-20 cm.;roo t length 20-40 cm.,roo t collar diameter 1.0-2.5cm. )ar e used; survival of 85-95%. In India stumpsar e produced from 12-15-months-oldplants . Stem cuttings give irregular results.Roo t cuttings (10-20 cm.)usuall y giv a high survival.Especiall y in dryregion s root cuttings have showed to be successful. In experiments in Pakistanroo t cuttings taken from 1-year-old plants showed better results than those from 4-an d 15-years-old plants. It regenerates freely from root suckers. Plantingtechnique: A close spacing isrecommende d to obtain a better stem form and the possibility of selection. In India direct sowing is done in a spacing of 1.8 x 1.8 m. and 2.4 x 2.4m . Direct seeding necessitates frequi weeding because the young seedling cannot stand the competition during the first twoyears . One-year-old planting stock generally is planted at a spacing of 3x 1m . or 1.8 x 1.8 m. The Sissoo has showed to be successful intaungya-plantation s and also in shelteroelts,togethe r with Acacia arabica. In India and Pakistan (Punjab)larg e areas of irrigated plantations are es tablished. In generalprunin g isno t practised,bu t for the production of high-prized sawn wood it isnecessary . In India thinningsar e carried out only for the production of high-grading wood.A t a spacing of 2 x 2 m. (2500 trees/ha.),firs t thinning 5-10 years after planting,reducin g the stand to 1000 trees,secon d thinning 15year s after planting reducing the stand to 350 trees,thir d thinning after 20year sremainin g 200 trees. 93

Growth,yield : Growth isgenerall y fairly rapid up to 5year s of age and thenmoderat e to slow,bu t varies enormously,wit h local conditions: fertility and porosity of the soil,rainfall ,light .Ca n reach 6m . when 3year s old under favourable conditions or only 1.50 m. under unfavourable conditions. InGadungan ,Indonesia ,o nmoderatel y good soils spacing 3x 2m . height growth in the first 8year s was c. 2.2 m. yearly which meant an annual volume increment of 10m /ha. In India the rotation in plantations for construction wood is 40-50years ; for fuelwoo d 15years .

Mean growth:

Age Height Diameter in years in m. in cm.

5 5 7 10 10 14 15 15 20 20 17 25

Pests, diseases and calamit ies: Locally somedam , Inyoun gplantation s attacks by Sinoxylonanal aar ereported . InJav a and India,locall y heavy damage caused by a rootmoul d (Ganoderma lucidum). In theyout h stagemuc h damage is caused by anunknow nmoul d (seeD . latifolia). Fomes lucidus causes somedamage . The leaves are sometimes attacked especially inth enursery ,b y the fungus Phyllactina corylea. Sissoo isno t very fire-resistant, especially inth eyounge r stages.

9. Wood properties: See D. latifolia,but ,hear t woodgolde nbrow n to dark brown, often with black streaks;moderatel y heavy toheav y (sp.gr . 0.63-0.83 air-dry). Itair-season s and kiln-dries well with little degradation._I tcuts ,turns , machines and peels well and takes a good polish and finish.Veneer s areusu ­ ally very handsome and make up into excellentpanels .

10. Uses: Adequate forman y purposes: construction,hous e building but especially for furniture;woo d carving,venee r multiplex. It produces a good wood for fuel and charcoal production.

11. Remarks: Whe n protected against browsing and fire,a nundergrowt h of shade bearing species soon establishies.

12. Evaluation:Th e species thrives wellunde r awid evariet y of climatetypes , provided that annual rainfall isabov e 1000mm. ,o nwell-draine d soils.Th e species is suitable for planting on eroded soils.

13. 6, 36,43 ,56 ,65 ,68 ,71 ,73 ,114 ,167 ,188 ,195 ,203 . 94

45. Dioepyrus melanoxylon Roxb Ebenaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Ebony . Indigenousname :Tendu ,Bid i (India).

2. Area,ecology : Indigenoust oth eIndia nPeninsula ,wher ei ti sa commo n tree ofth emixe d deciduous forests.I toccur si nSal-forest s oftenreplacin gth e Sal (Shorearobusta )wher eth esoi li sto opoo rt osuppor tth elatter .I t appearst oreac hit sbes t developmento nmetamorphi crocks .I nth eeaster n provinceso fSr iLank ath especie s occursi nth esavannah-woodlands ,whic h areannuall yburn t becauseo fth edens egras svegetation .It' sa deciduou s tree. Seedlingsan dyoun g poles standa considerabl e amounto fshade ,per ­ sistingunde ri tfo rsom etime .Th eseedling sar ehard yagains t frostan d droughtbu tno tagains t excessive samp.Th etre e coppiceswel lan dals ore ­ produces itself easily throughroo t suckers.Mal ean dfemal eflower so n separated trees.

3. Climate- Rainfall :Annua lrainfal li nnatura lhabita tvarie sfro m 500-1500m Température:I nth enatura lhabita t maximum shadetemperatur evarie s from 40-48C an dth eminimu m temperature from- 1 to1 3C .

4. Soil:Th especie si sver y adaptable tovariou s typeso fsoils .I tgrow swel l onver y degraded soils.I tca nsafel yb eselecte dfo rafforestatio nc fre ­ fractory sites.

5. Tree characteristics:A moderat e sized treeo rshru bu pt o2 5m .i nheigh t and6 0cm .i ndiameter . Root-system:Primar y rootlon gan dthick .

6. Silviculture -Seed : Flowering:April-June ,fruit srip ei nApril-Jun eth e following year;alternatin g goodan dba dsee dyears . 880-1400seeds/kg ; seedsca nb estore du pt oon eyear ;los so fviabilit y willb e80-90% ;there ­ fore,fres h seed ispreferable .Germinatio n startswithi n2- 4week s after sowing,bu ta longe rperio di stake ni ngerminatio n commencementi nlocal ­ itiesoutsid eth enatura lhabitat ;alternat ewettin gan ddryin go fth esee d for4 8hour swil ldoubl eth egerminatio npercentage . Nursery:Becaus eo fth elon gta proot ,seed sar edirectl y sowni nlong , narrowbambo obasket so rcontainers ,whic har efille d withpur e sando r light sandyloam ,afte rsowin gth eseed sar ecovere d witha thi n layero f earthan dregularl ywatered . Planting stock:Stum pplantin gwa ssuccessfu li nAndhr aPrades h (India, survival42-56% )bu twa sles ssuccessfu li nothe rregions .Roo t cuttings were successfuli nPakistan . Plantingtechnique : One-year-old plants shouldb eplante da tth ebeginnin g ofth erain y seasona ta spacin go f1. 8x 1. 8m .o r2. 7x 2. 7m .Plant s shoulda tleas tb ekep t free from weedsdurin gth efirs t 2years . Direct sowingha sprove d successful (alsoi ncombinatio nwit h agricultural cropsbetwee nth eline sprovide d thesear eshallo wroote dan ddon' t compete Frequentweedin gan dsoi lworkin gi sessential . Coppicingan dpollardin gar eessentia loperation st oge ta goo d flusho f tendershoots . 95

7. Growth,yield :Th erat eo fgrowt h isi ngenera lslow . Maindevelopmen to fth eseedlin gi nth efirs ton eo rtw oyear si si nth e soil.Afte ron eseason :roo t length:3 0cm. ,shoot :1 0cm .Afte rth esecon d season:roo t length:6 0cm .o rmore ,shoo t length: 30-60cm . Alsoth egrowt ho fcoppice si sslow .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :I nIndi ath efollowin g borershav ebee n reported: Plocaederusferrugineus ,Xyleboru snoxius ,Stromatiu mbarborum . Someleafeater swhic har eobserved : Hypocolarostrat aan dLamid acarbonifera .

9. Wood properties:Reddis hbrown ,wit ha irregula rblac k heartwood ,sometime s streaked withpurpl eo rbrown ;hard ;sp .gr . 0.82.

10. Uses:Th ewoo d isuse dfo rploughs ,hous e building,fue lan dwoo d carving. The fruitsar eeate nan dsol do nth emarkets .Th ebark ,fruit san dleave s possess somemedicina lproperties .Mos t important,als o economically,ar e theleaves .The yar euse dfo r"Bidi "whic h isth epopula r smokeo fth e Indianworkin g class.Bid ii saad eb ywrappin g tobaccoi na speciall ypre ­ pared leafo fD .melanoxylon .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Th e"Bidi "tre e showsgood promisesfo rplantin g inth edrie r partso fVietnam .I ti so fspecia l interests throughth eeconomi c importance ofth eleaves ;th etre ema yb ea nextr a sourceo fincom efo rsmal lfarmers .

13. Literature:90 ,170 , 203.

46. Dipterocaxyus tuberoulatuB Roxb Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Variou s specieso fDipterocarpu sar eindicate db yKeruing . Indigenousname :Phluan g (Thailand),I n(Burma) ,Klon g (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology :Th etre ei sfoun d throughoutBurm aan dextend seastward s into Thailand,Khme r Republican dVietnam .Occur sgregariousl yi na specia ltyp e ofdr ydeciduou sfores tknow na sIndaing .Grow su pt o800-85 0m .abov esea - leveli nsuitabl elocalities . InVietnam ,occurrin gu pt o110 0m. ,bein ga typica lrepresentative ,o fth e openfores t (woodland). TheI ntre ei susuall yth edominan t specieso fth eIndain gforest ,whic h variesgreatl yi nquality .Th ebes t Indaing forest isfoun do nfla to run ­ dulating land,o nporou swell-draine d soilabov eth ereac ho ffloods .O ndr y hillsan dridge si ti sfrequentl y stunted.O nhar d ferruginouslaterit e with siliceouspebble swher eth esoi li sshallo wth efores tbecome sver y openan dpoo ri nquality . TheI ntre ei sa decide d light-demander,a sshow ni nth eope n charactero f 96

the forest inwhic h it grows and its intolerance of suppression.Th e species isver y fire-resistant,seedling s and saplings show a greatpowe r to recover. In is highly drought-resitant. Young trees coppice well.

Climate - Rainfall:Norma lrainfal l 875-3000mm. ; inarea s with less than 1000mm./yea r the trees become stunted. Temperature:Absolut e maximum temperature: 38-43 C;absolut e minimum temper­ ature!5-ÏÖ°C .

Soil: The tree ischaracteristicall y found on dry porous soils.Th e best growth is obtained on porous well-drained soils above reach of floods,i n flat and undulating land. On hard ferruginous lateritewit h siliceous pebbles, and on shallow soils,th e tree becomes very stunted (see2) .

Tree characteristics: A large resinous tree,deciduou s or nearly so. Stem: Straight,clean ,cylindrica l bole and stout branches. In favourable localities attaining a height of 24-30 m. with a clear bole of 15-18m . and a diameter of 80-100 cm.

6. Silviculture - Seed:A good crop is produced inmos t years.I n Vietnam, flowering starts in the dry season,jus t before the setting of the leaves. Natural regeneration: Natural reproduction isgoo d on places with favourable soil condition îweïï-aerated,no t too dry),an d plenty of light.Afte r burnin regeneration isver y abundant under such conditions. In the natural region the fruits fallafte r the season of fires and germinate immediately. Good fireprotectio n isneede d in theyear safterwards . Natural regeneration ispoo r on ground covered with coarse grasses.Abou t artificial regeneration no information could be obtained.

7. Growth,yield : Accurate figures are not available.Growt h exceeds that of teak in the sameregio n (Rangoon Plains).

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Youn g plants are subject to termite attacks.

9. Wood properties: Reddish brown,hard ,moderatel y durable.

10. Uses: In Burma: telephone poles,construction ,flooring ,bridges . In South Vietnam the Dipterocarp forests are the most important source of wood for construction,pole s and domesticuse .

11. Remarks: I n isver y similar to Kanyin (D.turbinatus) ,bu t is considered superior to theKanyi n inal l characteristics.

12. Evaluation: The species is suitable for planting intropica l lowland with a dry period of 2-4 months,o n porous,well-draine d soils. Investigations to naturalregeneratio n systems of the species are advised, facing its abundant natural reproduction. 97

13. Literature: 53,180 ,203 , 210.

47. Dipteracarpus turbinatus Gaernt Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Se e 46. Indigenous_name:Kanyi n (Birma,India) ,Gurgu n (India),Lewan ,Kla nwa n (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : Naturalregion : Southan dEas t India,throughou t thegreate r parto fBurma ,extendin g intoThailan d andVietnam .I ti sfoun d inth eever ­ greeno rsemi-evergree n forestsa sa specie so fth euppe r canopy.Th etre e isno ttypicall y.gregariou slik eD .tuberculatus ,thoug h sometimes itap ­ proaches that condition inpatches . Iti softe n associated withD .alatu san do nmoiste r localities with Hopea odorata. Itgrow s from sea-levelu pt o110 0m . InSout h Vietnam itoccur s along water coarsesan dperiodicall y inundated sands. Kanyin isa nevergree n tree; semi-lightdemanding ,i tprefer sa certai n amount of shadea sa youn g tree,bu tafterward s itrequire smuc h light.

3. Climate -Rainfall : 1500-5000mm .annually ;2- 4dr ymonths . Température:I nth enatura lregion s absolutemaximu m temperature:37-4 1C , absolute minimum temperature: 7-15C .

4. Soil:I toccur so nvariou s soils except calcareous ones; tolerates highly laterized soils,provide d thatth edrainag e isgood .

5. Tree characteristics:A loft y treeattainin ga heigh to f45-5 0m .o reve n morean da diamete r of1.50-1.7 0cm .o rmore . Stem: Long,clean ,cylindrica l bole. Crown:Elevated ,generall y overtoppig theneighborin g trees.

6. Silviculture -Seed :Th efruit s fallafte rth eseaso no fth efire s (Hayan d June,Birma) ; 150seeds/kg ;the yd ono tkee p welland ,therefore ,mus tb e sowna ssoo na spossibl e after harvesting,a tleas twithi n2 weeks . Nursery:Sowin g innurseries :goo d germination under slight shadei nwell - tilled,ver y porous soil.The yar esow nvertically ,th euppe rpar t being covered with about Jcm .o fearth ,wit hth ewing s aboveth esoil . Liningou t after 3months . Planting stock: Planting inth efiel da tth eag eo fon eyea rwit h naked roots. Stumped plants givepoo rresults . Planting technique:The yca nb eplante d eitherb yth etaungya-method ,i f lateral shade isprovide d (preferableb yleguminou s coverplants )o ri na line-planting system indegrade d forest,provide d thatth eyoun g plantsar e thouroughly thinned outwhe n theyar e5 year sold .Direc t seeding generally gives poorresults ,unles sth esoi lha sbee n tilled before sowing. Cleanings andperiodica l thinningsar enecessary .Th etre eneithe r coppicesno rproduce s root suckers. 98

7. Growth,yield : Moderately rapid: 2m .whe n 5year s old,5 m .whe n 14year s old. Rotationso f120-15 0year sar euse d toge ta diamete ro f50-6 0cm .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities : Insect attacksar eobserve d inplantation s butn oseriou s damagei sdone ,a sth elatera l buds quickly replace the de­ stroyed ones. Kanyini sver y sensitivet ofire ,especiall y theyoun g trees.

9. Wood properties:Usuall y greyish browno rpurplis h brown;ver y hard,sp .gr . 0.75-0.85(a t15 %moistur e content);goo d mechanical strength (equalt oteak) ; notver y durable,no tresistan t totermite s oroutsid e weather,require s creosoting when placed incontac t withth egroun d orexposed ;ver y hard; wood shrinks excessively andi stherefor e difficultt oseason ,t opreven t excessive shrinking during theai rdryin g process quarter-sawing ishighl y recommended; logsar esomewha t difficult tosa wbecaus eo fth ehardines so f thetimbe ran dth epresenc eo fresi n which tendst ostic k intoth e saw.

10. Uses: Industrial flooring,truc kan drailwa y sleepers,bridg e decking,roug h construction. Creosoting isusuall y recommended. Alsouse d forcarpentr yan d interior timberwork . The treei stappe dfo rit sresi n (likeD .alatus) . InSout h Vietnam many standso fD .turbinatu s aredegrade db ythi s tapping.

11. Remarks:Kanyi n isclosel y related toD .alatus .Thei r ecological requirement! and planting methodsar eals over y similar.

12. Evaluation:Kanyi n issuitabl efo rplantin g intropica lregion s witha dr y periodo f2- 4month so ndifferen t soils provided thatth edrainag e isgood . Enrichment planting seemst ogiv eth ebes tresults .

13. Literature:71 ,180 ,193 , 203.

48. Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn. Diptoracarpaceae

1. Name- Local_name :Kapu rperingg i (Malaya);Kaj u (Indonesia). Tradename:Borne oCamphorwood .

2. Area,ecolog y:Kapu rperingg i isth emos t commonan dwidel y distributed spec of Dryobalanops:Malaysia ,Borneo ,Sumatra ,Riouw-Archipelago ,mainl y onlo v hillsu pt oa naltitud eo f45 0m .I tprefer s rather steep slopesan dridg e topst ofla tan dundulatin g land.D .aromatic a isth emos t gregarious specie ofal lDipterocarpaceae . Kapur treesar eevergree nan dstron g light-demanders. 99

3. Climate -Rainfall : In natural region: tropical humid climates;mea n annual rainfall: 270Ö mm without amarke d dry period. Temperature: mean temperature: 26.5 C.

4. Soil: It appears to require a well-drained soilo fmoderat e fertility; it is particularly common on "yellowish-brown fine shady loams (Acrisols). Ingene ­ ral Kapur avoids granite-derived soils unless they are free draining anddeep. .

5. Tree characteristics: Kapur grows to aver y large tree,tota lheigh t issome ­ times over 60m and diameters of 120-150 cm are of common occurence. Stem: Straight,columna r bole (tapering about 2.5 cm in 4.5-5 meter), with sometimes large,bu t more often short and thick buttresses. Bark: Usually very shaggy,bot h bark and leaves have the smello f camphor. Crown: mature tree:wid e spreading with slender pendulous twigs.I n younger stages - until the tree is about 30m in height - the crown is of a long coni­ cal form with slender side-branches.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Like most Diptocarps the species flowers and fruits pro­ fusely at long and irregular intervals.See d is easy to obtain;viabl e for only a short period,bu t storage at 12C will extend this period;th e wings should be left on the seed, since the seed without wings goes down into the soil after rainfall and the shoot takes a week to reach the surface,wherea s seed planted with wings reach the same stage of growing inabou t 3day san d the plants are more sturdy. The seeds should be planted with wingsupwards . Germination generally occurs within 2-3 weeks and thepercentag e ofgermina ­ tion is usually over 80%;see d weight: 100-165 seeds/kg. Nursery: Practice is quite easy. Planting stock and technique: singlenurser y grown tubed Kapur seedlings (transplanted from beds into bamboo pots)gav e good resultswhe n planted in small, 50c mwide ,patche s prepaired inpoo r secundary growth.Tube d wild- lings also gave good results.Partiall y stripped thirteen-months-old untubed seedlings that had been transplanted and wrenched in the nursery gave better results (30-46% survival)afte r 3month s thanuntrippe d seedlings when planted out in an area in the early succession of Imperata to woody vegetation. Broadcasting isprobabl y uneconomic and gives a low percentage of sapling production due to rodent attack. Attempts to stump Kapur seedlings have failed. Young saplings coppice fairly freely. Air-layering (Marcotting)hav e been proved not succesful. Experiments in Malaysia have shown that greatpossibilitie s exist for the establishment of plantations inpoo r forests.Stockin g should not exceed 750 seedlings/ha (3.60x3.60 m). 375/ha (7.20x3.60 m) is probably adequate. Cleanings should be done as frequently as necessary to ensure complete free­ dom in the first 4years . Thinnings should be carried out at intervals ofa t last 10years . Line planting,wit h 30-50 cm tallWildling s and a spacing of 14x 1.20 m in poor secondary growth was very successful.Especiall y bamboo-groves appear to provide just the right conditions of light. Maintenance of the outlines at 6 and 12month s after planting isnecessary . Naturalregeneration : Generaly abundant after profuse fruiting. Where the trees are reasonable plentiful it isno t difficult to convert thefores t in nearly pure stands of Kapur in a singlerotatio n bymean s of crownthinning s at inter­ vals of about tenyear s and undergrowth cleanings to free seedlings saplings from side and overhead competition. When these operationsar e done in a right way,a rotatio n of 60-70year s will be sufficient to reach diameters of 60 cm. 100

Growth,yield :Kapu ri son eo fth efastes t growing timberso fMalaysia . Initial height growthi fseedling s varies according tosit e conditions,bu taverag e heightso f1.0 0m i n2 years ,1.6 0m afte r 3,2.3 0m afte r 4an d3.5 0m afte r 5year swer e obtained ina nunpromisin g area dominated byImperata . Toreac ha diamete ro f5 0c mi twil l take about 45-55years ,t oreac h 70c m itwil l take about 66-90years .I nKual a Lumpurmea n heightan ddiamete r after 21years,resp . 23.5an d2 1cm .I na 70-year s rotationa mea n annual increment of4. 5m /h awa sexpected .

Pests,disease san dcalamities :I nMalaysi a thefruit sar eofte n eatenb yth e larvaeo fAlcide scrassu san dLoccotrype s granicops.Frui t eatingbat s also arerecorde d destroying thewhol e crop.Rodent sar eparticularl y pestialt o germinating seedan dcotyledon so fyoun g seedlings. The "Kapurneedl e worm" (alarva eo fth efamil y Lymexylidaecause s serious damaget oth etimber .Th eclimbin g fern Resam (Gleichenia linearis)i si ncer ­ tainarea sa seriou swee di nyoun gregenerate d forest.Th eweigh to fth e Resam enwrapped around thesapling ,continuall y breaksth eleadin g shoot.

Wood properties:Heartwoo d reddish brown,sapwoo d yellowish brownt opurple , color very similart othos eo fothe r Dipterocarps;moderatel y hard;moderate ­ lyheav y (sp.gr.0.75-0.8 5a t15 %moistur e content); slowi ndrying ,i ttake s about 2-3month st oreac h 15-18%moistur e content;timbe r isno tdurabl ei n tropicalregions ;heartwoo d often infected with pinholes ofvariou s ambrosia beetles;woo d easyt osaw ,th eairdrie d timber worksan dfinishe s quite well and exceeds teaki nstrengt h properties,th ewoo d isrelativel y free from defects.

10. Uses:Kapu ri sfoun d highly suitablefo rfurnitur emaking ,carpeting ,floori i

11. Remarks:Th especie san dal lothe r Dryobalanops species containi nmos tpart i ofth etre ea camphor-oil, whic hi sver y similart obu tno tindentica l with true camphor,whic h isobtaine d from Cinnamomun camphora.I ti schiefl y used inmedicines ,bu ti nMalaysi ath eresin-tappin g industryha sbecom eo fver y little importance.

12. Thetre e seemst ob ea suitabl e plantation treei nmoist ,well-draine d low­ land sites. Also suitablefo rreforestatio n ofImperat a -fields.

13. Literature:23 ,46 ,106 ,110 ,193 . 217.

49. Dryobalanops oblongifolia Dyer. Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name- Loca l name:Keladan ,Kapu r empedu,Kelansan .

2. Area,ecology : Fairly wide distribution inMalaysia ,Serawak ,Brunei .I ti s essentially ascattere d species that occursi nlow-lyin g poorly drainedo r 101

periodically inundated jungle,an do nalluvia lflat salon gth ebank so friver s and streams.I ti severgree nan dstron g light-demanding.Undergrowt h isscarc e orabsen ti ndens e stands,becaus eo fthe ,wid espreadin g densecrown .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Humi d tropical lowland climatetypes .

•*. Soil:Se e2 .

5. Tree characteristics:A larg etree ,ove r2 8m i nheigh tan d4 5c mi ndiameter . Stem: Boleofte no fles sregula r shapetha n thato fth eothe r species;bi gbut ­ tresses. Crown:Wid e spreading,dense . Rootsystem:Seedling shav ea taproot .

6. Silviculture- Seed :Kapu r empeduregenerate s freelyan dexcep tfo rth e un­ certaintyo fsee d supply iti sa goo d plantation tree,(se eals oD .aromatica) .

7. Growth,yield :I ti sa fas tgrowe ran dannua ldiamete r increments exceeding 1.5c mar eno tuncommon .I ti sabl et oreac hdiameter so f55-6 0c mi n6 0years .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Kapu r empedui sles ssensitiv et oth eKapu r needleworm .

9. Hood properties:Reddis hbrown ,hard ;sp.gr .0.62-0.91 ; strong;ther ei sa tendencyt oshrink ,spli tan dwarp ;moderatel y durable;th etimbe ri sdecided ­ lyinferio rt otha to fKapu r peringgi,bein g slightlymor edifficul tt osa wi n seasoned statean dles sstron gi nal lmechanica lproperties ,excep thardiness .

10. Uses:Woo dfo rconstruction ,carpeting ,shipbuilding ;i ngenera lfo rheav y construction underroof .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Th especie s seemst od owel lo nmoisty ,periodicall y inundated, lowland flats,an dca nb eplante d ina nenrichmen tplantin g system.

13. Literature:23 ,46 ,106 ,110 ,193 , 217.

>0. Dyera ooatulata Hookf . Apocynaceae

Name- Tradename :Jeluton gBuki t (Malaysia). 102

2. Area,ecology : Throughout Malaya except Perlis,Langhaw i in lowlands,plains , low undulating country,occasionall y in swampy places,als o hillsides and ridges up to 300m . Itoccur s as a widely distributed butver y scattered tree inmos t lowland forests,bu t inver y limited areas itma y be found in large groups. It isa semi-deciduous,emergen t tree;leafles s fora few days; strong light- demander; small trees coppice freely.

3. Climate -Rainfall : See Cratoxylonarborescens .

•*. Soil: The forest types inwhic h jelutong occurs are commonly found on soils derived from quarzite orarenaceou sshale ,thoug h that of the foothills of themai n range are granite-derived. Ingenera l it can be said that these forests are found on the poorer soils.

5. Tree characteristics: Magnificent tree up to 60m inheigh t and ca 2.5 m in diameter. Stem: Very young trees are often crooked,bu t straighten up later; columnar bole,withou t buttresses. Bark: Dark grey,blac k whenwet ; inner bark contains aver y copious latex. Crown:A t first densemonopedia l with whorled branches;ultimatel y shallow, domed rather open,o f huge spread,t o 45m across,wit h a number of large limbs.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Flowering ar irregular intervals,mostl y few weeks after the fall of the leaves.See d light and airborne;difficul t to collect;germi ­ nation israthe r irregular,varyin g from 10day st o about 3month s after sowing; 30-93% germination. Planting_stock: Wild seedlings and saplingsma y be transplanted as stumps. InMalay a enrichment plantings were established by direct sowing,transplanta ­ tion of Wildlings and pot plants;th e last twomethod s showed the highest survival. Natural regeneration: Often fairly abundant and growsvigorously , wherever there is ample light;th e stumps ofvigorou s trees coppice freely.

7. Growth,yield : Growth isno t very rapid in the early stagesbu t laterbe ­ comesvigorous . In favourable conditions itwil l show an average diameter increment of 1.00-1.5c m eachyea r inth e first 25-30year s (but it takes nearly 60year s to attain a diameter of 55-60 cm.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Youn g living jelutong trees arever y sound, due to the protection of the copious latex.Bu t trees tapped for a prolonged period and older trees usually are attacked by various wood-boring beetles, notably the large longhornbeetl e Batocera rufomaculata; alsoDiapu s pusillimu Diapus quinquespinatus and Platypusvethi .Thes e insects gave way for infesta­ tionb y termites and fungi,whic h are usually the final agents of destruction. Young saplings are very susceptible to injury but therecuperatio n power is great. 103

9. Wood properties: Whitet opal eyellow ; soft;ligh tt over y light (sp.gr. 0.22-0.56);ver y weak;season s wellwithou t much splittingan dwarping ;no t durablea tal li ntropica l conditions,bu teasil y treated with preservatives readily attacked bypowder-pos t beetles,ver y susceptible toLyctu s beetle and blue stain; easyt owork .

10. Uses: Iti sa "specialpurposes "wood ,principa l usesar edrawin g boards, plane tables,woo d forhandcarvin gbatter y separators,pattern-making .

11. Remarks:I nMalay ath etree swer e formerly tapped forlatex ;th elate x con­ tains 80%resin san d20 %rubber .Thi s latexi suse da sth etasteles s ingre­ dient ofchewin g gum.Late x condition stilli sa nimportan t sourceo frevenu e forth eindigenou s peopleo fBorneo ,especiall y inSerawak ,bu ti scurrentl y onth edeclin e althoughth eimportan t molecule cannotb esynthetise d econo­ mically.

12. Evaluation:Th especie s seemst ob esuitabl e inenrichmen t plantings inlowlan d humid sites,fo rth epurpos eo fsaw nwoo d production.

13. Literature:46 ,86 ,139 ,193 , 220.

51. Endospemum diadenum Euphorbiaceae Syn.: E. malaccense muellerAr g

Name- Tradename :Sesendo k Indigenous name: Sendok-sendok,Membula n(Mala y Peninsula);Mabu ,Lab u (Indo- nesia3;Terbula n (Serawak).

Area,ecology : Common throughout Malaya,Thailand ,Sumatra ,Borneo ;i nlowlan d to lower mountain forest,u pt o100 0m .A nopportunis t specieswhic h grows wellan di scharacteristi c ofgap si nth ehig h forest,henc ecommo n inarea s ofol dshiftin g cultivation.lti son eo fth elarge r species amongth eearl y comers insecundar y forest;associate d with Sapiumbaccatu m (Euphorbiaceae) in lowland forestspoo ri nDipterocarps ,whic har eprobabl ya lat e stagei n the sec. succession.Th etre ei sa nevergree n light-demander.

Climate -Rainfall :Se eCratoxylo narborescens .

Soil: Innatura lregio no nfairl ywell-draine d soilsi nth elowlands .

Tree characteristics: Mediumt obi gtre ereachin g 25-40m i nheigh tan d1 m i n diameter. Stem: Bolei sstout ,columna rwit hthic kbuttresses . Bark:Grey-fawn ,smooth . Crown: Withmassive ,spreadin g limbs,domed ,diffuse . 104

6. Silviculture:

7. Growth,yield :I ti scapabl eo fa fairl yfas tgrowth .Youn gtree sma ygro wfas t instron glight .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Youn gplantation ssometime ssho wseriou sre ­ peateddefoliatio nb yth elarva eo fth eUranii dmot h(Ura ptezoide sastheniata ) leadingeventuall yt oa decreas ei ngrowt hrat eo fove r50% .

9. Woodproperties :Brigh tyello wwit ha sligh tgreenis htinge ,darkenin gt o light-brownwit hage ;sof tan dligh tt over yligh t(sp.gr .0.30-0.6 1air-dry) ; notver ystrong ;i tair-season srapidly ,bu tblue-stai ni slikel yt odevelo p ifdrie dslowl yi nill-ventilate d stacks;no tdurable ,bu ttake spreservative s easily;eas yt owork ;i tpeel seasil ybu ti sa lower-grad eveneer .

10. Uses:I ti sa soft ,light ,genera lutilit ytimbe rsuitabl efo rmatche san d matchboxes,splints ,drawin gboards ,indoo rjoinery :ca nals ob euse da sinne r layerso fmultiplex .

11. Remarks: I nMalay aE .diadenu mi scalle dE .mallaccense .

12. Evaluation:Th especie sseem st ob esuitabl efo renrichmen tplantin gi nrathe r openvegetation si nmoist yclimates .

13. Literature:46 ,193 ,221 .

52. Eucalyptus alba Reinw.e xBlum e Hyrtaceae

1. Name- Loca lname :Hu e(Timor) ,Puha l(Flores) ,Whit egum ,Popla rgum ,Khak i Gum(Australia! .

2. Area,ecology :Natura lregion :Sund aIslands ,Papua ,West-Irian ,N.E .an d N.W.i nAustrali a(th etropica lregions) . Altitudinalrang ei nAustrali a0-40 0m .I nTimo ru pt o80 0m .O npoo rsite s stayinga smal ltre ean dformin ga savannah-woodlan do rope nforest .O ngoo d sitesi tbecome sver ylarge . Iti sa pioneer ,whic hi sver ydrought-resistant .Youn gplant swil lsurviv e evenwit hon emont hwithou train .E .alb ai sa colonize ro fdr ylocalities . Iti sdeciduou so ndr ysites .I nth eSund aIsland sfruitin goccur si nth e middleo fth edr yperiod .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Th especie si squit ewel ladopte dt olowlan ddr yclimate i InTimo roccurrin gi nclimate swit hannua lrainfal lo f(600 )1000-2000(2500 ) (2/3)4-6(7/8)dr ymonths . 105

InAustrali a occurring in (sub)-tropical climates with amonsoon-lik e rainfall- type: 750-1500 mm annually mainly falling between December and April.Th e monsoonal element is absent or ofmino r importance in north-east Queensland. Température: In Timormea n annual temperature 21 -27 C. In Australia high throughout theyear ,onl y at higher elevations the minimum temperatures drop below 5°C.

4. Soil: In Australia: best development is attained on flat and gently undulating country near the sea or water courses,wher e the soil remains moist even in the dry period. These soils are heavy and may be waterlogged during the rainy season. Smaller forms of the tree are found on tablelands,hillside s and ridge tops. The soils in these areas are frequently skeletal derived from sandstones orgranites .

5. Tree characteristics: Usually it isa small stunted tree up to 30m in height and 80c m in diameter,bu t locally up to 50m in height and 60-90 cm indiame ­ ter. Stem: Locally clear bole up to 30m ,ofte n forked,however ,man y trees exist witha very straightbole . Bark: Smooth rounded without apical dominance: the branches are crooked and branching is irregular. Rootsystem: Consists of a fast growing,dee p rooting mainroot and superficial laterals. The rootsystem is sensitive to competition.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Storeswel l if sealed air-dry;germinatio n capacity: 108pl/gra m (TimorT,24 0pl/gra m (Australia). Planting stock: InMalaysia ,th e seedlings are transplanted into tubes as soon as they aremanagabl e (when they are 1.5-2.0c m high). In Brazil field-planting of E.alb a showed best results inpaper-pot s of 6c m diameter and 12c mheight . Stumps showed a percentage of survival of 50%.Th e species is easy tograft , but it isdifficul t to prepare cuttings. Planting technique: In Lang Hanh (Vietnam)th e species isplante d on experimen­ tal scale at a spacing of 3x2m in 0.4x0.4x0.4m big planting holes,usin g 7-8-month-oldplantin g materialo f 40-60 cm in height.Mea n height 16month s afterplanting : 1meter .

7. Growth,yield : On suitable soils it is aver y fast grower inyouth : 3m in 1 year, 15m high and 17c m indiamete r after 5.5 years. In the Sunda Archipelago it isno t a fast grower after theyout h stage. In Kongo (Zaïre?)o n sandy and clayey savannah-soils a yield of 6-10 m /yr/ha ismeasured . Forpulpwoo d production arotatio n of 15year s is taken;fo r sawn wood a 30-year-rotation. In Brazil -wit hpropabl y higher productions -a rotation of 5-7 years isre - commanded for pulpwood production.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Strepsicrate s rhothiaMeyric k (= Spilonata rhothia),th e larvae of this widely distributed moth isprincipall y associated with foliage of Eucalypts.Th e larvae feeds within theprotectio n of a rolled young leafan d pupates ina cocoon in a similar position. Itma y cause severe injury to nursery stock and saplings. 106

9. Wood properties:Sapwoo d lightreddis hbrown ,heartwoo d darkred;hardines s ofth ewoo d varies from fairly hardt osoft ;sp.gr .0.95-1.0 0 (Sunda Islands), but inBrazi lwher eth especie si splante d asexoti cmuc h lighter:0.44-0.63 ; very strongan ddurable .Bar k contains 30-32%tannin .

10. Uses:Th ewoo di ssuitabl efo rpul pan dpaper ,bu tals oproduce sa goo dfire ­ woodan dcharcoal .I nth eSund a Islandsth estraigh t stemsar euse d forcon ­ structionan dth ewarpe d woodfo rfuel .

11. Remarks:E .alb aReinw .i sa specie s witha grea tvariability .I tinclude s formspreviousl y regardeda sseparat e specieso rvarieties :E .alb aReinw . exBlum eva raustralasic a Blakelye tJacobs ;E .platyphyll aF .Muell .an d E. platyphylla Muellvar .tintinnan s Blakelyan dJacobs . E. albai sclosel y related toE .urophylla .

12. Evaluâtion :Th especie si sver y suitablefo rplantin g infreak yclimates . Iti ssuitabl efo rmois t localitieso nflat so ralon g water coursesi n tropical areaswher ebette r specieswil lno tthrive . InMalaysi ath especie s seemst ob esuitabl efo rplantin gi nth edries t parts inth elowlan dan dlowe rmountains .

13. Literature:6 ,23 ,32 ,34 ,36 ,46 ,65 ,99 ,146 ,161 , 195.

53. Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn Myrtaceae syn. E. poetrata Schlecht

1. Name- Loca lname : (River)re dgum ,Murra yre dgum ,Rive rgum .

2. Area,ecology :Mos twidel y distributedo fal lAustralia nEucalypt s occurring allove rth econtinen ta sa riverai n species;als o alongwaterstreams ,o na l luvialplain san dvalley swit ha hig hwatertabl ean di trarel y ascendsth e slopeso fth evalleys ,exceptionall yu pt o60 0m . Temporary inundated lands.Th etre ei softe n found insavanna hwoodlan d for­ mations.Th ebes t standsi nvalley sar epur ewit h onlya littl egras s below them. Oftenconsidere da sa ver y harsh competitive tree,abl et ofigh tfo r i existancean dt owithstan d dominationb yit sparen t treesfo ra lon g time, even indr yclimates .Introduce d inman y countriese.q .Sr ilanka ,Morocco , Kenya,Malaysia ,Zanzibar ,sometime swit h less succes (Khmer Republic). InIndi aan dSr iLank a succesful intropica lhighland sa taltitude so f 1500-1800m .Greates t succesha sbee ni nsemi-ari d regions,borderin gth e Mediterranean,notabl y Israëlan dNort hAfrica .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Growin g wellunde ra wid erang eo fclimat e types from tropicalt otemperate .I nth enatura lhabita t annualrainfal lvarie sfro m 225-1540mm .Whe nprecipitatio n isunde r 375m myearly ,th especie sonl y thriveswel lwhe nth esoi lha sa goo d waterretainin g capcityan di ssubje c toperiodica l inundation.Bes t growth isfoun d inregion swit ha wel l dis­ tributed rainfall.Th especie si sfairl ydrough tresistant . 107

Température: In natural habitat mean temperature 13 -18 C;wil l stand severe frost,wit h temperature down to -5C ;maximu m temperature 54C .

4. Soil: Grows onvariou s soils.Bes t development on deep alluvial soils where the water table varies considerably; here pure stands are found.No t growing well on pure sandsan d soils containing lime and soluble salts nor on soils with a superficial pan. It can thrive on badly-eroded (flat)land.

5. Tree characteristics: Polymorphous species.Mediu m to large tree,24-3 6m up to 45m inheigh t and 90-210 cm in diameter. Stem: When isolated,wit h a short thick bole. Crown: When isolated a globular crown,i n the forest the crown may taper to a great height. Root-system: Welldevelope d in deep soils:a well-shaped tap-root and exten­ ding laterals.Th eroot-syste m isregarde d asa perfect fixer for the banks ofwate r courses,thu s protecting them against erosion.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seeding age: 5-15 years;flowerin g almost every year; 330.000-660.000~sêêds/kg; 66.000-99.000 seedlings/kg of seed; storage indr y conditions at least 5years ;germinatio n normally very good; no pretreatments. Nursery: The species is easy to tend in the nursery: germination on seedlings; pricking out inpots ; planting inth e field after 6-8 months. Planting stock: Inmois t regions (swamp)bare-root-plantin g ispossible . In Zanzibar stumped seedlings are used. Planting technique: Spacing at least 2x 2m . The species coppices very well under all circumstances. Naturalregeneration : In thenatura lrang e the species appears to regenerate only in fairly large clearings,althoug h the grasscover is decidedly harm­ ful to it;i nver y close forest formations the seedlings grow very slowly.

7. Growth,yield : Therive rre d gum isa fast grower,i f there is aregula r pro­ vision of water. In the naturalregio n the growth is generally slow: 1m /ha/y. In Sri Lanka the species is introduced in hill-country in a climate with heavy and uniformly distributed precipitation: mean annual height-growth in the first years: 2.4 m. InNe w Zealand in 28-year-old plantations: height 35 m, diameter 40 cm. InRhodesia : growth in firstyear s c. 2.4m annually; in a 45-year-old plantation: height 36m and diameter 51 cm; thismean s an annual increment of 13,5m per ha. In Israëlbetwee n 0-600m ,mea n annual increment of 13-27m perha .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Liabl e to termite attack, especially inth e first years,afte r that time nearly immune. feae,a subterranean termite is sometimes destructive to the roots of young plants,i n the nursery as well in the field (India,Sr i lanka, Burma and Bangladesh). Polyporus eucalyptorum (=P . portentoses),a woun d parasite,cause s stem rot, andmus t be considered as a serious danger.

9. Wood properties: InAustralia ,wher e growth isgenerall y slow,th ewoo d is reddish hard; sp.gr. 0.78-0.97; strong,slightl y flexible;difficul t to season durable,eas y to work and polish. 108

In exotic plantationsgrowt h ismostl y much fasteran dth echaracteristic s ofth ewoo dar eprofoundl y modified.

10. Uses:Timbe ri sadequat efo rconstructions ,poles ,fenc eposts ,sleepers , cellulose-industries,fue lwood ,etc .

11. Remarks:A sca nb eexpecte dwit ha specie so fsuc hwid edistribution ,ther e isa larg enumbe ro fvarietie san dforms .Th efollowin gvarietie sca nb e distinquished:E .camaldulensi sva racuminata ;var .brevirestris ;var .obtus a var.pendul aan dvar .subcinerea .E .camaldulensi si sclosel y alliedwit h E. oviformus,E .tereticornis ,E .blakelyi ,E .dealbata ,E .rudi san d E. exerta.

12. Evaluation:Ver y adaptable species,suitabl efo rplantin g indr yclimates , evenunde r semi-arid conditions,provide d sufficient soilmoistur ei s available.Adequat efo rplantin go ndee p soilso fmediu m fertility. The speciesma yb euse da sa roadsid e tree,i nshelterbelts ,fo rth erecla ­ mationo fswamp so ra sa farmtree ,a swel la sa plantatio ntree . Showsgoo dprospect sfo rpul pproductio nan dfuelwood .Result so fth esmal l scaleexperimenta lplot si nLan gHan hma ygiv ea usefu lindicatio nabou t theprospect so fth especies .

13. Literature:21 ,68 ,69 ,71 ,73 ,74 , 145.

54. Eucalyptus degïupta Bl. Myrtaceae Syn.: E. nauainiana F.v.M.

1. Name- Local_name :Led a (Sulawesi),Didi a (Ceram),Mindana oGu m(Philippine s Kamarere (NewBritain ,Ne wIreland) .

2. Area,ecology :Nativ et oth ePhilippines ,Sulawesi ,Ceram ,Ne wBrtitain , New Ireland,West-Irian ,Papua . Occurringalmos tpur eo nalluvia l flatsan dterrace san do nth eslope so f theravines ,fro m sea-levelu pt oove r 1000m .I nWest-Iria n isoccur sbot h ingroup san dsporadic ,mainl yo nth estee phill san do nth eplain salon g the streamsu pt o190 0m . Iti sa pioneer .I tflower san dfruit s duringth ewhol eyear ,mayb ewit ha shortbrea ko fth efructificatio ni nth ewettes tmont ho fth eyear ,Two-ye a oldplant sma yproduc e seed. Outsideth enatura lregio nplante d ata larg e scale:Sr iLanka ,India ,Fij i Kenya,Congo ,Nigeria ,Malaysia ,Surinam .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Th especie s occursi ntropica l lowlando nlo wmountai n climates. Annualrainfall :1900-500 0m mwit ha dr yperio do fu pt o2- 3months .I nth e driestpart so fit srang ei tonl y occurso nriverbank so ra thighe raltitu < Température:Absolut emaximu m temperature:3 8C .Absolut eminimu mtemperat i 18ec7 109

4. Soil: In the naturalregio nofte n occurring onalluvia l sandy loam along riverstreams. It tolerates short inundations during the wet season. If the drainage is insufficient the treebecome s stunted and knotty. On deep,poo r soils a good growth is stillpossible .

5. Tree characteristics: A very large tree up to 60-70m height and 1.6-2.0m in diameter. Stem: On good sites straight,rounded ,withou t spiral growth. Selfpruning is good. Bark: Thin;gree n when fresh,variegate d when bark isolder :white ,brown , purple. Crown: Moderately light,rounded . Root-system: Consists of a branched taproot (on well-drained soils several meters long)an d a superficial root-system. Both horizontally and vertically intensive. Sometimes a concentration of horizontal roots in a deeper soil layer (e.q. 1.5 m deep)i s observed. The oxygen demand seems to be less small than thoseo f otherEucalyp t species.

3 6. Silviculture -Seed :Ver y small: 10-15million/k g (3000-5000/cm ).Afte r collection 2week s ofripenin g isnecessary ; well-dried seed can be stored for onemonth ; under favourable conditions germination will be 50-60%;80 % of the seeds germinates within 5-6 days. Nursery: Indonesia: Seed is sown onwell-prepare d beds,unde r a shed, protecting the seeds and seedlings against damage by rain and sun;regula r watering is necessary to keep thebed smoist .Whe n 3-10 cm high,th e plants are trans­ planted into bamboo tubes;fro m 1gra m of seed 700-1500 tube-plants are ob­ tained. After transplantation thetube d plantsar eplace d under a light shade which isgraduall y removed. Planting stock: InMalaysia ,beside s tubeplant s also naked-root plants are used. Up tillno w there isonl y little experience with the use of stumps and cuttings, Planting technique: Plantingmus t be done on cleared land and all competing weed growthmus t be suppressed until the trees arewel l established. Due to its fast growth a wide spacing ispossible .Lik e all strong light- demanders it isnecessar y to underplant. For underplanting fast growing species from therainfores t canb e used. Leucaena leucocephala also hasprove d tob e suitable for thispurpose . In Kenya E.deglupt a isuse d inTaungy aplantations . Naturalregeneration :Th e species regenerates freely oncleare d siteswit h suf­ ficient light.Fir e seems tob e themai n cause of regeneration and destruction.

7. Growth,yield : It is aver y fast grower,especiall y inyouth : sometimes 3-7 m annually. A ten-year-old plantation (Bogor,Indonesia )showe d an annualin ­ crement of 34m /ha. In Malaysia - 80m above sea-level,o n good soil - the tree reached a height of 33m and a diameter of 70c m after 15years .O n dry,poo r sites - 250m above sea-level - after 5year s the treeswer e 16m high and 20c m indiameter . Innatura l stands trees - of unknownag e -ar e found with avolum e of 51m each.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Termite sma y seriously damage the roots ofyoun g plants and smalltrees .Damping-of f isreported . InMalaysi a much damage is caused by Zeuzera coffeae a shoot-moth.Th e species isno t fire-resistant. 110

9. Wood properties: Heartwoo d isreddis h brownt ogol d brown,sapwoo d white; specific gravity very variable (0.39-1.01);o fa goo d strength;fairl y durable; easy towork .

10. Uses: Aver y useful timber;suitabl efo rfurniture ,boatbuilding , firewood, planking,veneer ;howeve r theolde r wood isto ohar d forveneer .

11. Remarks:Th especie s appearst ob eusefu lo ndegrade d sites (Malaysia). Also suitable forplantin ga thighe r elevations.

12. Evaluation:Th especie s seemst od obes ta thighe r elevations inclimate s with only 2-3dr ymonth so nwell-draine d mcisty sites.Complet e plantingo r a combination with agri-crops inth efirs t yearsmayb e thebes t planting method.

13. Literature: 34.73 ,79 ,161 ,169 ,195 , 224.

55. Eucalyptus grandis Hille xMaide n Myrtaceae

1. Name- Loca l name: Rosegum ,Floode d gum,Toolur .

2. Area,ecology :Th especie s occursi nth ecoasta l regionso feaster n Australia from sea-levelu pt o30 0m i nNe wSout hWales ,an du pt o90 0m i nQueensland . The tree growso nflat san dlowe r slopeso fdeep ,fertil e valleysi nth e southern parto fit srang ean di nth enorther n itascend st otablelands . It doesno tgro wo ndr yridges .I nNe wSout h Walesth especie s occurs inpur e or almost pure stands inth ealluvia lplains ,bu ti sals o found mixedo nth e more fertile slopes.I nQueenslan d itoccur s chiefly alongwate r courseso r onth eedge so frai n forestswher e itsometime s forms standsmixe d with Tristania conferta. Asa nexoti cth eth especie sha sprove d outstandingly succesful,particularl y in tropical regions athighe r altitudes: Kenya,Malawi ,Nigeria ,Tanzania , Malaysia,Serawak . InMalaysi a thespecie s showedt ob ever y intolerant ofshad ean dcompetitio n inyouth .

3. Climate -Rainfall :I ti sa specie so fsubtropica l climates with adequate rainfallan dhig hhumidity .Mea nannua lrainfal l innatura l region 1000-1750 ID witha summe r maximum. Température:Mea n temperature 15-21C .Absolut e minimum temperature -5C . Absolute maximum temperature 46C .Th especie s isabl et owithstan d light frosts.

Soil:Eucalyp t species showth ebes t growtho ndeep ,permanen t humid,well - drained soils. Fertility requirementsgenerall y areno thigh . Innatura l regionE .grandi s isfoun do nflat san dlowe r slopeso fdeep , fertile valleys,o ndeep ,mois tbu twell-draine d loamso falluvia lo rvulcani c origin. Ill

Tree characteristics:A tall tree,40-6 0m high and 120-180 cm in diameter. Stem: Straight,clea n bole up to two-third of the total height. Bark: Smooth;brow n to reddish. Crown: Rather open. Leaves: Leaf-shedding during the whole year. Because the leaves are hanging obliquely especially in the periphery of the crown,shado w below the crown is little,bu t cast shadow is remarkable. Rootsvstem: Especially on lighter soils.Eucalyp t produce a superficial and compact rootsystem. On fertile soils too the roots tend to stay superficial. The greater part of theroot s are found to a depth of 1-2 m; the laterals are 2 to 3m long:

Silviculture - Seed: 2.5 million/kg. After collection the fruits,the y are dried in the sun for a few days. When stored under dry and cool conditions not in the open air,th e seed will be viable for a fewyears . Germination capacity: 650seedling s per gram of seed. Start of the germination 7-9 days after sowing. Nursery: Regeneration in the nursery isver y easy. In Indonesia: sowing on germination beds,transplantin g after 2 to 3month s inpaths . Planting stock: Difficult to stump (likemos t Eucalytpts). Planting techniques: Plantin g in the field after 6month s when the plants are 10-12 cm in height.Th e planting in the field starts when the first rains have fallen. Direct seeding is not common due to shortage of seed and the weakness of the seedlings. The species coppices easily. Spacings of 2 x 2 », 1x3m, 2.5x2.5mor3x3m are often used. To protect the soilagains t erosion it is ususal to interplant with other species, like Acacia decurrens,A .mollissima ; in Indonesia with Leucaena leucocephala. In this case wider spacings are used: 5x 5m and 1 x 4 m.

Growth,yield : A fast grower; in Indonesia in the first 10year s a height- growth of 2.0-2.5m and a diameter growth 1.3-2.0c myearly ,eve n on less favourable soils;thi sresult s in an annual increment of 55m per ha. In the humid zone of India (Kerala)a plantation established on grassland yielded 25-42m /ha/yr at a rotation of 10years .

Pests, diseases and calamities:Youn g plants are sensitive to termite attack. Occasionally damage by game.Ros e Gum is sensitive to fire.Th e species cannot maintain itselves in case of frequent fires.

Wood properties:Pinkis h red; lighter of color,a bi t softer,lighte r (sp.gr. 0.75,air-dry )an d lessdurabl e than that ofE .saligna ;eas yt o treat with preservatives;n o special strenght qualities;flexible ;th ewoo d ofyoun gfast - growing trees tends to shrink and split considerably and showsman y defects; easy to work and nail.

Uses: Unsuitable forus e in contact with the ground but resistant against climatic influences.Generall y used inhous e construction,flooring ,furniture , chests,veneer ,pulp ,fuelwood . 112

11. Remarks:Th especie s isclosel y alliedan dtherefor e often confused with E. saligna;hybridisatio n hasalmos t certainly occurred between them. InSr iLank ath especie s isrecommende d forplantatio n establishment athighe r elevations. E. grandisma ygro w inImperata-fields .Becaus eo fth eintensiv e rootsystem. E. grandis stands practically don't havean yundergrowth .

12. Evaluation: Facing theecologica l characteristics ofth especies ,th epossibl e woodproduction andth egenera l usefulnesso fth ewood ,i ti srecommende dt o testth especie sa ta nexperimenta l scalei nVietnam ,600-120 0m abov esea - levelo ndeep ,well-draine d soils.

13. Literature: 11,12 ,69 ,99 ,107 , 161.

56. Eucalyptus saligna Sm Myrtaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name: (Sydney)Blu egum ,Salign agum .

2. Area,ecology : Natural region Australia:a 15 0km .wid e belt alongth e Pacific coast fromth esout ho fSydne yu pt oth enorther n most pointo f Queensland,betwee n 28 and3 6 South Latitude.O nth esouther n parto f itsrang eth especie s ismos t commoni nth evalley san dth esheltere d slopes upt o30 0m .I nth enorther n parto fit srang ei trise su pt oth ehighe r slopesan dridge su pt o120 0m .Th especie s isfoun d most commonly mixed withE .pilulari san dE .microcorys ,an doccasionall y inpur e stands.A sa n exotic thespecie sha sprove d successful ina wide rangeo fclimate s with tropical affinities: Brazil,Jamaica ,Sr iLanka ,India ,Java ,Kenya ,Nigeria , Malawi,Rhodesie ,Sierr a Leone,Uganda ,Zanzibar .Als o established onex ­ perimental scale inLan g Hanh,Vietnam .

3. Climate: Subtropical towar m temperate,wit h winter frostsa tth ehighe r altitudes. Rainfall: (600)900-1500 mm.,wit ha summe rmaximu m inth enort han dunifor m distribution throughout theyea ri nth esouth .Grow s particularly welli n misty regions. Temperature: Meanannua l temperature 15-2 0C .Mea n temperatureo fth ecoldes i month varies from 10-16C .Absolut eminimu m temperature: -4C .Absolut e maxi­ mumtemperature :4 5C . In tropical climates only successfula thighe r elevations.I ntropica l Asia itgive sth ebes t resultsa taltitude s from 1000-1500 sn.wit h annual rainfall over150 0mm .

Soil:Eucalyp t species showth ebes tgrowt ho ndeep ,permanentl y moist, well-drained soils. Fertility requirements generallyar eno thigh . SalignaGu mrequire s fairly good soilspreferabl y moistbu tno twater-logge d loams,generall y podsols ofvariou s types.It sgrowt h issatisfactor yo n heavy podsolsderive d from schists.Th especie s doesno twel lo npoor ,dry » sandy soils. 113

Tree characteristics: A large tree,attainin g heights of 35-55 m. and diam­ eters of 120-180 cm. Stem: Straight,clea n bole up to 60-70% of the total height. Bark: Bluish. Leaves: Leaf-shedding during the whole year. Root-system: Especially on the lighter soilsEucalypt s form a superficial and compact root-system, seeE .grandis .

Silviculture - Seed: Seeding age early; seeds fairly freely; 2.5-3.5 million seeds/kg.; stores well when dry under cool conditions with exclusion of open air. Nursery: Quite simple,i nJava : sowing out ingerminatio n boxes under shed, germination starts after 7days ,germinatio n capacity 50%,transplantatio n after 1.5 month in tubes,plantin g in the field when the plants are 10-15 cm. in height. Nursery experiments in with seed from Malawi showed,tha t the growth of the seedling and the root/shoot-ratio are strongly dependent from the amount ofphosphorus . It isrecommende d to mix the fertilizer with the pot­ ting soilbefor e transplanting. The use of fertilizer mixtures,shorten s the time of the plants,bein g inth e nursery. Planting stock: It isdifficul t tomak e cuttings of all parts of the species, like all Eucalypts.Th e species coppices freely. Spacings between 2,5 x 2,5m . and 4 x 4m . are common. InJav a spacings 3 x 4 m., 1x 2,5 m., 1x 3m . and underplanting with other species. In Hawaii (150m . above sea-level,rainfal l 3750mm . well-drained silty clay soils on slopes)th e following spacings were tried: 2,4 x 2,4 m., 3x 3m. , 3,6 x 3,6 m. and 4,2 x 4,2 m.;mea n height after 10year s inal l plots c. 27m. ; mean diameter in 2,4 x 2,4 m. plot: 19 cm., in 4,2 x 4,2 m. plot: 26,5 cm. Natural regeneration: In thenatura l region quite well on good soils.

Growth,yield : A very fast grower especially inyouth . Mean growth on fairly good soils:

Year Height (m.) Diameter (cm.) 13 6 3 12 12 6 25 20 12 31 28 20 33 35 30 35 42 40 40 50 3 In West Java anmea n annual increment of c. 45m /ha. in the first 10years .

Pests,disease s and calamities: In tropicalAsi a no serious attacks are reported. Rabbits may cause serious damage toyoun g plants of less than one year. In Lang Hanh,E . salignawa sheavil y attacked by termites. In Brazil,locall y damage caused by damping-off Fusarium spp.,Rhizoctoni a spp.,Pythiu m spp. Very sensible to grass-competition in the first 2-3years . Heart-rotting is often observed with trees over 40year s and with coppice shoots. Recommended is to limit the rotation to 30years ,an d to cut the coppice shoots as lowa s possible. 114

9. Wood properties:Usuall ypin kre dwit hvariatio n from purplet odar kred ; hard;sp .gr .i nnatura l stands 0.65-1.00(ai rdry) ;i nexoti c plantations e.g. inSout h Africa considerably lighter: 0.48-0.62;tough ;tend st ospli t easily when seasoned;fairl y durable;resistan tt otermite san drot ;eas y towork . Sometimeswavy ,whic h givesa beautifu llook .

10. Uses: InAustrali a usedfo rhous e building,planking ,packin g casesetc . Wood from exotic plantations generallyi so famino r quality forlumber ; itfind sa goo d market,however ,a smin e timberan dfir ewood .Th ewoo di s alsover yusefu lfo rmakin g paperpulp .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Th especie s seemst ob eusefu lfo rplantin ga thighe r elevations onmoist ,well-draine d sites.

13. Literature:11 ,68 ,69 ,71 ,73 ,74 ,99 ,110 ,161 ,171 ,185 ,195 , 213.

57. Eucalyptus teretioornis Sm. Myrtaceae Syn. E. umbellata Gaertn

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Fores tre dgum ,Blu egum ,Re dIro ngum ,Gre yg"— .

2. Area,ecology :Th especie si sver y widely distributed alongth eeas t coast ofAustralia ,fro m Victoria throughNe wSout hWale st o Queensland andNort h intoPapu aNe wGuinea . Inwarme ran dlowe rrainfal l zonesth especie sprefer sfla talluvia lsoil s with irregularflooding .I nth eusuall y drier inland regions,wit h increased rainfallth especie s extendst oth elowe r slopeso fth ehills ;i nQueenslan d and Papuao nth euppe r slopeso fth emountain san do ntabl elands . Altitudinalrang ei nAustrali a 0-1000m. ,i nPapu aNe wGuine au pt o130 0 is. The species does generallyno tfor m denseforests .I ti s extensively usee asa nexoti ci nman y partso fth eworld : India,Africa .Als otrie di n LangHanh .

3. Climate:I nit snatura lregio nsubjec tt ovariou sclimati c conditions,fro m temperatet o tropical. Rainfall:Varie s from 500mm .t oove r150 0mm .(sometime s 3500 mm.),fallin g mostly duringwinte r inth esouth ,durin g summeri nth enorth ,an di smor e or lessuniforml y distributed overth eyea ri nNe wSout hWales .Ther ei sa considerablevariatio n inhumidit yan dth enumbe ro frain y days.Th especie ; resistsdrought . Température:Mea nannua ltemperatur evarie s from1 4Ct o2 5C .Considerabl e variationi nnumbe ro ffrost y days.Resist smoderat efrosts . 115

4. Soil: Grows on different soils like sandy loams,gravels ,provide d that the soils are not too dry or too shallow; on hard,dr y soils bad growth. The species also does not well on acid soils,salin e soils and soils with stagnating water.

5. Tree characteristics:A fairly large tree 30-45 m. high,0.90-1.5 0m . in diameter. Stem: Straight bole up to about half of the total height. Stem form is of lower quality than that of E. saligna. Crown: Large,rathe r open. Root-system: Compact and superficial.

6. Silviculture - Seed: C. 3,5 mill./kg.; seed loosens its germination capacity rather fast;germinatio n capacity c. 480 plants per gram of seed; germination starts 5day s after sowing; in Indonesia transplantation 2month s after sowing in tubes and 1,5 month later,whe n the plants are 10-15 cm. in height, planted in the field. Planting technique: Spacing 2x 2m. ; mixed with Leucaena leucocephala. Fast development; after three years a thinning is necessary. The young plants are very sensitive to grass competition,regula r weeding is necessary. For the production of construction wood,rotation s of 20-30year s areusual . First thinnings after 5-8 years (half of the stems are cut),subsequentl y every 10years ,finall y remaining 70-120 stems/ha for the finalcut . Due to its coppicing qualities,th e species isver y adequate to grow as coppice inrotation s of 7-12 years without thinnings. Particularly for pro­ duction of fire wood,pul p wood and mine wood.

7. Growth,yiel d: Growin g well; a fast grower in early stages;i n favourable conditions a height growth of 35m . in 10year s ispossible ;o npoore r sites 15-18m . in 10years . In Indonesia annual increment is estimated at 27m /ha.

B. Pests,disease s and calamities:N o serious attacks are so far reported.

9. Wood properties:Red ;hard ;heav y (sp.gr . 0,90 air-dry); strong;warp s during seasoning;durable ; easy towork .

10. Uses: It is chiefly used for heavy construction,scantlings ,posts ,minin g timber,piles ,sleeper s and also for pulp production.

11. Remarks: Th e species is closely allied toE . camaldulensis with which it is often confused. It isabl e to hybridize with the latter. It is lessdrought - resistant thanE . camaldulensis.

12. Evaluation: The species canb e planted under a variety of climates provided that the soil ismoist ,an d well-drained and not too shallow.

13. Literature: 21,69 , 70,73 ,99 , 107,161 ,195 ,204 . 116

58. Eucalyptus urophylla Myrtaceae

1. Trade and indigenous name: Anpupu (Timor),Pop o (Flores).

2. Area,ecology : Natural region: Sunda Islands. It occurs on the slopes of the lower and higher mountains: (300/400)1000-2900 m. above sea-level, forming pure and dense stands.I t is a light-demanding species,whic h is very intolerant to shade and competition in the first years.Th e species produces viable seed at the age of 4years .I t coppices very well. Anpupu is introduced among others inCameroons ,Malaysia ,Congo ,Papua , sometimes under the name of E. alba Reinw.

3. Climate Rainfall: In the naturalregio n it occurs in climates with an annualraiüfaïï~ö f (600)1000-2000(2500)mm. ,an d (2)3-4(6)dr y months . Temperature: Meanannua l temperature 14-26 C.

4. Soil: Itprefer s deep open and humid soils;ba d growth on schistic and shallow soils;goo d growth on deep red,claye y soils.

5. Tree characteristics: A Large tree up to 53m . high and 1.25 m. in diameter. Stem: Mostly very straight;th e base of the stem is often thickened. Bark: Brown toreddis h brown and rough. Crown: Umbellate and shows strong apical dominance.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Germination capacity: 210plants/gra m of seed. Planting stock: InMalaysi a tube plants are used which are planted in the field 6-10 monthsafte r sowing inth e sowingbed . Height of the plants at planting time: 45-60 cm. The species grafts fairly good. (InCong o a survival percentage of 20%afte r 3 months). It is less suitable tomak e cuttings. ?ianting_techni

7. Growth,yield : Planted in 1937 at experimental scale inEaster n Java at a spacing of 3x 3m. ,afte r 8year s amea n height of 27m . and a diameter of 22.8 cm. has beenmeasure d (from the 100bes t trees). In Malaysia: mean height 6month s after planting 1.35 m.,afte r 1year : 2m after 2years : 3-7 m. In a 3-years-old plantation mean height of thedomina i treeswa s 18m . In Congo the species isplante d on sandy to clayey savanna-soils (annual rainfall 1000-1450mm. ,relativ e humidity: 80%,wit h a pronounced dry perio of 4months) ; height-growth in the first 4years : 3-4.5 m. annually,whic h means an annual increment of 24-39m /ha.

Pests,disease s and calamities: Due to its thinbar k the species is tender tofire . 117

9. Wood properties:Dar kbrown ;on eo fth elightes t Eucalypt-species:sp . gr. (at20 %moistur e content)0.50-0.65 ;no tcontainin gmuc hkina .

10. Uses:I nth eSund a Islandsth ewoo d isuse da sfuel ,constructio n wood, poles,shelves . InMalaysi a itwil lb euse da sfir ewood .I ti sthough tt ob esuitabl efo r pulpan dpape r (output (Kraft-proces)c .49% ,whic h iscomparabl e with other Eucalypts).

11. Remarks: Unti lrecentl yE .urophyll agav eoccasio nt ogrea t confusion.I n someherbarium s iti sstil ldescribe da sE .alb at owhic hi ti sclosel y related. Itform s hybrides with this species.Anpup uha sa grea tvariabilit y which isshow n init sgrea t adaptibility andth epolymorphology .

12. Evaluation: From ecologicalviewpoin tAnpup u seemst ob eintermediat e betweenE .deglupt a (fromth emois t equatorial zone)an dth eAustralia n species (adaptedt oth edr yan dver ydr yzones) . It seemst ob esuitabl efo rplantin ga sa fas t growing speciesi nman yareas . InMalaysi a itseem st ob esuitabl efo rplantin gi nth ehighlands .Th ehybride ­ formE .alb ax E .urophyll ai ssuitabl efo rplantin g insavann a- lik e regions for sawnwood o rpulp .

13. Literature: 146.

59. Eusideroxylon zuageri T.e tB . Lauraceae

1. Name- Tradename :Belia n (Sarawak);Ironwood . Indigenousname :Uli nOngle n (Sumatra,Kalimantan) .

2. Area,ecology :Natura lrange :Sumatra ,Borneo ,Banka ,Billito nbetween , approximately,5 Northan dSout hlatitude . Iti sa lowlan d forest species,an di srar eabov e45 0m. ;i nSarawa k itusu ­ ally occursi nfairl y concentrated stands chieflyo nnarro wriparia n strips and typically along stretcheswher ehil ltorrent sbegi nt oflatte nou tint o more slowly flowingstreams . Itoccur s also,locall yi nfai r abundanceo nlo whills ;occasionall yo nstee p hillsidesa swell ,i nth emixe d lowland forest.A nevergree n species,tha t seemst ob eabl et owithstan da goo ddea lo fshad ei nal lstages . Seedlingsan dsapling sdeman d someshade ,bu tolde rtree snee dful lligh ti f theyar et ogro wvigorously .

3. Climate: Tropica lmois t climate,wit ha tleas tonl ya shor tdr yperiod .

4. Soil:Belia nthrive sbes to na dee pligh tporou ssoi lwit hgoo ddrainage . Ahig hconten to fsan d isalway sdesirable . It occursals oo noccasionall y flooded soils.Belia navoid slim eston ean d podsols.Chemica l compositionappear st ob eo frelativel y smallimportance . 118

5. Tree characteristics:A medium-sized to large tree,ofte n exceeding 1m. , mostly 70 cm. indiamete r and 25-30m . inheight . Stem: A good,clea n bole;bas e of the stem isno t or scarcely buttressed, but is sometimes fluted. Crown: Heavy. C°2ïüE¥S'c5m: ^he ro°ts are occasionally slightly stilted,an d on poorly drained soils the bole,u p to a height of 1.5 to 2m. from the ground may develop numerous thin aerial roots,whic h do not grow to a large size.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Seeding age: 15-20years ;flowerin g at irregular inter­ vals (usually every 2o r 3years ;seed s ripen 2-3 months later). Seed very big: 8-15 cm. long,4- 7 cm. thick;germinatio n 60-90%; germination isver y slow (6-12 months). Pretreatment: placing the seeds for about 2week s between two layers,eac h about 35-40 cm. thick, lalang (Imperata)grass,a tth e end of which period about 40%ma y be expected to have germinated. Germination may be improved in the same period up to about 70%b y cutting a small slice,abou t 0.5 cm., from the top of the seed or by removing the whole testa. In Sarawak the uncertain availability of the seed is themos t serious diffi­ culty for the establishment ofplantations . Planting stock: In Sumatra 1-year-old nursery stock isgenerall y used. Dired seeding isals o possible. The use of stumps showed good results in some small trial-plantations. Planting technique: Because it demands shade in its early stages,Belia n cannot beplante d successfully in cleared areas.I n Sumatra it is usually planted inyoun g but closed secundary forest,i n cleared linesrunnin g north south. The lines are usually 1.50-1.80m . wide and 5m . apart,an d a spacing of 1.80 m. in the lines is used. The lines are gradually widened and from about the 12thyea r the trees have full freedom. Some experiments in Sarawak suggest that itma y bebette r and cheaper to establish Belian plantations inhigh-forest ,retainin g the top storey shade for 10year s ormore ,bu t allowing theyoun g treesplent y of room for the development of fullcrowns . The stumps of even very large Belian trees coppice freely after a felling about 30%o f the stumps may be expected to coppice successfully and these will often produce 2o r 3generation s of coppice before becoming exhausted. Naturalregeneration : Up till now little experience hasbee n gained in the management of Belian forests by methods of natural regeneration.

7. Growth,yield : Even under optimum soil and light conditions growth israth e slow.Plantation s in Sumatra show amea n annualheigh t increment of between 60-90 cm. in the first 20years . In Malaya on fairly well-drained riparian soils,8-years-ol d trees have attained a height of 7.5 m. and a diameter of 9 cm. (forth ebes t trees). Under natural conditions it can be expected that Belian takesabou t 150ye a toreac h a diameter of 45-50 cm. Butb y careful tending ofyoun g crops it should be possible to increase thisaverag e rate of growth with at least 5C The growth of the coppice is generally more rapid than that of seedlings, especially the height-growth in the first fewyears .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:See d and seedlings are often affected by various animals especially porcupines. 119

9. Wood properties: Sapwood rather bright yellow,hear t wood dark brown;ver y hard;ver y heavy (sp.gr .0.88-1.1 9air-dry) ;tw otime s stronger than teak; canb eair-seasone d without difficulty inspit eo fth ehig h shrinking; splits easily; extremely durable,eas yt owork ,sa wan dpolish ,althoug h good tools are needed,i ti sdifficul t tonai lan dth ewoo d shouldb epre-bored .

10. Uses: InSarawa k mostly converted inroofin g shingles.Furthe r iti suse d for house-posts andwater-butts ,telephon e poles; salt water piling. Generally theprincipa l legitimate useso fBelia nar efo rheav y structural purposes whereth egreates t strength anddurabilit y arerequired .

11. Remarks:Malaganga i (Eusideroxylonmalaganga i Sym.)i sclosel y relatedt o Belian;o npurel y vegetative characteristics they cannotb edistinguishe d exceptfo rdifference s inth ewood ;Malaganga iha sa lowe r specific gravity. The silvicultural characteristics arealmos tth esam ea sthos eo fBelian , although Malagangai isprobabl y afaste r grower.

12. Evaluation: Belianseem st ob esuitabl efo renrichmen t plantingo nmois t well-drained sitesi nth elowland s (alongriver san dstreams) .

13. Literature: 37,46 ,132 , 193.

60. Fagraea fragrans Roxb. Loganiaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Tembes u (Indonesia),Tra i (Vietnam),Tatra n (Cambodja),Kankra e (Thailand),Ana n (Birma).

Area,ecology : Throughout Malaya,Tenasserim ,Andamans ,Thailand ,Vietnam , Sumatra,Borneo ,Philippines .I ti sa tre eo fope nan dswamp y lowland country upt o150 0m .I nTenasseri m thetre e isver y commoni nth eIndain g(dr y Dipterocarp)-forest. InSout hVietna m iti sfoun d inSout h Darlac.I ti sa n evergreen,semi-light-demandin g species.I ti sa colonize ro fabandone d grass­ land,an dgrow s eveni nImperat a fields.I tcoppice s wellan dca nreproduc e itselfb ymean so froo t suckers. The speciesi splante da tlarg e scalei nth enatura lregio nan dals oi nth e westan dth emiddl eo fJav aan dKual a Lumpur.

Climate- Rainfall :Annua lrainfal l 1000-2000mm .I nJav ai toccur si nregion s witha mois to rtemperat e East-monsoon (atleas t 30rain y daysi nth e4 dries t months).

Soil:Althoug hth etre e prefersa fairl y drained soil,i ttolerate sa grea t varietyo fsoi ltypes : itseem st othriv e equally onsand san dheav y clays and grows quitewel lo npodsols .I ttolerate s poorly drained soils. InSout hVietna m iti sfoun do ndeep ,sand yol dalluvium ,bu tneve r reaching largedimension s onthos e sites. 120

5. Treecharacteristics :A moderatel ytal ltre erarel yexceedin ga diamete r of70-8 0cm. ,bu tsometime su pt o3 5m .i nheigh tan d10 0cm .i ndiameter . Stem:Rathe rslender .Th ebol ei swithou tbuttresse sstraight ,cylindrica l 5ÔIfre efro mbranches ,ofte nforked . Bark:Brow nrugged ,deepl yfissure dan dridged . Crown:I snarro wconica lo rcylindrical ,low-branching ,ligh tgree nwit h slendertwigs . Leaves:Rathe rsmall .Sel fprunin gi srathe rbad ;a goo dmixtur ewit hothe r speciesi srequired . Root-system:Consist so fa bad-shape dta proo twit hu pt o6 m .lon glaterals ; heartroot-syste m"bushy" ;youn gplant sdie dafte r3 3day si na rootin gen ­ vironmentwithou toxygen .

6. Silviculture- Seed :I tflower san dfruit sa tfrequen tinterval susuall y oncea year .Numbe ro fdr yseed spe rkg. :5- 6million ;800 0fruit spe rkg . Fruitflas hshoul db ecrushe dan dseed swashe dou tsoo nafte rcollection ; seeddrie di nth esu nfo r3- 4days .Afte rtha ton emont hafter-ripenin g neededbefor esowing .Fres hsee dha sa germinatio ncapacit yo f65-80% ;dr y storagei nseale dtin sfo ra tleas t3 month si spossibl ewithou tgrea tre ­ ductiono fth egerminatio ncapacity . Nursery:Germinatio nshow sth ebes tresult sunde ra ligh tshelter ,germinat i starts15-2 5day safte rsowing ;80 %o fth eviabl eseed sappea rwithi n36-6 0 days;th eseedling sar eline dou tafte r2 month s- whe nthe yar e3 cm .i n height- i nlittl ebambo obasket so ra tnurser ybeds . Plantingstock :A son eyea rol dplant so f4 0cm .i nheigh tthe yar eplante d (nakedrooted )i nth efield .I nIndonesi astump sar edissuade dbecaus ethe y tendd obecom ever ybranchy . Planting_technique:Plantin gi squit eeas ye.g .i nMalaysi athe yar esimpl y putint ohole smad ewit ha crowbar ;i nthi swa ya laboure rca nplan tabou t 250plant sa day . OnJav aspacing sar euse do f2. 5x lm .o r3 x lm . andi sinterplante dwit ' Lerucaenaleucocephala .Du et oth eligh tcanop ya mixtur ewit hshad ebeari n speciesi srecommended . Traitolerate sgras scompetitio nfairl ywell ;on eo rtw oweeding sa yea ri n thefirs t2 year si ssufficient .Thinning :firs ttim ea tth eag eo f5 year s furtherunti lth e30t hyea rever y5 year san dafte rtha ttim eever y1 0yea r graduallystrivin gfo ra S %o f25% .

7. Growth,yield :Th especie si sno ta fas tgrower ;productio ncapacit ycom ­ parablewit hTea kTecton agrandis ,i nJav ac .6 m /ha.year.I nth efirs t 10year sth egrowt hi sfairl yrapi d( 8t o1 0meters) ,subsequentl yth erat « ofgrowt hi sslower . Treeplante do npodsol s(Kerangas )soil snea rKuchin g(Malaya )hav eshow n -fo rth edominan ttree sonl y- o nannua lgrowt ho fth ediamete ro f0. 7c m inth efirs t2 0years .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :N ospecia ldamage sar ereported .Th etre e veryfire-resistant .

9. Woodproperties :Hear twoo dligh tyellow ;hard ;sp .gr .0.65-0.80 ;strong ; seasonsslow ,n ostron gtendenc yt osplit ,shrin ko rwarp ;ver ydurable ; difficultt osaw ,bu teas yt owork . 121

Ingenera l free from natural defects,excep tth eman y knots,cause db yth e persistanceo fth ebranches .

10. Uses:A ver y good construction wood forhouse-building ,bridges ,suitabl e for indooran doutdoo r constructions eveni ncontac twit hth eground . Also suitable forfurnitur e wood carving,ship-building ; high quality fuelwoo d and charcoal.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Becauseo fit stoleranc ean dstrengt hTra ii sa ver y useful tree for planting onpoo ran ddegrade d soils.I nSarawa k thespecie s isplante d with success inImperata-fields ;afte r sevenyear sth egras sha ddisappeare d and itwa spossibl et oplan t morevaluabl e treespecies .

13. Literature: 6,23 ,46 ,68 ,71 ,203 , 221.

61. arbovea Roxb. Verbenaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Yemane ,Gmelina .

Area,ecology : Widely distributed throughout Indiaan dBurma ,particularl y inth elatte ra swel la si nSr iLank ao nth emoiste r partsoccurrin g from sea-levelu pt o100 0m .i nIndi aan dBurm aan du pt o150 0m .i nSr iLanka . Generally iti sfoun d inth ehumi d semi-deciduousan dhumi do rdr ydeciduou s forestsa sa tre eo fth euppe r storey.I ti sfrequentl y present inth enat ­ uraldeciduou s teak forests. The species isnowher e very commonan drarel yo rno toccurrin g gregoriously. Inth edrie r partsi ti sver y scarceo reve nabsent .Th etre ei sdeciduou s and isa stron g light-demander.I ti sa colonize ro fope narea s provided thatth egerminatio n conditions areestablished . Iti sintoleran tt ocompe ­ tition especially from grasses during earlylife . Although iti smor eo rles sou to ffavou rfo rplantin g init snatura l region (especially Burma)i ti simportan ta sexot ean di tha sbee nplante d inman y countriesi nAsia ,Africa ,Sout h Americaan dth ePacific .

Climate- Rainfall :Th egenera l climate inth enatura lare ai scharacterize d bya moonsoona lrainfal l type (750-4500mm .annually )wit ha distinc tdr y seasono f3- 7months . Temperature:I nth enatura l habitat above sea-levelmaximu m temperature 38-43C .Abov e sea-levelminimu m temperature- 1- 1 4C .Th especie s ismod ­ erately frost hardyan dshow sa goo d recoverywhe n damagedb yfrost . Thebes t development isfoun d inclimate swit hrainfal lo f1800-230 0mm. , 3-6dr ymonths ,relativ e humidity never below40 %an dtemperatur e extremes between 18°Can d3 5C . 122

4. Soil:Yéman ei sgenerall yfoun di nwell-drained ,moist ,fertil evalley so r onric halluvium .Bes tgrowt hi fth eto psoi li salbonin eo rligh tacid . Itremain sstunte do rdoe sno tgro wa tal lo npoor ,dr ysand ysoil swit h baddrainage .Occasiona lfloodin gwil lkil lth etree . Iti ssomewha tmor eadaptabl et opoore rsite stha nTeak . Inth ebeginnin ggrowt ho nfairl ydry ,poorer ,bu twell-draine dsoil si s reasonablegood ,bu tthereafte rgrowt hdiminishe squickl yan dth etre ewil l die.O nba dsite si tdoesn' tbecom eolde rtha n1 2years ;o nth ebes talluvia l soilsu pt o4 0year sold .

5. Treecharacteristics :A moderat et olarg etre etha tca nattai na heigh to f 30m .wit ha branch-fre ebol eo f1 5m .an da diamete ro f1. 5m . Usuallyi treache ssmal ldimensions . Stem:For mstrongl ydependen to fth egrowt hconditions :i na wid espacin g heavybranche dan da lo wfor mfacto ran dthickene da tth ebase .I nclose r spacingfairl ystraigh tan da highe rfor mfactor . Crown:Larg ean dspreadin gan dcast sa dens eshade . Root-system:Resemble stha to fteak ,formin ga lon gthick ,frequentl yforke d taproo tan dnumerou sstron glatera lroots .

6. Silviculture- Seed :Seedin gage :abou t5 years ;fruitin gi sabundant ; fruitsar eripenin ga tth een do fth edr yseaso no ra tth ebeginnin go fth e wetseason . Seedweight :1100-140 0seeds/kg. :th eflesh ypul pca nb eeasil yextracte d fromth efrui tafte rsoakin gi nwate rfo r4 8hours .N ospecia lpretreatmen t ofth eseed si snecessar yalthough talternat estron ghea tan dsoakin gdurin g 15day si sdone .Germinatio ncapacit yo ffres hsee di shig h(generall yove r 70%)an di tca nb ekep tstore d3- 6month swithou tloosin git sviability . Nurserv:Sowin gi sdon eo nwell-draine dope nsee dbeds ;seed sca nb esow n broadcasto rca nb edibbled ;see ddept hc .1 cm .I ncas eo fbroadcastin g seedlingsar etransplante do nnurser ybed sa ta spacin go f2 0x 3 0cm. ; dibbledseed sca nb esow na ta spacin go f2. 5x 2. 5cm .u pt o3 0x 3 0cm . Inclos espacing sth eseedling sar etransplante d innurser ybeds .Weedin g andligh thoein ga tregula rinterval si snecessary .Sometime swaterin gi s necessary. Plantingstock :Plantin gi nth efiel da sstum po ra swhol eplan t(i ntube s ornake droots )i sdon ewhe nth eplant sar e4-1 2month sol d(dependin go n thesiz eo fth eplants) . Inmos tcase sstump sar euse d(root-colla rdiamete rc .2 cm. ,root-lengt h 20-30cm. ,shoot-lengt h2.5-7. 5cm. )Stump sma yb estore di nmois tconditio : forseve ndays . Striplingswil ld obu tar eles sused . Cuttingsgiv egoo dresult si fwell-ripene dan dyoun gbranche so rseedling - stems,lef tfro mth epreparatio no fstumps ,ar eused . SometimesWildling sar euse dfo rplantatio nestablishment . Plantingtechnique :Direc tseedin gi spossibl ei fenoug ho fsee di savaila t andwhe nth eonse to fth erain yseaso nalway sstart sregular .I tha sgive n excellentresults .Fo rbes tresult ssowin gmus tb edon epreferabl ewit hfr e seedo nwell-cleare dburn tarea sjus tbefor eth ebeginnin go fth ewe tseas c togiv eth eseedling sa lea do nth ecompetin gweed . Incas eo fnurser ystoc kth eplantin gsit eha st ob ecleare dprio rt oplan - operationsespeciall yfro mgrasse seventuall yburne dan dth esoi llightl y rakedo rotherwis eworked . Plantingca nb edon ewit ho rwithou tfiel dcrops .Especiall yi ncas eo f 123 heavy grass competition taungya-methodsar e recommended. Due to itsrapi d early growth under good conditions Yemane is extremely suitable for afforestation or reforestation of grass covered areas.T o get a rapid closure of the canopy 2x 2m . spacing is generally used. A narrower spacing of 1.20 x 1.20 m. is rarely used and results soon ina high mortality through strong mutual competition. Wider spacings (2.5 x 2.5 m., up to 3x 6m . or 5x 5m.) are used in case of producing large diameter,o r to mechanize themaintenanc e work,t o prevent thinnings etc. Narrow spacings necessitates early thinnings (after 3-5 years). Furtherthin ­ nings are carried out with intervals of 4-6 years. Gmelina arborea has a strong tendency to form forked stems.Thes e double stems have to be removed with the first thinning. When the canopy has closed numerous side branches die naturally. But pruning up to 6m . will be essential to get high-grade wood. Owing to its qualities Yemane is a difficult species for mixing. Naturalregeneration : Scarce or absent in its natural distribution area. Seed and seedlings often die because of toomuc h grass competition,n o light soil cover or browsing by game. In plantations of Gmelina natural regeneration is usually plentiful after heavy thinnings.

Growth,yield : In general the growth of Gmelina arborea isfas t to very fast. But annual increment tends to culminate early in life (about at 7-10 years). Mean annual increment is highest at the age of about 11year s varying from + 10-30m . The species shows a strong tendency to taper which causes a low form factor. This factor drops from near 1 to about 0.5 after 4—5 years. Rotation period for sawnwoo d willb e 20(Malawi)-30year s (India, Burma). For pit props and otherminin g timber arotatio n of 15year s is taken (India, Nigeria). For the production of fuel wood,pole s and pulp wood the plantations canb emanage d as coppice plantations with short rotations (4-6years) . It seems that 2-4(5)rotation s canb e carried out in such a way before the coppice stools die.

Pests,disease s and calamities: In its natural region it is likely to be attacked by Loranthus spp.Mistletoe . Control is possible by copper sulphate and Fernoxane (2,4D-preparation) .I t isfoun d that the susceptability for Loranthus attack isa t least partly genetically determined,s obreedin g with resistant strains of Gmelina may partly or fully control thispest . Browsing by game and livestock is one of themos t serious pests of the species. The only serious insect pest,occurrin g locally in thenatura lregion ,i s the defoliator Calopepla leayana. The species seemsrathe r free from termite attacks. Amor e or less serious disease both in natural and artificial stands in India and Pakistan is themoul d Poria rhizomorfa,whic h occurs especially inun ­ favourable conditions (stagnating water,shad y locations). Some little dis­ eases are the root rot caused by Ganoderma colossum and Fomes lignosus, Nigeria. The species is extremely intolerant to flooding and alsotende r to climatic calamities such as hailstorms,ho t dry winds.I n someregion s Yemane is frost tender. During the dry season there is a great danger of fires due to the thick layer of leaveso n the forest floor.Damag emostl y is indirect.Damag e caused by firema y give entrance to termites and fungi. 124

9. Woodproperties :Ligh t timber (sp.gr .0.48-0.5 0a t12-15 %moistur e content); rather strong,bu tstrengt h propertiesar einferio rt othos eo fteak ;easil y air-seasoned,bu ti ttake sa lon gtime ,i tdoe sno twar po rcrac k readily; moderately durable,impregnatio ni sdifficult ;eas yt osa wan dpeel ;fibre - length0.8-1. 7mm .(short-fibred) .

10. Uses:Usabl efo ra variet yo fpurposes ;plank s ponels,furniture ,boxes , carpentry,carving ,matches ,plywood ,particl e board;als ousabl efo rpaper - pulpwoo d (qualityo fth epape rwil lb eimprove d bymixin gwit h long fibred conifer pulp). Itdoe sno tgiv ea nexcellen t fuelwood ,althoug h itscalorifi cvalu ei s moderately high;i tdrie s slowly.

11. Remarks:Du et oit sfas tgrowt han dit svariet y ofapplication s itca nb e ofspecia limportanc ei ncountrie swit h acute timbershortages .

12. Evaluation:Th especie si ssuitabl efo rplantin g inlowlan dan dlowe rmontan e climateswit ha distinc tdr yperio d of3- 7month so nwell-drained ,deep , fertile soils,fo rvariou spurposes .

13. Literature:68 ,70 ,71 ,73 ,141 ,149 , 152.

62. Gongstylus bancanus (miq)Kurr . Thymeleaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou sname :Rami nteku r (Sarawak),Sepeti s (Sabah),Melawi s (Malaysia).

2. Area,ecology :Gonystylu sha sa wid erang e extending fromth eMala y Perinsul toth ePhilippines .I nSarawa kan dBrune ii ti smos ttypicall ya tre eo fth e mixed swampforest ,bu ti ti sals o commoni nothe r typeso fswam pforest , and is,locall ybu tno tusually ,fairl y abundanto ndr ypodso l (kerangas) soils.I nmixed-swam p forest iti safte rth emos t abundant largetree ,ofte T associated with spp.an dJon gkon g (Dactylocladuos stenostachys). Raminteku ri sa nevergree n shadebeares ;i nit syoun gstage si tappear s torequir e someshade .

3. Climate- Rainfall :I nth enatura lregio nrainfal li softe nmor etha n 1900: witha unifor mdistribution ,an da shor tdr yseaso no f1- 2months . Temgerature:Mea nannua ltemperatur e 27C wit h smallmonthl yfluctuations .

4. Soil:Th especie s favoursa nacid ,rathe r poorlydraine d soil.I nth enatu r regionsofte ngrowin go na thic k layero fpea t(4-1 8m.) .

5. Treecharacteristics :A fairl y largetre e sometimesreachin ga heigh to f 45m .an da diamete ro f80-9 0cm. ,bu tmostl yu pt o3 7m .i nheigh tan d 40-60cm .i ndiameter . 125

Stem:Th ebol e clean,straigh t andcylindrical ,bu tsometime s slightly fluted at thebase ;withou t buttresses;th este m isofte n freeo fbranche su pt o c. 18m . Crown:Mostl y roundo rcylindrical ,dense ,formin g parto fth euppe r canopy.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Copious cropo ffruit s isborn ea tirregula r intervals. Reproduction isentirel yb ymean so fseed . Naturalregeneration : Usualplentifu l inth eforest. Seedlingswil lwithstan d suppressionfo ra lon gtime .

7. Growth,yield : Under natural conditions growthi srathe r slow,bu ti n'selec ­ tion forest'a mea n annualdiamete r increment ofmor e thanc .0. 5cm .shoul d r.otb eexpected .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :I nKalimanta n Platypus salidus causes serious damageo nexploite d logs,whe n theyar elayin g inth efores t formor e than 3 days.

9. Hood properties:Whit et oyellowis h white;hard ;heav y (sp.gr .0.6-0. 7 at 16-17% moisture content);require s specialcar e inseasonin gdu eth etendenc y to split andth esusceptibilit y tostain ;th elog sar eno tver y liablet o heavy infestionb yambrosi abeetles ,bu trapi d extraction fromth efores ti s necessary toprotec tth elog sagains t infectionb ysap-stai n fungi.Chemical s arer.o wuse d toth efreshl ycu tlogs ,treatmen t ofNaCI Oo roxydate d water within 6hour s showed goodresults :eas yt owork ,saw ,nai lan dglue ;peelin g ofvenee r after treatmenta t7 0C gav e good results;th eveneer sdr yfairl y rapid andthei r splicingan dgluin g properties aregood .

10. Uses: Ramini ssuitabl efo rgenera l light construction,joinery , furniture and numerous useswher ea clean ,whitis h timber isdesired . Plywood made fromi tha sa pleasin g appearance.

11. Remarks: Rami ni sth emos t important species being exploited inSarawak .

12. Evaluation:Th especie sma yb etrie d asa nexoti co nlowland ,acid ,rathe r poorly drained soilsan di nswam p forests,i nenrichmen t planting.

13. Literature: 46,73 ,193 , 221.

63. Gvevillea vdbusta Cunn. Proteaceae

1. Name -Tradename : SilkyOak ,Grevillea ,Salamander .

2. Area,ecology :I ti sa nativ eo fAustralia ,i nQueenslan dan dNe wSout hWales , incoasta lrainfores t areasbetwee n2 5 and2 9 South. Latitude,associate d 126

with Eucalypt speciesbu tofte n inpur egroups . The species isevergreen ,an dlight-demanding . As exotic species succesful in South Africa;Sr iLank a (between 600-2COO E asa shade tree for tea); India (300-1800 m.), East-Africa (between 120C-1S00m. )a sshad e treei n coffee plantations; Israël,Cyprus ,Jamaica ; inJav a introduced between (50)500-1400(2000),bes t growth above 1000m .

3. Climate -Rainfall : InAustralia ,withi n thenatura l habitat 1270-1520mm . rain annually;th egrea t bulk falling from December toApril . In (sub)tropica l regions itprefer s warm,moist ,mountai n regions ofmediu m elevations (SriLanka : annual rainfall 1250-2500 mm.;Eas t Africa c.1000 - 1150 mm.). InIndi a growing well under a great variety ofclimate-types . An annualrainfal lo fmor e than 2500mm . seemst ob eba dfo rth especies : the trees become weak andsensitiv e todiseases ,unde r such circumstances. It prefers ahumi d atmosphere,bu tresist s drought well. Temperature: Iti srathe r frost tender inyouth . Liable tob ebroke nb ywind .

4. Soil: Notparticula r toparen tmateria l ofth esoi l butprefer s deep,well - drained sandy loam. InIndi a itgrow s wello n sandy soils and eveno ngravel : Lowrequirement s tosoil-fertility ,provide d that thesoi l isporous .Ba d growth andstemfor m on shallow soils.

5. Tree characteristics: Usually atre e attaining 30-35m . inheigh t and 50-60 in diameter. Bole: Straight andcylindrica l bole,sometime s forked. Thegreate r parto ft bole isfre e ofbranches . Crown: Mostly small,conica lan drathe r open. Rootsystem: Deep.Youn g plants arerathe r sensitive toa lack ofoxyge n in1 rooting area (roots dieafte r 27day s without oxygen).

6. Silviculture -Seed : 70,000 (India)- 108.000 (Indonesia)seeds/kg ;th esee ' keeps fora tmos t 2-3months . Nursery: Easy toregenerat eb y seed. Sowing inwell-drained ,regularl y spri: lered germination beds; germination capacity high when fresh (Java 30-40%); lining outafte r twomonth s inbed s ori npots . When theseedling s are7-1 0 in height,afte r c. 6months ,whe n theplant s are 25-30cm .tal lthe yar e suited forplantin g inth efield . Planting stock: Stumps areals o used forartificia l regeneration. In India wiîdîingsar eofte n used forplantatio n establishment (theyar etransplant « into potswhe n 4-6 weeksold) . The species isno tabl et ocoppice . Planting technique: Duet oth eope n and small crown,mixin g with slow-grow: ground covering species is recommended. Natural regeneration: Generally good. Natural seeding isver y common incu . tivatid land.

7. Growth,yield :A fast grower when young: during thefirs t 10year sa nann u height increment of1.4-2. 3m .an da diameter increment of1.5-2. 0cm .i s measured inJava .I nIndi a itofte n becomes ragged andunsightl y after15 - years. 127

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Th estump san dth eroot sar edisseminator s of dangerousroot-disease s (eq.Ustulin a spp.an dth ebrow nroo t mould). Asa resul to fstron gdr ywind syoun g plantsofte nar euproote dan ddefoliate d or showmortalit yo fth eto pshoo t and/orbranches .Bu ti nlate r stagesth e treei sfairl ywind-resistant . In India rathermuc h damagewa scause db ytermites .Youn g plants showed tob e sensitive toDalapon .

9. Wood properties:Reddis hbrown ,wit h silvergrain ,attractiv e appearance (sp.gr. 0,65); strong;fairl y durable;difficul tt oseason ;eas yt owork .

10. Uses: InAustrali ause d forligh t construction,furniture ,panellin gveneer . It issuite dfo rindoo rqualit y fuelwood. Ifmixe d with some long fibred pulp,ver y suitablefo rpul pproduction .

11. Remarks:Th ebar k contains 3-6%tannin.Th e speciesi sgenerall y useda sa shadean dshelte r tree.Bu tals oplante dfo rwindbreaks ,ornamen tan dwood - production.I nsubtropica lregion si ti suse da sa fuelwoo dspecies . InBal ith etre e showed good developmento nsteri l soils.

12. Evaluation:Greville a seemst ohav ebes t development inclimate s semi-humide submontagnard,o ndee pwell-draine d soils.Ma yb etrie do ndegrade d sites.

13. Literature:65 ,68 ,70 ,73 ,lit ,168 ,195 , 211.

64. Hopea odovata Roxb. Dipterocarpaceae Syn.: H. eglandulosa.

1. Name- Tradename :Sao . Indigenous names:Thinga n (Burma);Nguir ,Gia r (Vietnam);Takie nTahlei n (Thailand);Merawa n (Sumatra).

2. Area,ecology : Burma,Andamans ,extendin g intoThailan dan dVietnam . Iti sa nevergree n species,occurrin gmostl y sporadicalan dsometime s common inmois t tropicalforests .I ti sno ta gregariou stype .Mostl y foundi nlow ­ land,dam plocalitie salon griver san dstreams . InSout hVietna m itoccur si nth elowland su pt o800-90 0m. ,i nDarlac , HautChlong ,Lan gHanh ,o nhumi d deepalluvia lo rcolluvia l soils.Togethe r withDipterocarpu s turbinatusi tform sth emai nspecie so fth epresen tever ­ greenforests . The treei sshade-bearin gi nal levent si nyouth .Th eundergrowt ho fth etyp e offorest si nwhic hHope aodorat a occursi si ngenera lo fgrea tdensity .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Occurrin gi ntropica lwar man dmois t climates.Annua l rainfall 2290-5080mm .Suitabl efo rplantin gi nregion swit ha dr yperio d upt o2 months . 128

Temperature:Absolut e max. temperature 36-40 C; absolute min. temperature 6-Ï5*c7

4. Soil: Hopeaodorat a isno t difficult concerning soilrequirements ,bu t will not thrive on plinthite soils and requires ample watersupply. It is indiffer­ ent to pH.

5. Tree characteristics: A large tree reaching a height of 36-42 m. and a diame­ ter of 1m. , locally inVietna m up to 1.5 m. in diameter. Stem: Long, clean,cylindrica l bole. Bark: Grey to dark brown,quit e thin,therefor e sensitive to fire.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Flowering: March-April; fruiting: May-June (India). Weight: 3/gr; fresh seed gives a high and quick germination (within 8 days after harvesting); does not storewel l (if seeds are to be sent and thus cannot be sown fresh itma y prove best to collect seed when green on the trees about 3week sbefor e they are completely ripe and dispatch them in somewhat moist charcoal). Experiments in Malaysia showed that seeds can be stored for 2month s at atemperatur e of about 14C ; storing at 10C resulted in a fast decline of the viability. Nursery (Thailand): The seed-bed soil is protected by straw prior togermi ­ nation of the seed,an d the seedlings are shaded by bamboo screens in the heat of the day.Whe n they are about 1.5 months old (the first leaves have appeared), the plants should be lined out to another bed with 15 x 15 cm. spacings. Planting_stock: The seedlings are transplanted into the field when 14-15 mom old as soon as therain s have sufficiently moistened the soil. Using completi seedlings with only a slight dressing gave excellent results. The use of stumps was only moderately succesful. Planting_technique: Being a shade loving species it thrives best in a line- planting system, lines 1.5-2 m. wide and gradually widening from the ground Such lines should be cut 10m . apart and the seedlings planted along them at intervals of 2.5-3 m. Overfelled forest with only a few large trees surround with 7-8 m. high bush would be very suitable. In a line-planting of Sao (10x 3m. ) in bush (10m . inheight )maintenanc e in the first 10year s wou] cost 215 mandays/ha.

7. Growth,yield : The growth is very slow.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: The tree is not very resistant to fire.

9. Wood properties:Bot h heartwood and sapwood yellowish grey or yellowish bro fairly hard; sp.gr.0.7-0. 8 (15%moistur e content), strong,require s slow drying to prevent checking and splitting; durable;saw sreasonabl e well,e a to work,t o glue,t o polish.

10. Uses: The wood isver y suitable for piling,flooring ,railwa y sleepers, timbers,handles ,ships .I nVietna m commomnly used forproas . InThailan d the wood is considered as one of the best sawnwoods (afterTea l 129

11. Remarks:Th e species isheav y over-felled within the naturalregion . It is rather difficult to distinguish the different Hopea species as H. oderata, H. dealbata,H . pierrei,H . ferrugineum,bu t a great variation inwoo d quality exists. Hopea odorata and Hopea dealbata have the best wood quality. Hopea odorata showed encouraging results in enrichment planting in woodland (Forêts Claire)o nmois t soils Ban Me Thuot.

12. Evaluation: This species which produces a good quality timber is suitable for enrichment planting inover-felle d high forest on damp sites.

13. Literature: 68 ,143 ,193 ,203 ,209 .

65. Hopea parviflora Bedd. Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name -Tradename : (White)Kongu ,takie n (Thailand).

2. Area,ecology :Nativ e to the evergreen dense forests of Indiaan d Burma,i n the lowlands and lowmountain s from sea-level up to 800m . Gregarious ever­ green species often forming almost pure stands.I t is commonly found in close proximity to running water,alon g river banks or onravines . It isa shade-bearing species when young. Coppices badly.

3. Climate - Rainfall:Mea n annual rainfall in natural habitat: 875-3750 mm., but optimum rainfall 2000-3000 mm. Temperature: Absolute min. temperature: 16-18 C. Absolute max.temperature : 33-3807

4. Soil: The species isver y adaptable inregar d to soilprovide d that the air is very humid. Itprefer s deep lateric red clays (Ferrasols). Hay thrive on swampy places where others would die and will even thrive on dry hard plinthite soil. Best development is found along waterstreams and humid valleys.

5. Tree characteristics:A very large handsome tree reaching aheigh t up to 50m . and a diameter of 140-170 cm. Stem: straight,cylindrical ,clea n bole (sometimes up to 30 m.). Bark: Brown togreyish . Crown: Dense,conica l inyouth . Rootsystem: Consisting of a long taproot with few laterals.Th e long taproot enables the species to grow on dry soils (theroot s reach wet soil-layers).

6. Silviculture -Seed : Frequent seed years;flowerin g January-February; fruiting: May/June.Numbe r of seeds per kg: 4200-4800;germinatio n is good and quick; storing capacity of the seed is lowwhe n ripe;afte r 40day s the germination-capacity drops to nil;mus t be sowntherefor e within 8day s after collection; seedsma y be collected green about 3week sbefor e fully ripe,an d can be dispatched inthi s condition inmois t charcoal tob e sown 4week s after collection. 130

Nursery Sowing in the nursery under shade,wit h the seedwings above the soil; regular sprinkling essential;germinatio n starts after 10 days;trans ­ planting after 2months ;plantin g in the field after 12-15months . Planting_stock: The use ofWildling s did not show much success:man y plants failed,probabl y owing to their big taproot s which broke atremoval . Çi§DïïSS-ÏS9!}5iâUS: Direct seeding isdifficult ,a s the seed keep only for a short while; in India direct seeding proved to be successful,unde r a light shade and on a sufficient moistened soil; overhead cover requires to be rénove after 2-3 years. u§îyr§i_ï!ËSf5§i)âïè°D: fairly good;unde r the mother-tree a large amount of seedlings may appear,bu t they cannot establish themselves under heavy shade. The species often invades former shifting cultivation plots and coffee- plantations. They also establish themselves under a cover of bush and small trees and in small clearings in the forest. Clearing the ground cover and burning previously, stimulates the regeneration. In India it sometimes re­ generates freely in themor e open teak stands,formin g an underwood. Inplan ­ tations it is often mixed with teak but also with Balanocarpus spp. (Black Kengu).

7. Growth,yield : The growth is fairly slow,especiall y in the first years; after that period it is faster. Seedlings attain a height of 7-20 cm by the end of the first season. In Coorg, India 4-year-old plants attained an averag and maximum height of resp. 55 cm. and 100 cm. In general:afte r 10year s the trees are 5-6 m inheight . Expected rotation 100-120years .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Attack s by insects (especially borers) are frequent,bu t they generally do not cause very great damage in the plantatioi The same applies to damage by wildlife.

9. Wood properties: The wood isa valuable one,hard ,heavy ,durable ,an d has excellent mechanical properties.

10. Uses: It is an excellent framework wood: bridges,houses ,shipbuilding .

11. Remarks: Hope a odorata has silvicultural characteristics related to Hopea parviflora,wit h some diffenrences: itrequire s heavier rainfall and does not tolerate lateric soils: it is an evenmor e shade-bearing species than Hopea parviflora.

12. Evaluation: The species may be suitable for enrichment planting in moist lowland localities for sawnwoo d production.

13. Literature: 68,71 ,203 . 131

66. Hymenaea oonrbaril Caesalpiniaceae syn. H. aminifera

1. Name- Tradename :Locust ,Lokus ,Surina m Teak,Alg arobb o (Puerto Rico), Courbaril (Malaysia).

2. Area,ecology :Th enatura lregio n isfoun d intropica l,Sout hAmeric aan dth e West Indies,i nth erainfores tan dsemidecidiou s forest inlowlan d areas; itsoccurrenc e isseldo mmor e than raret over y rare.I ti sfoun d botho nth e ridgesan dslope sthoug h seldom actually inth eflat s (Trinidad). Iti sa stron g light-demander.Evergreen .I twil l toleratea certai n amount of shadean dwil lpersis tunde r quite heavy shade.Bi gtree sd ono tcoppice . Introduced successfully indifferen t tropical countries:Jav a (Indonesia), Malaysia.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Climate tropical,warm ;rainfal l preferably 1900-2150mm . annually. Will stand heavier rainbu tthrive s bettero nth efring eo fheav y rainfall areas.Growin gwel li narea swit h 3-4dr ymonths .I ti sa fairl y accomodating species.

4. Soil: Itdemand smoderat e soilqualities .I ti sfoun do nsand san dclays . Best growtho nwell-draine d (sandy,porou s soils). InMalaysi ai tgrow squit ewel lo ndegrade d soils. Damp,we tlocalitie s shouldb eavoided .

5. Tree characteristics:Locus ti sa ver y large tree,tha t canattai na heigh t of4 5m .an da diamete ro f2. 8m .Tree s witha diamete r bigger than 1.50m . areno tuncommon . InMalaysi atw ovarietie sar erecognized :on ebranchin glo wth eothe rwit ha straight cylindricalbole ,bu teve nth elatte rwhe n growni nth eope n tends to fork into2 mai n stemsa fe wdiameter fromth eground . Stem: Usually without buttresses,an dver y large. Bark: Greyt oligh t fawn,thick ,har d andsmooth . Crown: Lofty,spreading ,lon gan drathe rdense . Rootsystem: Iti smoderatel y deep-rooted species withwell-develope d laterals. Inth eyout h stageth etre eha sa well-develope d taproot.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seeding age:10-1 5years ;seed s abundant almost every year.Th eripene d fruits (Julyt oAugust ,Carribea n area)ar ecollecte d from the ground.Th epod swil l oftenremai no nth etre efo ra lon g time;abou t 260-300 seed/kg;germination : 60%;mos to fth eseed s germinates withina fe w weeks,bu tth esee dha sa moderatel y thick woody coatan dgerminatio n will continue overa perio do fsevera lmonths .Germinatio no ffres h seed willb e improvedb yfilin gthroug hth esee d coata ton esid eo rnickin g thesee da t twoplace s witha knive ;i nMalaysi a soakingfo r4- 5week s showed goodresults . Storage isn oproble mfo r1 year ,fo rlonge r periodsbes t stored refrigerated (-1 C)i nseale d tins. Ei§5îi3E_§ï°£!S: Plantation establishment have shown successful eitherb y sowinga sb yplanting .I nTrinida d 1-year-old6 0c mhig hplantin g stockwa s used,whic hwa scu tbac kt o3 0c mbefor e plantingout . 132

Planting technique: InJava ,Locus t plantations were established by direct seeding: 2 seeds per planting hole;th e seedlings were easy to transplant. InJav a spacings are used of 1x 3m . and 2x 3m . with interplanting of Leucaena leucocephala. On good soils in Gadungan (Indonesia)closur e of the canopy was reached after 7years .A closer spacing is preferable, because the trees tend to branch easily. Natural regeneration: Generally poor. The seed often perishes either from insect attacks or other causes,befor e the hard,wood y pod has broken or has rotten away. Furthermore the seedling is very succulent and tender,an d is easily eaten by animals.

Growth,yield : The growth of the seedling israthe r fast,abou t 40 cm. in half-a-year. The first 2-3 years the plants present a very straggling ap­ pearance with no definite leading shoot.Afte r 2-3 years however,th e longest shoot pulls up ina vertical position. In Indonesia the tree is a fast grower on good soils. During the first 10yea i the trees showed an annual height-increment of 1.3-1,7m . and a diameter incrs ment of 13m /ha/year during the first 10years . In Malaysia it showed to be a fast grower even on poor soils,provide d there was enough light. In open stands trees reached a height of 30m . and a dia­ meter of 50 cm after 22years .Thos e trees were 13.5 m. high and 20 cm. in thickness after 8years . In Puerto Rico there was slow growth on degraded soi

Pests, diseases and calamities: So far,Locus t seems fairly free from serious diseases. The young seedlings are frequently eaten by animals. In Indonesia damage is caused by termites and by aroo t mould Polystictus hirsutus.

9. Wood properties:Heartwoo d salmon red toreddis h brown,darkenin g with age, often with darker streaks;ver y hard;heav y (sp.gr. 0.70-1.15); fairly stronf seasons without difficulty,wit h little degrade,althoug h its shrinkage is high;moderatel y durable;no t resistant to marine-borers;i tresist s shock very well, itbend s fairly well; timber difficult to work and saw.

10. Uses: Used for construction, furniture,shipbuilding . Also for panelling, flooring,toolhandles ,cogwheels . Suitable for veneer and multiplex.

11. Remarks: Th e flesh of the fruit is edible. The bark and particularly the roc exude apale-yello w gum,know n as Southamericancopal . Due to the good growth the species isrecommende d for planting in the lower plains on moderately good soil.

12. Evaluation: The species seem to be suitable for complete planting in clima' semi-humide et chaud and on well-drained, deep soils,fo r the purpose ofsa ' wood.

13. Literature: 46 ,68 ,107 ,110 ,114 ,145 . 133

67. Intsia bijuga (Colebr.)O.K . Caesalpiniaceae

1. Name - Tradename:merba u ipil Indigenous name:merbau ,ipi l (Philippines),g o nuoc (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecolog y Widespread from Madagascar to the Pacific Islands as a component of the Indo-Pacific-beach-flora;usuall y found on the inner edge of coastal mangrove,bu t itals o occurs further inland along tidal reaches ofriver s on alluvial flats.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Altitude: 0-300m . above sea-level.

4. Soil: Rather poorly drained soils;bette r adapted to permanent inundation than I. palembanica.

5. Tree characteristics: Small to medium sized tree; occasionall y 24m high and 60 cm d.b.h.. Stem: Straight or crooked;buttresse s thick and steep,no t prominent. Crown: Spreading. Leaves: One or less commonly two pairs of leaflets.

6. Silviculture - Seed: 190 seeds/liter.

7. Growth,yield : Plantation trials in Malaya,Solomo n Islands,Zanzibar ,showe d little promise;slo w growing.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:

9. Wood properties:Lik e I.palembanica ,bu t smaller sized.

10. Uses: Like I.palembanica .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: May betrie d along the banks of tidal rivers,als o possibilities on the inner edge of coastalmangrov e and inpea t swamps.

13. Literature: 39,46 ,150 ,220 . 13t

68. Intsia palembccnica Miq. Caesalpiniaceae

1. Name -Tradename :merbau . Indigenous name: merbau,marbau . InBorneo ,Celebes ,called : ipi,Ipi lo r alai.

2. Area,ecology :Widespread ;throughou t Malay Archipelago,Thailand ,Andamans , andW .Ne wGuinea ,Commo ni nal linlan d lowland forests.Mainl y alongriver s ando nthei r plains;ofte n associated with Koonpassia excelsa. Iti sno tfoun di ndee p peatswamps .

3. Climate -Rainfall : 2000-4000mm .annualy . Altitude: 1ÖÖ-3Ö0m. ,i nsuitabl e sitesu pt o90 0m . Temperature: Mean annual temperature 22-27C .

4. Soil: Well suitedt orathe r poorly drained soils,canno t stand permanent inundation.

5. Tree characteristics: 30-35m .high ,sometime su pt o5 4m .;70-9 0cm .u pt o 180c md.b.h. . Stem: Rather straight bole,normall y 15-20m .u pt o2 5m .; equa lt ostee p buttresses,ofte nabov e2m .u pt o7 m .i nheight . Bark:0.5- 2c mthick ;grey ,yellow-brown ;smal l trees greenkhaki ,smooth , big treeslarg e loose-hanging scales;middl e bark bright green;inne rbar k witha sparse ,slowl y appearingoi lexudate . Crown:Rathe r compact;bi gascendin g limbs;domed . Leaves:3- 4pair so fleaflets ;alternate ,pinnate ;leaflet s smooth,gloss y dark green;briefl ydeciduous .

6. Silviculture -See d:Bi gan dhard .Ma yno tgerminat e for2 year so rmore , thinningon esid eo fth eseatcoa t witha coars e filema yinduc e germination withina fe wday s after 2year so fstorag e still good germination. Planting stock:Afte r germinationyoun g seedlingsdevelo p rapidly,30-4 5c m in2 months .Seedling sar esturdy ,vigorous ,easil y handled. Planting,whe n severalfeet stall ,bes ta sstumps . Plantingtechnique : Survivalwhe nplanted ,usuall y high;plant sma ypersis t fora yea ro rtw oi ndens e shade;fo rgoo d growth they demanda goo doverh e light.Youn g trees coppice fairly freely. Much climber cutting needed. Natural regeneration: Usually scanty;afte r fellinga nol dtre eregenerati e canb eabundant .

Growth,yield :Extensivel y used inplantin g experimentsbu tgenerall y slow growth,poor shapedu et odroppin go fbranche san dfailur et odevelo pa le . shoot.Becaus eo fformin ga wid e ringo fsapwood ,whic h givestimbe ro fp o quality,lon grotation so fabou t 120year sar erecommended .

Pests,disease san dcalamities :Youn g seedlingsdamage db yrat san dothe r rodents,therefor e seedlingshav et ob ea tleas t 2month s inth enursery . 135

Inregula r plantations risk of deer and shoot-boring insects,ris k of rodents diminished.

9. Wood properties: Hard,heav y heart wood (sp.gr . 0.72-1.05);ver y strong; seasons slowly without any degrade,ver y durable;du e to itsdensit y rather difficult to work,especiall y when dry; shrinks little. Sapwood perishable,highl y susceptible to powderpost beetles.

10. Uses: Popular timber for heavy constructions like bridges,railwa y sleepers. In damp situations susceptible to fungi.Attractiv e and suitable for decorative works; itmake s a pleasant floor;excellen t furniture,bu t could be too heavy for thispurpose . It isa disadvantage that the wood contains a tannin that corrodes iron.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: In general suitable on poorly drained soils,especiall y along banks of tidal rivers,riparia n forest;canno t stand permanent inundation. For ob taining good quality timber a rotation of about 120year s is necessary.

13. Literature: 39 ,46 ,150 ,220 .

69. Khaya anthotheoa (Welw.)C.Dc . Meliaceae

1. Name -Tradename : Uganda mahogany. Indigenous name:Acajo u Blanc

2. Area,ecology : From Ivory Coast to Uganda and Angola,mainl y in semi-deciduous forest.

3. Climate -Rainfall : 1200-1800m m annually. Dry period 2-4 months Altitude: 0-5ÖÖ"iüTa.s.

4. Soil: Deep,well-draine d humid soils.

5. Tree characteristics: Large tree,u p to 50m in height and 120c m d.b.h. Stem: Cylindrical;larg e buttresses.Moderatel y straight,clea r bole up to 24~m. Bark: Smooth,white-grey . Crown: Spreading, irrigular and light.Deciduous . Root-system: Well developed;mai n root with deep layering laterals. 136

6. Silviculture -Seed :<+500/kg .Doe sno tstore ,mus tb esow na squickl ya s possibleafte rcollection ;afte r 2month so fstorag e germination capacity dimminishedt ozero . Nursery: Fresh seeds germinate in11-2 1days . Under shade 80%germination . Planting_stock: Goodresult s withtwo-years-ol d stumpsan dthree-years-ol d striplings. ÇiSSÏ^Së-ÎS0?}11!^?: Usuallyplante d under aligh t canopy,bu tfo rrapi dgrowt t it soonneed snearl y full light;i twill , however,persis t inshad efo r severalyear swhe n 1-2m high . Naturalregeneration :Poo ri nunexploited ,bu tabundan ti nfelled-ove rfores t

7. Growth,yield :I nIndonesi a 9.5m hig han d1 1c md.b.h . in5 years .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Whe n growni nth eope n liablet oseriou s damageb yHipsipyl a shoot-borer andsun-scorch .

9. Wood properties:Les sheav y than other Khaya spp.;moderatel y durable,eas y tomanage .Moderatel y softan dlight ,easil y sawn,seasone dan dworked .

10. Uses: General construction work,cabine t making joinery,plywood .

11. Remarks:Khay aanthothec a isa secundary succession species following Maesopsis inth ecolonizatio no fgrassland .

12. Evaluation:Khay aanthothec ama yb etrie d inenrichmen t planting indeciduo u or semi-deciduous forests.I tprefer s deep,mois t soilsan di softe nripari a The speciesdoe sno tsee m suitable forcomplet e plantingo rto oclos e spacir becauseo fheav y Hypsipylaattack ,bu twhethe r thispes t occursi nVietna m1 tob einvestigated . Itma yhav e possibility inenrichmen t plantingo fthick e or even Imperata-fieldsunde ra ligh t canopyo fothe rplante d species.

13. Literature:28 ,70 ,73 ,111 , 124,195 .

70. Khaya grandifoliola C.Dc. Heliaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Odupon ,acajou .

2. Area,ecology :Mai ndistributio n from Sierra Leone,Centra l IvoryCoast , CentralGhana ,Centra lNigeri au pt oth esouther npar to fUganda .Acajo ui i mainly found inth edrie rarea so fth ehig h forest zonenea rth eedg eo f the savannah forest zonean di nth epatche so fclose d forest which extend the savannaharea .Deciduou s duringa shor t period. Iti sa ligh t demander whichma ystan da certai n amounto fshad e inyouth . 136c

3. Climate -Rainfall :Mea n annualrainfal l 1200-1800 iranra,dr yperio d 3-5 months. Altitude: ï-Ï30Ô~m.a.s.

4. Soils:Well-drained ,rathe r humid soils.

5. Tree characteristics: Up to 30-40m high and 120 cm d.b.h. a altitude of 1300-1400 m.a.s.; only 4-15 m inheight ,bu t still good diameter sizes are reached. Stem:Ofte n crooked,buttresse srathe r sharp. Bark: Pale grey to brown,fairl y smooth towards the top of the bole,scalin g towards the base,leavin g shallow depressions. Leaves: Compound,pinnate ;usuall y fourpair s of leaflets;leaflet sglabrous , upper side glossy.

6. Silviculture - Seed: 4000-5000/kg. Fresh seeds germinate well in 8-20 days. Germination percentage about 80.Doe s not store,mus t be sown as soon as possible after collection. After 2month s of storage,germinatio n percentage zero. Nursery: Seeds should be lightly covered and the beds lightly shaded to prevent the soil from drying out. Seedling growth is good. Planting stock:Nurser y stock forplantation s should not beplante d out till at least 6-8 months old. Large striplings up to 1.80 m in height succeed and are preferable to stumps. Natural_regeneration: In suitable areas a fair distribution of young age classes. Inuntreate d closed forest in N. Nigeria seedlings rarely survived for a long period. But in the forest-savannah transition itwa s recorded that after about 10year s areasonabl e proportion of seedlings had survived of which someprobabl y reachmaturity . Seedlings were also able to establish themselves and survive in forest that had been opened up by climber-cutting and poisoning. Natural regeneration also occurs from rootsuckers.

7. Growth,yield : In Uganda striplings of 2.1 m reach a height of 4.8 m in 3 years after transplanting. In Indonesia 8.5 m and 9.0 cm d.b.h. in 5 years. In Nigeria 21m in 20years . It appears to be a faster grower than Khaya ivorensis,especiall y after the pole stage.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Acajo u is liable to shoot-borer attack (Hypsipyla robusta),whic h israrel y fatal to the tree,bu t the repeated destruction of terminalbud sma yresul t in forking,permanen t stunting and the development of crooked stems.Borer s also attack the seeds.T oreduc e shoot-borer attack it ispreferabl e to plant in lines. In Africa also planted under a shelter of Triplochiton scleroxylon. Also less Hypsipyla attack if planted mixed with other species.A twide r spacings the species maybe could grow quicker throughth e susceptable stage for Hypsipyla attack.

9. Wood properties:Rathe r heavy,bu t easy tomanage .

10. Uses: Often used for veneers,panelling ,cabinet-makin g and superior joinery.

137

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Khaya grandifoliola seems suitablefo renrichmen t plantingo f drydeciduou so rsemi-deciduou s forestso rthickets ,preferabl yb ymean so f striplings. Becauseo fheav y Hypsipyla attack unsuitablefo rgrowin g inpur e plantationsa tclos e spacingsi nth eopen ,bu tresearc ho nthes e aspects shouldb edon e inVietnam .

13. Literature:28 ,70 ,73 ,111 ,112 , 195.

71. Khaya ivorensis A.Chev . Meliaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Africa nmahogany ,mahogany . Indigenousname :Dubini .

2. Areae,ecology :Foun d scattered trhoughoutth ewette rtype so fth ehig h forest zone.Tend st oappea ri nextende d groups,bu ti ngenera llittl egregarious . Indrie rarea sdeciduou sfo ra shor tperiod .

Climate- Rainfall : 1600-2500m mannually . Temgerature: Meanannua l temperaturea abou! t2 7C ;grea t seasonalvariation : meantemperatur eo fth ecoldes tmonth nma yb eabou t1 8C ,wit h correspondingly highertemperature si nth eho tseason .

4. Soils:Favour smois t valley soils;ca nsurviv e considerable flooding inth e rainy season.I tma yhowever ,b efoun do nwell-draine d slopesu pt oaltitude s of45 0m.a.s .

Tree characteristics:Larg e tree,4 5m high ,1.5 0m d.b.h . Stem:Long ,clear ,cylindrica lbole .Buttresse stal lan dnarrow . Bark:Thick ,tough ,bitte r taste;scale sof fi ncharacteristi c dixs leaving reddishbrow nmarks . Crown:Large ,ascendin gbranches ;foliag e appeardark . Leaves: Compound,pinnate .Leaflet s glossy,glabrous ;3- 6pair si nmatur e trees,u pt o2 0pair si nyoun g trees. Root-system: Strongroot-system ;littl e subjectt owindthrow .

Silviculture- Seed :Flat ,winged ;54-00-860 0seed spe rkg . Dispersal tends tob elimited . Fresh seedsgerminat e readilyi n11-2 1days . Nursery: Inth eearl y stages,seedling sar etender . Someoverhea d shadei s desirable. Growthmoderate . Planting stock:Normall y plantingi sdon ewhe nth estoc k reaches0.6-0. 9m , transplantseasily ,bot h stumpedan dstrippe dplants .Strippe dplant sappea r toestablis hthemselve s quicker,wher eth einitia lheigh ti stalle r (about 0.9-1.2 m). Planting_technique: Inplantation smixtur ewit h fastergrowin g species should 138

be avoided,unles s these are introduced later.Als o special care must be given to early cleanings and climber cutting. Natural regeneration: Rather bad because the seedsar e liberated from the fruits inlimite d amounts,s o that many either rot orbecom e subject to insect attack. Another reason isth e dense shade at the forest floor,causin g the drie-back ofman y seedlings.

7. Growth,yield : Inplantation s growth isver yunequa l duet o variation in treatment.Moderatel y fast grower inth e open.Height s of 7.5-9.Ûm in 6-7 years and 15m and 25 cm d.b.h. in 16year s have been recorded.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Considerabl e damage is caused by Hypsipyla Large trees sometimes suffer from rottenhear twhic hma y result in hollow logs. Sometimes a zone ofbrittl e wood occurs near the centre of the tree, possible asa resul t of the local ecological conditions,mayb e a soil factor.

9. Wood properties:Fairl y light,strong ;durable ;easil y seasoned with little splittingo r checking,bu t somewarping ;fairl y easy towork .

10. Uses: Furniture,interio rdecoration ,particularl y asveneer ,hig h class joinery,coac hbuildin g and other uses.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Khaya ivorensis prefersheav y orric h alluvial soilnea r water courses and damp areasbu t requires agoo d drainage.Coul d be tried forline ' planting under canopywit h striplings,bu tmus t soonb e liberated. May be considered intaungy a planting ,preferabl y with stumps,unde r a light canop ofothe r species,becaus e ofheav y Hypsipyla attack when grown in the open, butwhethe r thisoccur s inVietna m hast ob e investigated.

13. Literature: 70,195 .

72. Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. Meliaceae

1. Name -Tradename :Africa n mahogany. Indigenous_name:Kuka .

2. Area,ecology : Africa,fro m theAtlanti c toth e Indian Ocean;Mali ,Nort h Nigeria,Nort h Cameroun,Nort hUganda ,Sout h Sudan.Throughou t the savannah forest zone but innorther n regionsmor e common in fringing forest. Light-demander,doe sno t stand competition ofothe r species.

3. Climate -Rainfall : 750-1300m mannually ;dr yperio d 5-7months . Altitude:Ö-CÖÖ'inTa .s . 139

4. Soils:Favour s good,alluvia l soils but not swampy soils.Als o on dry savan­ nah soils.

5. Tree characteristics: Medium-sized, 15-18m high,sometime s up to 24m and up to 90c m d.b.h. Stem:Clean ,straight , 9-15 m; often low branched,buttresse s absent but the base isofte n thickened by root spurs. Bark: Thick,brownis h grey, scaly,slas h red,exudin g a red sap. Crown: Large,wit h large ascending branches. Leaves: Compound,pinnate , 3-6 pairs of leaflets.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Flat,winged . 6000-7000/kg. Seeds seem to store better than other Khaya spp. Nursery: Germination in 10-30 days. Percentage of germination about 80. Seedlings rather tender. Light shade should be provided. Planting stock: Transplants easy; one-year-old stripped plants have done well. Naturalregeneration : Plentiful in savannah regions,bu t quickly eliminated ifno t fire-protected.

7. Growth,yield : Inyoun g stage rather rapid growth,fall s off later and is subsequently low. Heights of 3.6 m in 4year s and 5.4-6 m in 6-7 years have been recorded.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Heavy Hypsipyla attack. Borers attack the trunk ofyoun g treeswhic h results in exudation of gum. Seeds liable to borer attack.Ver y subject to browsing. Tomuc h watering inth e nursery induces root rot.

9. Wood properties: Harder and heavier than other Khaya spp.;durable ;particular ­ lyresistan t to termites and fairly easy towork ;characteristi c figure.

10. Uses: Locally for building,coachwork ,furniture ,veneers ,interio r decoration.

11. Remarks:Khay a senegalensis grows to a good size inriparia n forest;i n dry savannah forest it isa short-holed tree and thewoo d ismuc h denser.

12. Evaluation: Khaya senegalensis hasprove d succesfully in Vietnam. Itha s been used inenrichmen t planting of woodland (Foret claire)i nth e lowlands on more or lesscompac t soils.

13. Literature: 28,70 ,111 , 173,195 . ito

73- Lagerstroemia speoioea Pers. Lythraceae Syn. L. floB-veginae (byTROUP ,1921 )

1. Name - ïndigenous_name: Wungu (Indonesia),bungu r (Malaysia),banglan g (Vietna

2. Area,ecology : Natural habitat from Australia,S.E . Asia,Sr i Lanka and China. The tree istypicall y found along the banks of rivers and streams and on low- lying swampy ground. However,i t is not always confined to such places,fo r instance inBurm a it is often scattered in themoiste r types of lower mixed deciduous forest and sometimes in evergreen forest. Deciduous tree.

3. Climate -Rainfall : In natural habitat on the average more than 1500m m an­ nually. Dryperio d about 3-4 months. Temgerature: Innatura l habitat the absolute maximum temperature varies from 35 to 48C an d the absolute minimum temperate varies from 2.2 to 18 C. Altitude:U p to 1200mete r above sealevel.

4. Soils:Severa l soil types.Grow s best on rich deep alluvial loam; generally requiresdeep ,fertil e humid soils.Als o occuring on soils covered with Imperata spp.No t suited to shallow permanent swampy soils.

5. Tree characteristics:Usuall y 25-30m high and 60-80 cm d.b.h., sometimes up to 45m high and 150c m d.b.h. Stem: Inth e open the bole is often crooked and the tree is low-branched. Bark: Greyt o light fawn-brown,smooth ;exfoliatin g in fairly thin irregular flakes. Crown: Ovale,dense . Root-system: In Java,rathe r superficial. Strongmai n root with suckers to 1.95 m depth. Inyout h good resistance against lack of oxygen.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Long-winged, light brown,fairl y hard. Often unfertile. 200.000 seeds/kg. Airtight storage for two yearspossible . Owing to the lightness of the seed and the small size of the young seedlings,direc t sow: is less suitable than the use of transplants from the nursery. Nursery: Germination capacity 30-40%. Germination starts after 12 days. For succesful sowing inth e nurseries,sligh t shade and very frequent water: are required during the germination period. Planting stock: Planted as stumps,(shootlengt h 5-10 cm,rootlengt h 10-20c i diameter root-collar 0.5-2.5cm) .Als o good results with slightly trimmed ljyear-ol dplants . Planting technique: In the open the bole becomes rather crooked, therefore narrow spacings of 2.5 x 1m are recommended. Suitable in mixture with fast growing light-demanders. In Indonesia good results inmixture d with Pteroca indicus and Swietenia mahogany. Also good mixtures with procera, Melia azadirach and Parkia biglobosa. Inpur e plantations underplanting wit Leucaena leucocephala or Salvia occidentalis preferable. Does not tolerate drought,espesiall y when young. Coppices well. Naturalregeneration : Factors influencing natural reproduction require furl study,bu t experiments carried out so far indicate that bare loose soil is favourable,an d that weed-growth ismos t unfavourable. Considerable amount: 141

of light are required and also the liability of young seedlings to drought has been alluded. Good natural reproduction isreporte d to have appeared in Burma, in an area where bamboos had flowered,whic h had been fire-protected for many years and then burnt after the flowering of the bamboos.

7. Growth,yield : Slow growth especially in the first year, 20 cmwhe n one year old. Subsequently rapid, 3m at the age ofthree .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Fruits often attacked by beetles (Ctenomones lagerstroemiae)an d caterpillars (Pyraldae). In the nursery sometimes Chrysomelidae attack. Inplantation s local attacks of cicades (Membracidae, Corticium salmonicolor) an d caterpillars (Spilonota semicanella)

9. Wood properties: Sp.gr . 0.58-0.81;rathe r strong and durable; sapwood absorbs preservatives readily;rathe r high shrinkage. Easily to season,saw , and polish; Heartwood resistant,bu t sapwood liable to powder-post beetles.

10. Uses: Good boat building timber; suitable for general building purposes, agricultural and domestic implements. Fairly handsome timber, sometimes figured,woul d probably make attractive furniture,ha s been used for panelling. Sulphate pulping and papermaking trials showed satisfactory success.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: I n South Vietnam Lagerstroemia angustifolia is a common feature inmois t semi-deciduous and in dry deciduous forests. In literature little isknow n about this species.Lagerstroemi a flosregina e isals o present in S.Vietnam ,bu t not as abundant as Lagerstroemia angustifolia. It is advised to carry out research on Lagerstroemia angustifolia first before trying Lagerstroemia speciosa. The latter could be suitable on Imperata-fields in mixture with fast growing light-demanders. The species has a good adaptability to soilbu t needs deep,fertile ,mois t soil for a favourable development. It will grow on swampy soils but doesno t attain fair sized dimensions and the bole is poorly shaped. Maybe itha s an opportunity in bamboo areas after gregarious flowering and subsequent burning. Under shelter of faster growing species the increment is smaller than inpur e plantations,bu t the form of the bole isbetter . The tree stands shade fairly and therefore is suitable formixin g with faster growing light-demanding species.Th e yield ofwoo d is rather small,bu t the wood is of good quality and the durability and strength are not inferior to teakwood.

13. Literature: 6, 23,36 ,49 ,58 ,60 ,61 ,64 ,68 ,71 ,103 ,110 ,114 ,115 ,134 , 186, 195,199 ,221 . 142

74. Leucaena leucoeephala Mimosaceae Leucaena glausa, Benth.

1. Name- Indigenou s name: Ipil-ipil (Philippines),wil d tamarind, horse-tamarind, west-indian lead tree;Kemlandinga n (Indonesia).

2. Area,ecology : Nativet otropica l Americaan dnaturalise d inman y other tropicalregion so fth eworld ,especiall y inmois t areasa tlo waltitudes .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Averag e annualrainfal l 400-800mm ,i narea swit h adis ­ tinctdr yperio d of4- 5months ,als o innon-seasona l areaswit ha considerable rainfall every month. InHawai i Leucaena isfoun d inarea swit h less than 1600m mannua lrainfall .I nSr iLank a however,i tgrow swithi nth e1600-250 Cir . rainfallzone . Altitude:I nSr iLank a Leucaena grows freely from sea-levelu pt oabou t75 0 meters. InHawai i Leucaena isrestricte d toelevation s below21 0meter s above sea-level.I nth ePhilippine s once established thespecie s growsan dregen ­ erates easily below 600m ,sometime s seen above 1000m .

4. Soils:Wid evariet yo fsoils ;prefer sdee p soils,wel l supplied withwater ; can tolerate acid soilsbu tprefer s neutralt oalkalin e soils.Require s good drainage,bu ti sadapte d torelativel y lowsoi l fertility.

5. Tree characteristics: Spineless large shrubo rsmal ltre eu pt o9 m i nheigh t and2 0c mi ndiameter .Commonl y growingt oa smalle r sizewit h slender branch Bark: Yellowisho rbrown ,fairl y smoothan dthin . Crown: Fairly light perennial foliage. Leaves: Bipinnate,lanceolat e leaflets.Mil d humus derived fromi timprov e the soilremarkably . Root-system: Deeproote d treeo rarborescen t shrub;o nsuitabl e places 5t o 6m depth ,i nmixtur e with teak 1.5t o2. 5m i ndepth . Rootnodules present.

6. Silviculture -Seed : 28.000 seedspe rkilogram . Keepsver ywel lfo rsevera l years.Matur e seedsma ycontai na smuc ha s95 %o fhar d seeds.Th einperviou s seed coatca nb ebroke n readilyb yho twater ,chemica lo rmechanica l treat­ ment. Before sowing,seed sca nb esoake d inwate ra t8 0C fo r2 minute san d then soaked inaerate d orrunnin g waterfo r2 days . After that seedsca nb e driedan dwil l soon germinate after sowing. InHawai ith emetho do ffeedin g the seedmixe d withmollasse st oanimal so nth erang e issometime s used. Ina nexperimen t 58%o fth eseed s were recovered inth efaeces .The yha da germination capacityo f 85%. Planting stock:Ofte n propagated from cuttings,bu tstump sar eals o used. Planting technique: Leucaena canb esow ndirectl y (infurrows ,broadcast ) orplante da sstumps .Seed so rplant s shouldb einoculate d with Rhizobiumt c give goodresults .I nHawai i 17-34kg so fsee dpe rhectar ear euse dfo r forageproduction .Th eseed sar esow n5 c mdee pi nrow s0.7 5m t o1. 2m apa ] When grownfo rfodder ,th efirs t cut(5-1 0c mabov e ground-level)ca nb eta ] 6 to9 month s after sowingan dth efollowin g cutsa tinterval so fabou t4 months.T oproduc e firewood,th eseed sar esow n inrow so f2 t o3 m apart , afterth egras sha sbee n burnt overo rth esoi lha sbee n ploughed. Inthi s casea rotatio no fa tleas t 3year si snecessary .Afte r cutting,th estum p 11+3

sprouts again and can be used foranothe r rotation. Inth e Philppines Leucaena leucocephala has been found very useful for afforestation of Imperata fields as a nurse crop ofmor e valuable timber species. It isreporte d that if fire can be kept out of the grass for about 2year s after the Leucaena leucocephala seed has been broadcast,th e young plants will grow rapidly through the grass and smother it;i n about 3year s there isa complete stand of leguminous shrubs.Th e usualmetho d is to burn the grass immediatelybe ­ fore the rainy season and to broadcast the Leucaena seed at the beginning of the rains.Whe n used as soil cover inplantations ,i t is sown either as a catch crop in a taungya rotation,o r simultaneously as an intercrop in pure stands, in which case it isnecessar y to cut back the Leucaena seedlings at the age of one year to prevent them from competing in growth with the tree seedlings. In Fiji-Islands Leucaena ismainl y used as a soil improver in a system of long fallow rotation. In Hawaii Leucaena is also used by beef ranchers in the pastures,generall y inmixtur e with grasses such as Panicum maximum. Moderate growing has frequently been continued for up to 6month s without damage. In Indonesia (Java)Leucaen a is often used inmixtur e with Tectona grandis. Natural regeneration: Leucaena seeds freely. Sometimes very difficult to eradicate; itma y become apest ,i fno t controlled.

7. Growth,yield : As a fodder crop Leucaena can yield about 12.5-22.5 /tons/ha/ year. In about 8year s Leucaena can attain a height of 10-13 m and a diameter of 25-37 cm. It israpidl y maturing,onc e mature the crop can be cut to about 1 meter above the ground at least 3month s before the dry season to promote the development of fresh green feed during the dry season. In the Philippines the growth inyout h is extremely rapid,plant s of twenty-six-months-old varied from 3 to 5c m ind.b.h . Itcoppice svigorousl y and the growth of coppice shoots is much more rapid than that of seedling plants.Th e shoots reach a height of 5m and a diameter of 5 cm in one year. One-year-old coppice coupes on well-drained soilwer e foundt o yield more than 90 stacked cubic meters per hectare, including brushwood of all sizes,whil e two-year-old-coupes yielded up to 114 stacked cubic meters per hectare of material large enough for fuel,givin g an annual production of 57 cm per hectare. When seeds are used,yiel d is somewhat less,bu t 200m of fire-wood per hectare can be obtained ina 5year srotation .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Natura l renegaration is often jeopardized by many insects attacking the seed. Livestock and wild life are very fond of the young plants and sometimes destroy whole plantations. Damping-offma y cause loss of some seedlings.

9. Wood properties: Sapwood distract from the heartwood,yellowis h white,hear t wood brown with darker streaks;hard ,heav y (sp.gr. 0.81-0.82, air-dry); strong,durable ,sapwoo d susceptible to powder-post beetles,heartwoo d isn't; easy to work.

10. Uses: Leucaena leucocephala isa usefu l shade and browse tree and when planted densely and pruned it is suitable as a soil cover and greenmanur e in tea, coffee,coco a and youngrubbe r plantations and as hedges. It is often conside­ red to have the advantages ofmaintainin g soilfertility ,preven t erosion and giving high yields of green matter. Inth e Philippines and Indonesia it is 144

appreciated forth eproductio no ffire-wood .Th eyoun g foliage isver y pala- pable,ric h inprotei nan dnutritions ,i nsom e countriesth eseed san dpod s are useda sconcentrates .Th efodde r is,however ,suitabl e only forruminant s (cows,sheep ,goats) ,wherea s iti stoxi ct omonogastri c animals,a shorse s and pigs.Th etoxit y iscause db ya nalkaloid ,mimosine ,presen t inth eleave s and seeds,whic h producesa diseas e inwhic hth eanimal s lose theirhair . Toproduc e Leucaenameal ,th eleave sar edrie d inth esu nan dpounde d into feedmills.Th ebar k isuse d fordyein g fishing nets. Seedsan dpod s sometimes usedfo rmakin g fancy basketsan dornaments .

11. Remarks:Becaus e Leucaena leucocephala seeds very freely,i ti ssometime s difficult toeradicate . InIndonesi a therefore,a relate d species,Leucaen a pulverulenta from Northern Mexicoan dth eSouther n United Statesha sbee n tried. Itdoe sno tsee d inmois t climatesan dca nb egrow n indens e rowsan d pruned inth esam ewa ya sLeucaen a leucocephala. When grafted onth elatter , it growswel lan ddevelop s intoa goo d shade tree.A thir d species,trie dfo r the samepurpos e inIndonési ei sL .glabrat a which ispropagate d bybu dgraf t Crosses between L.leucocephal a andL .glabrat aar euse dtoo .

12. Evaluation: Leucaenaca nb egrow ni npur eplantation s ori nmixtur e with other hard wood species.I ti sa light-demander ,bu ti sadaptabl e andtole ­ rated theshad eo flarg e trees.Leucaen a isals o suitablea scove r planto n eroded sites.Goo d fire-wood,als o useda sa fodde r crop. Leucaena seems suitable forafforestatio n ofImperata-fields .Whe npreviousl y brushedo r burnt over,airseedin go fLeucaen a could prove succesful inImperata-fields . Itcost s about thesam ea splantin g byhand ,bu ti tca nb eaccomplishe di n relatively less timewhe n covering large trackso fgrasslands .

13 Literature:39 ,67 ,71 ,167 , 176, 203.

75. Mae8opeis eminii Engl. Rhamnaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Musizi .

2. Area,ecology : Occurs from Liberiat oth eCamerouns ,alon gth eGul fo fGui n throughth eCong ot onorthwes t Tanzaniaan dth eNyanz a region ofKeny aan d Uganda. Found inKeny aa ta nelevatio no f165 0m ,occasionall y orlocall y frequent.I nUgand a chieflyo nplace swher e original treeswer eremoved ,a l on grassland atth eedg eo fth eforest . Introduced inJava ,Malaya ,Malaw ian dothe rcountries .

3. Climate -Rainfall : Primarilya tre eo fth ewette r forest areas,abov e 1400m mannually .

4. Soils:I nUgand ao ndr yan dsand y soils.I nMalay ai nlowlan do nalluvia l flats from granitic rocks.Well-draine d soils necessary. 145

5. Tree characteristics: Usually 15-27m inheight ,sometime su p to 45 m. Diameter range from 40-120 cm. Stem: Generally straight bole,clea r for 9-21 m. Buttresses,whe n present, usually short and blunt. Bark: Thick, silvery gray to almost white,coars e and deeply fissured. A cut orblaz e may vary incolo r frompal ere d to yellow-white. Crown: Deciduous,i nyout h rather flat,whe n older more rounded.. Leaves: Alternate to sub-opposite,glossy . 7.5-15 cm long and 2.5-5 cm broad, with widely spaced serrations.

6. Silviculture - Seeds: 700 seeds per kg. Storage seems possible formonths , provided the seeds are dry. Nursery: Germination capacity 75%i n about 4week s after sowing. Direct sowing or in beds. Planting stock: InUgand a 2-year-old striplings are used. Planting_technique: Planted when 10-15 cm tall at spacings of 2x2 m, 1x3m or 2x 3m . Thinnings are needed the second or third year.

7. Growth,yield : Quick growth especially inyouth . InAfric a on suitable sites 2 meters per year in height;o n Java after 9.5 years mean height of 20.8m and mean diameter of 27.7 cm.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Attac k by a borer,Monohammi s scalbiosus,i s reported in Congo.

9. Wood properties: The wood israte d as soft and light (sp.gr. 0.5 of12 % moisture content),bu t firm. It isreporte d to be generally stronger than most woods of the same weight class. Seasons fairly rapid. Sometimes tendency to split,war p and collapse in drying. Kiln schedule has been recommended. Not resistant to termites or fungi. Ittake s treatment with preservatives well. Easy to work and to finish to a smooth,lustrou s surface. Tendency to pick up inth e planing of quarter-sawn stock can be overcome by a 20 cutting angle. Itnail s and staines well,bu t thewoo d requires a filter. Pin knots often present,fla t sawn material may show amarke d waviness of the grain.

10. Uses: Very useful light hardwood. InUgand a used for construction ofmission s and native buildings. Suitable for furniture,joiner y and indoor construction, except where high-quality paint finish is essential. The fruits of Musizi con­ tain an edible oil. Sometimes the bark is used as a roofing material forna ­ tive huts, and it isuse d extensively as a native medicine.

11. Remarks: I nEast-Afric a it isbelieve d that Maesopsis eminii Engl, and another species later named Maesopsis berchemioides A. Chev. and occurring inWest - Africa are botanically synonymous. Their value for timber production differs greatly,fo r they decrease in size across the African continent from the east toth ewest .

12. Evaluation: Because Maesopsis eminii isa secundary species and ofprimar y im­ portance as a colonizer of grasslands it is suitable for trial in Imperata 146

cylindrica fields.Haesopsi semini i cannot stand heavy weed competition, therefore iti snecessar y toclea r smallpatche s inth eImperat a fields before plantingan dt ocarr you tcleaning sunti lth etre ei sabl et oresist .

13. Literature:7 ,9 ,68 ,70 ,106 ,107 ,138 ,190 , 202.

76. Melaleuca leucadendron L. Myrtaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:gela m (Malaysia),kajuputi h (Indonésie).

2. Area,ecology : Northern Australia through theMala y Archipelagoan dPeninsul a toBurma . InMalaysi a Melaleuca leucadendron occursa sa scattere d treei n swamp forest betweenold ,raise d seabeache san di sa characteristi c feature ofth edee p seasonal swampso fth ecoasta l alluvial flatsbehin d thesand y beachesan dth emangroves .Th eundergrowt h accumulates dense, inflamable masseso fdea d tissue whichar ereadil y fired indr yweather . Fires probably occur most yearsbu tintens e fires certainly roar throughth efores t every3 to4 years .Melaleuc a isfire-resistant ,s oaccordingl y fireha sprevente d thedevelopmen t ofothe r speciesan dcreate d analmos t pure Melaleuca fire climax withassociate s asclimbin g ferns (Stenochlaena spp.)an dsedge s (Scleri a spp.) . Without fire sucharea swoul d probably have developed fronar . initiallo wcommunit y throughon eo falmos t pure Campnosperma macrophyllat o oneo fcomparativel y poor shallow peat swamps containing tree speciesa s Calophyllumretusum ,Cratoxylo n arborescensan dElaeocarpu s griffithii. InVietna m asimila r situation hasbee n noted. Melaleuca isfairl y dominant inth eswamp s behindth emangrov e forests,ofte n associated with Livistona chinensis,Eugeni a tinctoriaan dothe r species.Mos t commono nclaye y soils. A clayey soilha st ob epresen t inorde rt oenabl e Melaleuca agoo d rootes ­ tablishment andt oprotec t theroot s from dyingof fwhe n firesoccur .O npea l soilsAlstoni a spathulata establishes itself,followe db ya stag eo ffern s as Stenochloena palustris enPolybotry a appendiculata. Melaleuca andAlstoni i arepresen t under such circumstancesbu tonl y inisolate d tracksa tpea t layerso f0.5- 2m thick ,sometime su pt o6 m thick ,bu tthi s seemsto othic k under such conditions Melaleuca remains rather stuntedan di smuc h lessvalu i Onpea t soilswher eth erisk so ffire sar egreat ,root smigh t bedamage dbe ­ cause theyar eno tabl et ostan dth ehig h temperatures. Besidesth epea tswa i Melaleuca leucodendron hasbee n foundto oi nth esavanna han dth ewoodlan d forestso fVietnam .Cultivate d inman y partso fth etropic san dsubtropics .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Abou t 2000t o300 0m mannually . Altitude:A tJav a between sea-levelan d50 0meters .

4. Soils: Swamp y soilsbu tals oo ndr ysand y soilso fol drase dbeaches .

5. Tree characteristics: Inswam p forest reaching 21m i nheigh tan d4 0c md. b Normallyo fsmalle r size. Stem:Ofte n crookedo rspirall y twisted. Bark: Soft,whitis h shedding incoarse ,elongated ,paper y flakesan dstrip ­ ping easily fromth estem .Thic kan dlaminat e withmuc h cork. 147

Crown: Narrow,greyis h green. Leaves: Simple,spirall y arranged, often slightly curved,contai n much oil. Root;sy_stem:Root s are susceptable to fire,bu t an abundant crop ofroot - suckers arises after fire.

6. Silviculture - Seed: 17millio n per kg. Stores welldr y in sealed tins. Pretreatment of seeds by soaking in water during 21hours .Germinatio n capa­ city 70%.Storag e of dry seeds is possible without serious decrease ofviabi ­ lity. After 1yea r germination capacity still is50% . Nursery: Sowing mixed with charcoal in full light;som e protection against rainfall isrequired . After 6 days germination starts.Whe n 2-3 cm high, seedlings are transplanted in bamboo-pots or inbed sa t a spacing of about 12 cm. Planting stock: When 10-15 cm high planted as balled plants.Als o stumps are used, (root-length 20cm , shoot-length 10cm ,root-colla r diameter 0.5-1cm) . Planting technique: In Indonesia in a taungya system. Spacing 2x 1m ,usual ­ ly with Leucaena leucocephala as intercrop. Inth e second year usually pruned 50c m above ground-level. When the leaves are derived continuously, manuring is necessary. Natural regeneration: Although many young trees are undoubtedly killed by fire the species produces abundant root suckers and coppice shoots to regene­ rate an area at the expense of other woody and herbaceous species present. In swampy forest it istherefor e strongly recommanded that the area is inten­ sively burnt after exploitation. Afterwards young seedlings and saplings must beprotecte d from firewhe n about 5c m in diameter. However,th e firing must be carried out towards the expected end of a period of dry weather and not at the beginning since a good soaking after a satisfactory fire appears to be essential to obtain adequate regeneration. The seed naturally doesno t germi­ nate very easily.

7. Growth,yield : The rate of growth of Melaleuca isno t defenitively known. In Malaysia sample plot data indicate that it takes six to seven years to reach a diameter of about 7.5 cm and a height of about 9m . Melaleuca forests ifun ­ dermanagement ,use d for charcoal and firewood,principally ,th e latter on a felling cycle of about ten years.Howeve r this seemsto o short in the mature forests,an d it isrecommende d to use a rotation of at least 20years ,unti l more growth data are available. It is local practice in Malysia to cut the 2-3 best stems from a stool,i f all are cut the stump dies or loses its vigour. Most popular size for charcoal is 20c m d.b.h. It isals o recommended to cut the Melaleuca treesbelo w 30 cm from the ground in order to limit thepossi ­ bility of a large number ofwea k coppice shoots. In Indonesia Melaleuca is often used for kajuputih-oilproducte d by the leaves.Therefor e itha s tob e regularly pruned inorde r to maintain a brushlike character of the tree. After planting the collection of the leaves can start from the second year onwards; leafproductio n for kajuputih-oil can be secured for severaldecennia . An annual leafproductio n of 5to n per ha is possible,whic h delivers about 55 liters of oil.Th e oil content of the leaves appears to be the highest in a relatively dry climate.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Stumps are attacked by ants. 148

9. Wood properties:Har d andmoderatel y heavy (sp.gr 0.75-0.86). Iti sap tt o splitan dwar p badly indryin g andver y careful seasoning isnecessary ; strong;repute d tob edurabl e incontac t withth eground . Rather difficult to work,bu tca nb ebrough t toa smoot h finish with sharptools .

10. Uses:Th etimbe r issuitabl e forsleepers ,house-post san dfence-posts .I t has been tested aspulpwood ,bu tdoe sno tsho wpromise s forth epurpose . Itmake sa goo d firewood,althoug h iti softe n difficult tosplit . Also used to prepare charcoal. The barkha sbee n investigated asa sourc eo fcor kan dappear st ob epromisin j material forman y purposesa sinsulating ,stuffin g cushions,pillows ,babie s mattresses.Us ea sa stuffin g forlife-belt san da sa linoleu m cork hasbee n suggested. Locally iti suse d inboat-building . Fruitsar esometime s usedi n nativemedicines . Kajuputih-oili sdistille d fromth eleave s which arepöund e and boiled inwater . Itusuall y contains 50-65%o fcineo lan dth eBritis h Pharmacopoeia stipulatesa minimu mo f 45%. The cajaput oili suse d fortreatmen t ofski n diseasesan di nliniment sfo r rheumatism andneuralgia . Itals o producesa feelin go fwarmth ,increase s the heart beatan dma yinduc e excessive sweating.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Melaleuc a leucadendron isno ta commercia l timber tree,bu tbe ­ causei ti sadapte d tocertai n difficult sitesa sswamp so ralkalin e soils, because itswoo d isservicabl e forman yroug hbuildin g purposes,fue lan d charcoalan dbecaus e itproduce s severalmino r products ofsom e importance for domesticus eo ra ssmal lvillag e industries,it spotentia l value fcr reafforestation closet ocoasta lsettlement san dreforestatio no fdegrade d soilsmus tb erecognized . Inth eKhme r Republic atth ebas eo fth e"Chaîn e de 1'Elephant"Melaleuc a treesar efoun d inth egrassland-stepp e onpseudo ­ podzols.Th esoil s havea mediu m drainagean dth evegetatio n isver y poor, probably because ofth epresenc e oftoxi c substances onth esoil .Mayb ethe i are possibilities forMelaleuc a leucadendron inth egrassland-steppe si n Vietnam,althoug h altitude couldb eon eo fth elimitin g factors. Swampsi nVietna m have been heavily destroyed byherbicide-sprayings . Reforestation hast ob edone .Burning ,especiall ya tplace s whereth epea t layeri sgrowin g toothic kt omak e establishmento fMelaleuc a possible,co u be carried outan dth eare a couldb ereforestate d bydirec t seeding orb yu of stumps.Whe nth eare ai sno taccessible ,air-seedin g mightb ea possibi l After sowingo rstumpin g fireprotectio ni sneeded ,til l tree-fire-resistan isreached .

13. Literature:23 ,36 ,46 ,68 ,147 ,180 ,195 , 217.

77. Mesua ferrea. L. Guttiferai

1. Tradean dindigenou sname :penang a (Malaysia),ironwoo d (SriLanka) ,bosn e (Khmer Republic),Va p(Vietnam) ,naho r (India). 149

2. Area,ecology : Throughout Malaysia,S.W . India,Sr i Lanka,Java ,Burma . Characteristically found inmois t evergreen or semi-evergreen forest. Either scattered or inmor e or less pure groups or belts of more or less large ex­ tent. In India often associated with species as Terminalia spp, Lagerstroemia flos-reginae,Toon a ciliata,Sterculi a alata, Dipterocarpus spp.,Shore a spp. and others. Mesua ferrea is an evergreen shade bearer. When young it tolerates prolonged intense shade;whe n fullgrown it tolerates plenty of light and evenmuc h sun­ shine. In youth it may be seriously affected by drought when grown in the open. Coppices well,bu t the shoots are weak.

3. Climate -Rainfall :Mea n annualrainfal l 2000-5000 mm. Dry season less than twomonths . Température: Absolute maximum shade temperature 35 C to 39 C.Absolut e minimum temperature HI to 15 C. Altitude: From 200 to 1000mete r above sea-level.

4. Soils: Commo n and often gregarious on thin-soiled, excessively drained ridges; less common and usually as scattered trees on flat and low undulating country in the plains. InMalaysi a on limestone. On granitic sandy alluvium of good depth and drainage,dislikin g stiff clay.

5. Tree characteristics:Medium-size d to large tree. Up to 24m in height and 70c m d.b.h. Stem: Often buttressed at thebase . Bark: Dull brown,fairl y thin,elongate ,adheren t scaly,irregula r fissures. Crown: In the open deep,narrowl y conical,dense ,entirel y whitish pink; Leaves: Elliptic,gloss y and intensely white below.

6. Silviculture - Seed: 300-400pe r kg. Very oily; seeds loose their viability quickly. Can be stored in sacks under shelter for ayear . Nursery: Sown innurser y under shade at a spacing of 5x 5cm ;whe n 3month s old the seedlings are lined out 10x 10c m apart. Planting stock: Planted naked rooted orballe d when one year old (30c m high), or at the age of 2 (75 cm high). Stumps do not thrive well. Planting technique: Seedling s must be surrounded by leguminous cover plants (Leucaena îeucocephala,Tephrosi a spp.)an d a shade bearing species such as orientalis. They can also be planted as understorey to a fastgrowing light demanding species such as Tectona grandis. Natural_regeneration: In forests in India where Mesua ferrea occurs itgene ­ ratesmor e profusely than almost any of its associates,partl y because of its abundant seeding and partly owing to the capacity of the seedlings for standing and evenrequirin g a considerable amount of shade.Ther ear e two important factors influencing the natural regeneration proces: the dominant condition of the seed bearers and the freedom of seedlings from suppression by a dense undergrowth or masses ofclimbers .

7. Growth,yield : Inal l stages slowgrowing ;mea n annual diameters increment only about 1.2 cm. even in the most favourable circumstances. Average hight at 25year s of age 5meters .Expecte d rotation fora diameter of 60 cm is 150years . 150

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Th eseed sar eofte n destroyed bypig san d porcupines.I ncertai n localities inIndi ath etree sar esubjec t toth e attackso fwha t isbelieve d tob ea roo t fungus,whic h kills themi ngroups .

9. Wood properties:Ver y hard;heav y hardwood (sp.gr. 0.9-1.1);ver y durable; very strong.Require s careful seasoning,stack s shouldb eweighte d topre ­ vent warping.No tto oeas y towork ,becaus eo fit sinterlocke d andspira l grain.Bu tca nb ebrough t toa smoot h finishan dtake sa goo d polish.

10. Uses: Constructional timberi nsmal l sizesan dlarg e baulkes,als o usedfo r doorsan dflooring ;particularl y valued fornatura l crooks inboat-building . Alsouse d forrailwa y sleepers.Board s andplank s liable tosplittin gan d checking.

11. Remarks:It sregula r crownan ddecorativ e flowersan dleaves ,mak eth etre e good ornamental.I nIndi a iti sa sacre d tree.I nIndi ath eseed sar e threadedo na thi npiec eo fspli t bambooan dlit ;the n they burn likea candl « Thisi spossibl e through thehig hoi lconten t ofth eseeds .

12. Evaluation:Mesu a ferreaha sbee n planted succesfully innorther n Vietnam. Itrequire sfla t gently undulating orhill y ground,bu tdoe sno tstan dlow - lying badly drained soils.I ti sa usefu l hardwood species.Ca nb etrie d for enrichment planting inmois t evergreen ormois t semi-deciduous forests, seemsals o suitablea sa nunderstore y offastgrowin g light-demanding species sucha steak .No tsuitabl e forcomplet e planting.

13. Literature:46 ,71 ,119 ,195 ,203 , 221.

78. Miohelia champaoa. L Magnoliaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name: Chempak a (Malaysia),tjempak a (Indonesia).

2. Area,ecology :Widesprea d inal lcountrie so ftropica l Asiao nlo wan dmedi u highmountain s inevergree n dense forest.I nVietna m occuringa tth ebas eo f hills;als oi nswam p forest inth eregio no fth eDonnai-rive r (Haute Cochin- china)Ha sals o been present inPle iKu ,bu tgraduall y these forests haved i appearedb yman .A moder n light-demander. Coppices well. Introduced inEas t Africa,Jamaic aan dothe r countries.

3. Climate- Rainfall :Mea n annualrainfal lo fabou t 2250t o500 0mm . Temperature:Absolut emaximu m temperature 35 to4 0C an dabsolut e minimum temperature 3 to1 0C . Altitude:50 0t o150 0mete r above sea-level.

4. Soils:Require smoist ,dee p fertilesoils . 151

5. Tree characteristics: Medium to large tree up to 33m tallan d 70m d.b.h. Stem: Long and cylindrical but often branched. Bark: Grey and smooth. Crown: Cylindrical or conical. Leaves: Qblcr.g lanceolate to narrowly ovale.

6. Silviculture - §sfd: 10.000 seeds per kg. Dark brown and angular, covered with a pink fleshy arillus. Oily,kee p very badly,ofte n less than twoweeks . Nursery: Direct seeding often fails.Sowin g in nurseries requires good shade and frequent watering to keep soil constantly moist,withou t flooding. Planting stock: Nursery seedlings of 12t o 15month s canb eused . Field planting can be done either with stumps (generally used)o rwit h whole plants. Planting_techr.ique: Rathe r difficult to plant succesfully,becaus e the species isno t very adaptable. It is susceptable to fire damage so it should not ordinarily be mixed with fire-tolerant species as e.g. .

7. Growth,yield : Has been introduced in Jamaica at lower altitudes on shale and limestone soils at a spacing of 2.4 x 2.4 m. Early development is rapid. InUgand a 0.6-3.9 m height-growth peryear . Normally an average height of 2.5 m at 5year s of age.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Logs and converted timbers are liable to insect attack. Susceptible to fire damage.

9. Wood properties: Soft tomoderatel y hard,moderatel y light, (sp.gr. 0.5 12%moistur e content). Little difficultie with seasoning. The logs should be converted green and then stacked and well ventilated shed. Sapwoo d not durable;heart-woo d isrefractor y to treatment;eas y to cut and saw; finishes to a smooth surface and takes a good polish.

10. Uses: Has proved suitable for plywood,althoug h it is not a decorative timber. Excellent for light furniture,locall y used for boat-building,hous e construc­ tion and other works.Als o used for fuelwood. Seedsyiel d a scented oil and flowers are usee for perfume.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: only few plantation trial data have been recorded; seems rather difficult to plant succesfully. May be considered for enrichment planting of moist evergreen forest or moist,deep,fertil e soils.

13. Literature: 56 ,71 ,73 ,195 ,221 . 152

79. Oohroma lagopus Sw. Bombacaceae

1. Name -Tradename:Balsa .

2. Area,ecology : Inlowlan d forestso fCentra l America,Wes t Indies,Norther n South America from Mexicot oBolivia . Essentially iti sa second-growt h tree; springsu pspontaneousl yo ncleare d land;i nman yplace s itform s almosta pure crop.Muc h tried asa nexotic ,bu tofte n grows slowly,producin g heavier wood whichi sinacceptabl ea scommercia l Balsa.

3. Climate -Rainfall : 1250-3000mm .annually ,dr yperio d of2- 5months . Altitude: 0-1000m ;fo rth ebes tresult s itmus tb egrow na tlo waltitude s (ÏÖ0-5ÖÖm abov e sea-level).

4. Soils:Occurrin g onvariou s soiltypes .Prefer s deep rich alluvial soils,wel. 1 drained. Sufficient soildepht s essential.

5. Tree characteristics: 30-45c mi ndiam. ,occassionall y more,18-2 4m tall . Stem: Straight,cylindrical ,abou t8-1 0m . Bark: White,grey ,smooth . Crown: Largean dspreading ,sparsl y branched, branchlets tufted-puberulous. Leaves: Alternate,simple ,til l4 0c mlon gan d3 5 c mwide .

6. Silviculture -Seed : 100.000seed spe rkg . Keep wellfo ra yea ri nclose d methalcontainers . Nursery: Without treatment germination %:10% ;soakin g inboilin g waterabou l J houran dsowin gdirectl y afterwards givesa germinatio no f 70%. Sowing inpot san dgivin g fullsun ,th eseed s will germinate within 10days ; thenth eseedling sar egive n light shade.Th eseed sar esown ,eithe r inboxe : ori npot so fbambo ocu tlengthwis et ofacilitat e unpotting. Sowingi sdon eo nfine ,sterilize d clayey-sandy soil (owingt oth egrea t risko fdamping-of fo fth eseedlings) ,wit ha sprinkling ofDD T(owin gt ot h risko finsec t attacks). Planting_stock: Transplanted toth esit ea tth eag eo f4 months ,whe nth e seedlingsar e2 0c mhigh .Shoul d bedon e ball-planted,becaus e theseedling s dono tstan d transplanting withnake droots . Planting technique: Terrain mustb eweed-cleane d andburned . Planted inhoi « of3 0x 3 0x 3 0c ma tspacing so f4 x 4 o r5 x 5 m . Very susceptiblet oroo i damage.Th etaungy a systemca nb euse d becauseth eyoun g plants tolerateso i lateral shade duringth efirs ttw oyears ,provide d that weeding iscarrie d out twicea yea r inth efirs ttw oyear s ora protectiv e leguminous intercro; sucha sTephrosi a Candidai splanted . Inth efirs t yearno tquit e capable tocompet e with weedgrowth,s o2- 3cle a ingsar enecessary . Inth esecon d yearn ofurthe r cleaningsar eneeded .A t spacingso f4 x 4 m o rmor en othinning sar eneeded ;i nclose r spacings plantationsar ethinne d when4 year sol dtil l40 0tree spe rha .I nth eear l stageso fdevelopmen t cover cropsa sTephrosi a Candidaan dCajanu s indicus can givea littl e shade,whic h favoursth edevelopmen t ofbalsa . Natural_regeneration:Th efirs t crop isclear-cutted ,the nth eterrai ni s burned,whic h givesa goo d natural regeneration. 153

7. Growth,yield : Fast growing species. Inth e first year 2m tallan d 11c m d.b.h. second year 5m tall and 15 cm d.b.h. Maximum-sized when 12-15 years old,bu t at an age of 10year s decaying processes already start.Normally the balsa tree is in the best condition for cutting when 6 to 10year s old,whe n it may have reached a height of 18-27 m and 30-90 cm indiameter .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Inplantation s bark damage by deer and other animals,cause s mortality of the trees.Timbe r is peeled after felling to re­ duce worm damage.Ordinaril y a great loss and degrade of lumber results when balsa log-rafts are several weeks enrout e to themills .Ambrosi a beetle pene­ trates into the wood that is above water and the hot sun checks the logs deep­ ly,s o frequently one-third to one-half of the log has become worthless. Therefore rafts should be shaded.

9. Wood properties: Balsa provides attractive physical properties on basis of its strenght/weight ratio. The density range (0.06 to 0.41 gr/cm or even more)i sdependin g largely on the age of the balsa tree when cut.Whe n about 8 years old,i t begins to develop a light pink heartwood,bu t this is not a serious defect. However,a t about 10year s the wood on the outside of the trunk begins to harden and in another 2-3 years the tree develops awater - soaVed heart,th e density increases and the wood begins to decay. Normal weight range of cut lumber is between 0.09 to 0.26 gr/cm ,normall y supplied inrando m lengths averaging under 1.5 m and widths average about 12.5 cm. Balsa is easy to dry even in the wet season. Once dried it doesno t readily take up large quantities ofmoisture . Air- drying takesa little longer than kiln-drying,bu t is lessexpensiv e and more uniform. Air-dried logs under shed roofs have amoistur e content of of 15%i n 1-3 weeks.Kiln-drie d logs have a moisture content of 8% in 4-5 days,bu t this increases quickly to 14-15%whe n removed fromkiln . Therefore direct use of the lumber in any factory isnecessary . Balsa can be rendered non-absorbent by a coating process,suc h as painting.

10. Uses: The wide weight range is a handicap in the marketing and use ofbalsa . Itsprincipa lattractio n for stressed applications isunde r compressive loading where it acts as a passive crushable material with remarkable proper­ ties of initial shock absorption and subsequent recovery. Another useful pro­ perty of balsa is its behaviour as an insulator against not only heat but also vibration and electricity;therefor e much used asa thermal insulator,parti ­ cularly inrefrigeration . For some purpose the highest weight wood is desired, for greater strength medium weight wood is called for. The heaviest,woo d (0.23 to 0.41 gr/cm )i s usable,bu t not for the purposes forwhic h balsa is ordinarily desired.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Require s fertile,mois t soils,especiall y alluvialrive r deposits. Optimum in 1500-200m m rainfall zone and at 300-800meter s above sea-level. May be considered for complete planting or in taungya planting provided weed cleanings inth e first years are carried out ora protecting leguminous inter­ crop is planted. 154

13. Literature:18 ,62 ,71 ,2m ,219 .

80. Ootomeles swnatrana Miq. Datiscaceae

1. Tradean dIndigenou snam e: Binuang ,benuang ,winuan g (Indonesia).

2. Area,ecology :Fro m Sumatra (Indonesia)t oPapu aan dth eSolomon san dnorth ­ wardst oth ePhilippines .Rainfores t tree commonnea r riverso nric halluvi c soilofte n forming pure standso nth ebank so fth emor e sluggish streams.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Meanannua lrainfal l of2000-400 0mm ,dr yperio d less then2 months . Altitude:Fro m sea-levelu pt o60 0m ;i nSaba hu pt o72 0m .

4. Soils:Grow swel lo nfla t alluvial soils,subjec t toseasona l floodinges ­ peciallynea rth ebank so frivers .I nswamp s mounding might reduce themor t lityrat ean dproduc e evena mor e evengrowth .

5. Treecharacteristics :Larg e tree,ove r 54m i nheight ,diamete r sometimes exceeding 1.80m Stem: Large buttressesu pt o4. 5m ,clea n bole of2 1m o rmore ,goo d form. Bark:Thick ,exfoliatin g inlittle ,lon g flakes,gre ybrown . Crown: Light,half-spherical ,widel y horizontal branched. Leaves:Simple .

6. Silviculture -Seed : 5000-11.000 fruitspe rkg .Ver y smallseeds . Nursery_:Sowin g isdon e inbed s withth ebotto m placed inwater . Immediate sowing after collection givesa germinatio n percent of40 ,sowin g after 60day so fcollectio n 25an dafte r 90day so fcollectio n 0.Th esmal lsee c shouldb emixe d with fine sand.Germinatio n starts aftertw oweeks .Whe n 1-2c mhig h transplanted under cover inbed so rbambo o pots. Plantingstock : Seedlingso f10-1 5c mhig har eused . Planting_technique:A clos e spacing seemst ob emor e suitable duringth e initialstage so fplan t establishment.No tsensitiv e tofire .

7. Growth,yield :Fas t growing light-demanding species.Canop y closurei n 1-1.5 years.Self-prunin g isquit e good. Weedingno tnecessary .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities : Sapwood issusceptibl et oLyctu s attack. Timberi sals o liablet otermit ean dambroosi a beetle attacks.

9. Wood properties: Soft;sp.gr . 0.3-0.5;brittl e heartu sa mos t seriousd < seasons slowlywit h severe degrade,especiall y inth eheartwoo d zone;de j causedb ychecking ,splittin gan ddistortion ,kiln-dryin g issuggeste db ' dryingi sdifficul t evenb ymil d schedule;perishable .No tdurabl ebu te 155

to treat with preservatives;shrink san dwarp s rather heavy. Splitslittle ; easyt omanage .Whit e depositsi nth etimbe r tend tochi p planerknives . Stainsan dpolishe s satisfactorely,nail smoderatel y well.

10. Uses: Suitable forback san dcore so fplywood ;packir.g-cases ,lo wqualit y joinery,ligh t construction works. Almost certainly suitable forchip -an d fibre-board manufacture

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Octomele s sumatranai sno tnativ e toVietnam . Iti sa light - demanding speciesan dshowe d tob ea fas t grower.Onl yfe wplantation s trials have beenmade ,bu ti tseem st ob ea promisin g species.Ca nb etrie d in ri­ parian forestsi nth elowland so nfla t alluvial soilso fth emor e sluggish streams. Overhead light seemsnecessary ,s ocomplet e planting seemst ob eth ebes t method. Itmigh t provet ob ea goo d chip-an dfibre-boar c supplier.

13. Literature:23 ,36 ,49 ,107 ,130 , 183.

81. Peltophorum ptevooarprum (D.C.)Backer . Caesalpiniaceae Syn. P. ferrugineum (Deene)Benth . Syn. P. inerme (Benth)Llanos . Syn. P. inerme (Roscl)Naves .

1. Name-Tradename : Soga,kadj udjuwa h laru (Indonesia),Trase k (Khmer), May dom trasek (Laos), Limxet,Hoan g linh (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology :A nativ eo fSr iLanka ,Ind o China,Andamar.s ,Malaya ,Indonesi a and NorthAustralia ,fro m sea-levelu pt o90 0m .Mainl y found onrock yan d sandy coast,jus t behind themangroves . Widelycultivate d inth etropic sa savenu etre ean di nth egarden sfo rorna ­ ments. Introduced among othersi nEas tAfrica ,Indi aan dBurma .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Suite d todr ydistrict swit ha nannua lrainfal lo fa t least 1000mm .Ca nstan d somedrought .

4. Soil:Prefer srock yan dsand y coast justbehin d mangroves. Itgrowe swel lo n anypoo r soil.

5. Tree characteristics:A larg ehandsom e evergreentree ,2C-2 5m i nheigh tan d 40-60c mi ndiameter . Stem:Rathe r sinuouswit ha clea r boleo f1 5m ;i tcoppice swell . Crown: withgracefu lleave san dflowers . 156

6. Silviculture -Seed : 11.000-18.000 seeds/kg. Seed extraction islabou r inten­ sive. After soakingth esee d canb esow n directly. Germinatiincapacit yi s low. Planting stock: Established bystump san deasil y propagated from cuttingso f largesize . Planting technique:Ca nb esow n directly orb yusin g nursery stock.I nJav a a spacing of2 x 2 m i snormall y when interplanted withmahogan y (Swietenia macrophylla). Naturalregeneration : Regenerates freely innature .

7. Growth,yield : Fast growing tree.O ngoo d ground amea n annualgrowt hi n height of1. 8m .I nSr iLank aver y fastgrowing ,reachin g aheigh to f9 m i n 3years .I nZanziba ro npoo r soilsa mea n annualgrowt h inheigh t of0.3-1. 5n

8. Pests,disease san dcalamitie s: Attacke db yborers ,i nmai n steman dbranche s InMalay a attacked byth ewoun d parasite Ganoderma pseudoferreum.

9. Wood properties:Hoo d light reddish brown;moderatel y hard;heav y sp.gr. (0.58)0.85-0.9 5 (1.10);moderatel y durable;no tresistan t toinsec t attack.

10. Uses: Wood suitablefo rconstructiona l purposes,furniture ,cabine t making and turnery. Wood largely usedfo rbo xwoo dan dfuel .

11. Remarks:Grow si ndens e Imperata vegetation. InMalay a smothered Imperatai n the longrun . Thebar k contains tanninsan ddyes .

12. Evaluation: Species suited tocomplet e planting onmoderat et opoo r soilsf r sea-levelu pt o90 0m an da moderat e rainfall (>1000 mm). Good characteristi as avenuean dornamenta l tree.Th ewoo d isno tver y valuable.

13. Literature:38 ,102 ,103 ,l<+7 ,167 ,192 , 195.

82. Pentacme siamensis (Miq.)Kurz . Dipterocarpaceai Syn. Pentacme suavis A.D.C. Syn. Shovea siamensis Miq.

1. Name- Trade-name : Ingyin (Burma),rang ,mai-pa u (thail.),reang-phno m(kh m Ka chacxan h (Vietnam),Tema kbukit .

2. Area,ecology :A tre eo fth ewoodlan d (scrub indaing forest)an ddr ydecid t forestso fBurma ,Thailan dan dInd o China.Ma yb efoun d sometimesi nfairl j moist typeso fforest . Till 1100m .Th etre ei sa stron g light-demander.Th emos t xerophilousdip l rocarpo fth eInd oMalaya n region. 157

Climate -Rainfall :Annua lrainfall : 750-2500ram o rmore ;wit h 3-5dr ymonths . Temgerature: Absolute max. temperature: 37-43C ,absolut e min. temperature: 2^10eC.

4. Soil:Mos t common onlateric ,furthe r ondr ysandston e formations andsome ­ timeso nre dclay .I nVietna m onLithosols ,o nrathe r deepbasalti c soilso n schist,an dals oo nbadl y eroded soils.I ti sa nindicato r species ofpoo r soils. Also found inperiodicall y inundated localities.

5. Tree characteristics: Large deciduous,usuall y gregarious tree,reachin ga height of3 0m o rmor ean da diamete r of10 0c mo rmore .I tcoppice s freely. Root^sYgtem: Long taproot anda robus t root-system.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Germinates soon after falling andwil lno tkee pan ytime . Natural_regeneration: Thetre e regenerates freely,bu ti nyear so fdeficien t rainfallth eseedling sar eknow nt odi efro m drought.I nThailan d notsatis ­ factory regenerating when fires occur every year.

7. Growth,yield : Growth dependso nth esoils .Attainin ga diamete r of4 0c mo n good,dee psoils .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :

9. Wood properties:Woo d very hard; sp.gr.0.9 1a t15 %moistur e content.

10. Uses: Wood much indeman d forbuildin g purposes,heav y construction,boats , wagons,sleepers ,poles ,toolhandles ,etc . Sometimesa hos t forLaccife r laccaea ninsect ,tha tproduce slac .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Species suited toa syste mo fnatura lregeneration ;growt ho n very poor soilsa swel la so nbette r soils.Th ewoo d isver yvaluable .

13. Literature:87 ,143 ,180 ,193 ,197 , 203.

83. Pinu8 caribaea Morelet. Pinaceae Syn. P. elliottii, P. hondurensis Loock.

1. Name- Trade-name : Honduraspine ,Caribbea n pitchpine .

2. Area,ecology :P .caribae ava rbahamensi so nth eBaham aan dCaico s Islands, from sea-levelu pt o6 0m .P .caribae ava rcaribae ao nwester n Cubaan dth e 158

Pinos Island from 50m up to 500m . P. caribaea var hondurensis from southern Mexico tillNicaragu a from sea-level up to 900m . The species forms innatur e often pure stands,o r is found scattered on savannes. The species isa light-demander. Succesfully introduced ina great number of countries,amon g others,Venezuela , Surinam,Trinida d and Tobago,Jamaica ,Sierr a Leone,Eas t Africa,Unio n of South-Africa, India,Malaya ,Indonesia ,Philippines ,Queensland ,Wester n Australia,Fiji .

Climate -Rainfall :P . caribaea var bahamensis: Annualrainfal l 750-1300 mm. Dry season of 6-7months . P. caribaea var caribaea:Annua l rainfall: 1200-1600mm . Dry season of 6mont h P. caribaea var hondurensis:Annua l rainfall: 960-3560 mm. Dry season of 2-6 months. Temperature: P. caribaea varbahamensis :mea n temperature of the hottest month 28C ,mea n temperature coldest month: 22 C,absolut e minimum and maximum tem­ perature: 15 and 31C . P. caribaea var caribaea:mea n year temperature 24-27 C,mea n temperature hot­ testmonth' .2 8C ,mea n temperature coldest month 22C ,temperatur e extremes: 12°an d 34°C. P. caribaea var hondurensis:Mea n year temperature 21-27C , temperature ex­ tremes: 7 and 37C .

4. Soil: Generally grows well on a great variety of soils;moistur e provision ismor e important than composition of the soil. P. caribaea var bahamensis: pH 7.5-8.5. In naturalrang e of distribution the underground consists of coral reef. The soils are porous,well-drained , shallow and poor with ground water level at 60 cmbelo w the surface. P. caribaea var caribaea: pH 4.5-6.0. Shallow,bu twell-draine d lateritic soils and shallow sandy soils,saturate d with water inth ewe t and very dry in the dry season. P. caribaea varhondurensis : In natural range of distribution on acid soils (pH4.0-6.5 )i n situo r sedimentated and optimum growth onmoderatel y furtil« well-drained soils. Belize: I n coastal plain on leached alluvial soils,sand ' loam,wit h at a depth of 1-1.5 m an impermeable claylayer. Inhill y landscapi on deep weathered sandy soils of good drainage.No t on limestone. Guatamala: On well-drained strongly weathered limestones withmanganes e con­ cretions,a depth of 0.5-1 m and moderately acid. On lower altitudes on less well-drained, shallow (40 cm),aci d soils.Her e growth isretarde d with a superficialy rootsystem.

5. Tree characteristics: A tree up to 40m high and 1m in diameter. Stem: Long straight cleanbole . Crown: Spreading. Leaves: Needles grouped in threes.Cone s 5-10 cm long. Root-system: Forms on deep soil a long taproot,o n less deep soils a super­ ficial root-system.

6. Silviculture -Seeds : Light,50.000-60.00 0 per kg.The y keepwel l up to one year afterwhic h they must be put ina closed container ina coolroom . Whe introduced the species produces generally little seed,therefor e seeds are 159

almost always imported from the natural range of distribution. Nursery: Sowing is done in nursery beds: treatment of the soil against damping off is necessary and after transplanting in tubes inoculation with mycorrhizae is necessary. ElË2îïB8_s1:2c!S: (20-30 cm high)i sdifficul t to handle with naked roots and therefore usually tubed seedlings are used. Planting technique: Spacings of 2x 2m ormore .Canop y closes rather slowly and weed growth can be troublesome for several years. Variation of form (forking;foxtailing )i s a striking feature ofyoun g stands of P. caribaea var hondurensis,a minorit y of stems producing no branches for asmuc h as 9m ofheight . Natural_regeneration: Naturalreproductio n innatura lrange-o f distribution mostly abundant; outside the natural range a scarce or no natural reproduction.

7. Growth,yield : Under favourable conditions an extremely fast growing species. Union of South Africa (70m above sea-level,rainfal l of 965mm/year ,temp . 22 C). With a spacing of 2.1 x 2.1 m at the age of 34year s amea n diameter of 47 cm,mea n height of 27m and amea n yield of 22m /ha/year.Othe r trial fields demonstrated amea n annual volume increment of 35-42m /ha/year at the age of 14years . Surinam: In trial plantations at the age of 7.5 years amea n diameter of 18 cm, a mean height of the best 10%o f the trees of 17m and amea n annualyiel d of 24m /ha.Comparabl e yields are obtained inMalaya . P. caribaea var hondurensis has themos t vigorous growth of the threevarieties .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Inth e Central Highlands of Honduras sometimes disastrous damage by the bark beetle Dendroctonis frontalis.Severa l species of termitesma y cause severe damage,amon g others in South East Asia Coptoter- mis curvignatus attacking healthy living trees. InNe w Zealand a dampwood ter­ mite,Stolotermi s ruficeps. In Australia the louse Pineus laevis feads on the sap of the trees andma y cause mortality. In South East Asia damage is caused through browsing by squirrels,deers ,rat s and mouses. After haildamage affection by the fungus Dothistroma pini. Other diseases are root-rot caused by the fungi Ganoderma colossum, Armillaria mellea,Fome s annosus,Phaeolu s manihotis and a fungus of the Polyporaceae. The species is frost-tender. When young sensitive to fire,whe n older very resistant,owin g to the thickness of the bark and its ability to sproutvigo ­ rously after wounding.

9. Wood properties: The yellowish white sapwood and reddish brown heartwood are of good quality,rathe r hard,rathe r heavy (sp.gr. 0.55-0.70)stron g and resinous. The treeyield s a good commercialresin .Th e low proportion of knots,du e to the light branching,make s the proportion of first-grade struc­ turaltimbe r exceptionally high.

10. Uses: Suitable for construction (indoor and outdoor),flooring ,doors ,frame ­ work,carpentry ,pitprops ,plywood ;muc h used forwoo d pulp. With Pinus pinaster it is the worldschiefproducer of resin.

11. Remarks: I nMalay a the species hasbee n planted direct into dense Imperata grassland without preparation ofground ,o n a deep well-drained sandy clay; 160

3year s after planting the survival was 94%, mean height 2.5 m and maximum height 6.6. m It is one of the most common used for reforestation in the tropics,es ­ pecially the variety hondurensis. This species formerly was considered to be P. elliottii,bu t it has been proven to be a seperated species P. elliottii in concreto isrestricte d to the U.S.A.

12. Evaluation: Suited to complete planting from sea-level up to 900m , on well- drained soils,unde r a rainfall of 960m m ormor e and a dry season of (0-)2-6 months. Can be planted into Imperata fields. The wood isvaluabl e and the species produces a good quality resin.

13. Literature: 47,55 ,83 ,142 ,144 ,153 ,192 ,195 .

84. Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon Pinaceae Syn.P . khasya Royle Syn. P. iKSularis Ende

Name - Trade-name: Khasi pine,bengue t pine,pi n a 3Feuilles ,Nhol a (Vietnair Tinyu (3urma). (Formely the two synonyms of P. kesiya were considered to be distinguisted species. P. insularis was native to the Philippines and P. khas to the mainland of Asia).

2. Area,ecology : India,Burma ,Thailand , Laos,Vietnam ,Philippines . On themainlan d of Asia from 600-2400 m,mos t commonly from 1000 up to 1800i above sea-level. On the Philippines from 700 up to 1500m , sometimes reachinj up to 3700 m. InVietna m from 600m up to 1800m above sea-level. Forms in nature often more or less dense pure stands on plains and hillsides andmixe d with broadleaved species indeciduou s forests and along streams. The species is a strong light-demander. Succesfully introduced among others in Central Africa,Eas t Africa,Sout h Africa,Malaya ,Serawak ,Sumatra ,Jav a Queensland,Ne w South Wales.Extensivel y planted within its natural habitat.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Philippines:Annua lrainfal l 1750-4500 mm,mainl y fallir in summer; mea n dry season of 4months . Mainland of Asia: Annual rainfall: (1000)2000-3000 mm,mainl y falling insu i mer; dry season of 1-5months . Grows in Zambia with an annualrainfal l of 1200m m and a dry season of 7mo i Temgerature: Philippines:mea n coldest month: 12-20 C,mea n hottest month: 16-24ec7 Absoluteminimum : 4°C. Mainland: mean coldest month 13-22 C;mea n hottest: 18-25 C. Absolute minim -5°C.

Soil: Grows on awid e variety of soils.Commo n onheav y loam,o n clay-grave and on poor,shallo w soils.Optimu m growth onwell-draine d soils with a pH of 4.8-5.8. 161

5. Tree characteristics: A large tree,u p to4 0m high,mor e oftenu pt o3 0m high andu pt o 140c m indiameter . Stem: Indens e stands a straight long clear bole (15-25m inlength) , inmor e open stands lower branching and thick, steady side-branches. Bark: Grey-brown and deeply fluted. Crown: Long dense,whe n older more rounded or flatted. Leaves: Light needles grouped inthrees .Cone s 4-7 cm long,stayin g atth e trees fora long time. Rootsvstem: Depends onnatur e ofth e soil; ondee p well-drained soils a long taproot,o n shallow orbadl y cleared soils a superficialrootsystem .

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seeds abundantly. Number of seedspe rkilogram : 49.000- 63.000. Seeding ageabou t 10years .Th esee d iscollecte d from standing trees and from felled trees. Germination offres h seeds ishigh ,u pt o95% .Th e seeds store well dryfo ra t least twoyears . Nursery: Germination starts inabou t awee k andfinishe s intw oweeks . Transplanting after 1-2months . Inocculation with adequatemycorrhiza e essen­ tial,whe n plants areline d outi nnursery . Sowing atnurser y isdon eb y broadcasting ori nrows ,bu tals o quite common directly into pots. ?iËBïinS_ÊÏ2c'<*• Naked root planting isdon e onfavourabl e sitesan dpotte d planting on less favourable sites. ?i§3î:'-n§_ÏS£?}B:'-9uf: Spacing of 2x 2m ,sometime s less (1.5x 1.5 m). Frequent weeding inth efirs t years isnecessary . Artificial pruning isofte n necessary. Planted inth ePhilippine s mixed with Quercus bennettii,Q .ovalis ,Q . solemari. Sometimes stands areunderplante d with dipterocarps. Naturalregeneration : Natural regeneration isfavoure d by occasional fire exposing theminera l soil. However,annua l fire will definitely destroyit . Where fire protection canb e enforced,natura l regeneration appears easilyan d initial growth isvigorous .U p toa nag eo f6-1 0 years theplant s aresensitiv e to fire.Felling theundergroun d also stimulates natural reproduction.

7. Growth,yield : Growth isver y fast. Zambia (1200mm ,dr y season of7 months , 1150m above sea-level:a tth eag eo f 18year s amea n annual incremento f 24-32m /ha,wit h amaximu m upt o4 0m /ha . Malaya (2650mmm ,n odr ymonths ,147 0m above sea-level: atth eag eo f3 3 years amea n annual increment of 17m /h a The Philippines (Northern Luzon,450 0mm ,4 dr ymonths ,107 0m above sea-level: at theag eo f2 2year smea n annual increment of17-3 0m /ha . Indonesia: during thefirs t 10year smea n annual increment inheigh to f 1.3-2.3m and indiamete r of 1.8-3.5cm .

Pests,disease s and calamities:Millioni a basalis,a loope,cause sba dfor ­ mation ofth etrees . Inth ePhilippine s extensive damageb yth ebar k beetle Ipsinterstitialis,a secondary pest;contro lb ypreventiv emeasures .Als o wide spread damage byth ePin e shootmoth ; infestation ismos t severei n pines below 5meter s inheight . Caterpillars of nobilis andMetanastri a amplia Lepidopterae,ca ncaus e severe defoliation. Inseedling sth ediseas ere dban d needle castDothistrom a pini occurs,characteristi c symptoms arechlorosi s andnecrosi s ofth eneedles . The grub ofAlcolesthe s induta eats inth ecambrium ; lethal.Baralipto nsan - chesi,no tlethal . Older trees suffer from fungi:Fome s sp.,Armillari asp . and ronartium quercuum. Seedlings very susceptible todampin goff . 162

9. Wood properties: Light-brow n to yellowish red wood; moderately hard;mode ­ rately heavy (sp.gr. 0.43) resinous;fairl y good quality,no t durable. Yields aresi n of very good quality.

10. Uses: Soft and light industry wood. Used for construction,poles ,frame ­ work, furniture,pitprops ,woodpulp ,charcoa l and fuel. Oftenmor e important is the production ofresi n and turpentine.

11. Remarks: I nth e Philippines highly recommendated for planting at grassland soils under Imperata,als o planted for soil stabilization and erosion control. Forms sometimes many foxtails.

12. Evaluation: Species suited to complete planting or a system of naturalrege ­ neration,fro m 800 up to 2000 m above sea-level,o n well-drained soils,wit h anannua lrainfal l over 1200m m and a dry season of 0-7 months.Ca nb esucces - fully planted on Imperata fields and eroded hill-sides. Produces rather valuable wood and resin of good quality.

13. Literature: 16 ,47 ,50 ,54 ,68 ,71 ,73 ,105 ,134 ,153 ,180 ,192 ,195 ,196 , 203, 210,216 .

85. Pinus merkusii: Jungh et de Vriese Pinaceae

1. Name -Trade-name : Tenasserim pine,Mindor opin e (Phil.), damar (India), Pin à 2feuiîees ,thon g mu (Vietnam),Sra l (Khmer),tiny u (Burma).

2. Area,ecology : Most tropical of all Pinus spp. Burma,Thailand ,Laos ,Khme r Republic,Vietnam , the Philippines and Sumatra,fro m 50u p to 2000m a.s.1. In pure stands in savannes as well as in semi-deciduous and deciduous forest Often inabandone d fields,alon g roads etc. InVietna m from 500u p to 1200 m inpine-woodlands . The tree is a light-demander. Succesfully introduced in among others Trinidad and Tobago,Unio n of South Africa,Eas t Africa,Zambi a India,Malaysia ,Jav a and Queensland. At a large scale planted in Sumatra and Java.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Mean annualrainfal l 1200-2200 (-4000)mm ,wit h a dry season of 2-4months . Température: Mean temperature of the hottest month: 20-28 C, of the coldest month" 15-26 C.Absolut e minimum temperature 0C .

4. Soil: Tolerates rather poor soils,bu t soilmus t be well-drained. Grows on dry sandy soils and stony soils,a s well as on light marlground . Optimum growth onporou swell-draine d soils.No t exacting inregar d to fertility. 163

5. Tree characteristics: Very tall evergreen Lree,attainin g aheigh t of 30-60m and a diameter of 70-90(-140)cm . Stem: Long straight cylindricalbole . Bark: Thick. Crown: Dense tothin . Leaves: Long needles (15 to 20 cm)groupe d in two's. Rootsystem: On deep well-drained soils a long taproot,o n shallow soils a more superficial rootsystem.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Per kg: 27.000-60.000 (mean 40.000). The origin of the seed is important. Germination capacity of 30-90%. Seeds abundantly,especial ­ ly after arelativ e dry year. Seed stores well dry for at least 8months . Nursery: Germination starts after 10-12 days. Transplanting after 6-8 weeks. Inoculation with mycorrihzae isnecessary . It can be done,eithe r with the debris of infested roots,mixe d with the soil of the beds when the seedlings are two months old,o r preferable by planting seed-trees with infested roots in themiddl e of the beds,a yea r before sowing. Planting_stock: Plants arereadibl e for planting after 10-12month ,wit h a height of 20-30 cm. Balled plants as well as plants with naked roots are used for planting. Planting technique: Spacing 2x2m, 3x2m, 3x3, or 4x 4m , depending on the objects of planting. Wide spacings when planted for resin-production. Frequent weeding in the first years isnecessary ,amon g other things this can shorten the grass-stage of the seedlings. Natural regeneration: Where the species occurs in nature,natura l reproduction is normally abundant. Systems of natural regeneration have proven to besucces - fulhere . In Thailand naturalreproductio n is stimulated by an induced severe fire after which the stands are protected against fire for several years.Afte r theyoun g plants have reached a height to withstand light fires,th e stands are burned every year at the beginning of the dry season,t o prevent severe fires at the end of the dry season.

7. Growth, yield: Growth isver y rapid, especially this of the Indonesian race, as can be seen in the following table:

Growth and yield of Pinusmerkusi i in Indonesia; after Ferguson. site-class age upper- stems mean basal area standing volume yield quality (year)heigh t per/ha diameter mass production (m/ha / (cm) (m /ha) (m /ha) year)

10 10.2 945 12.6 11.8 37 37 3.7 low 20 21.0 417 28.6 26.9 178 289 14.4 30 28.0 236 38.9 28.1 248 471 15.7

10 14.7 857 19.3 25.1 115 125 12.5 medium 20 27.0 253 37.5 27.9 238 445 22.2 30 34.6 154 48.7 28.7 322 643 21.4

10 19.6 481 26.5 26.6 164 253 25.3 high 20 33.0 170 46.3 28.6 303 601 30.0 30 41.2 109 58.5 29.2 397 814 27.1 164

3 The raceso fThailan d andInd o China havea muc h lower rate:5 t o6 m per hectarepe ryear . The species produces avaluabl e resin. Production ofresi no nSumatr a exceeds 75 0kg/ha/yea r

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :O nSumatr a thedefoliatio n looperMilioni a basalisno tlethal .Th esmal lba gwor m Pteromasp pcause s damaget oth e needles;th esam ea swit h Eumetiavariegata . Further pestsar ecause db yCoptotermu s cavignatus (atermite) ,top - and bark-borers Pyralidae,Cryptothel a variegatus abi gba gwor man deart h cater­ pillars. Inyout h sentitive tofire ,whe n older very fire-resistant.

9. Wood properties:Th esapwoo d iswhit e (upt o1 0c mwide) ,th eheartwoo d brown­ isho rreddish; rathe r soft;ligh t (0.49-0.69),moderatel y strongan dmoder ­ ately durable;eas y towork . Theresi n iso fver y good quality. Thewoo d tari smuc h appreciated forit s preserving characteristics.

10. Uses:Th ewoo d isuse d fori ndoo r framework, carpentry,boxmaking ,an dply ­ wood.Th especie s yields good woodpulp (fibre-length: 2-6 mm). The turpentine isuse d fordye san dvarnis h andi nth emedicina lan dpharmac e tical industry. Theresi ni suse d inpaper ,dyes ,varnish ,soa pan dtextile-colouring .

11. Remarks: Severa lrace sar edistinguishe d throughout South East Asia,o fwhic t the ecological requirements differ.Th erace so fThailan d andth elowlan do f IndoChin atolerat ea poo r soilan ddr yclimate ,bu tsho wa poo rt oaverag e growth.Th erace s ofth ehighland s ofInd o China andIndonesi a requirea wel. ' drained soilan da humi d climatean dgro w wellt over y well. The species issuite d toplantin g inImperat a fields,o ndevastate d ground a in combination with field crops (agro-silviculture).

12. Evaluation:Specie s suited tocomplet e planting,agro-silvicultur e anda sy s temo fnatura lregeneration ,fro m sea-level upt o200 0m ,o npoo rwell-drai r ed soilsan da mor eo rles s humid climate (annualrainfal l >1200mm) . Theorigi no fth eseed si sver y important inregar d toth esit et ob eplant « Thewoo d ismoderatel y valuable,bu tth eresi n iso fgrea t importance.

13. Literature:3 ,4 ,23 ,44 ,45 ,57 ,71 ,80 ,153 ,172 ,180 ,195 ,203 , 215.

86. Pithecolobium soman (Jacq.)Benth . Mimosaceae syn. Samanea soman (Jacq.)Mer r syn. Enterlobium soman (Benth)Prai n

1. Name- Trad e name:Rai n Tree.Monke y Pod,"Acacia" ,Saman ,Thinbawkokk o(B i Tembesi (Java),Regenboo m (Neth.). 165

2. Area,ecology : From Central and South America. In agrea t number of tropical countries planted as an avenue and shade tree.Amon g others planted in the West India Isles,Wes t Africa,Eas t Africa,Sr i Lanka,India ,Burma ,th e Philippines (below 600 m) and Indonesia.

3. Climate - 55i2f§ii: Tropical lowland areas of moderate rainfall in humid areas (2500mm )a s well as dry areas (650m m in the latter,wit h a dry season of 4-6 months.

4. Soil: Rather tolerant but prefers moist,well-draine d soils. In Sri Lanka it grows on poor soils. On Java planting on heavy marlsoils istroublesome . On Trinidad and Tobago itprefer s deep and calcareous clays.I t stands tempo­ rarily inundations.

5. Tree characteristics: Medium-sized to large tree,attainin g a height exceeding 30m and a diameter of 150 cm ormore . Stem:Mostl y shortboled. Crown: Enormous,wid e spreading,diamete r up to 45m . Evergreen,bein g leafless for only a short while. Rootsystem:Markedl y surface rooted,reachin g long distances.Ma y damage road- surfaces;unsuitabl e for dense plantations, it stands temporarily inundations very good.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Around 4400-7700 seeds per kilo.Germinatio n capacity is high (>90%)a s is the germinative power. Seeds are collected from the ground. The seed normally keeps its viability for at least ayear .Eas y to raise in the nursery. Planting stock: Usually planted as stumps of 20c m stemlength,4 0 cmroot - length and a diameter of less than 3cm . Also possible to use stem and root- cuttings for planting. Survival ofmor e than 90%i s often obtained with a mean height of 2m ormor e after 7Jmonth . ^i5Bïï2ë_^f!2Ï!niqu?:Platin g should not be done into o large density.

7. Growth,yield : Fast growing,usuall y reaching 150-250 cm inth e first season ongoo d soils.

8. Pests,diseas e and calamities: In Indonesia the plant parasite insect Laccifer lacca,produce r of the very valuable lac. In the Philippines the wound parasite Ganoderma lucidum. In Jamaica the rot Fomes annularis.

9. Wood properties:Pal eyello w sapwood and light brown heartwood with darker streaks;moderatel y hard and moderately heavy (sp.gr. 0.54 air-dry); shrinkage very low;poo r durability in India,bu t quite durable inmoderat e climate; easy towork ,bu t requires care in boring.

10. Uses: The timber suitable as fuel, in the Philippines special plantations are raised for this purpose.Her e the wood is very appreciated by the industry- On Trinidad used for furniture. The pod is eaten by livestock. 166

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Species suited to complete planting from sea-levelu p to 600 m, onvariou s soils.Als o to be used as avenue and shade tree.Th ewoo d isno t veryvaluable .Produce s alsomino r products.

13. Literature: 65,70 ,145 ,167 ,195 ,203 ,216 .

87. Podooarpus imbricatus Bl. Podocarpaceae syn.P . cupressina R.Brow n syn.P . javaniaus Bl.

1. Name - Tradename: Djamadju. kitjemara (Indon.), podo chucker atap (Mai.), igem (Phil.), srolsa r (Khmer Rep.), tung xunpemon (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : Widely distributed in Asia,fro m Malaysia,Malaya ,Ind o China China,Burma ,Indonesia ,Ne w Guinea to the Philippine Islands,wher e it isa important timber tree.Fro m 750-2600m . above sea-level.Accordin g to Schmid andVida lth e tree is an element of the dense evergreen forest from 700-1200 inInd o China. Occurs on deep well-drained,mois t soils and inbadl y drained plains (swamp forest),wher e it is found sometimes almost pure. In the Philppines planted for beautification.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Humid tropical climate,annua l rainfall 2500m m ormor e

4. Soil: On deepwell-drained , or badly drained, fertile soils.I nLao s on"te : rouge basaltique". (Ferralsols)

5. Tree characteristics:A n evergreen tree,40-4 5 3 high ormor e and 1.0-1.5(- indiameter ,variabl e in habit but often with pendulous,spreadin g branches and long,slender ,whip-lik e branchlets. Crown: Conical or cylindrical. Leaves: Of twoforms .

6. Silviculture - Seed: Selected seed germinates easily,wit h a high germinat capacity. Good results when sown onmycorrhiza e inoculated soils and when covered with some dead Imperata grass.

Planting stock: Older shoots arereadil y stumped.

7. Growth,yield : Slowgrowth .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: 167

9. Wood properties:Sp .gr .0.40-0.5 5 air-dry.

10. Uses: Very valuable contruction wood;als ofo rcarving .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Species suitable forenrichmen t planting ornatura l regeneration; from 700-2000m o nfertile ,mois t soilsan da hig h rainfall (>2500 mm).Th e wood isver yvaluable .

13. Literature:36 ,101 ,110 ,180 ,209 , 220.

88. Pometig pinnata Frost Sapindaceae

1. Name- Trade-name : Taun. Indigenous name:Kasa i (Indon.,N .Borneo ,Malaya) ,Lengsa r (Java),Maluga i (Philippines),Köpan ,Truon g (Vietnam),Malo a (West Irian).

2. Area,ecology : Andamans,Sr iLanka ,Ind o China,Malaysia ,th ePhilippines , Indonesia,Ne wGuine aan dSolomo n Islands,fro m sea-levelu pt o100 0m . Indr ylowlan d forest;abundan t inol dsecundar y forest.Belong s toth e most common tree species inth elowlan d forestso fWes t Irian.I nSumatr a nativeo fth egrea t peat forests.I nVietna m inth emixe d deciduous forest on "Terres rouges"(Ferralsols) .

3. Climate -Rainfall : Humid tropical climate.

4. Soil:I nth eSolomo n Islands common over coral.I nVietna m ondeep ,fertil e soils.Her ea nindicato r speciesfo rrich ,well-draine d soils.

5. Tree characteristics:Fairl y tall,usuall y rather slender,deciduou so rever ­ green tree,attainin g aheigh to fabou t 30(-40)m anda diamete ro fabou t 100cm . Stem: Clear boles of15-2 3m . Witho rwithou t big,shar p buttresses. Crown:Dee pan ddense ,alway s with someyoun gre dleaves .

6. Silviculture -Seed : Flowersa tth een do fth edr yseason .Heav y seeds. Naturalregeneration :Regenerate s freely,especiall y under parent trees,i n naturalan dman-mad e clearings.

7. Growth,yield : 168

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Hos to fth eplant-parasiti c insects Laccifer laceaproduce ro fth ever y valuablelac .

9. Wood properties:Red ;rathe rhard ;heavy ,sp.gr .0.54-0.91 ;durable .Howeve r notwhe n exposed toth eweathe ro ruse d incontac t withth eground ;mus tb e dried withreasonabl e caret opreven t warpingan dsplitting ; difficultt o work.

10. Uses: Serviceable wood forinterio r construction,als o usedfo rboat-frames , agriculturaltool san dimplements ,furnitur ean dcabinet-work .A sourceo f rotaryveneer .

11. Remarks:Th esee d iseatable .I nNe wGuine aplante dfo rthi spurpose .

12. Evaluation:Practicall y nothing isknow no nplantin g practiceo fthi sspecies ; is suitablefo rnatura lregeneratio n inth eplace so foccurrenc e (0-1000m) . Thewoo d isvaluable .

13. Literature:88 ,180 ,189 ,193 , 218.

89. Vtevoaavpus dalbergiaides Roscl. Papilionaceae syn. P. indicus Willd

1. Name- Tradename :Padank ,commonl y referred toa sAndama npadank ,t odistin ­ guish itfro m Burmapadan k (P.macrocarpus) ,sometime sals o knowna sAndama n red woodo rvermilio n wood. Indigenousname : Sanakapoer,Linggo a (Indon.),Angsan a sena (Hal.),Narr a (Phil.), Zonnehout (Neth.),Ne wGuine arosewood .

2. Area,ecology : Nativet oNe wGuinea ,Indonesi a(i ndr yareas) ,Malaysia , Andamans,Philippines ,Sout h China,India ,fro m sea-levelu pt o60 0m .Ofte n onlo wflatlan d nearth emangrov e swamps;als o occasionally asscattere dtr e onlo whill s along thecoas ti nth eevergree nforests. I nth eAndaman si n mixed deciduous orsemi-evergree n forests.Th etre ei sa light-demander . Cultivated inIndia ,Burma ;ofte ngrow na sa nornamenta ltree .

3. Climate- Rainfall :Th etre e thrivesbes ti na tropica l climate witha n annualrainfal lo f1500-300 0m mo rmore ,mor eo rles sdefine d intodifferen ' seasons,wher eth edr yseaso ni sno tpronounced ,bu tals orecommende dfo r areaswit ha dr yseaso no f4- 6months . Temgerature:Rang eo ftemperatur efro ma mea nminimu mo f1 5C an da mea nm a mum of3 7C .Fros t isunknow n inth enatura lhabita to fth etree .

4. Soil: Grows besto nwell-drained ,low ,undulatin g ground,wher ei tattain s largedimensions ;als oo ngroun d whereth edrainag e isno ts ogood .I twil l 169

also grow on sheltered slopes and on hill-sides even where the soil isver y shallow. Not on calcareous,micaceou s sandstone. Adaptable to dry sites.

5. Tree'characteristics: A very large deciduous (for a short time)tree , 35-40m high with diameters of 1.20-1.80m . Stem: Clear bole of 15-20m , often buttressed and irregular or fluted. Often forked. It coppices well. Crown: Spreading,th e leafy twiggs drooping.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seeds abundantly almost every year,however ,th eper ­ centage of fertility as a rule isno t high (50-60%). Seeds stores welldr y for at least twoyears .Numbe r of seeds per kg:1200-1300 . Planting stock: Planting is done bare-rooted or with one year old complete plants; also Wildlings can be used. Easily propagated by cuttings,bu t also succesfully planted by stumps.

Planting_technig(ue: Sowing in an agri-silviculture system isprove d very suc- cesful. Abundant light is necessary for a good development of the youngplants . Dense planting isnecessar y (1.5x 1.5 m), because of easiness of forking of the trees.Nowaday s planting is done ina spacing of 2.6 x 2.6 m in theAnda - mans. After the formation of the plantation its succes depends almost entirely on efficient tending. Natural regeneration: Naturalreproductio n is seldom found in the bulk of the forests of occurrence. For the conditions of natural reproduction see also Pterocarpus marsupium. On the Andamans the growth inbambo o forests was vig­ orously.

7. Growth,yield : Very fast growth. May reach a height of 2-3 m at the end of the first year after sowing. After establishment of the plantation growth is rapid, reaching a height of 22m and a diameter of 17 cm in 16years .A s a solitary tree growth rate is exceedingly rapid,a smuc h as 40 cm diameter increment a year,averag e rates of 2.5 cm have been recorded under very favourable con­ ditions.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Crickets and deer have caused high mortality among seedlings in Burma. The padank weevil causes severe damage (Trigonocolus brachmanae). In Indonesia the leaf spot Aldona stella-nigraan d the brown root rot Fomes lamaoensis. InMalay a and the Philippines the heart rot Ganoderma lucidum and thewoun d parasite Schozophyllum commune. In Indonesia damage by Agromyzidae. The species is extremely frost-tender.

9. Wood properties: Sapwood,pal eyello w or grey sharply differentiated from the heartwood,golde n yellow or brick-red with dark streaks;har d to very hard, moderately heavy to heavy (sp.gr . 0.59-0.84, air-dry); strong and moderately tough seasons easily,extremel y durable;liabl e to be attacked by borers especially the sapwood; not difficult to work and saw,tur n well, polishes well, can be sawn,slice d or peeled intoveneers ,n o trouble ingluing .

10. Uses: Used for furniture,carriages ,panelling ,cabinets ,constructions , flooring,billiar d tables and sliced veneer. 170

11. Remarks:Th eburl s produce themos t valid veneero fth eworld : Amboyna wood. Species recommended forwindbreaks ,anti-erosio n workan dgras s vegetation. The wood exudes theblood-re d kino.

12. Evaluation: Species suitable forcomplet e planting anda nagro-silicultur e system,fro m sea-levelu pt o60 0m o nwell-draine d soilsan da nannua lrain ­ fallo fa tleas t 1500mm .Highl y recommended because ofth evaluabl e wood andminor-product s andfo rornamenta lpurposes .

13. Literature:46 ,70 ,88 ,120 ,167 ,192 ,193 ,195 ,207 ,216 , 220.

90. Pterooarpus maaroaarpus Kurz. Papilionaceae

1. Name- Tradename : Burmapadan k (Burma) Indigenous_name: Pradu (Thailand),Asa i (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : Burma,Thailand ,Khme r Republic,Laos ,Vietnam ,fro m sea-level upt o75 0m .Elemen t ofth emixe d deciduous forestan dwoodlan d ('ForetClair e InVietna m element ofth ewoodland ,savanna h andbambo o forests.Usuall y found onundulatin g tohill y country.Th etre ei sa light-demander .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Annua lrainfal l 900-4500m mo rmore ,fallin g inwel l defined seasons. Temperature:Mea nmontl y maximum temperature 38-44C an dmea nmontl y minimum temperature 4-11C .Fros t doesno toccu r inth enatura lhabita t ofth etree .

4. Soil: Prefers sandy loambu ti sfoun d ona variet y ofparen t materials,pro ­ vided drainage isgood . Whereth eproportio n ofsan d isi nexcess ,th eheart - wood inususall y unsound,althoug h trees oflarg e dimensions areproduced .

5. Tree characteristics:A large deciduous tree, 25-30m hig han ddiameter s upt 60-75cm . Stem: Often buttressed atth ebase .Th ebol eo fth etre e isofte n forked,co n monly 6-12m t oth efirs t limb.

6. Silviculture -Seed :Numbe r ofpod spe rkilo : 1400-2000.Th epod sar eofte n produced inquantity . Thegerminativ e powero fth esee d iscomparativel ylo w (about 40percent) . Stores welldr yfo rsevera lmonths.Germinatio ni sfoun d tob egreatl y favoured ifth epod sar ecovere d with eartho rprotecte d from the sun. Treatment ofth esee d priort osowing ,b ysoakin g inwate rfo r2 d a might prove advantageous. Planting technique:Th egrowt ho fth eseedlin g isunde r favourable condition fairly fast.A lon g taproot isdevelope d early. Loose soilgreatl y favours the growso fth eseedlings .Mos t succesha sbee n attained bydirec t sowing ofth epods ,althoug h plantation establishment israthe r difficult. Natural_regeneration: Asa rule good naturalreproductio n isonl y formedi n 171

rather dryope n forests.Th eseedling s establish itselves underth esuppres ­ siono flo wcove ran drequire sa nabundanc e oflight .

7. Growth,yiel d:N odetaile d figures areavailabl e buti tseem s that growth israthe r slow.

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :I nBurm ayoun g plants suffermuc h innurserie s fromth eattack so fcricket san di nplantation s from damageb yweevils .

9. Wood properties:A sAndama n padank,bu tyellowis h pink toric h pinkish brown or warm red,wit h darker treaks turning adul lgolde n brown when exposed; heavyt over y heavy (sp.gr.0.80-0.9 6air-dry) ;rathe r slowi ndrying ;compa ­ ratively harder towor k with machine tools.

10. Uses: Wood used forheav y constuction,flooring ,beams ,furniture ,tool-handles , wagons,panelling ,billiar d tables.Nex tt otea kth emos t valued utility timber inBurma .

11. Remarks:Whe nblaze d thebar k exudesa brigh tred ,astringen t gum-resin similar inappearanc e toth ekin oo fPterocarpu s marsupium. The tree produces burls whichar eparticularl y valued forhighl y ornamental purposes.

12. Evaluation: Species suitedt oth etaungy ametho d ora syste m ofnatura lrege ­ neration from sea-levelu pt o75 0m ,o nmedium-textured ,moderatel y fertile soils,provide d theyar ewell-drained .Th ewoo d isver y valuable.

13. Literature:68 ,167 ,180 ,193 ,203 , 210.

91. Pterooarpus marsupium Roscl. Papilionaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Kin o tree,Bijasal C India),Dan g Huong (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology :Sr iLank aan dthroughou t thegreate r parto fth eIndia nPenin ­ sulaan dnorthwar d toth efoo to fth ecentra lHimalya . Found scattered inde ­ ciduous forestsan di nmixe d deciduous forests,mainl yo nhill y ground,a t elevations between 150an d110 0m ,bu tmos t commonly between 150an dt5 0m . Thetre e isa moderat e light-demander.

3. Climate -Rainfall :Th enorma lannua lrainfal lfro m 750-2000m mo rmore ,wit h pronounced seasons. Temperature:I nit snatura lhabita tth eabsolut emaximu m shade temperature varies from 35-47C ,th eabsolut eminimu m from 0-17C (frost isunknown) . 172

4. Soil: Grows on a variety of parent materials provided the drainage is good. Prefers a soilwit h a fair proportion of sand,growin g both on hilly orun ­ dulating country,an d on more or less flat ground. It isno t exacting,however , since it grows well on exposed hill-sides on rocky ground and shallow soil.

5. Tree characteristics: A large tree,attainin g aheigh t of 30m and a diameter of 80c m ormore . Stem: Straight,cylindrica lbole ;usuall y coppices very well. Crown: Spreading, leafless for a short period.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Seeds abundantly ingoo d sead-years,whic h occur at fre­ quent intervals.Th e extraction of the seed from thepod s isdifficult . The seed has a comparatively low percentage of fertility,an d they are some­ timesmuc h affected by insects.Germinatio n can be hastened by pretreatment of the seeds.Th e seed stores well dry for at least ayear .A long taproot is produced at an early stage. Planting stock: Direct sowing proved more succesful than transplanting from nursery beds. The succesfulmetho d of transplanting is to raise the seed­ lings in bamboo baskets inwhic h they are also planted in the field. Planting technique: Sowing in a taungya system should bever y succesful. The development of the seedling during the first year is comparatively slow, during the second year growth is faster.Th e growth of theyoun g plants is greatly stimulated by weeding and loosening of the soil. The twomos t important factors which favour the early development of the seed­ ling in nature are a loose soil without weeds and shelter from the heat onth i sun. Saplings can stand a fair amount of lateral shade but willno t tolerate any but the slightest overhead shade.Complet e freedom overhead is necessary forprope r development from the pole stage onwards. Naturalregenaration : Natural reproduction is stimulated by the exclusion of fire and grazing,hoein g the soilwher e seed-bearers are present,an d gradual liberation of the young plants from overhead cover.

7. Growth,yield : Rather fast growing species.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities:Youn g plants aremuc h subject to browsing by cattle and deer.Heartro t by Ganoderma lucidum; therus t MLainsia pterocarpi causes severe defoliation and theparasit e Polyporus gilvus causes trunkrot. The seedlings are very frost-tender and also sensitive to drought.

9. Wood properties: Sapwood paleyellowis h white,sharpl y differentiated fromt heartwood which is usually golden brown with darker streakes;moderatel y haï to hard,moderatel y heavy to heavy (sp.gr. 0.75-0.97,air-dry) ; strong and tough; seasons well;ver y durable;no t adifficul t timber to sow,take s ag < polish,no t suitable forrotary-veneers ,bu t appears to be suitable forsli c and sawnveneers .

10. Uses: Much used for building,agricultura l implements,carts ,wheel-work , boats etc. One of themos t important timber-trees of India. 173

11. Remarks:Th ere dgum-resi n which excludes fromwound s inth ebar k furnishes the 'kino'o fcommerce ,a valubal e astringent used inmedicine .

12. Evaluation: Species suitable forcomplet e planting,fro m 2;o-1000m o nan y typeo fsoi lprofide d theyar ewell-drained . Thewoo d isvaluable .

13. Literature:68 ,167 ,192 , 203.

92. Pterocarpus pedatus Pierre Papilionaceae

1. Name- Tradename : Rosewood, IndoChin a rosewood. Indigenous name:Hlo k (Vietnam),Dan g kuong (Vietnam),Thnon g (Khmer),Ma y due (Laos).

2. Area,ecology : Lowland andlo wmountain s ofInd oChin a andThailand ,fro msea - levelt o100 0m i ndens edr yfores tan dwoodlan d ("ForêtClaire") . InVietna m inth etransitio n ofdediduou s forestan dwoodland . Light-demander species. Planted inVietnam .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Tolerate s adr yseaso no fsi xt oseve nmonths .

4. Soil:O nrock y calcareous soilsan dfrequen t lateritic soils,bu tadap t it­ selft over y variedsoils .

5. Tree characteristics:A fairly large deciduous tree,attainin g 30(-40)m i n heightan d60(-150 )c mi ndiameter . Stem: Clear boleo f10-1 6m .

Silviculture -Seed : Fructification generally very abundant;100 0seed spe r kilogram. They storewel lfo ra tleas ta year .It' snecessar y tocu tthroug h the coatan dimmer s inwate r for 48hours ,i norde rt ofacilitat egermination . Planting stock: Planting with one-year-old stump plantsha sgive n good results inIndo-China . Planting technique:Direc t seeding isth emos t frequently usedmethod . Iti s donei nrow so nwell-tille d soil,wit h 2o r3 m spacin g betweenth erows . Frequent weeding betweenth erow si snecessary . MAURAND (1952)recommend s thespecies ,fo renrichmen t plantingi nwoodlan d (Forêt Claire)o nwell-draine d soils.

Growth,yield : Slowgrowth : 5m a t1 0year so fage .O nfavourabl e soils rather fast growing.

Pests,disease san dcalamities :Browse db ywildlif ean dlivestock ,bu tcop ­ piceswel l after destructiono fth eaeria lparts . 174

9. Hood properties:Reddis hwood ;hard ,heav y (sp.gr. 0.78-1.01);ver ydurable ; witha stron g smell;resistanc et odeca yan dcontac t withwate ran dexposure ; easyt owork .

10. Uses: Excellent woodfo rconstructio nan dfurniture ,joinery ,highl y prized for cabinetmaking .Luxur y wood.Als ouse d inoutdoo rconstructions .

11. Remarks:Nowaday s rare inVietna m because ofintensiv e exploitation.

12. Evaluation: Species suitable forcomplet eplantin g orenrichmen t planting from sea-levelu pt o100 0m o nmediu m textured,bu twell-draine d soils.Th e wood isver yvaluable .

13. Literature:8 ,71 ,147 ,148 , 180.

93. Pterospermum jaoanicum Jungh Sterculiaceae syn. P. BlumeamumKort h

1. Name- Tradename :Bayu r (Mai.),Tjajur ,wadan g (Indon.)

2. Area,ecology :Thailand ,Burma ,Malaysia ,Sumatra ,Java ,Borneo ,fro m sea-le' upt o60 0m ;rarel yu pt o100 0m .I nevergree n lowland rainforesta swel la s indeciduou s forests.Abundan t inclearing so nriverbank san dsecondar yfore ; Thetre ei sa light-demander .Plante do nJava .

3. Climate -Rainfall :I npermanen t humid,a swel la si nclimate swit ha dr y season (upt o4 months) .

4. Soil:Mos t commono nalway smoist ,fertil e soils,however ,resist speriode s ofdrought .O nshallo w soilspoo rgrowth ,o ndeep ,poo r soilsgrowt h isbet l

5. Treecharacteristics :Larg etree ,u pt o5 0m tallan d80-10 0c mdiameter , usually smaller. Stem: Long,clea rbole ,withou tbuttresses ,coppice s well. Crown: Irregular,deciduous .

6. Silviculture- Seed : Fruits regularly.Numbe ro fseed spe rkilo :20.000-54 . Germinates fast;lo wpercentag eo ffertilit y (44%). Loosesviabilit y very quick (withintw omonths) . Nursery_:Direc t sowinga tth efina lspacin g innurser y beds,a si tcan' ts 1 transplanting. Planting_technique: Plantedwit ha spacin go f3 x 1 m o r3 x 2 m ;reachin g canopy closure inth ethir dyear ,an dneed s first thinning inth efift hye ; Naturalregeneration :Abundant ,bu tusuall y dyingwhe na heigh to f1 0c mi i reached. 175

7. Growth,yield : Fastgrowin g species,o nJav a reaching aheigh t of1 3m an da diametero f17. 4c mi n9 years .A heigh to f1 8m an ddiamete r of2 4c mi n 13years .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :I nJav a damageb ybar k eating squirrels (Callosciuris spp.).

9. Wood properties: Reddish;moderatel y hard;moderatel y heavy (sp.gr. 0.46-0.78) not very durable,strong .

10. Uses: OnJav ause d forhous e building,construction s andboa t building (prou). Very suitable formatche san dplywood .

11. Remarks: Specie s suitable forplantin g inmixtur e with slow growing species.

12. Evaluation: Species suitedt ocomplet e planting,fro m sea-levelu pt o60 0m on well-drained, fertile soils.Th ewoo d isvaluable .

13. Literature:102 ,102 , 114,115 , 121.

94. indiaum Cav. Meliaceae

1. Name- Tradename : Thitto (Burma),Katon ,kra-tho n (Thail.),kelap i (Sumatra), Sau (Vietnam),Sau-Da n (Vietnam),Kato n (U.K.), Kompeang reach (Khmer).

2. Area,ecology : Nativet oBurma ,Thailand , Laos,Vietna m andSumatr a (?). Element ofth etropica l evergreen forests,sometime s also inth emixed , deciduous forests. InVietna m elemento fth euppe r storey ofth eevergree n forests onwell - drained soils.Introduce d into southern Indiaan dSr iLanka .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Th etre erequire sa mois t climate.

4. Soil: Requiresa rich ,well-draine d soil.

5. Tree characteristics:Mediu mt olarg e tree,reachin g 35m i nheigh t with diameters upt o75-9 0cm . Stem: Oftenwit h clear,flute d bole of18-2 1m . Crown: Dense,evergree nan dshady ;th eornamenta l treeha sfruit so fabou tth e sizeo fa smal lorange ,wit ha mas s ofaci d ediblepulp .

8. Pests,disease s andcalamities : 176

9. Wood properties: Lightred ;moderatel y hard;moderatel y heavy (sp.gr.0.58 ) seasons fairly well;withou t treatment,quickl y attackedb yvariou s beetles.

10. Uses:Th ewoo d isuse d forfurniture ,interio r construction,boats ,woo d carving,butche rblocks ,packin g cases.

11. Remarks:Muc h cultivated forit sfruit s inBurm aan dLaos .

12. Evaluation: Species suited tocomplet e planting,natura l regenerationo r eventually enrichment planting inmois t climates onrich ,well-draine d soils.Th ewoo d isvaluabl e andth efruit sar eedible .

13. Literature: 147,180 ,193 ,203 , 210.

95. Santalum album L Santalaceae

1. Name- Tradename : Sandelhout,reukhou t (Neth.), sandelwood (India). Indigenous name:tjedan a (Malaya, Indon.),bac h dan(Vietnam) .

2. Area,ecology : From Indiat oPolynesi a witha smos t importable localityth e dryMysor e plateau (India)an dTimor .I nEas tJav ai ndeciduou s forests, alongroadside s ando nabandone d fields.Fro m sea-levelu pt o120 0m ,normall ; upt o80 0m .Th eseedlin grequire s lateral shade,whe n older,a light-demand e Succesfully planted inamon g othersNigeria ,Eas t Africa,Sr iLanka ,Indi a (350-100m )an dHawaii .

3. Climate -Rainfall : Nativeo farea s witha pronounce d dryseaso n (atmos t1 5 rainy days inth e4 dries t months). Annualrainfall :650-200 0mm . Temgerature: Meanmont h temperatures between 10-35C .Can' t resist frost.

4. Soil:Becaus eth etre ei sa nobligat e parasite (parasitingb yhaustori ao n theroot so fothe r species) , it'sa rathe r tolerant species with regardt o soil. Occurs onsloping ,porou s rocky grounds.O nTimo ro nreef-limestones . InIndi ao nferruginou s loam. Lowdemand s inregar d tosoildept h andfertil i but essentially requires well-drained soils.Avoid s saline soilsan dnormal l alsoblack-cotto n soils.

Tree characteristics: Smallt omedium-size d tree,attain sa heigh t of2 0m anda diamete ro f4 0cm . Stem: Cylindrical,rathe r crooked withoutbuttresses . Crown:Tw otypes ;a slende ran da wid e type;deciduous . Rootsy_stem:Th etre e formsa taproo tbu tals oa ver y wide spreading super­ ficialrootsystem ,reachin g tenso fmeter s fromth ebas eo fth estem . Forms root-suckers when damaged. 177

6. Silviculture -Seed : Flowers on Java in December and January and fruits in March and April,althoug h all stadia of flowering till fruiting can be seen at the same time. Seeding age: 10-15 years.Numbe r of seeds/kg: 6.000-10.000. Seeds at least one time ayear . Seed needs pretreatment. Germinates best in shade,wit h agerminatio n of 50%.Germinatio n usually takes place about 1-3 months after sowing. Planting_stock: Stumps and cuttings are unsuitable for planting. Complete plants can be used but are expensive. Planting_technigue: The most experienced plant establishment method isb y dibbling underneath bushes,wit h 5-6 seeds per hole.Dependin g on the nature of the existing vegetation,establishmen t of uited hosts isnecessary , before or at the same time ofplanting . Spacir-gs: 3xlm, 2.5xlmor2xlm. Natural_regeneration: Regenerates freely in nature,especiall y when no dense undergrowth ispresen t and the soil is remould. Can stand only a light over­ head shade whenyoung .

7. Growth,yield : In natural conditions very slow growth, inplantation s much faster. Planted in Java on good ground: showed during the first sixyear s a mean annual height of 150 cm and annual diameter growth of 2cm . Formation of the valuable heartwood starts at a- elder age,whe n height growth isre ­ tarding. At a 30-year-rotation on Java the potential heartwood production is estimated at 0.tton/ha/year .

a white mite causes shrinkage of the leaves. In Java the leaf-eating caterpillar Thyca belisama. In India a lot ofdamag e in the plantation is done by a lethalvirus : "Sandel spike virus"o r "spike disease".Whe n infected principal symptoms are,dwarfin g of the leaves,shortenin g of internodes;th e leaves stand out stiffly from the twigs and arepal egree n or in acute cases,reddish , the fruits are smallan d excessive branching. The susceptibility depends on the hostplant inwhic h it parasites. In India also another lethal virus occurs,th e Sandel Leaf-Curl Mosaic-Virus. The tree is extremely sensitive to fire and to exposure to the sun,twig s and leaves are readily browsed by cattle and sauvage.

9. Wood properties: Thevaluabl e heartwood is yellowish brown and strongly scented; hard; heavy, (sp.gr. 0.85) contains 3-7% sandel oil;durable ;ver y strong.

10. Uses: Used for carving and other fancy work,bu t it's largely distilled for its fragrant oil.Th e oil is used inperfumer y and medicine.

11. Remarks: A s suitable host-plants are considered: Acacia farnesiana,Adhalod a vasica,Azadiracht a indica,Bambus a arundinacea,Cassi a siamea,Casuarin a equisetifolia,Dalbergi a sissoo,Datur a stramonium,Dendrocalamu sstrictus , Pongamia glabra,Prosopi s juliflora,Pterccarpu s marsupium,Tecom a stans and Thespesia populnea. This list is far from exhaustive.

12. Evaluation: This species is suited to complete planting and some forms of enrichment planting,fro m sea-level up to 1200m onmedior e to good soils. The wood and especially the oildistille d from it,i s tremendously valuable. 178

13. Literature:68 ,100 ,133 ,136 ,165 ,195 ,203 , 208.

96. Sokima novonhae Reinw. Theaceae syn. S. ualliahii Choisy

1. Name- Tradename :Chilaun i (India),lauky a (Burma),Mang-tan ,la-l o (Thail.), ? uspa,ser u (Indon.).

2. Area,ecology : Nepal,Burma ,Thailand ,Laos ,Mala y Peninsula,Java ,Borneo . Allied species (S.crenata? )I nInd oChina ,Souther nChin aan dHaman . From 300u pt o260 0m abov e sea-level,mos t common above 1000m ,i nevergreen , semi-deciduous anddeciduou s forestsa swel la si nwoodlands . The tree isa moderat e light-demander.

3. Climate -Rainfall :Humi d climates,wit h annualrainfal l from 1400-5000mm . Temperature:Absolut emaximu m shade temperatureso f32-3 8C ,absolut e minimum shade temperatures of-1- 5C .

4. Soil:Commonl yo ndee pric hsoils .

5. Tree characteristics:Large ,handsome ,evergree n ordeciduou s tree,attainin g a height of25-30(-40 )m an da diamete ro f10 0c mo rmore . Stem: Large,straight ,clea rbole .I tcoppice s well. Crown: Dense,rounded . Rootsystem:Superficia lwit ha shor tthic ktaproot .

6. Silviculture- Seed :Seedin gbegin sa tth eag eo fthre eyear .Fruit sth ewho ! year,seed sar edisperse db ywind . Number ofseed spe rkg. :c a230,000 . Germinative capacity isnormall ylo w(10-30%) . Seed losesgerminativ e capacit veryfast . Planting stock:Propagatio nb ynurser yplants .Normall y planteda sstumps . Watering isdon eb yflooding . Naturalregeneration :I tregenerate s abundantly where sufficient light isad ­ mitted forth edevelopmen to fth eseedlings ,whic har esometime s foundi n greatprofusion .

7. Growth,yield :Slo w startingbu twhe n older fastgrowing .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :I nJav a damageb ya Capricor nbeetle ,borin g holes inth elivin gtree .

9. Hoodproperties :Ligh tre dt oreddis hbrow nheartwood ;moderatel y hard;fai l heavy (sp.gr. 0.62); strong;durable ;difficul tt oseaso nan dap tt owhar p and split;eas yt oso wan dtake sa goo dpolish ;log sar elaibl et oattac k by insects,whit e antsdestro y iteasily . 179

10. Uses: Mostly locally usedfo rhous e building,cross-ties ,bridg e building, agricultural implements,charcoa lan dfuel .Excellen t wood forplywood . In Indonesia thewoo d isconsidere d valuable.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Species suitable forcomplet e planting, from 600m onwardso nth e better soils ina mor e humid climate (rainfallove r 1400m ma year) . The wood isfairl y valuable.

13. Literature: 56,58 ,110 ,193 ,203 , 210.

97. Shorea bracteolata Dyer Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Whit emerant y (namefo ra grou po fShore a species. Indigenous name:merant i paang.

2. Area,ecology : Malaya,Sumatra ,Borneo ,fro m sea-levelu pt o100 0m ,scattere d distribution throughout thelowlan d dipterocarp forest (exept swamps)occa ­ sionally abundant ofth eMalaya n Peninsula. Sample plots existfo rman y years inth eMalaya n Peninsula.Th especie s isa moderat e light-demander.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Tropical lowland climate.

4. Soil:O nwell-draine d soils inth elowlan dan do nclaye y hillsides andridges .

5. Tree characteristics:A larg e evergreen tree,attainin g aheigh t of45-6 0m anda diamete ru pt o17 0cm . Stem: Tall,straight ,cylindrica lbole ,clea nu pt o3 0m ,wit h orwithou t smallbuttresses .Dama r exudations often abundant,crea m white. Crown: Broad,evenl y hemispherical.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Flowersan dfruit sar eborn e inver y great profusion, everyyear ,durin g everymont ho fth eyear .Seed shav ebee n knownt oretai n theirviabilit y fora smuc ha s1 8days ;a brie f period Nursery: Seedsplante d insee d beds under cover;germinatio n rate 76%.Th e young seedling needsa goo d dealo fprotectio n against desiccation.Trans ­ planting innurser y isnecessary . Afteron eyea ra heigh to f15-3 0 cm. Planting technique:Plante d when 6-8month sold ,unde ra ligh t canopy. Whenyoun gth eseedling s developa numbe ro fstem san dform s shortbunch y plants. They stay 50c mhig h untila vigorou s single stem issen tup .Als o establishedb ysowin g inline so rbroadcasting ,bu tafte ra readil y germination theyoun g seedlingsar edestroye db yrodents . 180

7. Growth,yield :Growt h israpi d afterth eplan treache ssom e size;th etre e reachesa diamete r of4 5c mi nabou t 40year san d7 0c mi nabou t 60years .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Sapwoo d issusceptibl et opin-wor m attack after treesar efalle n inth eforest .Seedling sma ysuffe r froma threa d blightan dten dt odevelo pa lo whabi tbu tthe yar ecapabl eo frecovery .

9. Wood properties: Sapwoo dwhite ,heartwoo d pale pinkbrown ;moderatel y hard; (sp.gr. 0.57).

10. Uses: Wood isver yvaluable ,use dfo rshipdecking ,railroa d andtruc kbodies , furniture,floorin gan dfo rrotar y facean dcorestoc kveneer .Th edama ri s ofgoo d quality,bu ti sonl yproduce d insmal lquantities .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Species suited to enrichment-planting and complete planting under shelter, from sea-level up to 1000 m, on well-drained soils and with a humid climate. The wood is very valuable.

13. Literature: 30, 46, 87, 110, 193, 197.

98. Shorea leprosula Miq Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name -Tradename :Specie so fth e'Re dmeranti 'group . Indigenous name:Merant itembag a (Mai.),seray a (Sabah),merant imehr a (Indo

2. Area,Ecology : Throughout Malayan Peninsula,Thailand ,Sumatra ,Borne oan d intervening Archipelagos,fro m sea-levelu pt o70 0m .Commones t andmos tge r rally distributed specieso fShore a inth ePeninsula ,i nSumatr aan di nBor r inth elowlan d forests.Markedl y gregarious.Moderat e lighc-demander. Large plantations ofthi s species exist inMalaya .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Tropica l lowland climate witha moderat e orwe teas t monsoon.Require sa tleas t3 0day so frai ni nth efou rdries tmonths .Adap t to conditionso frelativ ehig hhumidity .

4. Soil: Toleratespoor ,badl y drained soils.I nBrune iconfine dt ocla y soils botho nhillside san do nwell-draine d thoughperiodicall y inundated alluvii Rareo nridges .

5. Tree characteristics: Large evergreen tree,u pt o6 0m hig han d16 0c mi n' meter. 181

Stem: Tall, straight,cylindrica l bole. Buttresses 1.5 m tallan d long and about 10c m thick. Crown: Appearing pale yellow-brown from below,large ,spreading . Bark: Surface palemauv e to grey brown. Root-sy_stem: Intensive,til l 2m deep. Stands lack of oxygen.

Silviculture - Seed: Flowers and fruits every year,bu t fruits abundantly only once in 4-6 years.Numbe r of seeds per kilogram: 1250-1550. Germination percent of fresh seeds 80,bu t seed loses viability within amonth . Planting_stock: Seedlings are very hardly,bu t readily eaten by rodents. Plantation establishment by direct sowing or with nursery-raised plants. Stumps and cuttings canb e used. ?i22^ïB8_te£l}2iâuË: Y°unS plants do best if provided with a certain amount of shade;bu t this species seems able to adapt itself tomor e severe conditions of desiccation than any other of the Shorea spp. ofMalaya .Youn g plantings are very good in self-pruning. Spacings used onJava : 3x 1.5 m or 3x 2m . Planted under a 2-year-old cover ofAlbizzi a falcataria. Natural regeneration: After a good seed-year,abundan t seedlings are formed, inMalay a very succesful species under the Malayan Uniform System. The young trees should be given full light after they have reached an average height of 1.5 m and need no further attention until they aremature ,excep t for thinning.

Fast growing,althoug h inyout h somewhat slow. Three-year-old plants have an average height of 1.5 m, five-year-old plants of 4m , the largest being 9m in height. Potential increment of 10m /ha/year,o f which 6.7 m isworkabl e timberwood. A diameter of 70 cm is attained in 69years .

The wood is attacked by Ambrosiabeetles : Diacavus serratus,D . biperus and Dendroplatypus impar (Shothole borer). Particular when growing in the open,th e species ismuc h infected with galls of various kinds. InMalay a "spongy heart"occurs ,probabl y caused by afungus .

9. Wood properties: Ligh t pink to reddish brown wood soft tomoderatel y hard; light tomoderatel y heavy, (sp.gr. 0.51),rathe r strong;no t durable; is very subject to the attacks of termites;work s and seasons well.

10. Uses: Used for furniture,construction s under roof,doors ,flooring ,boxes , plywood and veneer.

11. Remarks: Frequen t smears of cream damar onbole .

12. Evaluation: Species suited to complete planting under shelter and enrichment- planting,fro m sea-level up to 700m on awid e variety of soils and under humid conditions.Th e wood isver y valuable.

13. Literature: 27,30 ,46 ,87 ,110 ,193 ,197 . 182

99. Shovea obtusa Wall Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Thity a (Burma),ten g (Thailand),phche k (Khmer),ca-chac , Cari,kebl a (Vietnam),Chi k (Laos).

2. Area,ecology :Tre eo fth ewoodlan d (Highan dscru b indaining forest,'Forê t Claire')an ddr ydeciduou sfores to fBurma ,Thailand ,Laos ,Khme rRepubli c andVietnam ,fro m sea-levelu pt o10 0m .Ver y commonly associated with Pentacmf siamensisan dals owit h Dipterocarpus tuberculatus.Usuall ygregarious . The speciesi sa light-demander .

3. Climate- Rainfall : Itsclimati crequirement sar epracticall y thesam ea s thoseo fPentacm e siamensis.

4. Soil:Prefer smoist ,deep ,loa m soils,bu tgrow sals oo ndry ,shallow ,rock y lateritetyp e soils.I nVietna m onshallo w sandy soils,o nbasalti c lithosols ando nerode d lithosolsan do nacrisols .

5. Treecharacteristics :Larg edeciduou stree ,reachin ga heigh to f3 0m an da diametero f1. 0m o rmore . Bark:Thick ,dar kgrey ,brow n inside,roug hwit h deep longitudinalfissures . Coppiceswel lu pt oa moderat e size,bu ti sno tknow nt oproduc eroot-sucker s

6. Silviculture- Seed :Germinate s soon after fallingan dloos ethei rviabilit y quickly. Naturalregeneration :Usuall y good.Whe nfir eca nb ekep tawa yfo rsevera l years,dens e standsca nb eobtained .

7. Growth,yield :

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :

9. Woodproperties :Ver yhard ;ver yheav y (sp.gr.0.98-1.04) ;ver y strong;ver j durable.

10. Uses: Woodver y suitablefo rgenera lconstructions ,bridges ,cross-ties , buildingan dothe rpurpose swher e strengthi simportant .No tfo rplywood .

11. Remarks:La ci soccasionall y produced onthi stree .

12. Evaluation:Specie s suitedt oa syste m ofnatura lregeneratio ni nplace so i naturaloccurence ,i nth edr ytype so ffores t ('ForêtClaire') . Wood isvaluable . 183

100. Shovea robusta Gaertn. f. Dipterocarpaceae

1. Name - Tradename: Sal (india). Ï2^iiS2SyË_2a5S: Sakwa (Nepal).

2. Area,ecology : üorth and Central India,Nepal ,fro m almost sea-level up to 1500n in the foothills of the ,mos t common up to 1000m . Element of the dry deciduous,mois t deciduous and semi evergreen forests, often gregarious and forming pure stands,owin g to the elimination of other species by brush fires.Grow s on the plain and on low medium-sized mountains. Light-demander species. Much used for aforrestation within and slightly beyond itsnatura l habitat in India. So far, little utilized as an exotic.

3. Climate - Rainfall: A species which covers awid e range of climatic conditions. Annualrainfal l 1000 to 6500mm ,mostl y divided in distinct seasons (monsoon climate). Dry season of 1-8 months. Temperature: Within natural habitat absolute maximum shade temperature varies from 34 to 47 C and absolute minimum temperature from 2 to 7C . Mean annual temperature 24-27°C.

4. Soil: Adapts itself to extremely varied and often poor soils,provide d that they are neither too dry nor too wet.Sand y soils not less than 3percent , loamy not less than 10percent ,moisture .Tolerate s fairly acid conditions in the subsoil (pH 4.5-5.5). Best growth on deep,well-drained ,humid ,sand y loams. Avoids extremely sandy and clayey soils.Canno t stand stagnatie water which causes lack of aeration.

5. Tree characteristics: Large-deciduous tree,30-4 0m inheigh t and 50-70 cm in diameter,sometime s exceeding 1m . Stem: Very straight,cylindrica l bole.Coppice s well. Bark: Gnarled, thick,dar k brown,affordin g good protection against fire. Crown: Spherical;form s epicormic branches. Selfpruning isver y good. ?22£;system: Forms a strong taproot and a great number of small sideroots .

6. Silviculture - Seed: Seeding age about 15years .Goo d seedyears ,thoug h fre­ quent, are sharply distinguished from poor ones. Collection ongroun d when the fruits are yellowish and the nut ligh/Lgreen .Thre e days later the nut turns brown.Withou t wings 400-1000 seed per kilogram. They keep very badly and must be sown within two weeks after harvesting. Germination of fresh seed is about 90 percent.Germinatio n is quick.Vitalit y can be retained to some extend (90-95 percent)fo r 1mont h if seeds are stored inlime . Planting_technique: In humid dry parts and dry humid parts of its natural range sal is extensive raised by direct sowing inplantation ,especiall y in connection with the agro-silviculture system,becaus e nursery seedlings usually do not stand the shock of transplantation. Initial burning-over of the vegetation and soilpreparatio n greatly helps to give theyoun g plants a good start. The seeds are sown inrow s 7m apart,a t intervals of 20c m along the rows. Carefulweedin g is essential.Fillin g up is done with stumps or 6-week-old tubed seedlings. 184

!?5ÏHE?i-ESiSDËr3ïï22: Natural habitat plantation establishment isdon e exclu­ sively by natural regeneration. Pure stands are formed, owing to the elimina­ tion of other species by brush fires,becaus e it usually does not tolerate the competition of other species,bu t is remarkable fire-resistant. Used are the selection method,clea r cutting method, coppice method and seed treemethod . Essential for the establishment of sufficient naturalregenera ­ tion is a soil cultivation. First thinning in the fifth year and subsequent thinnings each five to ten years. Rotations of 30-40 years for the coppice method and 80-160 years for the other methods,ar e practiced in India.

7. Growth,yield : Growth in the first year is slow. In subsequent years growth is faster: height 6m at the age of 6an d 20m at 30year s of age,wit h 24c m diameter. Maximum mean annual increment in a rotation of about 130years : 4-7 m /ha,o n the best site-class qualities.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: The young plants may be browsed by wildlife and livestock. Especially pigs cause serious damage.Man y insects attack the wood,bark ,leave s and terminal buds IProsicha stebbingi,Hyploceramby xspini - cornis (cerambycidae),Geronth a captiosella,Diacavu s furtivus, Crossotarsus saundersi,Xyleboru s spp,Aeolesthe s holosericea,Diorthu s cinereus (?)an d others,bu t are not a major obstacle to plantation establishment. Important fungus diseases: Polyporus shorea,P . gilvus and Hyposeylonannula ­ tion.Importan t parasites: Macrosoleu cochinchinensis and Loranthus scurrula. The species isver y frost-tender and sensitive to drought.

9. Wood properties: Dark brown;hard ; heavy (sp.gr. 0.84-0.93);ver y strong and durable,bu t slightly veined. Easy to work,bu t rather difficult to season.

10. Uses: One of themos t important timber trees of India.Woo d is extensively used for all types of building constructions,fo r railway ties (sleepers), wagons,framework ,post s and a large number of otherpurposes . When tapped,th e treeyield s awhitis h resin which isburn t as incense and used for caulking boats.

11. Remarks: Th e seedlings show variation inhabit : 1. a "single shoot"typ e 2. a "dominan t shoot"typ e and 3. a "multiple shoot"type .

12. Evaluation: Species suited to complete planting and agro-silviculture from 100u p to 1000m above sea-level, onwell-drained ,moist y soils,wit h arai n fall of 1000m m ormor e and a dry season of 4-8 months.Th e wood isver y valuable.

13. Literature: 47 ,68 ,71 ,73 ,174 ,181 ,192 ,195 ,203 . 185

101. Swietenia macrophylla King Meliaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Grootbladig e c.s.breedbladig e mahonie (Neth.),Hondura s mahogany,America n mahogany. Indigenous name: giai ngua (Vietnam),Mahon i (Indonesia),Caob a (South America).

2. Area,ecology :Natura lrange : centralAmerica ,fro m Mexico south toVenezuel a and Colombia. Also inth eAmazonia n partso fBrasil ,Per uan dBolivia . From sea-levelu pt o1800(-150 0 m), though primärlyu pt o45 0m .Mos t commoni n deciduous typeso fforest ,du et oa dr yseason . Frequento nabandone d fields, onth eedg eo fth epine-savannah ,i nsecundar y growth,als oi nth eclima xrain ­ forest.Th especie s isa moderat e light-demander,shade-beare r inyouth . Succesfully introduced inJamaica ,Puert oRico ,Trinida dan dTobago ,Sierr a Leone,Nigeria ,India ,Sr iLanka ,Laos ,th ePhilippines ,Java ,Fiji-Islands , Guadeloupe,Martiniqu e andothe r countries.

3. Climate -Rainfall :I nnatura lhabita ta mea n annualrainfal lo f1400-250 0 (4250)m man ddr yseaso no f3- 5months .Plante d succesfully inclimate s with upt o800 0m mo fannua lrai nan dn odr yseason . Temperature: Mean temperature ofth ehottes t month 29C (maximum 40 C). Mean temperature ofth ecoldes tmont h 23C (minimum 8 C).

4. Soil:Grow so nan ykin do fsoil ;fro m alluvial,well-draine d soilst opoorl y drained clay soils.Optimu m growth ondeep ,well-drained ,humi d soilswit ha n pHo f6.5-7.5 . Growso nshallo w limestones andlateriti c soilsan dquartz - gravel types.No to nver y shallow swampsoils.

5. Tree characteristics: Largedeciduou s tree,usuall y upt o4 0m hig h and1- 2m indiameter ,bu ti tca nattai n 60m i nheigh t and3 m i ndiameter . Stem:Wit h smallbuttresse sa tth ebas ean da straight ,cylindrica lbole ,ofte n heavily branched orforked, du et odamag eb ytop-borers . Crown:I nyout h narrow,cylindrica l crown,whe n oldermor e rounded anddense . Ë22ï~§X§ïëm: Forrosa stron g tap-rootan da strongl y developed superficialroot - system. Stands lacko foxyge nwell .

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seedingag e1 5years ,sometime s earlier. Seedyear s fre­ quent. About 15ÖÖ-2000 seedspe rkilogram . Seed storeswel la t2- 5C i nseale d tin,fo ra year .I fno tstore d properly,see d losesviabilit y inabou ttw o monthso reve nmor e quickly. Germinative capacity 60-90% Nursery: Seedsar esow nunde r sheltera ta dept ho f1 t o3 cm .Transplantin g isonl y possible when seedlingsar e4- 5day sold .Th espacin g inth ebed si s 30x 3 0c mo r2 0x 5 0cm .Sowin g isals o done direct intotubes . Planting stock: After6-1 2months ,whe nth eplant s are6 0c mhigh ,the yar e ready forplanting . Planting isdon enaked-rooted, wit ha clod ,a sstum p plant ora sstripling ,bu talway s undera ligh t shelter,whic h ismaintaine d atleas t duringth efirs t fiveyears .Stump smus t havea minimu m shoot-lengtho f2 0cm , ofth eroot so f20-4 0c man da colla r diametero f0.5-2. 5cm . Planting technique:Th ebes tmetho d isplantin g inridge s indegrate d forests whereth eyoun gplant s have lateralshelte rwithou t being overshadedb ylarg e trees,bu tals o oftenplante d complete undera shelte r ofc.q .Albizi a falca- taria,o runde r temporary agriculturalcrops . 186

Spacings used are 2x 1m , 2x 2m , 2jx 1m and 3x 1m . Canopy closure is obtained in the fifth year. Planted often inmixtur ewit h other species,e.q . Tectona grandis in India, Eucalyptus platyphylla and Artocarpus intégra inJava . Direct seeding is only succesful onric h soils in aver y humid climate and if lateral shelter is available (agro-silviculture),becaus e the young plant cannot stand direct sunlight. !?5ÎHï!?i_EëSënër2ïï22: Under favourable conditions profuse natural regeneration With dense undergrowth or fire no regeneration. As far as known,neve r tried in a system of natural regeneration.

7. Growth,yield : Very fast growing under favourable conditions. In less humid climates and poor soils growth is slower. Youth growth is fast.O n moderate soils on Java an annual growth in height of 1.5 m during the first ten years on rich soils of 2.0 m. Volume increments of 15 to 20m /ha/year ormor e can be obtained, inrotation s of 30-50years .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Severe damage by shoot-borers Hypsipyla robusta (mahogany shoot borer)an d Zeuzera coffeaewhic h destroy the leading shoots or otherwise cripple the growth of young plants established in theope ? After reaching a height of 7m infestation decreases considerably. Other da­ mage is caused by parasol-ants,termite s (Coptotermes spp),squirrel s and wood-borers (Xyleborus spp).Normall y few fungus diseases,locall y brown root-rot (Ftomes lamaoensis)an d the pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor).

9. Hood-properties: Woo d with a reddish tint,moderatel y heavy (specific gravity 0.53-0.67g/c m )rathe r strong and durable.Work s and seasonswel l and takes a good polish. Good appearance and low shrinkage.

10. Uses: The timber is one of themos t important cabinet-woods inth eworld .Us e also forboa t building,carpentry ,furniture ,interio r decoration,panellin g and veneers.Th e 'lop and top' ofbranchwoo d yields excellent fuel and char­ coal.

11. Remarks: I nmor e humid climates growth is faster but the wood is inferior in quality. Big seeds are reported to have germinated better than small ones. Planted rather succesful om idle land infested with Imperatagrass . Often planted ina n agro-silviculture-system.

12. Evaluation: Species suited to complete planting,a n agro-silviculture-system and enrichment planting,fro m sea-levelu p to 900m , with an annual rainfall of 1500m m ormor e and a dry season of 0-6 months and very tolerant in regar to soilrequirements . The wood isver y valuable.

13. Literature: 6, 13,23 ,43 ,47 , 65,68 ,71 ,73 ,113 ,114 ,140 ,159 ,192 ,195 , 203, 210,216 ,223 . 187

102. Swietenia mahogani (L) Jaoq. Meliaceae

1. Name- Tradename : Kieinblad mahonie (Neth.),Cuban ,Spanis h orAmerica n Mahogany,Caoba .

2. Area,ecology : Restricted toth eWes t Indian Islands,Cuba ,Jamaica ,Haiti , andSa nDomingo ,th eBahamas ,an dth eFlorid a Keys,mostl y invalley sa tth e lower elevations. From sea-levelu pt oalmos t 1000m , scattered indeciduou s forests. Moderate light-demander. Successfully introduced inTrinida d andTobago ,India ,Sr iLanka ,Serawak , Java (Lowland monsoonforests),an dFiji .

3. Climate -Rainfall : Climate ofth enatura lhabita t iswar man dequable . Annualrainfall s ofabou t 800-2500m man da dr yseaso no f0- 5months . Temgerature:Range s 15-3 0C .

4. Soil:No tmuc h exacting init ssoi lrequirements .O nrathe rba da swel la so n well-drained soils.Bes tgrowt ho nprotecte d lower slopeso nsoil sderive d from limestone orserpentin e parentmaterial .Wil l growo nperiodicall y in­ undated ground (Java). Toleratesa fai r amounto fsalt .Leache d soilsan d degraded open areas shouldb eavoided .

5. Tree characteristics:A deciduou s treeo fmediu m tolarg e size,u pt o3 0m highan d1. 4m i ndiamete rbu tofte nmuc h smaller. Stem: Buttressed base.I nyout h straight,whe n oldermor e crooked,du et oth e attackso fshoot-borers ,lo wan dheavil y branched; often forked. Crown:Narro w inyouth ,whe n oldermor erounded . Self-pruningi sver ypoor . Root-system:A sS .macrophylla .

6. Silviculture -Seed : Seedingag e2 0year s (?)Numbe ro fseed spe rkilogram : 4000-7000. Germination capacity 50-90%. Seed stores welli nseale d tinsa t 2-5C ,fo ron eyear . Nursery: Direct sowing canb edone ,bu tmos t commonth eseed sar esow ni n a nurseryan dtreate d inth esam ewa ya sS .macrophylla . Planting stock and_technique: Alsoothe r silvicultural characteristicsar e the same,excep t thatS .mahogan i isballe d planted. Stumpsan dcutting shav e failed. Spacingsuse dar e2x 2m ,3xl m and3 x 2 m .Prunin g isnecessary . InJav ao npoo r soilsplante d inmixtur ewit h Cassia siameaan do nmoderat e soilswit h Barringtoniaspicata .

7. Growth,yield :Rathe r fastgrowth .O npoo ran dmoderat e soilsa mea n annual height incremento f1.0-1. 5m .Growt h isbes ta tlo welevations ,bu tusuall y slower thangrowt ho fS .macrophylla .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Suffer smor e from damage causedb yshoot-borer s (Hypsipyla robusta)an dsquirrel s thanS .macrophylla . Otherdamag e recorded is causedb ycaterpillars ,butterflie s (Attacus atlas), shoot-borers (Zeuzera coffeae),termite s (Coptotermes spp), wood-borers (Xyleborusspp ) and 188

the fungi Corticium salmonicolor (pink disease),Fome s lamaoensis (brown root-rot), Cercospora subsessilis (leaf spot).

9. Wood properties:Brownish ;hard ; heavy (sp.gr.: 0.56-0.85);strong ,bu tlo w toughness;season san dwork s well.

10. Uses: Oneo fth ebes t cabinet-woods ofth eworld .Als o used forfurniture , interior decoration,constructio n andveneers .

11. Remarks:Wher e both Swietenia spp.hav ebee n grown together forsom e time, a natural crossx Swieteni a mahagonix macrophyll aha sbee n reported. Mostly planted asa nexoti c foro nroadside s ora sa shad ean dornamenta l tree

12. Evaluation: Species suited tocomplet e planting,a n agro-silviculture-system and enrichment-planting, from sea-levelu pt o60 0m ,wit ha nannua l rainfall of 800-2500mm ,a dr yseaso n of0- 5month ,an dver y tolerating with regards to soilrequirements.Th ewoo d isver y valuable.

13. Literature:13 ,23 ,47 ,65 ,68 ,73 ,103 ,114 ,140 ,159 ,192 ,195 ,203 , 223.

103. Synearpia glomulifera (Sm)Niedenz y Myrtaceae

1. Name- Tradename : Turpentine tree.

2. Area,ecology : Extends over nearly 20degree so flatitud e incoasta l eastern Australia,fro m northern Queensland tosouther nNe wSout h Wales,fro msea - levelu pt o30 0m i nth esout han dt o90 0m i nnorther n Queensland.Mos tcom n inmixture s forming atransitio n betweenpur erainfores t andpur e eucalyptic forest,showin g best development invalleys ,o nflat san dbasin s inlocation ; varying from lowlands tomountain s andtablelands . Planted experimentally inSr iLanka ,Kenya ,Sout h Africa,Tanzani a andsom e other countries.

3. Climate- Rainfall :Annua lrainfal l 900-1500mm . Temperature: From temperate totropica lregions .Mea n temperature ofth e coTdëstTmöüth 10-18°C,wit h 5-20day sfrost .

4. Soil:I tprefer s deep,fertil e soils,bu tgrow s ona wid e range. Tolerates fairly poor sandy loams ifthe yar efairl y deepan deve npoor ,coars e sand­ stone soils.

5. Tree characteristics:A larg e evergreen tree,ususall y 40-50m i nheigh ta m 0.90-1.20m i ndiameter ,bu tsometime su pt o6 0m i nheigh tan d2.4 0i ndi a meter onoptimu m sites. 189

Stem: Long,straight ,cylindrica l clearbole . Crown:Dense .

6. Silviculture- Plantin g stock: Method ofplanting : plant trayso fpots .

7. Growth,yield : Rateo fgrowt h usually averages about 60c ma yea rt omaturity , but growsa t9 0t o12 0c ma yea r whenyoung .

8. Pests,disease san dcalamities :Ctenomorphode s tessulatusa defoliatin g stick insect,i nAustralia . Another factor isLewin' sbag-moth ,Lewinbomby x lewinae.

9. Wood properties:Timbe r reddish;heavy ; strong;ver y durableunde r exposure; highly resistant tofire ,termite s andmarin e borers;liabl et owar pan d crack inseasoning .

10. Uses: Very suitable forsalt-waterpile san dal lharbou r works,sleepers ,pole s and postsbuildin g andsheating .

11. Remarks:Th etre ei splante d within itsnatura lhabita tfo rshade ,shelte ran d ornament,an dha sbee n useda sa nexoti c forfirebreaks ,windbelt san dunder - planting ofEucalypt ;i tstand s lopping andtrimmin g tofor ma hedge ,an d makes agoo d roadsidetree .

12. Evaluation: Species suitable forcomplet e planting from sea-levelu pt o90 0m , onwell-draine d soilswit h anannua lrainfal lo f900-150 0mm .Muc h planted forwindbreack s etc.Th ewoo d isver y valuable.

13. Literature:47 ,70 ,73 ,99 ,163 , 195.

104. Teotona grandis L. Verbenaceae

1. Name- Tradename :Teak . Indigenous name:djat i (Indonesia).

2. Area,Ecology :Ther ear eman y different typeso ffores to fwhic h teak isa constituent;generall y theyar emixe d forests inwhic h teak formsonl ya smal l portiono fth egrowin g stock,bu tals o largetrack s ofpur e teak forestar e possible,especiall y inJava ,owin g tothei r great preponderancet oannua l fireswhic h have killed mosto fth eothe r species.Ther ear eman yraces ; themai n sources are:Indi a (Nilambur,Bombay ,Mysore ,Anamalais ,Travancore) , Burma (North,South) ,Thailan d (N.W.Xien gmai ,N.E .La mPang ,West) ,Khme r Republic,Laos ,Indonesi a (East-e nMiddl e Java). Thetea ko fthi s different originha sdistinctl yan decologica l requirements.Bamboo s sucha sDendro - calamusstrictu s indr yfores tan dBambus a polymorphai nmois t forestar e 190

common features of teak-forests,especiall y inBurma ,Thailan d and Laos. Common tree associates are dolabriformis,Terminali a tomentosa and Gmelina arborea. High concentrations of teak are also found where tracts of bamboo have flowered and died gregariously.

Climate -Rainfall : Generally there have been three distinct areas of teak forests. In India in regions with an annual rainfall of 760-1300 (1500)m m and adr y period of (4)5-7(8 )months . In Burma,Thailan d and Laos with an annual rainfall of (1300) 1500-2500 mm and a dry period of 4-5(6)months . In Indonesia (Java)wit h an annual rainfall of 2500-5000m m and a dry period of 3-4months . Temperature: In India amea n annual teperature of 21-31C ,maximu m teperature 45C and minimum temperature 2C . In Burma,Thailan d and Laosmea n annual temperature 22-27 C. In Indonesia mean annual temperature 27C ,wit h yearly amplitude of 15 C. Altitude: From sea-levelu p to 1300 m in India,u p to 1000m inBurma ,u p to 855m in the Khmer Republic,Thailan d and Laos,u p to 700m inJava .

Soil: Found onvariou s geological formations,suc h as soft tertiary sandstone granite,gneiss ,schist s and limestones.Tea k of north-east Thailand (Lampang cangro w onalmos t pure calcareous soil; the teak of north-west Thailand (Xie Mai)tolerate s compact,heav y soils;th e teak of India tolerates very poor lateritic soils.Generall y teak requires a good subsoil drainage,well-areat e soils,whic h need not to be rich,provide d they are of fair depth.Sand y loan are themos t favourable. Does not grow well on heavy clayey soils,doe s not tolerate inundated terrains. Teak grows on slopes,bu t also on flat alluvial ground. Itprefer s a pH of about 6.5-7.5an d a good Ca-exchange.

Tree characteristics: Normally medium sized, 25 to 30m , sometimes up to 50t inheight ,1 m in diameter and evenmore.Th e different races are distinquishi by secondary botanical characteristics; size and color of the leaves,colo r and structure of the bark,straightnes s of the trunk. Stem: The teak of north-east Thailand and northern Burma isknow n for its straightness of the trunk. The teak of India and Indonesia isgenerall y much more branched. The Nilambur teak of India is comparable to the teak of north Thailand and Burma. The trunk is frequently grooved,wit h smallbuttresse s a thebase ,cylindrical . Bark: Yellow-brown, often scaling off. Crown: In closed plantations high at the top of the bole,tigh t irregular.I more open plantations lower and more spreaded. Leaves: Opposite,rough , long,ver y silicious. Root-system: Superficial. Inyout h fast growth of main root,soo n branching; rooted to~adept h of 70-80 cm, as a rule 30-50 cm. Lateralroot s extending to 10-15m distance. The root-system isver y sensitive to lack of oxygen.

Silviculture - Seed: 2000 to 3000 seeds per kilogram. Keep very well foron ' year in jute sacks under cover. Germination is slow and irregular. Teak requires a soil temperature of abou 35 to 37.5°C for germination. Germination capacity about 20t o 60%,th e bul germinates before the 40th day after sowing. Pretreatment fastens germinati Best method is to soak the seeds inrunnin g water for 24hours ,dr y them in the sun for one day,resoa k them in thewate r and so on for 15 days, then germination will start in 10-20 days. 191

Nursery: Direct seeded or stumped. When stumped,seed s are sown in the nursery 1 cm deep in rows (15 cmbetwee n the rows and 5c m spacing along the rows). 'Ac shelter,frequen t watering untilgermination , then very light,s o that the root does not become turgescent. Seedlings are lifted at the age of 8 or 10 months,whe n they have attained adiamete r of 1-2 cm at theroot - collar. ?i?5£ilil_51;2r^: Stumps of 45 cm of shootlength ,1- 2 cm diameter root-collar and 2x 4m . Often interplanted with cover crops as Leucaena leucocephala or Indigofera spp. Complete planting isdone ,bu t taungya planting showed to be a good planting system too. In Indonesia seeds are directly sown at spacings of 1x 3- , 5fruit s per planthole or 5fruit s per m, later thinned out to one tree plant per m. Food crops are grown at a distance of 30-50 cm of the teak rows. Cover crops as Leucaena are sown inrow s of 20m with,als o Acacia villosa has been used,bu t this species is quite unpopular by cattle. Being a light-demander, teak requires complete overhead light;generall y it should not be mixed with other hardwood species,bu t at Java Schleichera oleosa could be tolerated because of its deep root-system,an d its slow and inferior growth. Teak is fire-resistent,bu t young shoots are burnt. Root suckers sent up remarkably clean and vigorous regrowth. Natural regeneration: Generally poor,becaus e of suppression and competition by other tree species,bamboo s and weeds. It is said that light groundfire may stimulate germination,bu t at temperatures of 50C.n ogerminatio n is reached. It is presumed that such temperatures already;occur by light ground- fire. Gemination capacity aftermoderat e burning was half of the germination capacity when not burned.

Growth,yield : Very rapid growth whenyoun g 3m at 2year s of age,5 m at the age of 5. Afterwards it slows down considerably and becomes very slow after the age of 50years . In Java,Indi a and Burmayiel d tables of teak exist,i n which are given the potential production of teak plantations.Nin e productivity class tables for each country are distinguished. The tablebelo w gives the normal range of production from the highest to the lowest quality sites at a 80-year-rotation. Java India mean height (m) 45-20 43-17 mean diameter (cm) 70-28 74-25 tree number of final crop 77-314 64-209 mean annual increment (m /ha) 14.8-2.3 8.8-0.6 For the highest quality sites final crop timber production of 389m /ha in Java and 305 m /ha in India are possible;accumulate d thinnings in Java can yield 384m /ha and in India 115m /ha.

Pests,disease s and calamities: Many insects attack teak. Best known are leaf- eating caterpillars,tha t seldom killth e trees but arrest their growth;wel l known are Hyblaea puera,Palig a damastesalis,Pyraust a machaeralis.Tre e bole borers as Xyleutes ceramicus and Duomitus ceramicus.ma y cause large holes in the trunk,th e former is especially presenti n regionswit h arainfal l of 1520-2160 innannually .

Wood properties: Moderately hard and heavy (sp.gr. 0.67); good strength; Seasons well; very durable;remarkabl e for its steadiness and lack ofmove ­ ment under changes of temperature and moisture;resisten t to termite attack; not shrinkable,doe s not warp;eas y tomanage . 192

10. Uses: Considered one of the best general utility timbers with world wide re­ putation. Very suitable for heavy construction works,railwa y sleepers,fur ­ niture,venee r etc.

11. Remarks: Becaus e of the slowing down of production after 50year s of age, 80-years-rotations are often reduced to 50-year-rotations.

12. Evaluation: Tectona grandis is a very useful and valuable species which res­ ponds well to plantation technique and is easy to plant. It has been tried in Vietnam (Lang Hanh), and showed good promise.Tea k thrives best in a1250 - 2500m m rainfall zonewit h a distinct dry period of 3-5 months and a tempera­ ture range of about 16 -43 C. It requires a deep moist,fertile ,well - drained soil. It has failed on shallow,lateriti c soil and onmos t savannah lands. There are many different strains of teak and the selection of one well- suited to ane w site is of great importance. Often planting is done in taungya planting systems using seeds or stumped plants and anunderstore y of legumi­ nous cover crops isrecommended . In Afrika teak plantations are often managed as short rotation coppice crops for pole and fuel supply.

13. Literature: 23 , 37,65 ,70 ,73 ,110 ,111 , 195,203 .

105 . TerminaUa supevba Engler and Diels Combretaceae syn. T. alttssima A. Chev.

1. Trade and indigenous name: limba,afar a (english), limbo (french),frak é (Ivory coast), ofram (Ghana), akou (Cameroun), corina (U.S.A.).

2. Area,ecology : Occurring inWes t and Central Africa.Wid e ecological range, varying from savannah and woodland tomois t evergreen forest. Optimum in semi-deciduous forest,ofte n present in secondary regrowth forest. In upper canopy;dependin g on the region,associate d with Lophira spp.,Entandrophrag i spp.,Khay a spp.,Triplochito n spp.,Akoume a spp.,an d others.Abundan t on fallowed shifting cultivation terrains. Light-demander. Coppices well.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Optimum growth in areas with amaximu m annual rainfall o 1500m m and adr y period of 2-4months . Altitude: Commonly possible from 100-500 m above sea-level,bu t up to 1600ir above sea-level.

4. Soil: Prefers alluvial soils,bu t is able to grow onvarie d soils.Ca n stanc short inundations,bu t isno t capable ofresistin g severe dry periods.

5. Tree characteristics: Tree up to 30-45m high and a diameter above buttress of 0.60-1.20m up to 1.50. Stem: Cylindrical trunk with large thin buttresses of 2.5-6 m tall. Clear b ôf~30m . 193

Bark: Greyish,wit h long shallow fissures,ofte n flaking off inpatches ; slash yellowish. Crown: Rather flat,branchin g right at the top of the bole. Branches con­ spicuously whorled often growing practically horizontal. Leaves: Obovate,rounde d towards the apex but terminating in a short acuminate tip; rather leathery,glabrous .

6. Silviculture - Seed: Distinctive winged fruits; 8000 seeds per kg. Stores well for at least 6month s without any special treatment. Nursery_: Germination after 3-4 weeks. In a fertile nursery,stump s could be raised in 9t o 12months . ?i§nîiSS gtock: Often stumped. InM . Congo 1-year-old stumps of 40 cmroot - length and 1-1.80m stem-length. In Zaire are 1.5-2.5-year-old stumps used. Also striplings are used. When complete planted wide spaced at 12x 12m . Planting technique: In Zaïre planted in lines,2 m apart,als o at spacings of 20x 5m and 12 x 8m . Also used in taungya planting; first a crop of Musa spp. and after 1t o 2year s Limba is planted. Natural regeneration: Good regeneration ingap s in the canopy of high forest. In the Camerouns a fair natural regeneration has been established after soil treatment. On fallow shifting cultivation terrains,clear-felle d areas and along roads often abundant regeneration of limba. When regenerated ingap s of the high forest,sensitiv e to competition in the first years,bu t soon capable of conquering competitive species.

7. Growth,yield : Limba isa fast grower.Eight-year-ol d plantations inM . Congo reached an average diameter of 14.3 cm. Height-growth in first tenyear s on the average 1.50 m annually. Generally diameter-growth of 1-1.2 cm per year and height-growth of 1m peryea r arepossible .

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Innurser y attacks of Ferrisiana virgata have been recorded; leaves are dropping and end-buds are desiccating. Spraying with a 0.015% solution ofparathio n at two weekly intervals is adequate. In plantations attacks by termites and insects of the Scolytidae. family. Generally pests and diseases are not frequent.

9. Wood properties: Colour variable:ligh t yellow (limba clair), yellow-grey (limba bariole)o r dark-brown (limba noir); light to moderately heavy (sp.gr. 0.43-0.78a t 12%moistur e content); strong; little durable,bu t can be im­ pregnated with fenols; sometimes logs have a spongy heart;we t lumber dis­ colours quickly and is attacked by borers (Lyctus spp.)an d fungi;drie s quickly and easy,bot h air-dried and kiln-dried easy to work.

10. Uses: Very popular timber. Often used forvenee r and multiplex,furniture , panels,insid e construction works.Dar k coloured limba delivers very decorative veneers. Outside construction works have to be treated with pre­ servatives in order to prevent insect- and fungi attacks.

11. Remarks: 194

12. Evaluation:Suitabl efo rmos t soils including swampy sites,bu tloca l soil irregularities greatly affect therat e ofgrowth . Strong light-demander. Mightb etrie d inlin eplantin g inshru bo runde r very light canopy. Also promising intaungy a planting.

13. Literature:14 ,26 ,63 ,70 ,123 , 179.

106. Terminalia tomentosa W.an dA . Combretaceae

1. Name- Tradename : Indian laurel. Indigenous name: Sain (India), tankkyan,da p(Burma) ,dri k (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : Terminalia tomentosa occurs innearl y alltype so fmixe dde ­ ciduous forest throughoutth elowland san dlo wmountain so ftropica lAsia . Very commoni nIndia ,wher e iti sabundan t inShore a robusta (sal)forests . Principally associated with Lagerstroemia parviflora,Terminali a belerica, ,Eugeni a spp.,Tecton a grandis,Buchanani a latifolia and other species.Als oplentifu l throughout Burm ,wher ei ti softe nasso ­ ciatedwit hXyli adolabriformis ,Vite x spp.,Tecton a grandis,Shore aObtusa , Pentacme siamensisan dbambo o speciesa sDendrocalamu s strictus,Bambus a polymorpha,Cephalostachyu m pergracile,Thyrsostachy s spp.an dBambus a tulda. Terminalia tomentosa isnativ et oVietnam . Occurring inwoodlan d forest (fore claire)an dofte n associated with Shorea obtusa,Pentacm e siamensis,Pteroca r pus sp.,Dalbergi a sp.an dothe r species.Frequentl y foundo nth efring eo f marshesan driverbanks ;o ndr yan drock y soils rathermisshapen. Light-demander,rapidl y suppressed under shade.Tree su pt omediu m size;cop ­ pice well. Seedlings standa moderat e lateral shade,bu tar eintoleran tt o heavy overhead shade,

3. Climate -Rainfall :Mea n annualrainfal lvaryin g from 700t o300 0mm .I n Vietnam thewoodlan d forests inwhic h iti sa commo n feature,receive s about 1500t o200 0m mo frainfal l annually,wit ha distinc tdr yperio d of(4) 5t o 6 months.Seedling sar efairl y hardyt odrought . Temperature: Averagemonthl y maximum temperatureo f3 5-4 9C .Seedling s sensi tivet ofrost . Altitude:U pt o120 0mete r abovesea-level .

4. Soil: Prefersdeep ,heavy ,claye y soils with plenty ofmoisture .Thrive sbe : inmois t localities,particularl y invalley so nalluvia lground ; becoming gregariouso nclaye y soil. Showsa marke d tendencyt ooccup yth emor e level ground.

5. Tree characteristics:Larg e deciduous treeu pt o3 0m tal lan d1. 2m i ndi a meter. Stem: Clearbol eo f1 5m ,trim ,ver y straight,cylindrical . Bark: Greyt oblac k with deep longitudinal cracks,exfoliatin g inthic kir ­ regular flakes about 2.5c mi nthickness . Crown: Fullan dround . 195

Leaves: Somewhat variable. Generally large and tomentose in less favourable localities,smalle r and more glabrous in the latter; it growsbest . Root-system: Deep root-system. Sometimes forming root suckers where roots are exposed.

Silviculture -Seed : 500 seeds per kilogram. Retains vitality for at least 2 years when dry. Nursery: Germination capacity: 40-50%. May prove advantageous to soak seeds in cold water for 48hours .Seed s are sown inbeds . Intensive watering needed. Seeds are covered very lightly under slight shelter during the first twomonth s, subsequently exposed to full light. In India the fruits are sown on a layer of leaves and grass in order to raise them from the ground and prevent them from rotting. Seeds germinate readily after agoo d shower;th e seedlings are easy to lift without root damage if sowing is done on leaves.Transplantin g when one year old. Planting technique: Often direct seeded. Seeds are sown in lines 3-4.5 meter apart at intervals of about 15 cm.A s arul e 450g r of fruits is sufficient for 30 to 36m of line.Sowin g should be carried out before the early rains, the soilmus t be worked up and the fruits slightly covered. Frequent weeding is necessary for 3o r 4years . Natural regeneration: In full light,a fair degree of soilmoistur e and on bare ground,a n abundant natural regeneration may be expected,althoug h establish­ ment ispossibl e when fruits are lying on a layer of dead leaves. Excessive grazing results in stunted growth,becaus e of trampling and hardening of the soil. Terminalia tomentosa is sensitive to fire in the drier types of forests in India. In sal-forests in India reproduction of Terminalia is favoured by fire protection,bu t continuous protection favours the sal to a greater extent. In such cases reproduction of Terminalia must be looked for only in low lying badly drained places,soil s where Shorea robusta has no chance and Terminalia tomentosa chiefly springs up.Quit e suitable tomanag e as an even-aged high forest with natural or artificial reproduction. Also suitable in a selection felling system or under coppice system with standards.

Growth,yield : Rather slow growth, 5m inheigh t at 10year s of age.I n India 20 cm diameter at 1.35 m at 47year s of age and 25 cm diameter at 1.35 m at 76 years ofage .

Pests,disease s and calamities: Seedlings are eaten by birds,deer ,cattle . Seeds liable to insect attack. Wood is damaged by several species of borers of the families Anthribidae,Bostrychidae ,Lyctida e and Cerambycidae. Several species of wood rotting fungibelongin g to the genera Daedalea, Fomes, Polyporus and Trametes causing white rot and Polyporus ostreiformis causing brown cubic rot,hav e been recorded.

Hood properties: Heartwoo d sharply differentiated from the sapwood; sapwood pinkish white topinkis h grey or pale grey heartwood,walnu t brown to deep brown, sometimes with darker streaks;har d to very hard,heav y to very heavy (sp.gr. 0.71-1.16 air-dry); strong and tough;ver y refractory to seasoning, opening out the shakes,splittin g of knots and extension ofend-splits ; sapwood liable to serious damageb y borers; logs should be converted with the least possible delay,slo w drying; satisfactory kiln-seasoning;moder ­ ately durable;treatabl e with preservatives,bu t complete penetration is not always obtained; somewhat difficult to saw and work, canb e brought to a fine finish; turns well and takes a lasting polish. 196

10 Uses: Suitable forvenee r andplywood . When properly seasoned itca nproduc e handsome furniture. Alsouse d forwago n building,floo ran dfoo t boards, handles,bloc k boards etc.Goo d construction wood forframework . Becauseo f itshig h caloric value itmake s excellent firewoodan dcharcoal .Th ebar ki s used fortannin gan ddyein gan dfo rpreservin g nets.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Terminalia tomentosa issuitabl eo nhydromorfi c soils.General ­ ly occurringo nshallo w soils inVietna m andals oo ntemporar y inundated ter­ rains. Itshow sa fai r natural reproduction,s oi tcoul db eeasil y established Shows good promise forfire-woo dan dcharcoa l production,bu tcoul d alsode ­ liver good construction timber.Shoul db etrie d inwoodlan d regions andpe ­ riodic swampforests .

13. Literature: 52,56 ,71 ,73 ,167 , 203.

107. Tetrameles nudiflora R.Br . Datiscaceae

1. Trade-an dindigenou s name:main akat ,chundal ,sand ugaz a (india), winong, binong (Indonesia),Kötang ,tun g (Vietnam),sa mpon g (Khmer Rep.).

2. Area,Ecology : ThroughoutSr iLanka ,India ,Birma ,China ,Indonesi aan dVie t nam. Occurringo nlo wundulatin g landan driverai nalluvia lflats .I nIndi a and Bursa occurring inmois t evergreen forest.I nVietna m present inth e up­ per canopyo fth emois t semi-deciduous forest.Abundan ta ttransition s with other forest typesan dofte n associated with Lagerstroemia angustifolia.

3. Climate -Rainfall :I nVietna m occurring in"semi-humid e etchaud "climate . Often inregion s witha mor eo rles s pronounced dryseason . Altitude:Fro m sea-levelt o50 0m ;sometime su pt o100 0m .

4. Soil: Growso nsandy ,ston y soils,bu tneve ro ninundate dareas .

5. Tree characteristics:Ver ybi gtre eu pt o4 5m tallan d1.3 0m i ndiameter . Stem: Huge,stepp ,thic k buttressesu pt o5 meter ,lon g cleanbole ,someti m croocked. Bark: Greyish,fairl y smooth. Crown: Only with 2-3order so fbranching ,mai n limbradial . Leaves: 3road,ovale ,1 5x 1 1cm ,pointed ,rathe r papery,base-hear t shaped thinly velvety below.

6. Silviculture -Seed :Narrow ,oblong ,slightl y flattened,win d dispers; 2,185,030seed spe rkg ,bu tno tpure . Nursery: InJav a some germination trialshav e beenmade .Fro m 0.1gra mo f 197

seed 225-480 seedlings canb eraised ,bu ta grea t part dies,sometime s upt o 90%. Nursery techniques:se eOctomele s sumatrana. » Planting_stock:n osilvicultura l datao fplantin g stock,plan t distancesetc . areavailable .

7. Growth,yield : Rapid growth under natural conditions.I nJav a (Indonesia) some growth data hasbee n recorded,althoug hno tprofoundly . InWes t Java ata nag eo f1 0year sa heigh t of12. 6m ;i nEas t Javaa heigh to f14. 1m at 6year so fage .

8. Pest,disease s andcalamities : Logsan dconverte d timbersar eliabl e toinsec t attack.

9. Wood properties: Soft timber,(sp.gr . 0.3-0.4a t12 %moistur e content); easyt oseason ,bu tquic k conversion followedb yvertica lstackin g orkil n drying isrecommended ;no tdurable ,i nIndi atreate d with fishoi lt oincreas e its durability; very easy tosa wan dwork .

10. Uses:Ha sprove d tob esuitabl e forchea p plywood. Also suitable forpackin g casesan dothe r temporary purposes.I nIndi a usedfo rdug-ou t canoes.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Th especie sha sno tbee n studied profoundly. Plantation trials haveno tbee n recorded. Naturalregeneratio n patterni sno tknown .T ob e considered forplywoo d supply.

13. Literature: 56,180 ,203 , 221.

108. Toona ciliata M.Roe m Meliaceae syn. Cedrela tcona Roxb.ex. Rot11.

1. Trade-an dindigenou s name:suria n (Malaya),sure n (Indonesia),too n (India), Thithado (Burma). Theclosel y related Toona ciliatava raustrali s isknow n asRe dCedar ,Australia n Toono rAustralia n Cedar.

2. Area,ecology : Widely distributed: India,Bangladesh ,Birma ,Thailand , S. China,Indonesia ,Malaysia ,Philippines .Ofte n alongrive rbank san d ravines. Toona ciliatava raustrali s isdistribute d inEas t Australia. Deciduous tree. Introduced inman y African countries,an dsom e South American countries.

3. Climate -Rainfall : 1125-4000m mannually ,dr yperio d3- 4months .Adaptabl e to drierregion san dperiod s inrainfal l areaso f80 0m mannually , although 198

under such circumstances good soil conditions are required. Toona ciliata var australis ispresen t in a 1500ram rainfal l zone. Temperature: absolute maximum temperature 43 C,absolut e minimum temperature -1 C. Tolerates light frost. In Queensland the extremes range between -2C to 28°C. Altitude: Up to 1300m above sea-level.

4. Soil: Often at the base of hills;well-drained . No compact soils or poor sandy soils.Prefer s calcareous soils.Als o found along riverborders .

5. Tree characteristics: 50m tall, 1.50 m diameter. Stem: Straight. Bark: Thick,gre y brown;deepl y grooved,exfoliatin g in thick flakes. Leaves: Alternate,6-1 2 pairs of leaflets,smooth ,ovate-lanceolate . Toona ciliata var australis has 3-8 pairs of leaflets. Root-system: Superficial.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Tree fruits practically the whole year. Collection of the seedsmus t be done before seeds aremature . 280,000-425,000 seeds per kg. Toona ciliata var australis has about 306,000 seeds per kg. In sealed tins in dry conditions at a temperature of 4 -5 C it can be stored for oneyear . Natural viability lost within 1-3 months.Collectio n must be done.Tre e seeds aremature . Nursery: Good germination, 90%i n 8^-12days ,o r 60-80% in 9 days. Seeds are sown in traysplace d with bottom inwater .Afte r sowing the seeds are covered with fine-textured sand. Protection against sun and rain recommended.Trans ­ planted when 1mont h old and 10 cm tall; inCost a Rica already transplanted after 2week s and 5c mheight . Planting_stock: Striplings,stump s aswel l as balled plants are used. In Africa one-year-old plants of 1.20 m, inheigh t are used;whe n stumps are used: shootlength 7 cm,rootlengt h 25 cm. In humid conditions stumps canb e stored at least 6weeks ,i n dry conditions only 2-3 days. In Rhodesia plants of 8-15 cm tall are used, inCost a Rica generally 30 cm tall. Also propagati by vegetative means isused . Planting technique: In Africa Toona ciliata has been planted at awid e spa­ cing,4 x 4m and 6x 6m ,bu t plants were of a bad form. In Costa Rica a 2 x 2m spacing isused ,afte r 1yea r closure isreached . 2.5 x 2.5 m is sug gested to be better. Sensitive toweeds ,s oweedin g in first year isnecess a Sometimes pruned. Natural Regeneration: Inman y countries where Toona has been introduced a fair natural regeneration has been recorded.

7. Growth,yield : Fast grower. In Asia in first year 30 cmheigh t growth,bu t subsequently rapid. In 22year s aheigh t of 19m and a diameter of 18c mha . been measured. In Hawaii T. ciliata var australis reached a eight of 30-36 and a diameter of 22-55 cm at 22year s of age. In Africa a diameter of 50c in 20year s is estimated.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: Besides caterpillar and termite attack the heavy attacks are causedb y the Hypsipylamoth . Generally species ofMelia c suffer greatly by these attacks of shoot-boring Hypsipyla spp. Itha s been 199

found that exotic Meliaceae as T. ciliata inCost a Rica,ar e not attacked by Hypsipyla grandella and that Cedrela odorata, introduced in other continents is not or less attacked by Hypsipyla robusta than native Meliaceae. It isbe ­ lieved that Hypsipyla spp. are attracted by a specific odour of the host tree which would be different for various Meliaceae. If this is correct,selectio n and breeding of Meliaceae could open new ways towards solution of the Hypsipyla problem. In Venezuela it was found that Hypsipyla attack on Cedrela spp.wa s much less when planted with Musa spp.Mayb e this also will happen with Hypsipyla attack on Toona,plante d with a Musa-crop, in Asiatic countries,bu t research isrequire d on this subject.

3. Wood properties: Similar to those of Cedrela odorata.Reddis h brown,attractiv e colour; soft;sp.gr . 0.46-0.64. Moderately durable, inHawai i naturaldurabi ­ lity for posts about 4years ;moderat e resistent to termites;eas y towork .

10. Uses: Furniture, light construction work, veneer, multiplex.

11. Remarks: I t isno t clear,whethe r Toona ciliata M. Roem var australis (FvM) C.D.C. must be considered as a variety or as a distinct species (Toona austra­ lis Harms).

12. Evaluation: Toona ciliata has awid e ecological range. It is often present onwell-drained , colluvial soils. So far it is not known tob e native in Vietnam. Generally Meliaceae suffer greatly of Hypsipyla attack. Toona ciliata may have a possibility in Vietnam,bu t there is a great risk that itwil lb e attacked by Hypsipyla. It is avaluabl e timber. Can be tried in enrichment planting,complet e planting or even taungya planting.

13. Literature: 47,71 ,192 ,195 ,203 .

109. Toona sureni (Bl.)Meril l Meliaceae syn. Swietenia sureni Bl. syn. Cedrela febrifuga Bl. syn. Toona febrifuga (Bl)Roe m syn. Surenus febrifuga 0.Kz e syn. Cedrela toona mult.anct .

1. Trade en indigenous names: soerèn ,laoet ,redan i (Java),sore n (Madura), soeren (Malaya),Xûon g mot,xuen g mét, xüong moe, hong dao (Vietnam),Chha m Chhar,chamch a (Khmer Republic).

2. Area,ecology : Found in Australia,India ,Burma ,Indo-China ,S . China, Malaysia and Indonesia. Often present at the base of hills or deep ravines. In Vietnam Toona sureni has been found in the dry deciduous forest,bu t also in the humid submontagnard zone,wher e itha s been observed at thebas e of eroded basalt regions near Djiring. There it is the only constituant in the canopy. It is alsopresen t inregion s of Bien Hoa,Blao ,Pha n Rang,B aRia . It is a light-demander,bu t inyout h it stands shade fairly well. For develop­ ment,however ,ful loverhea d light is required. 200

3. Climate -Rainfall : About the same as Toona ciliata; inCost a Rica it has been tried with succes in the 2500m m rainfall zone at 650m . Altitude: 0-1200 up to 2000m . In Djiring found at 1020m .

Soil: Needs fairly good soils,wit h sufficient moisture content.

Tree characteristics: 35-40 m tall. Clean bole up to 30m . Diameter of 1.20 m sometimes up to 2-3 m. Stern:Straight ,buttresse s up to 3.5 m. Bark: Thick,gre y brown with white flakes.Rough . Crown: Heavy branched. Leaves: Alternate,lanceolate , 5-12 pairs of leaflets,big . Root-system: Rather superficial.

Silviculture - Seed: 64.000 per kg. Must be collected before the fruits have been matured. Loses its viability quickly. Nursery: Sowing under shade. Fresh seeds germinate after 1week , 80%germinat e ifter'lO-12 days. Planting_stock: In India good results with stumps (8 cm shoot length and 20c r root length). Planting_technique: InJav amixture d with Artocarpus intégra .Spacin g of Toona 2.5 x 1m , closure after 8years . After 10year s Artocarpus has been thinned heavily in order to give Toona more spacing. Alsomixe d with Tectona grandis. Whenmixe d Toona needs a free stand in order to develop satisfactori In highland at 900 m. Good results were obtained whenmixe d with Altingia ex- celsa. Natural_regeneration: In Java in the highlands a fair natural regeneration has been recorded.

7. Growth,yield : Fast growth. In plantation trials inCost a Rica 4.3m tallan c 7 cm indiamete r at 5.5.years ,no t attacked by Hypsipyla spp. In Java in mixtures with Altingia excelsa amea n height of 21m and amea n diameter of 19 cm at 14year s of age are recorded.

8. Pests,disease s and calamities: In Asia heavy attack by Hypsipyla robusta in plantations.

9. Hood properties: Soft,ver y light (sp.gr. 0.24-0.33); strength variable; durability and resistance to insect attack variable;require s careful sea­ soning,split s easy,shrink s heavy,kil n drying recommended; difficult to work; takes a good polish,eas y to nail and to paint.

10. Uses: light construction work,furniture ,veneer ,triplex ,boats .

11. Remarks: 201

12. Evaluation:Toon a surenii snativ e toVietnam . Itha sabou t thesam eproper - itesa sToon a ciliata. Little plantation trialdat aar eavailable .I tma y showa possibilit y inVietna ma tcolluvia lsite sbu tprobabl y therewil lb e Hypsipyla attack problems with this species.A tplantatio n trials inJav ai t has been concluded that Toona sureni only growso nfairl y good soilswit h sufficientmoistur e content.I nyout hth etre e suffers greatly from attacks of shoot borers,resultin g ina stunte d growth.Th ewoo d israthe rvariable , it oftenwarp sbadly .I nVietna m Toona sureniha sbee n planted undera ligh t covero fCassi a siameaan dIndigofer a teysmaniia scove r crop.N ofurthe rdat a are available.Th especie s seems suitable forenrichmen t plantingo rcomplet e planting under light cover.

13. Literature: 5,88 ,115 ,147 , 180.

110. Vit ex pubeeoens Vahl Verbenaceae

1. Tradean dindigenou s name:Leban ,haleba n (Malaysia),gusapa ,laba n (Indonesia) kyeto (Burma),mill a (India),teen-no k (Thailand),bin h linh,chan-vi t (Vietnam

2. Area,ecology : Distributed throughout tropicalAsia ,ofte nabundan ti nsecon ­ dary forest.I ti squic k tocolonis e abandoned clearings.I nIndi ai ndr yde ­ ciduous forests oftenassociate d withXyli adolabriformis ,Terminali atomentos a Pterocarpus macrocarpus,bambo o speciesan d»the r species. InVietna m iti s present onmountainou sridge s alongth ecoast ,u pt o800-100 0m ,generall y on shallow stony soils. Also found inth edr ydeciduou s foresto nmor eo rles s hydromorphic ferralitic soils (Feralsols),ofte na ttransition s from secondary growth toprimar ydr ydeciduou s forest.A relate d species Vitex peduncularis has been recorded onshallow ,compac t soilsi nsecondar y growth like thicket and savannahan dha sabou tth esam e propertiesa sVite xpubescens .

3. Climate- Altitude :I nJav au pt o80 0m .

4. Soil: Iti stoleran t ofa wid e rangeo fsoi lcondition sa tlo waltitude . Prefers periodically orconstantl ydr ysoils .Als oo nbeac h andsalin e soils.

5. Tree characteristics:2 5m tal lan d7 0c mdiameter ,bu tgenerall y 10-15m and 35-4 5m diameter ,ofte n croocked. Stem:wit h deepgrooves ,ofte nba dform . Stumps coppice freely. |ark: Yellowish greyo rash-coloured ,usuall y moreo rles s smooth,a tfirst , but becoming shallowlyan dirregularl y fissured. Crown: Irregularan dlo wbranched , light,deciduous . Leaves:3- 5foliat e leaves,opposit ean ddigitate . ?22î~S¥§ïë5: DeeP rooting taproot withman y deep running rootsan da rathe r dense superficialroot-system .I nyout h goodresistanc e against lacko foxygen .

6. Silviculture- Seed :160 0seeds/kg . Nursery: Direct sowingno trecommended ,germinatio n starts after1 2days , rather low:54% . 202

Planting_stock: Balled plants and stumps showed much succes. (Stumps of 26 cm root length,2 0 cm stem length and less than 1c m collar diameter). Planting_technigue: Planted inmonoculture s ormixe d with other species at a spacing of 2x 1m . Closure in oneyear . Spacing of 1x 1i aha s proved too narrow. It can be planted as stumps in even luxuriant Imperata grass and provided it is given a little assistance to begin with, it willkil l Imperata in a few years. Not shade tolerant,althoug h mixtures can bemade . In order to improve the bad form itha s been suggested to plant Vitex pubescens under a light cover of c.q. Albizzia procera or Melia azedarach, also pruning and thinning could be important. Closer spacings showed little effect on branching and form. Natural regenerations: Fruits at frequent intervals,seed s dispersed bybirds . Pioneer species on abandoned shifting cultivation fields inJav a together with Albizzia chinensis. It gradually disappears as high forest conditions develop.

7. Growth,yield : Rapid growth inyouth ,sometime s up to 3m in the first year; but later growth is rather slow. Flowers when about 4.5 m tall. In Java inmixture s of Vitex pubescens with Swietenia macrophylla at 2x 1 spacings,closur e was reached after 3years .Vite x showed a fast growth; at the age of 11year s it reached a height of 15m and a diameter of 21 cm. Swietenia measured 10m tallan d 11 cmdiameter ,i t showed lessgrowt h than in pure plantations,bu t form of Swietenia was much better.

Attacks ofborer s as Zeuzera coffea and some other insects are reported,bu t no heavy damage is caused. It is moderately fire resistant.

Hood properties:Yellow ,turnin g rather dark brown with age;hard ; heavy, (sp.gr. 0.9 air-dry); strong,bu t rather brittle,tough ;naturall y durable; seasons well, shrinkage low;no t resistant tomarin e borers;fairl y easy to work in spite of its hardiness,ca n be brought to a smooth finish and takes a good polish; if soaked inwate r for a few hours,a yellow abstract isob ­ tained.

10. Uses: Boats,sheats ,hous e posts,rice-pounders ,shuttles . 3ood fuelwood.

11. Remarks: A relate d Vitex species,Vite xparviflora ,no t present in Vietnam, reaches a fair distribution in the Philippines. It is a very high valued hard wood species,tha t attains small tomediu m dimensions.Especiall y comim on low coastal hills with a distinct dry and wet season. Dry period of 6m o ormore . It is typical for limestone soils,whic h are usually quite shallow and excessively drained,als o on dryrock y ridges and rocky and stony soils

12. Evaluation: Vitex pubescens makes few demands on soil,bu t the rate ofgro v is slow and irregular on bad soils and the trees do not attain large dimenE here. Under favourable conditions a fast grower. Form usually bad,bu t the is strong,toug h and durable. Planting isrecommende d on Imperata fieldsf < fuelwood. Vitex parviflora which ismuc h more valued,coul d also show good possibilities on such sites. 203

13. Literature: 46,115, 180,203 ,216 .

111. Wrightia tomentosa R. and S. Apocynaceae syn. U. Mollisima W.wallichl i

1. Name - Tradename: Lanete (Phil), also used for other Wrightiaspp . Indiger,ous_name: lettôkthein (Burma),moke-ma n (Thailand),lon gmu c (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : Distributed throughout the greater part of Indiaan d found in various parts of Burma. Occurs commonly inrathe r openmixe d deciduousforests . InBurm a fairly common inuppe r and lowermixe d deciduous forest. InVietna m Wrightia tomentosa occurs inthicket s often associated with species as Holarrhena spp.,Grewi a spp.,Mallotu s spp.,Trem a spp.,Acaci a spp.,Albizzi a spp.Moderat e light-demander.

3. Climate -Rainfall : Annually about 875-375 0mm . It canwithstan d drought fair­ lywell . Temgerature: Absolutemaximu m shade temperature: 40 -48C an d absolute minimum temperature: -1-1 3 C. Seedlings are sensitive tofrost . Altitude: From lowland up to 1200m .

4. Soil:

5. Tree characteristics: Small deciduous treewit h slenderpubescen tbranches . Coppiceswell . Bark: Grey,corky ,exudin g ayellowis h white latex whencut . Leaves: Ooposite,distichous ,softl y tomentose.

6. Silviculture -Seed : Fruits at an early age;long ,linear ,light ,yellowis h grey,crowne d with a tuft ofwhit e silky hairs by theai d ofwhic h they are dispersed by wind. Can be kept for atmos t oneyear . Nursery: High fertility when fresh,germinatio n starts after 3-4weeks . Watering and weeding stimulates growth. Often sown in lines.Transplantin g during firstrain y season,bu t care isnecessar y duringtransplanting ,other ­ wise they are liable to die-back or killed outright. Natural regeneration: Regeneration ismos t plentiful onbare ,loos esoil .

7. Growth,yield : At thebeginnin gmoderat e growth:7.5-2 5c mtal li nth e first season,bu t weeded andwatere d 1m heightma y be attained. Further growth is subsequently rapid,provide d it isno t interfered byweeds .

9. Wood properties:White ;moderatel y hard;specifi c gravity 0.50-0.55(a t15 % moisture)fairl y durable;eas y towork ,excellen t toturn . 204

10. Uses: Turning, carving,domesti cutensils .

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation:Wrighti ai softe n found inundergrowt h inope ndeciduou s forest and often present inthickets .Coppice s wellan dha sa goo d power ofrecovery , can resist more orles s severedr yperiods .I nVietna m possibly suitedt o reforestation ofImperat a fields,provide d that weed-cleanings inth efirs t years arecarrie d out.Especiall y indr yregion s itma yprov e successful.

13. Literature:180 , 203.

112. Xylia dolabriformis Benth. Mimosaceae syn. X. xyloaappa (Roxb)Tau b

1. Name- Tradename :Exporte d from Burmaa sPyinkado. Indigenousname :Ca mxe ,ma yDeng ,Sokra m (Vietnam).

2. Area,ecology : Throughout tropicalAsia .I nBurm ai ti smainl y present inth < uppermixe d deciduous forests inhill y country whereth egrea t bulk oftea k forests,ofte n associated with bamboos,occurs .I nth emoistes t types there is little teakan dXyli a dolabriformis becomes practically gregarious. Other associatesar eLagerstroemi a spp.,Terminali a spp.,Dalbergi aspp. , Pterocarpus spp.an dothers ,als obambo o speciesa sBambus a spp.,Oxythenan t spp.,Thyrsostachy s spp.ar epresent .Th especie s alsooccur s inth elowe r mixed deciduous forestbu tles s abundant asi nth eforme r vegetation-type. Inwoodlan d (Indaing forest)an dthicket s ofth edr yfores t zonesi ti s plentifulbu trathe r stunted andeconomicall y less important.I nevergree n forest Xylia dolabriformisi softe n associated with Tetramelis nudiflora, Sterculia alata,Hope a odorata,Anisopter a glabraan dothers .I ti sthough t that Xylia bearing evergreen forests inBurm arepresen ta progressiv e series from deciduous toevergree n forest andtha t inevergree n forest Xylia ison . represented bylarg e trees which have survived fromth eforme rmois t decidu* forest. Xylia occursbot h onhill y andfla t groundbu ti ti sattainin git s best development onth elowe r slopeso fhill san di nwell-draine d valleys. InVietna m Xylia dolabriformis isa commo n feature ofth edr ydeciduou sfo r andth esemi-dens e forest (Forêt semi-dense). Iti sa shade-bearin g tree, especially inyouth .

3. Climate -Rainfall :Generall y Xylia thrivesbes t inlocalitie so f1500-300 C ofannua lrainfall .Remain s rather stunted inregion s with less than 1125 n yearly. Longdr yperio d required. Temperature:Th eabsolut emaximu m shadetemperatur e is:3 8-4 5C ,an dth e absolute minimum temperature 4-1 3C .Sensitiv et ofrost . Altitude:I nBurm a chiefly upt o90 0m ,ha sbee nplante d inSr iLank au pt < thisaltitude . 205

Soil: Thrives best on deep,moist ,porou s loamy soils and requires agoo d drainage, prefers a slightly undulating surface,avoid s low-lying flat ground subject to inundation. Has beer,foun d on sandstone,shales ,gneiss ,granite , schist, avoids saline and ferruginous soils. In Vietnam it is more common on schist and alluvial flats than on basalt.

5. T^g§_£haE5c:teristics: Large,deciduou s tree,3 6m tall and 1.2 m in diameter. Stem: Straight, cylindrical bole of 15-18m . Bark: Reddish ofyellowis h grey, furrowed longitudinally and peiling off in irregular roundish pieces,thin . Leaves: Bipinnate,wit h one pair of pinnae,eac h pinna with 2-6 pairs of leaflets. C^StlüySÏüï1 Develops a long tap root at an early age.

6. Silviculture - Seed: Flat,ovale ,oblong ,brown ,smooth ,shining , moderately hard testa. If kept dry it stores for at least oneyear . Nursery: Germinates readily,hig h fertility. Requires-goo dwaterin g and shade. ?i?2îi28-SÏ°£-: Direct sowing has given greater success than transplants from the nursery at least in India and Burma.Stump s (1-2c m diameter root collar) Two-year-old or one-year-old balled plants are recommended. Planting_technique: Often sown in lines inwel l loosened holes at 2m inter­ vals in rows 3m apart.Growt h is very stimulated by weeding; from the fourth year onwards it isabl e to eliminate grass competition. InVietna m and Laos direct sowing in enrichment plantings inwoodlan d was not successful. Xylia has been suggested in taungya planting mixed with teak.Tea k is sown early in order to obtain full sunlight and alternating showers at the beginning of the wet season. Xylia germinates with the first showers and when planted in the open the seedlings would desiccate very soon. So itmigh t be introduced successfully as an understory in teak plantations if the right light conditions are met. Should be sown in lines between the teakrows after the latter has been sufficiently thinned. Ü5ÏÏÏE§iEêë52S£5ïï2B : ^n India and Burma good seed years are sufficiently fre­ quent to secure an ample regeneration. Favourable conditions are:a loose, bare soil under shade,ampl e moisture supply,goo d drainage and absence of heavy weed growth. Owing to its thin bark the young trees are very liable toburning ,bu t after a fire they coppice well, at least when well established. It has been suggested that coppicing of Xylia after burning could be succesful ina mixed teak and Xylia crop.Establishmen t of Xylia is encouraged by slight canopy opening near seed bearers accompanied by burning. Someyear s fire protection and cleaning are required,unti l theXyli a seedlings arewel l established. Then the area is clear felled and burned,t o secure teak reproduction (India),whil e young Xylia would shoot up again. Inmoistur e forest types Xylia seedlings are generally more able to persist in heavy weed growth than teak seedlings. Itha s been shown that naturalregene ­ ration can be secured in quantity by cutting bamboos and other growth in the vicinity of seed bearers,i n order to lighten the cover;afte r thorough burning the cut material,Xyli a seedlings appear inabundance .Thereafte r fireprotec ­ tion and regular weeding and cleaning are needed,whil e light is admitted by gradually removing the overwood in the canopy. This resulted in the establish­ ment of dense young crops ofXylia . 206

Growth,yield : When sown,growt h of seedlings in the beginning is only mod­ erate, 12.5-30 cm in the first season. In the second and subsequent years rapid,especiall y between the third and tenth year. After two years 1.50 m tall,afte r 4year s 5m and after 6year s Bm tall. In Nigeria Xylia attained a height of 6.3 m and 10 cm diameter in the first 5years ,afte r 9year s 9m tallan d 28year s of age 29-34 cm diameter;bu t boles remained rather twisted and branchy.

Also attack by parasitic fungus Fomes fulvus.

9. Wood properties:Sapwoo d brownish orpinkis h white,heartwoo d reddish brown, often with darker streaks,turnin g deep reddish brown on ageing,rathe r dull; very hard,heav y to very heavy (sp.gr.0.75-1.1 3 air-dry); strong; moderately easy to season,air-season s slowly without any serious degrade,liabl e to heartshakes;gree n conversion from freshly cut logs and boxing thehear t are therefore recommended. Kiln-seasons without much difficulty. Dead wood at­ tacked by borers a Sinoxylon anale and Aristobia approximate. Heartwood very refractory to treatment with preservatives,sapwoo d readily treatable;diffi ­ cult to saw and work,eve nwhe n green and extremely sowhe n dry,havin g blun­ ting effect on the saw;ca n however be brought to a smooth surface andpo ­ lishes well.

10. Uses: Heavy construction works asbridges ,railwa y sleepers;als opiles , girders,decking ,floor-boards ,harbou r works,fencepost s and other things. Very valuable and wanted hardwood.

11. Remarks:

12. Evaluation: Xylia dolabriformus is a native species of Vietnam,ofte nasso ­ ciated with bamboo.Whe n a usefulbambo o species occurs,bot h hardwood and bamboosma y bemanaged . Soil loosening and canopy opening ina gradualwa y could encourage regeneration establishment,especiall y near seed bearers,a m favour growth. Regular cleaning should be carried out in the first years in order to obtain satisfactory growth. Sufficient spacings between the trees isnecessar y to give alsobamboo-clump s a change of good growth. It has to b investigated whether such a silvicultural system canb e realized. Also resea on naturalregeneratio n pattern and the role ofburnin g has tob e carried ou When bamboo species are not very useful,the y are clearfelled and burned; pc sibly Xylia regenerateswell and subsequent gradual canopy opening and cleani will favour the young crop. Xylia dolabriformis has been suggested for en­ richment planting ofwoodland ,bu t the system seems also suitable indr yde ­ ciduous and semi-dense forest thickets,o rmayb e evenmois t semi-deciduous forest. Planting has been recommended but maybe sowing also provessuccesfu. ' especially in themoistur e vegetation types.Th e species has proved tob e a very good soil improver,1 0ton s of litter/ha/year at 26year s of age are produced from which mild humus is derived. Further itma y be tried in taung planting as an understory in teak plantations. It is aver y valuable hardwo species,whic h could be used forman y purposes.

13. Literature: 147, 167,173 ,180 ,203 . 207

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