Dera Natung Government College Research Journal 1. 1 2. 15 3. 26 4

Dera Natung Government College Research Journal ISSN : 2456-8228 Volume 2 Issue 1 January-December 2017

Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

CONTENTS

Sl. Articles Author Pages No.

1. Guidance and Counselling Needs in Capacity Alphonsa Diana Haokip Building of Pre-Service Teacher Trainees 1

2. Attitude of Elementary School Teachers To- Beori Yabe wards the Dyslexia Students in East Kameng 15 District of Arunachal Pradesh.

3. Demographic Profile of the High-and Lower- Bhaboklang Sohkhlet 26 Altitude Monpas in Arunachal Pradesh, India Nich Menia

4. Impact of Population Growth on Forest Cover: Gendan Tsering A Case Study of Tawang District of Arunachal Gibji Nimasow 39 Pradesh Nandini Chakrabarthy Singh

Birth Rituals and Associated Taboos among the Landi Pussang Monia 5. 53 Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh

6. Pluralism and Identity Politics: A Look into the Dr. Nandini Basistha 63 Indian Centre-State Scenario

7. Shifting Cultivation in North-East India: Dr. B.K. Panda 69 Growth and Progress Dr. Sukanta Sarkar

8. Economic Empowerment of Women through Mriganka Saikia 91 NGO: A Case Study Pankaj Saikia

9. Why India is Shying Away from Its Frontiers? Dr. Ratna Tayeng 101

US-Nepal and India: Trilateral Relationson Vijay Jayshwal 10. 109 Global and Regional Strategic Perspective Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Guidance and Counselling Needs in Capacity Building of Pre-Service Teacher Trainees

Alphonsa Diana Haokip Saint Claret College, Ziro Arunachal Pradesh, India E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The present-day educational scenario placed the teachers with multiple roles, and one such area is guidance and counselling where they are expected to be competent through their pre-service teacher training programme as students look up to them for guidance and support in every situation of their student life. Guidance and counselling services in educational system is to develop, assess and improve educational programmes for all the stakeholders to effectively handle the children. The learners consist of different age groups who are vulnerable and need support. The National Curriculum Framework (NCERT, 2005) has endorsed the inclusion of guidance and counselling in the curriculum. In the light of this, it is inevitable that pre-service teachers are equipped with basic guidance and counselling skills since it is evident that India is still deprived of the true spirit of guidance and counselling wherein adequate attention has not been paid yet. The initiation of effectively integrating guidance and counselling along with the teacher educational programme is encouraged by National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT, 2015). In this study, the author has discussed the pressing need of furnishing pre-service teachers with the skills of guidance and counselling so that they are well equipped as they venture into their teaching profession.

Keywords: Teacher education, Capacity building, Pre-service teachers.

Introduction It is asserted that every teacher has a guidance role and can provide guidance and counselling services to students. To meet this challenge of the new millennium,

1 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal teacher education in India calls for a tremendous modification with intensive training in various aspects (Varshney, 2014). Since every trained teacher who has undergone professional training programme is expected to acquire desired knowledge and skills, it is presumed that they would integrate guidance philosophy and principles in their day- to-day teaching work and other school activities. This views every teacher as having the potential to be counsellors and reach out to a large number of students. The approaches to provide guidance and counselling services to students may vary but the focus of all the approaches is aimed at addressing the challenges faced by students (NCERT, 2015). There is a pressing need to revitalize and reinforce the quality of pre-service teacher educational programmes nationwide, since teacher education is the only powerful instrument to improve the quality and standard of school education and through it all forms of transformation and quality development can be initiated (Varshney, 2014).

It is universally accepted that students usually encounter many setbacks along their learning expedition as they climb the ladder of knowledge and education. These setbacks could be related to their academic performance, social relationships, emotional changes and problems of personal lives. Some of them may have problems in the context of their present academic life; while some may have roots in their past development. To ensure that a student is able to successfully deal with the crises and continue with quality endeavour in her academic pursuit, it is crucial to identify the root problem and extend timely support. At this juncture guidance and counselling can play a very significant role. The scope of its significance is not confined to facilitating the optimal development of the students and academic accomplishments. Rather, it makes an effort to see what led to crisis occurrence and continues to extend remedial inputs and support to the learner. This aspect is benevolently carried out with much love, true respect and unconditional acceptance regardless of how wrong the student might be (Odera, 2014).

Teacher Education : According to Taylor (1969), “Teacher education refers to the policies, procedures, and provision designed to equip teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviours, and skills they require to perform their responsibility effectively in the classroom, school, and wider community”. As it is a professional programme 2 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal of education for the preparation of teachers at the elementary and secondary school levels through formal course work and practice teaching for the development of teacher proficiency and competence that would enable them to meet the requirements of the profession and face the challenges therein”.

Capacity Building : Can be defined as the progression of developing and fortifying the skills, abilities and resources that an individual requires to survive, adapt, and thrive in the fast-changing world. Adebayo (2016) defines capacity building as the growth of knowledge, skills and attitudes in an individual and groups of people relevant in design, development, management and maintenance of institutional and operational infrastructure and processes that are locally meaningful.

Pre-service Teacher Trainees : Refers to student, teachers who are enrolled in a two- year Bachelor of Education programme by learning the skills and knowledge needed for teaching before they enter into service as teachers.

Secondary School Students Today’s young people are living in an exciting time, with an increasingly diverse society, new technologies and expanding opportunities. In their preparation to be the next generation of parents, leaders and citizens, every student needs support and guidance. Adolescent years are full of growth, excitement, frustration, disappointment and hope. It is the time when students begin to discover what the future holds for them. Hence, teachers who are their constant companions should help them in setting appropriate goals and career for the realization of their full potential through guidance. Secondary school is a time of increasing stress and pressure from peers. During these adolescent years, they evaluate their strengths, skills and abilities, and rely heavily on peer acceptance and feedback. They face increased pressures regarding risk behaviours involving sex, alcohol and drugs while exploring the boundaries of more acceptable behaviour and meaningful relationships. Their life is one full of uncertainty and turmoil. So, Gendavani (2013) posited that guidance and counselling is the need of the hour to determine the priority needs of high school students in dealing with academic pressures

3 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal and in making concrete decisions. As students’ progress through primary and secondary stages of schooling, they need an environment that is secure, warm, caring and nurturing (Aurobindo, 2015). The purpose of any education system is not only to foster academic learning but also all-round development of children. Thus, guidance and counselling can facilitate the students in fulfilling their physiological needs, like understanding themselves and the acceptance of others, develop healthy relationships with peers and have a balance in their educational setting. Hence, most of the teachers and students advocate that students need proper guidance (Karim & Usman, 2016).

Guidance and Counselling of Students Guidance and counselling are imperative in modern education, being the process by which students are given counsel, to solve their personal problems and handle their emotional conflicts. It serves as a means of offering support when they face problems that impact their performance and relationship with others with the objective of bringing about the highest improvement and self-realization. It therefore aims at assisting students to harmonize their talents, interests and values, to enable them to develop their potential fully, formulate life goals and plans which are realistic. Since every stage of learning has its own uniqueness of excitement, anxiety and problems, guidance and counselling are required to assist the learners to cope up with the demands each stage offers and come up victorious. If students are motivated by teachers, they will do better things related to learning but when ignored they tend to be maladjusted and affect their learning (Odera, 2014). In a school setting, teachers attend to the needs of students, parents, guardians and the community which entails dedication of energy, time and skills to provide both direct and indirect support to students. Rightly the first education commission commonly known as Mudaliar Commission (1952-53), recognized the importance of proper guidance for students as an integral part of education programme. Education commission (1964-66) encouraged guidance and counselling for students by expanding the scope of guidance services beyond educational and vocational guidance. Guidance helps the adolescents to understand themselves better (Vinutha & Indiramma, 2017). While educational guidance helps students to select appropriate educational course with regard to talent, interest and other personality characteristics (Gendavani, 2013). 4 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Need of Training Pre-Service Teachers in Guidance and Counselling a) Complexity of Students’ Life The student’s life is getting complex day by day with changes taking place in every sphere of life, that guidance and counselling service is inevitable to help them for optimum development. Changing family trends such as working mothers, divorces, single parent families have reduced the emotional cushioning provided so far by most of the Indian families (Kodad & Kazi, 2014). Today’s adolescents are living in a world which has no boundaries for them as they face serious challenges of adapting themselves to the ever-expanding demands of the society (Vinutha & Indiramma, 2017). The academic stresses, cut-throat competition, drop-out, suicide, anger, violence, drug abuse, child abuse, sex abuse are some of the concerns. A vast majority of them lacked a sense of direction, and get involved in destructive activities which lead to social damage and loss. At this point in time, timely guidance and counselling by a teacher would be commendable, in a country like ours where we witness a huge chasm between a hand- full of professionally trained counsellors to cater the needs of an enormous population of students. This testifies the need for every teacher to be equipped with basic guidance and counselling skills to reach out to the needs of the large student community (Georgiana, 2014). Robert and Elizabeth (1983) opined that teenagers are under constant anxiety and pressure that consists of egocentrism, distrust and helplessness. Therefore, guidance and counselling are required during the adolescent period to assist them in understanding their stages of development and adjust to school life. b) Agents of Transformation Since Teachers interact with students on a daily basis both academically and socially, it is their fundamental responsibility to engage guidance and counselling interventions on students with a lasting impact. Besides, there is no higher calling for a teacher than improving the lives of her students. The goals of education, in harmony with guidance and counselling aims to facilitate development of students in all spheres of life and make education a meaningful and satisfying experience. It integrates guidance philosophy and practices through curricular offerings thereby adopting a proactive and preventive approach. It transforms the development of children by creating stress-free 5 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal environment for learning, encouraging them to learn independently and cope up with the demands and challenges of life. Recognizing its contribution as agents of change and transformation, deliberate efforts have been initiated by the National Council of Teacher Education (NCTE) and the Ministry of Education to equip 21st century School teachers in guidance and counselling (Aurobindo, 2015). Since the teacher is the pivot of the entire educational system and the main catalytic agent for introducing desirable changes in the teaching learning process, all attempts need to be made for motivating teachers to become innovative and creative. It goes without saying that a self-motivated and really industrious teacher can utilize his own resources to keep himself abreast of new knowledge and skills (Singh, 2014). c) Multiple Roles of Teachers Teachers being educational leaders have a great role in providing sound foundation to students who are nation builders of tomorrow. The role of a Teacher does not limit itself to maintain discipline in the school, making the students conform to the rules and regulations of the institutions and pass the examinations with good grades. This is because every purpose of education is to develop a harmonious personality of the learner and make pupils fit to live with the ever-changing world (Mangal, 1990, p. 273). Throughout history, people called ‘Teachers’ have played many different roles and they continue to do so today. But today’s world is passing through rapid changes and great advancements. In such a climate, even education system cannot resist change. As a result, the imperatives of new times, new demands and new visions assign more challenging role and responsibility to the teacher (Das, 2015). To fulfil their multiple roles professionally, teachers need to be competent in their responsibilities towards their students inside and outside the classroom. One of the most important roles where teachers can offer help beyond the four walls of the classroom is by providing guidance and counselling to students (Lai-Yeung, 2014). This only goes to affirm the extent to which teachers are accountable for their students who are entrusted to their care not only to enhance their academic and intellectual development but also deal with various psychological and emotional issues of the students. It is surmised that the future of the nation can be forecasted by analysing the type of students that we have today. If the 6 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal students of today are imbibing a disciplined and healthy way of life, we can certainly expect a matured, disciplined and healthy nation. These students can pave the way for building a strong and progressive nation in future. A timely modification in behaviour today can bring about a sea of change tomorrow. Hence, we need to train the pre-service teachers with new perspectives and the pre-service teacher education programmes should have paradigm shift with this emphasis (Singh, 2014). d) Identification of Guidance Needs A teacher is an important part of the educational leadership team and provides valuable assistance to students regardless of whether she works in an elementary school or middle school or high school. Many at times this becomes an inexplicable saddle for teachers in establishing a balance in carrying out their duties effectively. A person who is always there for the students at crucial turning points in their lives with a listening heart and a word of encouragement since they together work under so many constraints (Das, 2015). The role of a teacher is ever-increasing from just imparting knowledge to dealing with bullying, drop outs, parental pressure, peer pressure and suicide, a teacher must be aware of new social issues based on changing trends. Considered as the main resource for students, the teacher has the responsibility to identify the guidance needs of the students and refer them to trained counsellors and recommend them to the parents (Georgiana, 2014). Apart from subject teaching, teachers are entrusted with many responsibilities in which guidance and counselling is one major duty which they do it daily in different measures, even though it is not titled officially. Therefore, it is evident that teachers require competency with basic guidance and counselling skills as they discharge their responsibilities inside and outside the classroom (Lai-Yeung, 2014). School counsellors too consider that teachers can take action at the class level in order to prevent certain situations, thus reducing the number of cases that later reach their attention. A strong starting point in preventing a high number of problems is represented by classroom communication with students (Georgiana, 2014).

In this study author has employed Guidance Needs Inventory (GNI) developed and standardized by Grewal (1982) to identify to the level of guidance needs among 7 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal secondary students. The GNI has 65 items, catering to five components of guidance namely: Physical Guidance, Social Guidance, Psychological Guidance, Psychological Guidance, Educational Guidance and Vocational Guidance. This was employed since various aspects of guidance that secondary students need are addressed. The survey conducted consisted of 750 students of standard VIII, IX and X for the academic year 2018-2019 belonging to the Educational Boards of State, ICSE and CBSE respectively in the city of Bengaluru. The analysis of the survey confirmed that secondary school students need guidance and counselling as shown in the figure below.

Fig. 1: Level of Guidance Needs among Secondary School Students.

The figure 1 shows that 62% male and 53% female are in extreme needof guidance, 23% males and 25% females are in very high need of guidance and 15% males and 20% females are in high need of guidance. This indicates that secondary students are immensely in need of guidance. e) Teacher as Mediators of Students, Counsellors, and Parents When it comes to students, teachers are the best who can identify learning

8 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal difficulties of the students. There are instances where students who apparently seem normal might be having emotional disturbances in their environment, home and neighbourhood. Yet, when a teacher walks into the class rooms she will be in a better position to identify the unique needs of the students and refer them to professionally trained counsellors and give awareness to the parents. This is feasible only if the teacher is trained and equipped with basic guidance and counselling skills.

The general public is inclined to consider counselling as a remedial function and gives lot of emphasis on immediate goals, which are problem solution, tension reduction and the like. Parents, the press, administrators are prejudiced when it comes to counselling and the general public often wonder what counsellors are capable of doing on a daily basis in educational institutions. If teachers are equipped as counsellors, they will be competent to effectively handle students in their personal and social development, ensuring that today’s students become the productive and well-adjusted adults of tomorrow. More than anybody else, teachers understand their students’ field of study and the problems they face, more sensitively can facilitate the smooth operation of the class. Since teachers have ample opportunity to conduct observations of the students their problems can be addressed as early as possible, before it gets aggravated (Ahmad, 2013).

The author conducted a session with a set of 150 pre-service teachers for the B.Ed. programme of 2017-2019, to get first-hand information and their views with regard to training them in guidance and counselling skills. It was an open-ended questionnaire with five items and their responses are tabulated and analysed and presented as follows: Item 1: Do teacher trainees of B.Ed. programme require basic guidance and counselling skills?

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Fig. 2: Percentage Distribution of Requirement for Basic Guidance and Counselling Skills.

The figure 2 shows that 94% of the teacher trainees felt the need to be equipped with guidance and counselling skills and just 6% of them do not feel the need to be equipped.

Item 2: Do you feel confident to give guidance and counselling to students after completing B.Ed.?

Fig. 3: Percentage Distribution of Confidence Level of B.Ed. Teacher Trainees to Give Guidance and Counselling to Students.

The figure 3 shows that 86% of the teacher trainees feel incompetent to give guidance and counselling to students in spite of going through a professional course, since they are not specifically trained in guidance and counselling skills.

Item 3: What role can you play in guidance and counselling after completing B.Ed. programme?

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Fig. 4: Percentage Distribution of Roles after Completion of B.Ed. Programme.

Among the teacher trainees 44% of them said, they would play their role as an observant. They are of the opinion that by observing the changes in the behaviour of the students in the class and in the school premises, teachers can identify their guidance needs so as to provide timely guidance and counselling to the students.

Item 4: As a teacher what is your function to avail guidance and counselling to students?

Fig. 5: Percentage Distribution of Different Functions of the Teachers to Avail Guidance and Counselling to Students.

The 38% of teacher trainees feel that by being a facilitator, their function of a teacher can be effective.

Item 5: How will you integrate guidance and counselling in your classroom teaching?

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Figure 6: Percentage Distribution of Integrating Guidance and Counselling in the Classroom Teaching.

The opinion of 46% of teacher trainees asserts that guidance and counselling will be more effective by giving individual attention to the students.

The responses from the pre-service showed that 94% of them are of the opinion that teachers require training in guidance and counselling skills and they should be equipped. It is observed that 86% of them feel incompetent to give guidance and counselling to students in - spite of going through a professional course of two years since they are not specifically trained in the area of guidance and counselling. Further, 38% of them said they can be facilitators, mediators to link students, counsellors, parents and management while 44% of them said they would play their role as an observant, identify the behavioural changes in the students and give timely guidance. The remaining 46% of them were of the opinion that guidance and counselling will be more effective by giving individual attention to students.

Conclusion The need for teachers to be equipped in guidance and counselling in modern times has augmented because of the multiplicity of problems that students face in the various domains of life. Rapid changes in every aspect of living cause many strains and stresses on them as they struggle for better adjustment and existence in this complex society. Moreover, the age of the students during adolescence is sensitive and highly vulnerable, wherein they experience conflicts between themselves and the society. Regardless of

12 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal the role of other educational personnel in schools, teachers have a very important role in the implementation guidance in schools both inside and outside the classroom (Ahmad, 2013). By virtue of the teaching profession, it necessitates that teachers are the right personnel to tender guidance and counselling to the students who spend six to eight hours in their company. They are the reliable sources to impart counselling assistance to the pupils regarding the educational, vocational and social information needed to make wise choices. If not, students may seek guidance from other fonts and gather information that might not lead them to a prosperous future (Odera, 2014). Thus, it is of paramount importance to train and equip the present and future pre- service teachers with basic guidance and counselling skills for the benefit of students.

References Adebayo, F.A. (2016). Teachers’ capacity building and students’ academic performance among public junior secondary schools in Kwara state. British Journal of Education, Society, & Behavioural Science, 12(3), 1-10. Ahmad, K.I. (2013). The role of teacher’s guidance counseling building self-esteem in repertoire school students matter to achieve success. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(5), 1-6. Das, M. (2015). Innovative practices in teacher education: An overview. International Research Journal of Interdisciplinary & Multidisciplinary Studies, 1(4), 15-18. Gendavani, M. G. (2013, August). The survey of need to guidance in high school students of theoretical branches. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 3(7), 554-560. Georgiana, D. (2014). Teacher’s role as a counsellor. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 180, 1080-1085. https://.doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.02.211. Karim, R.A., & Usman, M. (2016). Need of guidance for resolving psychological problems of secondary school students: A study in Pakistan. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 3(6), 44-51. Kodad, H.S., & Kazi, S.A. (2014). Emerging area of counselling in schools in India. International Research Journal of Social Sciences, 3(3), 44-47.

13 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Lai-Yeung, S.W.C. (2014). The need for guidance and counselling training for teachers. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 113, 36-43. NCERT (2005). National curriculum framework (NCF 2005). New Delhi: NCERT. NCERT (2015). Guidance and counselling guidelines for states/UTs. New Delhi: Department of Educational Psychology & Foundations of Education & RMSA Project Cell. Odera, J.O. (2014). Guidance and counselling practices by teachers in primary schools in Kisumu West sub county, Kenya. International Journal of Academic Research and Reflection, 2(4), 89-99. Singh, G. (2014). Emerging trends and innovations in teacher education. Indian Journal of Applied Research, 4(5), 166-168. Taylor, W. (1969). Society and the education of teachers. London: Faber. Varshney, N. J. (2014). Innovative practices in teacher education. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(7), 95-101. Vinutha, R., & Indiramma, B.S. (2017). Guidance needs of urban adolescents. North Asian International Research Journal of Social Science & Humanities, 3(7), 18-23.

14 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Attitude of Elementary School Teachers Towards the Dyslexia Students in East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh

Beori Yabe Assistant Professor Department of Education Mudo Tamo Memorial College, Ziro E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract This study attempts to understand the Attitude of Elementary School Teachers towards the dyslexia Students in East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh. It determines whether educators’ beliefs are situated negatively or positively towards the construct of dyslexia and provides insight into their conception of the disability, the perceived ‘helplessness’ of a dyslexic student and caregivers’ responses to the condition and finally, perceived barriers in terms of supporting these students. The purpose of this study is to assess the attitude of Elementary School Teachers towards the dyslexia Students. Therefore 100 teachers from 20 elementary schools were given sample of the study. The investigator also used a self-developed Likerts-5 point’s attitude scale having two sections. This scale includes 20 items (20 each for teachers) related to several dimension on attitude about dyslexia students.

Keywords : Dyslexia, Attitude of Teacher, Elementary School Teachers.

Introduction Children with disabilities are also known as slow learners or children with special needs (CWSN); generally, the teachers consider these children as mentally retarded. But that is not correct assumption. These children are not mentally retarded but these problems could be due to difficulty in expressing oneself, difficulty in attention and difficulty in concentration, etc. Generally, these children have normal or sometimes even above average intelligence. When someone who previously could read loses

15 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal their ability, it is known as alexia. The difficulties are involuntary and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn. The Dyslexia is one the common issues among students with learning disabilities. Dyslexia is a specific learning disability in the area of reading and writing. The term learning disability is derived from the Greek word “dys’’ means poor or inadequate, and "lexis" means words or language.

Rationale of the Study The studies conducted by Mihandoost (2013), Agarwal & Rao (2010), Singh and Deshprapbhu (2008), Kamala & Ramganesh (2015), Kormos, Sarkadi, and Csizer (2009), Duranovic, Dedeic, Huseinbasic, & Tinjic (2011), Furnham (2013), Hughes, Ball, Bissett, & McCormack (2009), Riddick (2003), Adebowale & Moye (2013), Reid (2011), and Ramaa (2000) reveals that it is a specific learning difficulty which is always associated reading disabilities. It offers itself as a big hindrance in the teaching of language. Therefore, dyslexia are a serious concern for every parent and teacher. The studies also found that the attitude play vital role in diagnosing the dyslexia in children and dealing with it effectively. But the studies reflect that most teachers are unaware of dyslexia and therefore shows unconcerned attitude towards it.

Investigator have done number of studies on dyslexia; its effect on learning, attitude of people, teachers in India and abroad. But no research has been done on attitude of teachers towards dyslectic students in context of Arunachal Pradesh.

Therefore, the investigator is intended to carry out research in East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh about the attitude of teachers of Elementary Schools towards the dyslexia students in the district.

Statement of the Problem Attitude of Elementary School Teachers towards the dyslexia Students in East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh.

16 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Objectives of the Study In view of the nature of the study and its research questions, the investigator has formulated the following objectives; i. To study the attitude of elementary school teachers towards dyslexia with regards to sex in East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh. ii. To investigate the attitude of elementary school teachers towards dyslexia with regards to caste in East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh.

Hypotheses As per the objectives of the current study, the investigator has formulated the following Null hypotheses:

Ho1- There is no significance difference in the attitude of Elementary school teachers towards dyslexia students with regard to male and female.

Ho2- There is no significant difference in the attitude of Elementary school teachers towards dyslexia students with regard to tribal and non-tribal.

Methodology Population and Sample A population refers to any collection of specified groups of human beings or of non-human entities. The target population of the present study consisted of male and female, tribal and non-tribal teachers, of elementary schools of East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh. The investigator used the Simple Random Sampling procedure for collection of data which was consisted of 100 teachers (52 Male teachers & 48 Female teachers, 72 Tribal teachers & 28 Non-Tribal) from 20 elementary schools of East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh.

Tools of the Study An authenticity of data depends upon the selection of appropriate tools with the help of which data are collected. For the collection of data in the present study, the investigator used the attitude test. The selection of any tool is always considered as important because a significant part of the study depends and the data depend upon the

17 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal accuracy of the tools through the establishment of validity and estimation of reliability as the characteristically good tools of evaluation. Therefore, the investigator in the present study used a self-developed awareness and attitude scale to measure the elementary school teachers’ attitude toward dyslexic. Similarly, for the assessment of attitude of elementary school teachers towards the dyslexic learners the investigator also used a self-developed Likerts-5 point’s attitude scale having two sections. This scale includes 20 items (20 each for a teacher) related to several dimension on attitude about dyslexia.

Procedure of Data Collection In this step the investigator collected various aspects/dimensions and statements from different sources of literature relating to the content and aspects of attitude. These aspects or dimensions were discussed with some measurement experts and researcher on all 30 statements. All these statements were assessed and examined by both the content and language experts. Among these 30 statements 10 numbers of statements were rejected after thorough revision or review. Remaining 20 were kept in the initial draft (preliminary draft) of the attitude scale. It is important to be noted here that the language experts edited the statements in view of principles adopted for test construction and standardization.

The final questionnaire was then used to collect the data and was analysed through Mean, SD, and ‘t’ value.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data It is obvious that only the collection of data and its organization do not convey any sense until or unless those are analysed by making use of some of appropriate statistical technique. The present study is concerned with the awareness of elementary school teachers about dyslexia and dyslexic learners in East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. In this study the samples were taken randomly from 20 elementary schools from urban and rural locations of the district. For analysing and interpreting the data, the investigator used percentage (%), descriptive statistics as measures of Central Tendency, Measures of variability and inferential statistics ‘t’ test for computing the result. The

18 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal analysis and computation along with interpretation have been placed objective cum hypothesis wise in this section.

To test the significance of the difference between the levels of awareness of elementary school teachers about dyslexia and dyslexic learners as per differences in the variables like gender and locality selected for the study, the mean, standard deviation and ‘t’ values are found out. The interpretations are as follows: i. There is no significant difference in the attitude of Male and Female Elementary school teachers towards dyslexia with regard to sex. ii. There is no significant difference in the attitude of Tribal and Non-Tribal Elementary school teachers towards dyslexia with regard to category For the purpose of achieving the objective 1.0, the investigators used the frequency distribution table (Table 1).

Table 1: Frequency Distribution of the Attitude Scores of Elementary Teachers of East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh.

CI f x fx fx2 76 - 80 4 3 12 36 71 – 75 8 2 16 32 66 – 70 26 1 26 (+54) 26 61 – 65 28 0 0 0 56 – 60 28 -1 -28 (-43) 28 51 – 55 3 -2 -6 12 46 – 50 3 -3 -9 27 2 N=100 ∑ƒx=11 ∑ƒx =161

The Table 1 computed attitude mean score came out to be 63.55 and the attitude scale of possesses minimum One (20x1=20) marks and maximum 100 (20x5=100) marks, therefore, the average score of the used attitude scale was taken as 60.00 (

Therefore, the computed attitude mean score of 100 elementary

19 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal teachers was found to be 63.55. which is greater than the mean score (60.00) of the attitude scale, therefore, it is interpreted that a large number of elementary teachers have shown good and favourable attitude towards Dyslexia in East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh.

Table 2: Difference Between the Mean Scores, SDS, SED, and t-value of the Attitude Scores of Male and Female Elementary Teachers of East Kameng on Dyslexia.

Sex N Mean SD SED df t-value Male Elementary Teachers 52 64.90 6.43 1.2 98 1.75* Female Elementary Teachers 48 62.79 5.58

*Not significant at 0.5 level of probability.

The Table 2 reveals that the computed t-value came out to be 1.75 which is lesser than the criterion t-value (1.98) at .05 level of confidence for 98 df. Therefore, the computed t-value (1.75) has been considered not significant and the formulated. Thus, the null hypothesis, namely, there is no significant difference in the attitude of Elementary school teachers towards dyslexia with regard to sex. It is interpreted that the male and female elementary teachers do not differ in their attitude on dyslexia.

Table 3: Difference Between the Mean scores, SDS, SED, and t-value of the Attitude Scores of Tribal and Non-Tribal Elementary Teachers on Dyslexia of East Kameng of Arunachal Pradesh.

Category N Mean SD SED df t-value Tribal Elementary Teachers 72 63.76 6.03 1.39 98 0.32* Non-Tribal Elementary Teachers 28 64.21 6.36

* Not significant at 0.5 level of probability.

The Table 3 reveals that the computed t-value came out to be 0.32 which is very lesser than the criterion t-value (1.98) at .05 level of confidence for 98 df. Therefore, the computed t-value (0.32) has been considered not significant and the formulated. Thus, 20 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal the null hypothesis, there is no significant difference in attitude of elementary school teachers towards dyslexia with regard to category. It is interpreted that the tribal and non-tribal teachers really do not differ in their attitude, both the categories of Elementary school teachers have same attitude towards dyslexia.

Discussion of the Results Regarding the attitude of teachers of elementary schools of East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh, it is to be noted that there is no significant difference found in the attitude of teachers on dyslexia. The present study revealed that there is no variation in the attitude of elementary teachers towards dyslexia. The teachers are getting more time in observing and assessing the dyslexia children. Moreover, the teachers are better in terms of training and specialization. The other possible factor might be that teachers are more exposed to the knowledge about dyslexia in course of their service period.

In respect to the general understanding that all teachers are having more attitudes towards dyslexia. The calculated ‘t’ value also reflected that there is not significantly different in the attitude about dyslexia among these two variables i.e. Sex and Category of Elementary teachers. The occurrence of this similarity may be because of well trained and qualified teachers. Apart from this the teachers get more opportunity to mingling with the students and know each and every student and their family, social and economic background of the students. With these factors there is more possibility to notice dyslexic features among the children who are really affected with it.

So, it proves that there is equality in the attitude of dyslexia among the tribal and non-tribal elementary teachers of East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. But again, when we compare the mean value of both tribal and non-tribal elementary teachers a minor difference is found in the attitude about the dyslexia. The mean of tribal elementary teachers is 63.76 whereas the mean of non-tribal elementary teachers is 64.21. This implies that the level of attitude is among tribal elementary teachers is little lower than the non-tribal elementary teachers but this difference is negligible.

21 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal The attitude on dyslexia among male and female elementary teachers is found not significant. This proves that both the male and female elementary teachers of the East Kameng district had shown equality in their attitude towards dyslexia through responding the questionnaires. But when the mean value of both male and female teachers of the East Kameng district is revealed than we find male teacher is little bit higher than the female teachers. This implies that male teachers of elementary schools of East Kameng district have little higher attitude on dyslexia, but the difference is ignorable as the mean of male teachers is 64.90 whereas female’s is 62.79. There is difference of only 2.11 which is quite ignorable.

It reveals that there is equality in the attitude of dyslexia among the tribal and non-tribal elementary teachers of East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. But the mean value of both tribal and non-tribal elementary teachers is slight difference. The mean of tribal elementary teachers is 63.76 whereas the mean of non-tribal elementary teachers is 64.21. So, the level of attitude of non-tribal elementary teachers is slightly higher than the tribal elementary teachers but this difference is negligible.

Thus, after going through the above findings and results it can be concluded that all the Null Hypotheses were accepted. There is no higher significant difference found in the awareness and attitude on dyslexia in East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh. The overall mean scores of 100 elementary teachers of East Kameng District came out to favourable and good. From this it is interpreted that elementary teachers are well aware and having positive attitude towards dyslexia.

Educational Implications of the Study The investigator has recommended some of the following pertinent educational implications in reference to the awareness and attitudes of elementary teachers towards dyslexia as under: i. Since the present study was conducted in order to test the awareness and attitude of teachers about dyslexia in East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. It has revealed that though there is no or less significant difference in their awareness 22 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal and attitudes but their mean scores depict slight differ. Therefore, this study would help the teachers to develop more awareness about dyslexia. ii. Teachers have to participate actively in orientation programs, workshops, RCI training programs and symposia for acquiring competencies to deal children with dyslexia in teaching learning process. iii. The study would spread awareness among the parents and teachers that dyslexia, if diagnosed earlier can be corrected with special strategies in dealing with them. iv. Teachers have to be well informed with latest techniques and technologies through in-service teacher education programs for teaching to dyslexic children. v. It would help the teacher to use appropriate techniques and teaching aids in the teaching-learning process for the dyslexic learners. vi. Participatory research is necessary to the teachers in the field of specific learning disabilities, so that the teachers can develop intervention programmes for better progress of the dyslexics in their reading styles. vii. Since dyslexia is a disability related to language learning, the study would help the language teacher to have more insightful nature into the problem of dyslexia. viii. RCI, NCERT, NCTE have to take initiation to conduct various seminars/ conferences and special education courses to bring awareness attitudinal change among the teachers.

Suggestion for Further Research The present piece of study is done with utmost sincerity and dedication by the researcher and during the study he felt that more studies may be done in the same research area, therefore he recommends the following for further studies: i. The present study was limited to awareness and attitudes of teachers of elementary school teachers of East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh. Therefore, the researcher suggests that such study should also be carried out in other Districts of Arunachal Pradesh. ii. The present study confined only to Elementary school Teachers so, the researcher suggests that such type of study needs to be conducted on different stages of education. 23 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal iii. As the present study is limited to only awareness and attitudes, study on effects of dyslexia on academic performance among the learner can also be taken up. iv. The awareness of dyslexia between trained and untrained teachers of East Kameng District and of Arunachal Pradesh may also be taken up. v. A comparative study may be taken up on dyslexia and other learning disabilities such as dyscalculia, Aphasia, dysgraphia, etc. vi. Related study on the academic performance of dyslexic students of elementary and secondary schools. vii. A follow up study may be taken up to verify the findings of the present study to determine degree of disparity among secondary school teachers regard to trained and untrained.

Conclusion The present study was intended to establish the degree of awareness and attitude of parents and secondary school teachers of East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh. In total four objectives and eight Null Hypotheses were formulated in order to find out the target of the study. The researcher used descriptive cum survey method of educational research to carry out the study successfully. So far, the sampling procedure was concerned the investigator used stratified random sampling for the collection of data. One hundred numbers of elementary school teachers of East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh were selected and tested. Inferential statistics technique was used for analysing the collected data.

Thus, the present study signifies that there needs improvement in the awareness and attitude of teachers towards dyslexia and dyslexic learner. So, that these children can be diagnosed and appropriate measure could be taken up to improve the performance in their learning.

References Adebowale, O.F., Moye, G.P. (2013). Teachers’ knowledge of and attitude towards learning disabilities. Online Educational Journal. Available at: http:// 24 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal community.dur.ac.uk/p.b.tymms/oerj/publications/22.pdf. Agarwal, R., & Rao, B.V.L.N. (2010). Learning disabilities: Teaching, learning, strategies. New Delhi: Shipra Publications. Duranovic, M., Dedeic, M., Huseinbasic, M., & Tinjic, E. (2011, September). Teachers’ attitudes about dyslexia: Evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. Paper presented at the Conference on Learning Disabilities at School: Research and Education, Locarno, Switzerland. Furnham, A. (2013). Lay knowledge of dyslexia. Psychology, 4(12), 940-949. http:// dx.doi.org/10.4236/psych.2013.412136. Hughes, A., Ball, M., Bissett, R., & McCormack, W. (2009). Living with dyslexia: Information for adults with dyslexia. Dublin: Dyslexia Association of Ireland. Kamala, R., & Ramganesh, E. (2015). Difficulties in identifying the dyslexics in multilingual context. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 4(1), 18-22. Kormos, J., Csizér, K., & Sarkadi, A. (2009). The language learning experiences of students with dyslexia: lessons from an interview study. Journal Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 3(2), 115-130. https://doi. org/10.1080/17501220802638306. Mihandoost, Z. (2013). A Comparison of the reading emotional of students with and without dyslexia. World Applied Sciences Journal, 28(7), 1013-1018. Ramaa, S. (2000). Two decades of research on learning disabilities in India. Dyslexia, 6, 268-283. Reid, G. (2011). Dyslexia. London: A&C Black. Riddick, B. (2003). Experiences of teachers and trainee teachers who are dyslexic. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 7(4), 389-402. https://doi.org /10.1080/1360311032000110945. Rose J. (2009). Identifying and teaching children and young people with dyslexia and literacy difficulties. Singh, D., & Deshprapbhu, S. (2008). Handbook of special Education (Part -1). New Delhi: Kanishka. 25 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Demographic Profile of the High-and Lower-Altitude Monpas in Arunachal Pradesh, India

Bhaboklang Sohkhlet Nich Menia Assistant Professor Assistant Professor Department of Anthropology Department of Geography Saint Claret College, Ziro Dera Natung Govt. College, Itanagar Arunachal Pradesh, India – 791 120. Arunachal Pradesh, India – 791 113. E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The present study – which is primarily descriptive in nature – gives a brief demographic profile of the Monpas at lower (<2,500 metres above sea level) and high (≥2,500 metres above sea level) altitude in Arunachal Pradesh with respect to population size, composition, and sex distribution. Data were collected from 340 lower altitude households and 171 high altitude households using household schedules. Overall, the present study suggests that there is not much variation between Monpas of lower and high altitudes in respect of demographic parameters. The findings may be attributed to the relationship of population structure of the Monpas with education, income, or even to geographical distribution of the Monpa’s population in Arunachal Pradesh. However, due to small sample size in the present study - especially of high altitude - it is important to note that there is a scope for future study with respect to demography of the Monpas at low and high altitude.

Keywords: Altitude, Demography, Monpas, Socio-Economic Conditions.

Introduction Demography is the study of population, its structure, composition, and distribution, considering important parameters such as sex, age, density, birth and death rate, growth, and division of population. Population distribution is a dynamic process (Clark, 1973) and analysis of population distribution and density is fundamental for understanding human geography (Chandana & Sidhu, 1980); and well as through using of 26 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal anthropological theory and methods to provide better understanding of demographic phenomena in current and past populations (Bernardi & Hutter, 2007). Earlier studies have shown that anthropological study of demographic aspects of a population are likely to bring light on some useful estimates of general population trend which is very useful supplement to the formal demographic research and socio-economic planning (Macfarlane, 1976; Nag, 1981).

In India, many studies have been conducted on the ethnic-demographic varia- tions among the endogamous populations living in different ecological conditions i.e., at rural, urban, as well as tribal populations (Langstieh, 2001). According to Census of In- dia (2011), Arunachal Pradesh has a total population of 1,383,727 persons, comprising of 713,912 males and 669,815 females with a sex ratio of 938 females per 1000 males. The density of population is 17 persons per sq km. Tawang district has a total population of 49,977 persons, it is the eighth least populous district in the country. The density of population is 23 people per sq km. The sex ratio of the district is 714 females per 1000 males and the average literacy rate is recorded at 59%. With a total population of 83,947 persons, West Kameng on the other hand, stood eight largest districts in the state by population. The district has a sex ratio of 819 females per 1000 males. The density of population is 11 people per sq km and the average literacy rate is 67.07%. The present study - which is primarily descriptive in nature - gives a brief demographic profile of the Monpas at lower and high altitudes of Arunachal Pradesh with respect to population size, composition, and sex distribution.

Objective To describe the demographic structure of the lower and high altitude Monpas of West Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh respectively.

Study Area and Population The present study was conducted among the Monpas, one of the major tribal groups in Northeast India, who are mainly distributed at Tawang and West Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh (Figure 1). Tawang district occupies an area of 2,172 sq. km.

27 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal (Diyawanti, 2010) and is located between latitude 27º45’N and longitude 90º15’E in the northwest extremity of Arunachal Pradesh. The elevation of the district ranges between 6000 ft (1828.8 meters) to 22,000 ft (6705.6 meters) above the mean sea level, and the inhabitants are generally found at lower altitudes, where they enjoy a cool temperate climate.

Source: Census of India, 2001. Fig. 1: Location of the Study Areas: (A) Tawang Circle (B) Dirang Circle (C) Kalak- tang Circle

West Kameng district on the other hand, occupies a total area of 7,422 sq. km. and lies approximately between 91˚30’ to 92˚40’ E longitudes and 26˚54’ to 28˚01’ N latitudes. The altitude of the district ranges from 213 metres above sea level at Bha- lukpong to 7090 metres above sea level at Kangte (Krishi Vigyan Kendra, 2016). The

28 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal population figures of the study area are given in Table 1. Table 1: Population Figures of the Study Area

District Circle No. No. No. of Total Male Female Sex Lit- (Pop.) (avg. alt.) of of House- Popula- Popula- Popula- Ratio eracy Town Vil- hold tion tion (%) tion (%) (female Rate /City lage / 1000 (%) male) Tawang Tawang 01 63 3,470 19,099 12,463 6,636 532 72% (49,977) (2947 m) (65%) (35%) West Dirang 01 88 4,144 18,401 9704 8697 896 49% Kameng (1580 m) (53%) (47%) (83,947) Kalaktang 01 23 1,529 6,622 3369 3253 965 50% (1113 m) (51%) (49%) Source : Census of India, 2011.

Materials and Methods Data were collected at different intervals from different Monpa villages of Kal- aktang, Dirang, and Tawang circles during the period between September, 2012 and Au- gust, 2015. Tawang circle was selected purposely as high-altitude area (2947 m above sea level). Data were also collected from lower altitudes, namely, Kalaktang (1113 m above sea level) and Dirang (1580 m above sea level) circles. 10 % of the total villages from each circle were selected using random numbers of the listed villages (Snedecor and Cochran, 1967). The selected villages from Tawang circle include Lemberdung, Thongleng, Katchanga, Urgeling, Khirmu, Damgin, Kongteng, Seru, and Kitpi village. From Kalaktang circle, Chingi, Rongthangjurpa, Ankalin, Boha, Khungpazong and Lungdur villages were selected. From Dirang circle, five villages namely, Rama Camp, Sapper Camp, Rungkhung, Kalapahar, and Pangma were randomly selected. No statistical sampling method was applied at the household and individual levels. However, households and individuals who were willing to co-operate in the present study were included. 340 lower altitude households and 171 high altitude households were covered. Household schedules were used for collecting information on age, sex, marital status, religion, occupation, place of birth, place of residence, etc. from the heads of the house- 29 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal holds or elder members who were capable of furnishing all the relevant information. Data on income and education were drawn form selected interviewees. The differences between proportions were tested using the chi-square (χ2) test.

Socio-economic Variables Income Groups Data on household income (INR [Indian Rupee]) were collected directly from the heads of the households and were cross-checked taking into consideration some aspects of socio-economic conditions such as housing condition, types of occupation, land holding, and monthly expenditure. The per capita monthly income of the households above 75th percentile (>Rs. 4167) was categorised as High-Income Group (HIG), between 50th to 75th percentile (Rs. 3333-Rs. 4167) as Middle-Income Group (MIG), and below 50th percentile (< Rs. 3333) as Low-Income Group (LIG).

Educational Level Data on educational qualification of individuals were arbitrarily classified as -Il literate which includes those individuals who were unable to read and write and those who had no formal education. Individuals who attended school up to standard V were grouped into Primary level of education. Those individuals with educational level from standard VI to X were categorised as Secondary; whereas, those with educational qualification of standard XI and above were grouped under Above Secondary category.

Result Age-Sex Distribution Table 2 shows the percentage distribution of the study population by age and sex. It was found that 33.08%, 58.90%, and 8.02% of the Monpas at lower altitude (Ka- laktang and Dirang circles) belonged to the age group 0–14, 15–49, and 50+ years, respectively. At high altitude (Tawang circle), these proportions were found to be 22.09%, 68.11%, and 9.80%, respectively. According to Sunbarg’s classification of population, the Monpa population at high altitude may be categorized as regressive type, whereas the Monpa population at lower altitude appears to be stationary. In other words, the 30 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Monpa population at high altitude tends to be decreasing, but that at lower altitude was neither decreasing nor increasing during the last 10 years or so.

Population Pyramid The population pyramids for high and lower altitudes are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. These population pyramids were based on age groups of 5 years inter- val. Considering the age group 0–4 years as the base, it is seen that both lower and high altitude Monpas are characterized by population pyramids with shrinking bases. This indicates that fertility rate during the last 10 years or so was decreasing at both lower and high altitudes, and it is more in the case of Monpas at high altitude. As a result, the Monpa population at high altitude tends to be regressive. The pyramids also depict that the fertility rate among the of Monpas lower and high altitudes has decreased considerably during the last decade or so.

Table 2: Age, Sex, and Total Population of Monpas at Lower and High Altitudes

Age groups Lower Altitude High Altitude (years) Male Female Total Male Female Total 0–4 52 70 122 18 17 35 5–9 100 90 190 21 18 39 10–14 124 166 290 27 32 59 Total 276 326 602 66 67 133 (0–14) 15.16% 17.91% 33.08% 10.96% 11.13% 22.09% Sex Ratio 84.66 males per 100 females 98.51 males per 100 females (0–14) χ2 = 4.15, p < 0.05 χ2 = 0.42, p > 0.05 15–19 160 136 296 34 55 89 20–24 66 114 180 50 44 94 25–29 78 82 160 40 37 77 30–34 56 50 106 27 30 57 35–39 56 74 130 21 26 47 40–44 46 48 94 12 11 23 45–49 60 46 106 13 10 23

31 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Total 522 550 1072 197 213 410 (15–49) 30.33% 30.22% 58.90% 32.72% 35.38% 68.11% Sex Ratio 94.91 males per 100 females 92.49 males per 100 females (15–49) χ2 = 0.73, p > 0.05 χ² = 0.62, p > 0.05 50–54 36 28 64 7 13 20 55–59 18 12 30 7 5 12 60+ 32 20 52 17 10 27 Total (50+) 86 60 146 31 28 59 4.73% 3.30% 8.02% 5.15% 4.65% 9.80% Sex Ratio 143.33 males per 100 females 110.71 males per 100 females (50+) χ2 = 4.60, p< 0.03 χ2 = 0.15, p > 0.05 Grand Total 884 936 1820 294 308 602 48.57% 51.43% 100% 48.84% 51.16% 100% Overall 94.44 males per 100 females 95.45 males per 100 females Sex ratio χ2 = 1.49, p> 0.05 χ2 = 0.33, p> 0.05

Age group Figuure 2: Population Pyramid for High Altitude (yrs) Males Females

60 + 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 10.96% 11.13% 0-4

15 12 9630369 12 15 PERCENT 32 Age group (yrs) Figure 3: Population Pyramid for Lower Altitude

Males Females

60 +

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9 15.16% 17.91%

0-4

15 12 9630369 12 15 PERCENT

Age group Figuure 2: Population Pyramid for High Altitude (yrs) Males Females

60 + 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 10.96% 11.13% 0-4

15 12 9630369 12 15 Dera Natung GovernmentPERC CollegeENT Research Journal

Age group (yrs) Figure 3: Population Pyramid for Lower Altitude

Males Females

60 +

55-59

50-54

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9 15.16% 17.91%

0-4

15 12 9630369 12 15 PERCENT Sex Ratio

On the basis of household census covered under the present study, there are altogether 2422 individuals of which 1820 are7 at lower altitude and 602 at high altitude

(Table 2). Among the Monpas of lower altitude, there are 884 (48.57%) males and 936 (51.43%) females, with a sex ratio of 94.44 males per 100 females, which is not significantly lower than the ideal sex ratio of 1:1 (χ2 = 1.49, df = 1, p > 0.05). On the other hand, the overall sex ratio at high altitude is 95.45 males per 100 females. This sex ratio at high altitude is also not significantly different from the ideal sex ratio of 1:1 2(χ = 0.33, df = 1, p > 0.05). On the basis of these findings, we may suggest that the overall sex ratio in the Monpa population is tilted towards females at both lower and high altitude which indicates greater mortality or out-migration in males than in females.

In the age group 0–14 years, the sex ratios are 84.66 and 98.51 males per 100 females at lower and high altitudes, respectively. In comparison with the ideal sex ratio of 1:1, the sex ratio at lower altitude is very low, and it is statistically significant (χ2 = 4.15,

33 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal df = 1, p < 0.05); whereas the sex ratio at high altitude is by and large similar to the ideal sex ratio(χ2 = 0.42, df = 1, p > 0.05). Therefore, it is clear that there is low proportion of males in this age group as compared to females at lower altitude, thereby indicating a higher mortality rate in males before reproductive age.

In the age group 15–49 years, the sex ratio at lower altitude is 95 males per 100 females. Although it looks as low, the chi-square test indicates that it does not significantly deviate from the ideal sex ratio of 1:1 (χ2 = 0.73, df = 1, p > 0.05). Similarly, the sex ratio at high altitude (92.49 males per 100 females) is lower than that at lower altitude, but it is not significantly different from the ideal sex ratio 2(χ = 0.62, df = 1, p > 0.05). Although, the present sample size may be small, it suggests that male mortality in the age group 15–49 years is much higher at high altitude than that at lower altitude.

The sex ratios in the age group ≥ 50 years were found to be 143 and 111 males per 100 females at lower and high altitudes, respectively. The number of males per 100 females in this age group is higher especially at lower altitude. The chi-square test also suggests that the deviation from the ideal sex ratio is highly significant at lower altitude (χ2 = 4.60, df = 1, p < 0.03), although it is not significant at high altitude (χ2 = 0.15, df = 1, p > 0.05), perhaps due to small sample size. So it is evident that the female longev- ity in Monpa population of the present study is much shorter than that of male after 50 years of age. These sex differences might be mainly because of female out-migration or mortality during adulthood that may be associated with different socio-economic factors.

34 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Table 3 : Marital Status of the Individuals by Age Groups

Marital Status by age Lower altitude High altitude groups Male Female Male Female < 25 years Married 10 (2.91) 42 (12.14) 2 (2.02) 6 (5.61) Unmarried 492 528 142 158 DSW* 0 6 (18.75) 0 1 (5.26) 25–29 years Married 52 (15.12) 56 (16.18) 8 (8.08) 15 (14.02) Unmarried 24 24 32 17 DSW* 2 (14.29) 2 (6.25) 0 5 (26.32) 30–34 years Married 46 (13.37) 44 (12.72) 21 (21.21) 22 (20.56) Unmarried 6 6 6 6 DSW* 4 (28.57) 0 0 2 (10.53) ≥35 years Married 236 (68.60) 204 (58.96) 68 (68.69) 64 (59.81) Unmarried 4 0 1 0 DSW* 8 (57.14) 24 (75.00) 8 (100.00) 11 (57.89) All age groups Married 344 346 99 107 Unmarried 526 558 181 181 DSW* 14 32 8 19 *DSW = Divorced, separated, and widowed

Figures within parentheses indicate percentages

Marital Status Table 3 shows the marital status of males and females at lower and high altitudes of the Monpa population. At lower altitude, about 3% of the married males and 12% of the married females belonged to the age group below 25 years. These frequencies are about 2% and 6% among the Monpas of high altitude. As generally expected, females get married earlier than males, and the marriage is little delayed at high altitude. This may be associated with different factors like education and economic condition. Further,

35 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal it shows that the incidence of divorced, separated, and widowed (DSW) cases is high in the age group 35 years and above. Among Monpas of high altitude, all cases of DSW in males and about 58% in females took place in the age group ≥ 35 years. Similarly, the incidence of DSW at lower altitude is also very high in the age group ≥ 35 years (57% in males and 75% in females). It is evident from the present findings that the cases of DSW are high in Monpas of both the altitudes when the persons are aged 35 years and above.

Socio-Economic Conditions

Table 4: Monpa Population by Income Groups

Income Group Lower Altitude High Altitude

N Frequency (%) N Frequency (%)

Low 187 62.96 50 41.32 Middle 62 20.88 22 18.18 High 48 16.16 49 40.50

Total 297 100 121 100

Table 5: Monpa Population by Educational Levels

Educational Level Lower Altitude High Altitude

N Frequency (%) N Frequency (%)

Illiterate 164 55.22 69 57.02 Primary 45 15.15 18 14.88 Secondary 45 15.15 12 9.92 Above Second 43 14.48 22 18.18

Total 297 100 121 100

36 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Table 4 shows the number and percentages Monpa population at lower and high altitudes by income groups based on household per capita monthly income. It was found majority of the respondents at lower (62.96) and high (41.32) altitude belong to Low Income Group (LIG). At lower altitude, 20.88 % of the respondents belong to the Mid- dle-Income Group (LIG). At high altitude on the other hand, 40.50% of the respondents belong to the High-Income Group (LIG). As for education level, Table 5 shows that majority of the respondents at lower (55.22) and high (57.02) altitude are illiterate. At lower altitude, 15.15 % of the respondents belong to the primary and secondary level of education. On the other hand, 18.18 % of the respondents at high altitude are in the above sdecondary level of education.

Summary and Conclusion The present study indicates that, according to Sunbarg’s classification of population, the Monpa population at high altitude may be categorized as regressive type, whereas, the Monpa population at lower altitude appears to be stationary type. The overall sex ratio among Monpas seems to be titled towards females at lower altitude and little higher at high altitude, but did not deviate significantly from the ideal sex ratio of 1:1. Overall, the present studies suggest that there is not much variation between Monpas of lower and high altitudes in respect of demographic parameters. The findings may be attributed to the relationship of population structure of the Monpas with education, income, or even to geographical distribution of the Monpa’s population in Arunachal Pradesh. However, due to small sample size in the present study - especially of high altitude - it is important to note that there is a scope for future study with respect to demography of the Monpas at low and high altitude.

References Bernardi. L., & Hutter, I. (2007). The anthropological demography of Europe. Demo- graphic Research, 17(18), 541-566. DOI: 10.4054/DemRes.2007.17.18. Bharati, K., Naidu, J. M., and Nanibabu, M. (2016). Fertility and mortality levels among four tribes of eastern ghats of Andhra Pradesh, India. Human Biology Re- view, 5(2), 213-224.

37 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Census of India. (2001). Primary census abstract. New Delhi: Offfice of the Registrar General. India. Census of India. (2011). Arunachal Pradesh. New Delhi: Census of India. Clark, J. L. (1973). Population geography (2nd ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. Diyawanti, S. (Ed). (2010). State and Union Territories: Arunachal Pradesh government. In India 2010: A reference annual (54th ed.) (p. 1113). New Delhi: Additional Director General Publications Division. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. Krishi Vigyan Kendra. (2016). West Kameng, Arunachal Pradesh: District profile. Re- trieved from http://www.kvkwestkameng.gov.in/districtprofile.html. Langstieh, B.L. (2001). Demographic structure of the Khasi-Muslims of Shillong, Meghalaya. Journal of Human Ecology, 12(2), 121-125. Macfarlane, A. (1976). Resources and population: A study of the Gurungs of Nepal. In Cambridge studies in social anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press. Nag, M. (1981). Impact of social development and economic development on mortality: A comparative study of Kerala and West Bengal (Paper No. 78). New York: The Population Council. Snedecor, G.W., & Cochran, W.G. (1967). Statistical methods (6th ed.). Iowa: The Iowa State University Press.

38 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Impact of Population Growth on Forest Cover: A Case Study of Tawang District of Arunachal Pradesh

Gendan Tsering Research Scholar Department of Geography Rajiv Gandhi University Rono Hills, Doimukh – 791 112 Arunachal Pradesh, India. E-mail: [email protected]

Gibji Nimasow Nandini Chakrabarthy Singh Department of Geography Department of Geography Rajiv Gandhi University Rajiv Gandhi University Rono Hills, Doimukh – 791 112 Rono Hills, Doimukh – 791 112 Arunachal Pradesh, India. Arunachal Pradesh, India.

Abstract The role of population growth on the forest degradation has been much debated worldwide. There is a reciprocal relationship between population growth and forest cover in large. In other words, population growth turns out to be the main cause of deforestation. Deforestation threatens the well-being and livelihoods of millions of people who largely depends on forest resources. Today deforestation is occurring at alarmingly rates, especially in the regions that are experiencing rapid population growth. Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh has a population density of 22 persons per square kilometres which is higher than the state. The district is inhabited by the Monpa tribes who are living in close association to their forest resources and derive their daily requirements like fire woods, timber, medicinal plants, food and fodder for their animal. The fire wood extraction appears to be causing maximum impact on forest degradation as firewood forms the basic source of heating the houses in an area which is characterized by longer winter months. Every year each household burns at least two fully matured trees to keep their houses warm. But there is no denying the fact that the other form of extractions are also contributing in the deforestation. Earlier, man-nature interaction 39 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal was quite sustainable when population was very low. But today due to rapid population growth the interaction with forest is becoming more and more intense leading to loss of many important resources. Consequently, many important plant species like rhododendron, oak, juniper pines, etc. are largely threatened. The paper attempts to examine the population growth trend in the Tawang district and its impact on the forest cover of the district. Both the primary and secondary data sources have been used to analyse the relationship between population growth and forest cover change in the district.

Keywords : Population Growth, Forest Cover, Deforestation, Degradation.

Introduction The contribution of population growth in altering the face of the earth has a long history. The relation between population dynamics and landscape change was first developed by Thomas Malthus. Malthus (1873) predicted that population growth would lead to famine and an eventual population crash since, he noted, food production tends to increase only arithmetically whereas human populations tend to grow geometrically. The concept of population change or growth is often used to connote the change in the number of inhabitants of the territory during a specific period of time, irrespective of fact whether change is negative or positive. The role of population change in deforestation and forest degradation has been much debated. There is a reciprocal relationship between the population growth and forest cover in large. It may make more sense to say that deforestation is a principal ingredient of population growth. Far from being costly deforestation often pays for itself in fuel, construction material, and timber sales besides providing new land for agriculture (Hartwick, 2005). While population growth and density are unquestionably related to the forest cover trends, there is no simple way to describe or predict that association. The pressure of Population growth on the carrying capacity of the environment is also viewed as a major cause of air, water, and solid-waste pollution. The equality of environment is constantly losing its status due to increase in population growth in most countries of world (John, 1984).

40 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Deforestation is one of the major environmental issues from the global perspective. Deforestation may have destructive or constructive consequences depending upon ecological conditions, extent of economic development, and many other factors (Allen, 1983). The degree of international attention to deforestation is commensurate with the role of forest in the global, national and local ecosystems. Awareness of the deforestation problem in developing countries emerged in the early 1970s when several studies illustrated the severity of environmental damage and wood shortages attributable to deforestation. These first studies on the subject included graphic descriptions of erosion in mountainous regions and first-hand accounts of desertification in the semi-arid tropics (Daniel and Kulasingan, 1974; Eckholm, 1975, 1976). Today deforestation is occurring at alarmingly rates, especially in the regions that are experiencing rapid population growth. Population pressures are frequently cited as a cause of deforestation.

Study Area Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh lies approximately between 91º 30’ to 92º 45’ East longitudes and 27º 22’ to 27º 50’ North latitudes. The districts share international boundary with Tibet in the North and Bhutan in the West and South. The topography of the region is mostly characterized by mountainous and its greater part falls within the higher mountain zone, consisting of snow-clad peaks and valets. Tawang Chu and Nyamjang Chu are the main rivers flowing through the district which flows towards the Bhutan and joins one of the major tributaries of Brahmaputra River Manas in Assam.

Tawang district is a part of Eastern Himalayas Biodiversity Hotspot. The region is very rich in both floral and faunal diversity. On the basis of structural and composi- tional characteristics, the vegetation of the district is broadly classified into temperate forest and sub-alpine and alpine forest. The temperate forests are further classified into broad leaved forest (2750 – 3000m) and Temperate coniferous and broad-leaved forest (3000 – 3500 m) while the sub-alpine and alpine forests includes Rhododendron scrub lands (4000 – 4300 m), Dwarf Rhododendron meadows (4200 – 4600 m) and High- altitude grassy meadows (4350 – 5250 m).

41 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal A wide variety of animal species, high mountain birds, mammals, reptiles, snow leopard, Musk deer, barking deer, bear and other animals live freely without fear as the Monpa people do not practice hunting and trapping. On an average the areas receive 1653 mm annual rainfall and mean maximum and minimum monthly temperature of 21.66˚ C and -0.65˚ C. The average annual relative humidity ranges from 66.21% to 79.35%. Tawang district is inhabited Monpa tribes witha total population of 49,977.The density of population is 23 persons per Sq. km which is higher than the state (census 2011). The district is spread over a total area of 2172 square kilometres.

Methodology They study is based on both the primary and secondary data sources. The primary data are collected through personal interviews and field observations. About10 villages from Thingbu, Jang, Mukto, Lhou, Kitpi and Dudungkhar circles were selected randomly for the present study. The Gaon Burahs (GB), Village elder, Brokpas, both the men and women were taken interviews from the selected villages. The Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was adopted to discuss the present condition of forest cover and deforestation rate in the district. Government publication i.e. district statistical hand book of Tawang district (1991-2001 and 2001-2011), Statistical Abstract of Arunachal Pradesh (1991-2001 and 2001-2011) and other published data sources where used.

Land use land cover maps where prepared from the Satellite Imagery of Indian Remote sensing (IRS) Linear Image Scanning Sensor (LISS) III of two different years i.e. 2002 and 2011 to show the change detection by using Integrated Land and Water Information System (ILWIS).

Impact of Population Growth on Forest Cover The total population of Tawang district was 38,929 as per 2001 census which increased and became 49977 during the 2011 census. The district experienced a decadal growth of population with 28.37% during the last one decade i.e. from 2001 to 2011 which is higher than the states decadal growth of population 5.92 %. As per the 2011 census the density of population in the district has also increased by 23 persons per 42 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal square kilometres from 18 persons per square kilometres in 2001 census. This trend of population growth increases demand for wood, both timber and fuel. People derive their daily requirements like firewood, timber, medicinal plants, food for their animals since many years. But, the increase in population demands more resources from the forest leading to increase pressure on available resources. The depletion of forests has several adverse effects to the region with varying intensity from place to place. When forests are destroyed on hillsides, rates of soil erosion typically increase, sometimes dramatically: Faster rates of evaporation in deforested areas can lead to desiccation of soils and potential climatic change: Forests, especially tropical forests, are the home to millions of species whose disappearance depletes the genetic stock available to humans and raises profound ethical concerns (Preston, 1996).

Forest provides a variety of high valuable ecological, economic and social services, including; the conservation of biological diversity; carbon storage; soil and water conservation: provision of employment and enhancement of agricultural production system: improvement of urban and peri-urban living conditions (FAO, 1999). More than half of the global fresh water have their source at mountains, supplying all the major rivers as well as many smaller ones and providing critical storage in lakes, glaciers and other places. But the critical role of mountain catchment areas is threatened by the major land cover and land use changes that take place in mountains and highlands throughout the world. Deforestation and forest degradation are rapid in the mountain areas of developing countries, which often are characterized by rapid population growth and resulting land scarcity and poverty. Rapid population growth, expansion of cropland, and intensive harvesting of forests for fuelwood and wood exports contribute to deforestation in different areas of the world although the time lags between causes and effects vary dramatically (Allen and Barnes, 1985). Impact of Population growth on forest cover in Tawang district has discussed under the following livelihood activities of people in Tawang Area.

Fuelwood Since maximum population belongs to the rural area about 36291 which is 73 43 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal percent (2011) who turns to agriculture, grazing, lumbering as a livelihood. Therefore, one would expect deforestation to increase with rural population density. Population growth also increases the demand for wood, both for timber and fuelwood. The Monpas of Tawang district who are living in close association to their forest resources and derive their daily requirements fire woods, timber, medicinal plants, food and fodder for their animal. Fuelwood gathered from the forested commons is the most important source of domestic energy in the rural areas of many developing countries (Cecelski, Dunker- ley, and Ramsey, 1979). The fire wood extraction in the district appears to be causing maximum impact on forest degradationas firewood forms the basic source of heating the houses in an area which is characterized by longer winter months. About half the world’s population cook with biomass fuels, which provide around 35% of energy sup- plies in the developing countries (World Bank, 1992). But there is no denying the fact that the other form of extractions is also contributing in the deforestation. Earlier, man- nature interaction was quite sustainable when population was very low. But today due to rapid population growth the interaction with forest is becoming more and more intense leading to loss of many important resources. Consequently, many important plant species like rhododendron, oak, juniper pines, etc. are largely threatened.

(a) (b)

44 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Fig. 1: (a)Destruction of Forest for Firewood (b) Firewood (c) & (d) Firewood for Sale.

Logging Destructive felling and Log extractions are one of other means of earning livelihood of the people of rural areas of Tawang district which is another factor responsible for depletion of forest at large. The most of the people who are engage in logging are uneducated and they are destroying the forest resources in a very unsustainable way. The intensive cultivation is not possible due to less arable land and the people are compelled for logging and timbering to support their family. Earlier, this logging practice was minimum when the population was low but with the increasing number of populations the intensity of man-environment interaction is also getting higher.

45 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

(a) (b)

Fig. 2: (a): log, (b) & (c): Planks, (d) Truck Carrying Planks to the Market

Grazing Animal herding and grazing is one of the important occupations to earn livelihood among the Monpas of Tawang. Animals are considered to be as the symbol of wealth in the Monpa society. The Brokpas and Yengtepas are the people who are engage in animal rearing. These people migrate from one place to other with their herds in search of pastureland and fodder for their herds. While doing that they set fires on the forest and convert them into grazing land which is one of the most destructive human activity to the environment. With the growing human population their numbers are also

46 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal growing which ultimately leads to the more forest destruction. Desertification has been widely identified as a major human-induced global change associated with excessive pressure on grasslands (Meyer and Turner, 1992).

Fig. 3: (a) Forest Converted into Grazing Land, (b)Grazing land. Once it was covered by forest.

Agriculture Farming is by far the most important human activity that has transformed the land, and continues to be the principal route by which humans affect the environment. Eleven percent of the earth’s land surface is now cultivated, although less than one percent is in permanent crop (Waggoner, 1994). Introduction of new agricultural practices i.e. apple, kiwi and orange cultivation in some part of Tawang district where climatic condition is suitable for these crops are coming up. Though economic necessity is the driving force behind this change but the role population growth in creating the demand for this kind of products cannot be undermined. Therefore, this simple fact shows the effect of growing population on the natural resources of a region thereby affecting the natural environment of a region.

Developmental Activities In the recent times numbers of unplanned developmental activities are coming up in the district like mini hydroelectricity projects and dams. In the district there 47 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal is hardly any small stream is left without a Mini Hydroelectricity project is going on. At present there are more than 87 mini hydro projects and three micro hydro projects which destroyed huge area of forest in the district. At the same time in the name of development all the water sources of the district are getting polluted. The remaining forest which were not reachable for the rural people are getting clear today. These unplanned projects have led to the destruction of whatever forest is left. It won’t be wrong to say that these unplanned developmental projects are not for the development rather destruction.

Land Use Land Cover from 2002–2011 The Tawang district had 47.71% of area under forest coverage from the total geographical area during year 2002, however, this percentage came down to 29.08% during the year 2012, which is a change of 18.63 % (Table 1) The change may be attributed to the rapid deforestation for the purpose of fire wood extraction, logging, grazing, agriculture, developmental activities etc. The percentage of agriculture has been reduced from 6.30% during 2002 to 5.32% during the year 2012 this may be because of the peoples shift from the agricultural activities towards the other activities like government services and logging which gives higher return. In case of settlement it has become more than doubled during last 10 years. It was concentrated on only 4.09 % from the total geographical area during 2002 which became 9.49 % in 2012. It clearly shows the raising pressure of population on land with the growth of population. There is a decrease of 13.26 % in case of deciduous forest in the district. It was 19.34 % in the year 2002 which became 9.49 % in the year 2012.This category of forest is mainly known for fire woods among the Monpas of Tawang district because some of the best quality of fire wood i.e. Oaks are found in this category. The trends of temperate and alpine forest are also declined by 11.10 % in 2002 to 9.00% in 2012 and 17.27 % during 2002 to 14.00 % during 2012 respectively. The reason for the downward trend of this forest type could be attributed logging practices and increasing family size of the Brokpas which is followed by clearing vast forested area and convert it into grazing lands.

48 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Table 1: Area Under Forest Coverage in Tawang District.

Category Area in % 2002 2012 Agriculture 6.30 5.32 Settlement 4.09 9.49 Deciduous Forest 19.34 6.08 Temperate forest 11.10 9.00 Alpine Forest 17.27 14.00 Alpine Grass land/Degraded Forest 8.15 18.71 Barren surface 13.75 22.11 Snow Cover 14.73 4.45 Land Use Cover Water body 0.42 7.68 Shadow 4.84 2.86 Total 100 100

Fig. 4: Land Use Land Cover Map of Tawang District - 2002.

49 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Degraded forest has increased it was 8.15 % in the year 2002 which has increased and became 18.71 % in 2012.During 2002 percentage of barren surface was 13.75 % which became almost doubled 22.11% in 2012. The growth of population also impacts the glaciers in the region. In the year 2002 there were 14.73 % of the land was covered by snow but in the year 2012 it was only 4.45 % of land was under snow cover. As the snow recedes the percentage of water bodies increased by 0.42 % in 2002 to 7.68 % during the 2012. Percentage of shadow is also decreased it was 4.84 % during 2002 which became 2.86 % in 2012.

Fig. 5: Land Use Land Cover Map of Tawang District (2012)

Conclusion Today the district has a population density of 23 persons per sq. km with a decadal growth rate of 25.92 % which is not a good indication for future as the resources are limited. Firewood seems to be one of the important factors behind the rapid defor- 50 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal estation, because it is the only cheap and easily available energy sources to keep their houses warm as other forms of energy are not easily available like LPG. Intensive cultivation is not possible due to less arable land and people are compelled for livestock rearing and grazing is a treat to the forest cover as people convert forest areas into grazing land. Some section of the society are engaged in logging practice as they have no other options to earn their livelihood which also contributes in loss of forest cover. Also, the impact of growing demands for plantation agriculture such as Apple, kiwi and orange in the region cannot be ruled out in the forest cover loss. Awareness through community participation by Government policies and programs and NGOs could play significant role in conservation of forest. Alternative energy sources like use of renewable energy sources i.e. hydroelectricity as substitute for firewood in cooking and heating purpose can reduce pressure on forest resources. Government assistances in form of financial, fodder, medication etc. to the Brokpa (semi-nomadic people) community may reduce the conversion of forest land into grazing land. Awareness on Family planning in the rural areas.

Reference Allen, J.C. (1983). Deforestation, soil degradation, and wood energy in developing countries (doctoral dissertation). The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Allen, J.C., & Barnes, D.F. (1985). The causes of deforestation in developing countries. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 75(2),163-184. Cecelski, E., Dunkerly, J., & Ramsay, W. (1979). Household Energy and the poor in the Third World (Report R-15). WashingtonD.C.: Resources for the Future. Daniel, J.C., & Kulasingan, A. (1974). Problems arising from large-scale forest clearing for agricultural use: The Malaysian experience. Malaysian Forester, 37(3), 152-60. Eckholm, E. (1975). The other energy crisis: Firewood. Worldwatch paper no. 1. Wash- ington D.C.: Worldwatch Institute. Eckholm, E. (1976). Losing ground: Environmental stress and world food prospects. Worldwatch Institute with the support and cooperation of the United Na- tions Environment Program. New York: W. W. Norton and Co. 51 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal FAO (1999). State of the world’s forests. Rome. Hartwick, John. M. (2005). Deforestation and Population increase: Institutions, Sus- tainability, and Natural Resources (pp. 155-191). Institutions for Sustain- able Forest Management. Meyer, B., & Turner, B.L. (1992). Human Population growth and Global Land- Use/ Cover Change. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 23, 39-61. Preston, S.H. (1996). The Effect of population growth on environment quality. Popula- tion Research and Policy Review, 15(2), 95-108. Waggoner, P.E. (1994). How much land can ten billion people spare for nature? Task Force Report No. 121. Iowa: Council for Agricultural Science and Technol- ogy. World Bank. (1992). World development report-1992: Development and the environment. New York: Oxford University Press.

52 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Birth Rituals and Associated Taboos among the Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh

Landi Pussang Monia PhD Scholar Department of Anthropology Rajiv Gandhi University Rono Hills, Doimkh – 791 112 Arunachal Pradesh, India. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Rites of passage are rituals or ceremonies signifying an event in a person’s life, indicative of a transition from one stage to another, as from adolescence to adulthood. The same can also be explained as ceremonies that mark important transitional periods in a person’s life, such as birth, puberty, marriage, having children, and finally death. They usually involve ritual activities and teachings designed to strip individuals of their original roles and prepare them for new roles. Rites of passage are ceremonial events, existing in all historically known societies that mark the passage from one social or religious status to another.

This paper elaborates on the importance of culture and traditions of childbirth among Apatanis and assesses the wealth of rites, customs, and traditions as wellas the wish of the people to have large families. This study helps tolearn more about the process of childbirth, associated with religious rites of theApatani people, viewed with the eyes of those that lived it in the last century. The analysis of the goal of this study uses theanalysis of secondary data and quality method of data collection through interviewson site, study of various primary and secondary sources of data as well as old publicationslinked with this study. The findings of this study point out that theApatanis has rich traditions, rites, practices, customs, and experiences that providea combination of the typical dresses of the area, diverse cuisine, and songs and dances formoments of joy of childbirth.

Keywords : Apatani, Tradition, Childbirth, Religious Faith, Rites of Passage. 53 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal The Conceptual Framework Birth rituals belong to a class anthropologically identified as rites-de-passage (rites of passage), a French phrase-construct coined by Belgian social scientist Arnold van Gennep in 1909. They share with other rites of passage features discovered through systematic cross-cultural explorations of diverse ritual activities and traditions. Two core features are universality of practice and uniformity of a processual form in three stages: separation (preliminal rites), transitional stage (liminal or threshold rites), and incorporation (postliminal rites), imbued with rich symbols and rites (Van Gennep, 1909/1960).

Some rites of passage occur in contexts of change of political or religious office or annual season changes, whereas life-cycle rituals are associated with individuals’ biological life cycles. Whereas physiological processes universally mark an organisms’ life span from beginning to end of life, sociocultural research has revealed that characteristically humans experience their life span as transitions ritually marked with structured ceremonial activity.

Cultural transitions are ritualised threshold crossing, in the sense of leaving one world and entering another, which may or may not correspond exactly to biological change. They are conceptualized culturally, ceremonialized universally, and are considered sacred, though not necessarily religious (El Guindi, 2008, p. 27).

Human birth, for example, can be marked at the instant of the physical birth, such as that which occurs in social events surrounding birth in Western culture, illustrated through showers before and birthdays after. In many cultures, however, the exact day of physical birth is unmarked, birthdays are not celebrated, and birthdates are not even remembered. In many societies birth is celebrated after the physical birth.

Childbirth is termed as culmination of pregnancy. It is an intimate and complex transaction affected physically, mentally and spiritually. The experience of birth is different in each time period, in each culture and for each woman. Cultural and social sur- 54 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal roundings have impacted differently on every woman giving birth, making each birth experience different (Davudsdóttir, 2012).

The Land and the People The Apantani is one of themost advanced tribes in Arunachal Pradesh, inhabiting the Ziro Valley in Lower Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh. Lower Subansiri district lies approximately between 26⁰55’ to 28⁰21’N latitude and 92⁰40’ to 92⁰21’ E longitude. It is bounded by Kra Daadi district in the north, the state of Assam and Papum Pare district in the south-west, and Kamle district in the east. According to the 2011 Census, the population of the Apatani tribe is around 27,792. The economy is agriculture based and they are well known world over for their paddy-cum-pisci-culture system. Apart from rice, they also produce maize, millet, fruits and vegetables. Animal husbandry and handicraft making are other areas in which they take interest and are also a source of their income. The festive season of the Apatanis start in the month of Janu- ary when the Murung, the festival of prosperity is celebrated. It is followed in March by Myoko, the festival of wellbeing and friendship. In July every year, the entire Ziro plateau become more vibrant with the celebration of the Dree, the agricultural festival of the Apatanis. The community worships a number of spirits who are believed to be responsible for various happenings in their life both good and bad. Most of them follow the Donyi-polo faith, i.e. they worship the sun (Ayo-Danyi) and the moon (Atoh-Piilo). The Apatani family is patriarchal in nature and the descendants are traced patrilinealy. The tribe endogamy and clan exogamy are the traditional marriage rules.

Rites of Passage of the Apatanis The Apatanis have inherited literary traditions fromtheir forefathers, which are oral as they are passed on by word of mouth in theabsence of a script. They have also inherited rites of passage which mark thepassage of an individual from one stage of life to the next, from birth tochildhood, adolescence to adulthood, to the state of being married, and finally death to afterlife. They perform rites of passage to mark the birth of a child, the arrival of adulthood, the occasion of marriage and death. A ritual performed before the birth of the child is called Aago Pilya.

55 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Funeral rites are performed at the death of a personfor the final release of the spirit of the dead to travel to ‘the land of the spirits.’ It can be described as ‘a ceremony performed for the benefit of the departed soul’. The performanceof these rites is accom- panied by chanting of verses, singing, dancing and playing musical instruments.

Taboos Associated with Birth Rituals The Birth of a child in the Apatani community is a joyous, auspicious and important event in the Apatani culture. The parent joyfully starts making the necessary ar- rangement of the basic items like pork, prepare rice bears, etc. in advance for the event of the birth of new member. The birth ritual in the Apatani community is associated with the observance of two types of taboos: the pre-delivery taboos and the post-delivery taboos.

Pre-delivery Taboos In the Apatani community, once a woman conceives and when pregnancy is confirmed, a small ritual is performed known as Aago Pilya, in order to appease the spirit who is responsible for ensuring the delivery of a healthy baby plus gives strength and courage to the expecting mother throughout the pregnancy term. In this ritual, a chicken is sacrificed after which an elderly person from the village with enough of ritual or spiritual experience is made to examine the liver of the chicken which they believe will reveal the gender of the child and also the nature of the child’s delivery. Apart from this, the Apatanis believe that the dreams of an expecting mother or a relative could also depict the gender of the child. For instance, if one dreams of materials like Nyatu-Elyo (traditional knife/machete), Leha-Lera (hunting equipment), then the baby in the womb is a male as these kind of materials are usually associated with the male population of the community, and when one dreams of materials such as Pinta-Liiha (traditional bucket carved out of gourd; Liiha refers to a small traditional basket made out of cane strips and bamboo), then the baby in the womb is a female as such kind of household materials are usually associated with the female population of the community. Adding to this, it is also said that when the baby movement in the womb is mostly towards the right side, it is a boy and when the movement is towards the left, it is a girl.

56 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Every expecting mother in the world has deep cravings which amounts up to different kind of normal food and could range up to weird stuffs too which is totally normal. Same is the case with the expecting mothers of the Apatani community; they crave for stuffs such as raw millet Sarse( ), charcoal (Miiri), uncooked rice (Embing), etc. This kind of craving especially strikes when the expecting mother is in her 2nd and 3rd month of pregnancy period. To one, this kind of cravings might sound weird and unbelievable, but it has its own reasons and role in the community which mainly marks the belief that if an expecting mother does not fulfill her cravings, the baby after being born will drool heavily (Rei bila) and it is also a universally known fact that when an expecting mother craves for something, it is actually the baby who is craving.

In the Apatani community, preventive measures (Nyodu) are equally important and crucial during the pregnancy period both for the expecting mother and her spouse as well. The couple should prevent especially the following activities:

1. One should not kill any kind of birds and animals. If this taboo is not followed then the child’s voice will sound like that of the killed bird or animal after being born. 2. Weaving of any kind of traditional design associated with the community should be avoided. If this taboo is not observed, then the baby will have unusual black pattern like marks in the body once born. 3. If a snake is killed by the expecting parents, then it is said that the movement of the baby’s tongue will be like that of a snake. 4. The husband of the expecting lady is prohibited from any kind of chopping work and also is not allowed to attend any kind of work related to pig rearing especially feeding the pig (Alyidurgu), due to the belief that if this is not prohibited then the baby will have abnormally torn lips after bring born. 5. Any kind of polythene or plastic materials should not be burned in the hearth (Ugu) of the house (Raji jima); as such an activity will lead to the baby having ugly black spots on the body. Also, any kind of iron rod or metal should not be heated on the hearth of the house (Dachangbyama) as this will lead to the baby having red marks on the body. 57 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal 6. The expecting mother and her spouse is strictly prohibited from attending any kind of negative incidents such as funeral, accidental cases, suicidal cases, etc. even if such occurrences has anything to do with their relatives as it is believed that if this taboo is not followed then the baby will be squint eyed.

Post-Delivery Taboos When the expecting woman goes into labour pain (Iingaakhiichilyo), the women folk from the neighborhood gathers there for help. When this situation occurs, the male and children are not allowed to stay near the pregnant woman. The pregnant lady in labour pain is taken to one side of the house and the priest is immediately summoned to perform a ritual called ‘Aago Pilya’ which is for giving strength to the delivering mother and for the safe keeping of both the mother and the child. During this ritual, a hen is sacrificed for the smooth birthing process of the child. For the natural process of delivery, a rope is tightly tied and secured to two horizontal poles, where the delivering woman hold on to the rope and gives birth to the baby in a kneeling position as it is said to be the most comfortable position for the delivery of the baby. After the child birth, the placenta and the naval cord of the new born baby is disposed into the restroom (traditional or modern) attached to the house. This disposition is done so because there is a belief in the Apatani community that if the placenta or the naval cord is thrown away or disposed off carelessly anywhere including jungles or when buried, the growth of the child will not be smooth and might also lead to abnormality in the child. Besides all these, if there is any problem in the process of delivery of the child, then the priest is summoned to perform another set of ritual known as ‘Chepa Du’ which is to appease the devil (Igii Uii), who is responsible for the obstacles during child birth, in this ritual a pair of poultry bird both a male and a female each is sacrificed and offered to the bad spirit in order to have a smooth child birth. As soon as the delivery is done, the father of the new born child inserts a stick where the husks fall apart from the rice grains while husking. This is a very age-old process which seems to have almost disappeared with the passing of generation. This was done by the father of the child, especially, to ward away or keep off any kind of negative presence from the baby such as evil spirits, bad omen and even those people with evil aura lurking around the area where the new born 58 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal baby arrives. This stick is removed from the husking place exactly after 10 days of the child birth, an indication that the baby will have a smooth growth in a clean and happy blessed environment and that the baby is free from any kind of negative elements. This whole process is known as ‘Mying Diilala- Panyekhoyepiinangugung ho khiilii du’.

After this process comes another crucial part where an expert especially woman cuts the naval cord of the baby (Khiiniipidu) by the use of a particular sharpened bamboo which is dried in the hearth of the house and this process of drying is said to be equal to being sterilized. This special traditional bamboo blade is known as ‘Yiabing’. In earlier days, this kind of blades were prepared in advance before the birth of a child, but with the passing of time and the phase of modernization, this traditional blade has been replaced with medically sterilized blades for cutting the naval cord. The cutting of naval cord also has a specific way, the naval cord is tied into four different knots with a clean white thread and the cut is made on the second knot, while doing so a few drops of locally brewed rice beer (O-ala) is given to the baby in the belief that the new born baby will have no infection in the tongue. Regular baths are given to the new born baby right from the time of the child’s birth. In the earlier days, the bath was given in a special traditional utensil known as Arre/Niirepiichang which is made of clay and Niireyaju, mug made out of gourd. At present, these kinds of materials are no longer used; it has been replaced with plastic tub, bucket and mug. After the 10th bath, a mixed thread kneaded up of black and orange color is tied on particular body parts of the new born baby, one on the waist known as ‘Erey Biyang’, a pair each on the wrist known as ‘Ala-Laanga’ and one the end of the knee known as ‘Ali-Liinga’, this symbolizes the introduction of the new born baby into the realm of the human world.

Also, the father of the new born child plays another crucial part on his own, he ties up few maize leaves on the either side of a medium heighted bamboo pole and places it on the entrance or gate of the home where a new birth takes place. This tradition is known as ‘Pussung du’, which is done in order to keep away or prohibit the entrance of people who have attended funerals, done hunting or have faced any negative occur-

59 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal rences like accidents, sickness etc. it is said that the entrance of such people would bring misfortune and obstacles in the growth of the baby.

It is to be noted that there is no special ritual or timing for naming the new born baby. The baby is named by the parents or by the elders of the family. It is only when a baby gets restless and keeps whining and crying, then the name of the baby is changed as the Apatani’s believe that this behavior of the baby might be because the name is not suitable for him or her.

Adding another basic, yet comforting tradition of this community, is the ‘Aping babidu’ ritual, which means that the relatives especially from the maternal side visits the new born baby and the mother after the third night of the delivery bearing traditional gifts such as local bred rice, meat (yoh), etc. This is a way to show the love and affec- tion of these relatives towards the mother especially. Also, the neighbors visits the new born baby, this visitation is termed as ‘Amurdu/Hϋjañ Harakanϋñ/Tϋpyakhenϋñ’, which means to bless the baby in bounty; a necklace (Tassang) kneaded out of thread and attached with four pieces of traditional beads is presented to the baby in the form of a gift as well as best wishes. The maternal relative of the new born baby also bears gifts like the Tibetan bell (Maji) for the male child and an intricately designed metal plate (Tallo) for the female child. This gifting ritual is mandatory for the first-born child in the family and for the rest of the children; it totally depends on the wish or willingness of the relatives.

Putting an end to the restrictions at home comes on the ninth day from the day when the baby was delivered. It is only on this particular day that the baby is not given a bath and also it is on this day that all the household items which has a lid is un-lidded, for instance the utensils used for cooking meals at home, the traditional mortar (Yaper) which usually remains closed. This is done with the belief that the un-lidding of all these household items will keep away any kind of breathing related problems from the new born baby.

60 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Finally, the 10th day marks the total ending of all kinds of rituals and practices after the birth of the baby. On this day, the bamboo pole tied with maize leaves is removed from the entrance of the house, but the husband and the wife are still not allowed to go out and do any kind of outside or social activities (Nyigurdu). Only when the 10th day is over, the parents along with the child can go out or attend social activities of the community and the child can start living normally without any restrictions. On the 11th day, the parents can chip off the baby’s nails or may shave off the child’s hair known as Muyure’nϋñ. The mother of the child is given complete rest for 10 days called ‘Hiiyin- ganyodu’ (maternity rest). During these 10 days the mother of the new born baby is not allowed to carry out any kind of household chores especially cooking and serving it to herself, doing so will make the baby have a habit of stealing when the child grows up. During this period of the mother’s maternity rest, anyone from the maternal side can take up the household chores. The father of the new born child also has few restrictions along with the mother during the period of maternity rest; he is not allowed to attend to any kind of repairing work, if such taboos are not avoided then it is believed that the baby will have improper growth and might be physically disabled once the child grows up and might also have respiratory problem. The washed linen or clothes of the baby is not dried outside during the period of the mother’s maternity rest as the Apatani’s believe that the soul of the baby exist in every piece of the cloth which belongs to the baby and hence if it is dried out, it will be harmful for the baby. Further, during this period of maternity rest, the brother of the child’s mother cannot take any meat from his sister’s home because it is said that by doing so, the brother’s health will have adverse effect on his health and that it will also weaken his hunting ethics.

After the taboos end and are observed completely, the elder members especially elder women of the clan/village are invited and then the Niipo Apiñ ceremony takes place on a particular day fixed by the couple who had the new born baby where in they are served breakfast, dinner or lunch accordingly as a gesture of their love and happi- ness towards the elders; plus this ceremony also serves as a way to introduce the new born child to everyone and also in a way the new born baby is blessed by all the elders who visits on this day. At the end of Niipo Aping ceremony every person who visits are 61 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal presented with assorted pieces of Pork meat and other meat known as “Soyu”, the Khi- niipinii (the person responsible for cutting the naval cord of the new born child) is given soyu with larger piece of Pork in particular.

References Census of India 2011. Primary census abstract. New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General. Davudsdóttir, R. (2012). Anthropology of Childbirth: Cross-cultural approach (bachelor’s thesis). University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland. El Guindi, F. (1986). El Sebou: Egyptian birth ritual. In F. El Guindi (Ed.), Egyptian ceremonial life series (p. 27). Los Angeles: El Nil Research: Documentary Educational Resources. Van Gennep, A. (1909/1960). The rites of passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

62 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Pluralism and Identity Politics: A Look into the Indian Centre-State Scenario

Dr. Nandini Basistha ICSSR Post-Doctoral Fellow Centre for North East Study and Policy Research Jamia Millia Islamia Mob: 9729074479 & 7011472818

Abstract Constructed ideas of identity have been posing a threat to humanity in the pluralist notion of India. Shared concept of class, clan and culture get politicized by a small group of people, often driven by self-interest, and turmoil the democratic set up. Most of the time identity politics ends up with some patches on the minds and mentality of the commoners where the actual goal of the so-called identity-seekers catches veil of ignorance. How the demand to determine identity of a minority group threatens the broader concept of pluralism is the central theme of this paper. This paper also tries to underline the interwoven character of identity politics and pluralism in Centre – State relation of India. Starting with the theoretical genre, it will end with the practical hiccups and way-outs.

Keywords : Pluralism, Identity Politics, Ethnicity, Minority, India.

Constructed ideas of identity have been posing a threat to humanity in the multiculturist notion of India. Shared concept of class, clan and culture get politicized by a small group of people, often driven by self-interest, and turmoil the democratic set up. In spite of the serious efforts to safeguard freedom and liberty to the minorities in maintaining their identity, Indian government fails to control this separatist mentality of the communities. Most of the time identity politics ends up with some patches on the minds and mentality of the commoners where the actual goal of the so-called identity- seekers catches veil of ignorance. How the demand to determine identity of a minority

63 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal group threatens the broader concept of pluralism is the central theme of this paper. This paper tries to underline the interwoven character of identity politics and pluralism in India. Starting with the theoretical genre, it will be ended with the practical hiccups and way-outs.

Being the second most populous country with social and cultural diversity pluralism is obvious in India. It has prevailed here through tolerance in different spheres of culture, like religion, language, race, ethnicity and so on. Unlike in the West, where it is virtually equated with atheism, pluralism in India is a celebration of religions not their denial. The edicts of Ashoka, himself a convert from Hinduism to Buddhism in the third century B.C.E., promulgate a norm of mutual respect and toleration (Martha, 2007). Even the Mughal emperors observed Diwali and Nauroz. Until the early twentieth century, Hindus routinely took part in the Mohuram processions. To emphasize this aspect Gandhi had passages read from the holy books of all the major religions before his prayer meetings. When the Zoroastrians of Persia felt that their religion was in danger from the invading Muslims, where else could they go but to India! The Tibetans felt similarly in their homeland, they chose India.

India has emerged as a model of pluralism and secular democracy in the post- colonial world. Nehru was not, however, opposed to assimilation because without it a nation could never be built, particularly in a society like India (Harihar, 2003). But his idea of assimilation was not a forced or externally imposed one (Harihar, 2003, 156). He said that such an assimilation process would develop of its own accord through education and contacts, without any special effort (Harihar, 2003, p. 156). In such a process, he emphasized, every care should be taken to retain the individuality of cultures, much of which was, for him, retainable. Further clarifying his ideas on this issue, he said that people living in India should feel that they have perfect freedom to live their own lives according to their wishes and genius, and that India should signify for them a protecting as well as a liberating force. He pointed out that the policy of the state was not to interfere with tribal affairs but to offer the largest measure of autonomy. He also

64 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal attached great importance to the valuable customs of ethnic groups. Nehru believed that the legal guarantee of equality of citizenship regardless of religion, caste, creed or other social attributes would render communalism obsolete (Mishra, Palai, & Das, 2006). Nehru’s approach to the problem of the management of ethnic conflicts, and to the issue of nation and state-building, thus was at once democratic and pluralist. But, in spite of the efforts of national integration we see statehood demands for ascertaining different cultural identities - like language, religion, or ethnicity. Most of the political demands for self-determination are centrally linked to the idea of a distinct identity of an ethnic group.

Now the question is when and how the identity gets politicized. Before going to take a look in the Indian scenario, let’s have a short discussion on the meaning of ‘identity politics.’ The phrase “identity politics” is something of a philosophical punching-bag for a variety of critics. Although “identity politics” can draw on intellectual precursors from Mary Wollstonecraft to Frantz Fanon, it was first described briefly in an article by L.A. Kauffman, who traced its origins to the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (an organization of the civil-rights movement) in the early and mid-1960s (Kauffman, 1990). Generally, identity politics refers to political arguments that focus upon the self- interest and perspectives of social minorities, or self-identified social interest groups. When members of a specific subgroup unite in order to affect political or social change, the result is often called identity politics. It is not limited to the major racial or gender divisions of our time, but extends into sexual orientation, ethnicity, citizenship status and other instances where a specific group feels marginalized or oppressed. Identity politics thus attempts to attain empowerment, representation and recognition of social groups by asserting the very same markers that distinguished and differentiated them from the others and utilize those markers as an assertion of selfhood and identity based on difference rather than equality. However, in his book, ‘The Disuniting of America’, Historian Arthur Schlesinger (Jr.) argues that a liberal democracy requires a common basis for culture and society to function. In his view, basing politics on group marginalization fractures the civil polity, and therefore works against creating

65 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal real opportunities for ending marginalization. Schlesinger believes that movements for civil rights should aim toward full acceptance and integration of marginalized groups into the mainstream culture, rather than, in his view, perpetuating that marginalization through affirmations of difference.

In India we find that despite adoption of a liberal democratic polity after independence, communities and collective identities have remained powerful and continue to claim recognition. Most of the time, this claim turns into the secessionist movement. Because of the ethnic diversity of India and causal complexity of the phenomenon, any study of ethno-secessionism that looks for causal uniformity is likely to be futile. Three contending theories seek to identify the causal conditions that produce political mobilization of group’s identity. For the developmental perspective, which regards community or ethnicity as a primordial sentiment, ethnic political mobilization occurs when states fail to integrate ethnic groups into the national mainstream, thereby widening the socio-cultural and politico-economic gap between the ethnic group and the rest of the nation (Ragin, 1987). In contrast to this view, the reactive ethnicity perspective regards the infiltration of ethnic homeland by members of the dominant cultural group (and not its isolation) and the ‘cultural division of labour’ that is caused by the allocation of valued roles and resources to the dominant group as the main cause of ethnic political mobilization (Micheal, 1975). A third approach, the ethnic competition perspective, argues that the process of modernization sparks ethnic political mobilization when dominant and subordinate groups are forced to compete with each other for the same rewards and resources (Ragin, 1987).

However, a material basis for the enunciation of identity claims in India has been provided by the post-independent state and its structures and institutions. In other words, the state is seen as an “active contributor to identity politics through the creation and maintenance of state structures which define and then recognize people in terms of certain identities” (Ragin, 1987, p. 3). Thus, we find identity politics of various hues abound in India, the most spectacular however, are those based on language, religion,

66 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal caste, ethnicity or tribal identity. But having said this it would be wrong on our part to assume that each of these identity markers operate autonomously, independent of the overlapping influence of the other makers. In other words, a homogenous linguistic group may be divided by caste affiliations that may be sub-divided by religious orientations or all may be subsumed under a broader ethnic claim. These interwoven characteristics can be found in their claims also.

Starting from the creation of Andhra Pradesh in 1956 on the basis of Telegu language, we see an array of new states was established on the linguistic and ethno- regional grounds. Following this trend, the Union of India is now a federation of twenty- nine states in place of fourteen states in the 1950. Even now there are ongoing struggle prevails in different places, like Harit Pradesh in Western Uttar Pradesh, Vindhyachal in Madhya Pradesh, Vidarbha in Maharashtra, Kodagu in Karnataka, Gorkhaland and Kamtapuri in West Bengal, and Bodoland in Assam. Identity politics will always be bound by differences; but it is also important to look at the broader aspect of democratic setup beyond the realm of identity politics. While the state has its rules, statutes and the Constitution as a means of guaranteeing justice, we are forced to perpetrate a sense of identity and tell others to do what they want to, within that. They seek justice within it, but basically that means beyond it. This inexhaustibility of justice is a historical product. So, there is no denying that behind identity politics there is always some hidden issue of justice.

Thus, the defenders of the right to cultural expression of minorities in plural states practice forms of identity politics that are both made possible by liberalism and sometimes in tension with it. Can liberalism sustain the cultural and value-neutrality that some commentators still ascribe to it, or to what extent should it embraces its own cultural specificity. Charles Taylor argues that the modern identity is characterized by an emphasis on its inner voice and capacity for authenticity — that is, the ability to find a way of being that is somehow true to oneself (Charles, 1994). We can hope that, through Indian pluralist notion, she will be able to establish racial and ethnic harmony and cross- cultural understanding in place of hatred, discrimination and violence. 67 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal References Bhattacharyya, H. (2003). Multiculturalism in contemporary India. International Journal on Multicultural Societies, 5(2), 148-161. Hechter, M. (1975). Internal colonialism: The celtic fringe in British national development. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Kauffman, L.A. (1990). The anti-politics of identity. Socialist Review, 20(1), 67-80. Mishra, S., Palai, N., & Das, K. (2006, August 21-25). Social cleavages, multiculturalism and emerging space for state in India under globalization (p. 7). Paper presented at the International Economic History Congress (Session 22), Helsinki, Finland. Nussbaum, M.C. (2007). Frontiers of justice (p. 303). New York: Oxford University Press. Ragin, C.C. (1987). The comparative method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitative strategies. Berkeley: University of California Press. Taylor, C. (1994). Multiculturalism: Examining the politics of recognition. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

68 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Shifting Cultivation in North-East India: Growth and Progress

Dr. B.K. Panda Dr. Sukanta Sarkar Professor Associate Professor Department of Economics Department of Economics Berhampur University, Odisha, India. Gambella University, Ethiopia, Africa.

Abstract The agricultural production systems in the hilly areas differ from the plough cultivation in the plain areas. The term shifting cultivation refers to a certain method of farming. In this particular method, land is widely used to cultivate crops for a few years, then allowed to lie fallow for several years after which it is reused again. Shifting cultivation is said to be one of the unsustainable land uses contributing significantly to environmental degradation. Across South and Southeast Asia, a large number of people depend fully or partly on shifting cultivation for their livelihood and food security. In the Himalayan region of the north east, the agricultural practice of shifting cultivation also known as jhum cultivation or rotational agro-forestry, prevalent since prehistoric times, is being carried out by traditional tribal societies even today. The objective of this paper is to study the growth and progress of shifting cultivations in North-Eastern India.

Keywords: Cultivation, Jhumias, Livelihood, Shifting Cultivation, Tribal People.

Introduction The word Jhummay be the most misunderstood term among the environmental- ists, scientists and others concerned with natural resource management (Kalita & Bhow- mick, 2011). The term shifting cultivation refers to a certain method of farming. In this particular method, land is widely used to cultivate crops for a few years, then allowed to lie fallow for several years after which it is reused again. The practice is characterised by a cultivation phase, which involves clearing of primary or secondary forest and crop cultivation for one to three years, followed by a fallow phase, during which cultivation is suspended to allow recovery of soil fertility (Karthik et al., 2009).

69 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Shifting cultivation is said to be one of the unsustainable land uses contributing significantly to environmental degradation. Clearing forests for shifting cultivation can contribute to climate change, biodiversity loss, reduced timber supply, flooding, siltation, soil degradation and change of forest vegetation from primary to secondary and eventually to grassland. Slashing and subsequent burning are preconditions for Jhum cultivation. Slashing of vegetation for cultivation is done during January-February. Shifting cultivators may possess a highly developed knowledge and understanding of their local environments and of the crops and native plant species they exploit. Shifting cultivation is a land-use practice that reflects indigenous knowledge accumulated through centuries of trial and error, an intricate balance between product harvest and ecological resilience, and an impressive degree of agro-diversity.

Shifting Cultivation in India In India, shifting cultivation is still practised in the hill areas of North-Eastern Region, Sikkim, Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Maharashtra. But among all these states, such practices are still prevalent in the hill areas of North-Eastern states, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The people of eastern and north-eastern region practice shifting cultivation on hill slopes. Shifting cultivation is an age-old practice, particularly being practised in the Eastern Ghats. Orissa accounts for the largest area under shifting cultivation in India. Shifting cultivation is locally known as the podu cultivation.

Crocklin (1961) described shifting cultivation as use of human labour, use of stick or hoe, short periods of soil occupancy alternating with long fallow periods. It served as the economic mainstay. The tribals were totally dependent on it for survival. It is widely practised in the northeastern states of India. In India about 10 million hectares of tribal land stretched across 16 states is under shifting cultivation. Based on satellite image, Forest Survey of India estimate 1.73 million hectares of land is affected by shifting cultivation.

70 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Table1: Shifting Cultivation in Different States of India

Tribal Families Total Area Sl. No. State (Million) (Million hectare)

1. Andhra Pradesh 0.11 0.15

2. Arunachal Pradesh 0.43 0.21

3. Assam 0.31 0.31

4. Bihar 0.23 0.19

5. Madhya Pradesh 0.19 0.38

6. Manipur 0.36 0.26

7. Meghalaya 0.61 0.47

8. Mizoram 0.40 0.19

9. Nagaland 0.19 0.12

10. Orissa 2.00 1.60

11. Tripura 0.19 0.49

Total 5.02 4.37

Source : ICAR.

In the Himalayan region of the north east, the agricultural practice of shifting cultivation also known as jhum cultivation or rotational agro-forestry, prevalent since prehistoric times, is being carried out by traditional tribal societies even today (India Today, 2006). It is being practised on the Revenue, Reserve Forests and protected forests. Although shifting cultivation is a non-viable resource-utilization practice, tribals are still clinging to this primitive practice to sustain themselves and their families mainly due to non-availability of timely employment avenues. The mountain eco-systems of these regions with shifting cultivation practice have to be made ecologically sustainable. 71 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Formulating an eco-development plan for the region for environmental sustainability, could consider completely replacing agricultural practice with farm forestry. Agricultural practices are at the cost of loss of biodiversity resources; estimates indicate that one unit of energy in agronomic production costs loss of greater energy from the forests (Ranjan & Upadhyay, 1999). Shifting cultivation is practiced in some form or other in almost all the tribal areas of Orissa. A number of tribes inhabiting different areas of the state are practicing shifting cultivation. These tribes are Bondo, Didayi, Koya, Gadaba, Paroja, Soura, KutiaKondha, dongariaKondha, Kandha, Parenga, Jatapur, Juang, Paudi Bhuyan, ErengaKolha, etc. The problem of shifting cultivation is perhaps most acute in Orissa than any other State in the country. Although at present an accurate data on the areas under shifting cultivation is not available, yet some rough estimates have been made (Dash, 2006).

Shfting Cultivation in North-East India Jhum cultivation is a local name for slash and burn agriculture practiced by the tribal groups in the northeastern states of India like Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland and also in the districts of Bangladesh like Khagrachari and Sylhet. This system involves clearing a piece of land by setting fire or clear felling and using the area for growing crops of agricultural importance such as upland rice, vegetables or fruits.

Shifting cultivation is the oldest system of cultivation of crops and the first step in transition from food gatherer to food producer. In India the total area under jhum cultivation is 0.94 m ha whereas North East India itself accounts for 80% of the jhum area (0.76 m ha). It affects the forest cover adversely by clearing of the hill slope through slash and burning of vegetation. In the north eastern region, the Jhum cycle is reduced to 2-5 years from 20-30 years, a jhum cycle of 15-20 years is sustainable.

72 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Table 2: Cultivated Land in Northeastern States of India (in lakh hectares) Area Available for- State Reporting Area Net Area Sown Jhuming

Arunachal Pradesh 57.93 0.70 2.48

Assam 78.81 21.98 4.98

Manipur 22.11 0.79 1.00

Meghalaya 27.79 1.58 4.16

Mizoram 16.54 0.61 6.04

Nagaland 13.51 0.47 6.08

Tripura 10.66 2.36 2.21

Total 227.35 29.49 26.95 Source : Economic Survey of India.

The cycle of agricultural operation in all these areas of North-East Region is marked by the following stages: (1) Selecting the forested hilly track; (2) Cleansing the forest tract by cutting down the jungle during December–January; (3) Drying and burning of fallen shrubs/trees into ashes during February–March; (4) Fencing the cleared plots; (5) Worship and sacrifice; (6) Dibbling and sowing of seeds for mixed cropping; (7) Weeding operation; (8) Watching and protecting the crops against depredation by wild animals, pests, etc.; (9) Harvesting; and (10) Threshing and storing.

73 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Table 3: Shifting Cultivation in the North-Eastern Region of India

Annual Area Fallow Minimum Area No. of families under period under shifting cul- practicing State shifting cultivation (in tivation one time or shifting (Sq. Kms.) years other (Sq. Kms.) cultivation

Arunachal Pradesh 700 3-10 2100 54000

Assam 696 2-10 1392 58000

Manipur 900 4-7 3600 70000

Meghalaya 530 5-7 2650 52290

Mizoram 630 3-4 1890 50000

Nagaland 190 5-8 1913 116046

Tripura 223 5-9 1115 43000

Total 3869(1.5 Per cent) 14660(5.7 Per cent) 443336

Source: RTFSC (1983); Basic Statistics of NER, 2002; Government of India.

As per an old ICAR review the total estimated area under shifting cultivation was 5.42 lakh hectares and about 26.441 lakh tribal populations were engaged in it.Report of the Dhebar Commission revealed that nearly 5.41 lakh hectares of area are covered per year by the shifting cultivation and about 25.89 lakh tribal populations are depending on it. Again as per the estimates of Vidyarthi, about 2.6 million tribal people are engaged in shifting cultivation covering nearly 1.35 million acres of land scattered in different parts of India.

In north-eastern region, the estimates framed by the state departments of the region in 1974 reveals that shifting cultivation is prevalent in nearly 2.4 per cent of the total area of the entire NE Region at a point of time. About 2.7 million hectares of area i.e., about 14.19 per cent of the area of the entire NE Region is at present available for 74 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal shifting cultivation and out of which only 16.8 per cent (i.e., about 4.3 lakh hectares) of the area is cultivated at one point of time leaving the rest area for natural regeneration of fertility. Further, about 4.25 lakh tribal families of the entire NE Region are found engaged in shifting cultivation and total area cultivated per tribal family in the region is 1.07 hectares.As per a recent estimate it is found that total area under shifting cultivation in a year in all north-eastern states is nearly 4.16 lakh hectares in comparison to that of 9.89 lakh hectares of area in whole India.

Table 4: North-East India: Jhum Cycle, Period of Occupancy and Duration of Fallow- ing Tribe/State Average Annual Duration of Fallowing Rainfall (in cms) Cropping Period Ao/Nagaland 150 cm One year 5-8 years Garo/Meghalaya 125 cm One year 5-10 years Hmars/Manipur 130 cm One year 5-10 years Idu-Mismi/Arunachal Pradesh 250 cm Two years 5-10 years Jaintia/Meghalaya 250 cm One year 4-8 years Khasi/Meghalaya 300 cm One year 4-6 years Konyak/Nagaland 140 cm One year 5-10 years Lakher/Mizoram 125 cm One year 6-12 years Lotha/Nagaland 145 cm Two years 10-15 years Lushai/Mizoram 185 cm Two years 8-15 years Mikir/Assam 150 cm One year 5-7 years Pawi/Mizoram 210 cm One year 8-10 years Rengma/Nagaland 150 cm Two years 7-15 years Sema/Nagaland 155 cm Two years 6-10 years Sherdukpen/Arunachal Pradesh 125 cm Two years 6-10 years Source : Economic Survey of India.

Thesuperiority of jhum cultivation over some forms of sedentary cultivation partly explains the persistence of this form of agriculture in North East India. Other reasons include the economic security provided by jhum and its cultural importance to indigenous tribes. Poor access to markets, capital, and technical knowhow of more

75 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal commercially rewarding alternatives such as horticulture and cash crop cultivation also hinders the transition to other occupation. In the northeastern region of India, comprising the states of Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram, shifting cultivation is largely practiced in the hilly areas.

(a) Manipur The characteristics of jhum cultivation in Manipur are as follows: (i) Cutting and clearing of forest areas and burning of the dried biomass by fire, (ii) rotation of jhum land every four to seven years, (iii) use of human labour as the chief input, (iv) non- employment of animals implements or machinery, (v) collective ownership of land, (vi) reciprocal labour sharing and (vii) mixed cropping system. Women predominate in seed selection and planting, weeding, and other operations, while operations such as cutting of the jungle, clearing, burning of the cut undergrowth, etc., are done by men. Both men and women participate in harvesting. The produce is transported from the jhum land to the village by head-loading.

In 1984, the Central Forestry Commission estimated that 6.7 million ha of cul- tivable area was affected by jhum in India. According to the Task Force on Shifting Cultivation, as many as 70,000 families in Manipur practiced jhum cultivation bringing 90,000 ha under this method of cultivation annually. The continuance of jhum in the state is closely linked to ecological, socio-economic, cultural and land tenure systems of tribal communities. Since the community owns the lands the village council or elders divide the jhum land among families for their subsistence on a rotational basis. In the hilly areas of Manipur, shifting cultivation is widely practiced, with settled terrace farming in foothill or low slope areas, above the adjacent rivers and streams.

Depending on the slope, wet broadcast on bunded fields or dry broadcast on unbunded fields is practised. In the plains wet paddy rice cultivation is prevalent. Tra- ditional methods of production are still widely used by the farmers, especially on the hill slopes. Estimates for the area under jhum vary widely. The Registrar General of India and the Principal Chief Conservator of Forests, Manipur, reported an average 76 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal 40,000 hectares in the 1990s, while the Agricultural Census, Department of Agriculture, Government of Manipur, reported an average of 90,000 hectares and the Directorate of Economics & Statistics reported around 44,000 hectares in the same period. The most widely quoted estimate is that of the study by the ‘Task Force on Shifting Cultivation, Ministry of Agriculture, according to which, 90,000 ha are cultivated by 70,000 families in the state. Much of the area under rice in the hills, and about 40 per cent of it in the state as a whole is under jhum cultivation.

The planning department of Manipur has laid considerable emphasis on the control of shifting cultivation. The government has introduced certain measures aimed at i) restricting jhuming like allowing natural forest to grow in jhum lands, ii) initiating resource surveys, iii) increasing the area under terrace cultivation, iv) promoting programmes for intensive valley development and development of horticulture, v) plantation farming in jhum land and vi) the development of sericulture and a few forest-based industries (Khongsai, 2014).

(b) Mizoram Shifting cultivation in Mizoram is an integral part of the socio-cultural life of Mizos.With increase in population the jhuming cycle has shortened considerably and the productivity of land has fallen with devastating impact on the environment (Dar- long, 2000). The Govt. ofMizoram in 1984 launched a programme called New Land Use Policy with an objective to put an end to the practice of jhuming by providing alternative land based permanent occupation and stable income to the families practicing jhuming (jhumias) in rural areas thereby raising their standard of living. Assistance is provided for various trades or occupation for a period of three years. The programme is operated on yearly basis (Garbyal, 1999).

Under its New Land Use Policy, Mizoram is laying emphasis on ending the age- old jhum shifting cultivation and has allocated Rs.410 crores in budget to enable about 30,000 more tribal families to shift to stable farming. Already 90,139 farmer’s families have benefited under the State Government’s flagship scheme and 29,861 more families 77 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal would be benefited during this financial year. The Planning Commission has appreci- ated the Mizoram government for launching such a unique scheme. The NLUP’s success could be a model for other Northeastern States. The Mizoram government initiated its New Land Use Policy in January 2010 to put an end to the age-old shifting or slash- and-burn method of cultivation, and help the tribal farmers to shift to stable cultivation of various cash crops.

In jhum, bamboo forests are cut, burnt, cultivated, and then rested and regener- ated for several years until the next round of cultivation, making bamboos vanish and return on the slopes in a cyclic ecological dance of field and fallow. While Cheraw is cherished by all, jhum is actively discouraged by the State and the agri-horticulture bureaucracy. Although jhum is a regenerative system of organic farming, Mizoram, the first Indian State to enact legislation to promote organic farming, is now pushing hard to eradicate jhum under its New Land Use Policy. Labeling jhum as unproductive and destructive of forest cover, policy makers and industry now promote settled cultivation and plantations, such as pineapple and oil palm, claiming they are better land use than jhum. Oil palm, rubber and horticultural plantations are monocultures that cause permanent deforestation, a fact that the India State of Forest Report 2011 notes to explain declines in Mizoram’s forest cover (The Hindu, 2014).

While the area of jhum cultivation in Mizoram decreased by 36 per cent that of wet rice cultivation increased by 28.4 per cent during 2010. While the area of shifting cultivation in 2010-2011 has decreased from 44,947 hectares to 28,562, the area of wet rice cultivation has increased from 9,446 hectares to 12,130 hectares. At present, Mizoram produces only 25 per cent of the total rice consumption. Mizoram produces only 44,950 metric tonnes of rice, against the total consumption of 1,80,000 metric tones (The Shillong Times, 2011).

(c) Nagaland The north-eastern state of Nagaland is located at the confluence of the Indo-Chi- na and Indo-Myanmar region, and is endowed with rich diversity of species, flora and 78 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal fauna. Shifting cultivation is the main form of agriculture, most suitable for the state’s climate conditions and steep terrain. In recent years, however, the duration of jhum cycles have shortened. This has meant that there is little time for restoring soil fertility and yields are declining over time. Families that were once self-sufficient in food grains are now not able to produce enough even for a few months of the year.

Nagaland faces a major challenge in adapting land use and production systems to meet rising populations and changing lifestyles, while also maintaining its ecological sustainability. In partnership with the Government of Nagaland, the UNDP project focuses on reducing land degradation resulting from shifting cultivation practices. About 61% of the total households of the state are practice shifting cultivation in about 1.00 lakh hectare of land annually thereby exposing about 5.65% of the total geographical area of the state to soil erosion hazards. The report stated that jhuming is one of the key drivers of degradation of forest ecosystem in Nagaland, and also often the most suitable form of agriculture for the agro-climatic condition and steep terrain cultivation like Nagaland.

In Nagaland, jhum constitutes as much as 76 percent of the cropped area, as per United Nations Development Programme. At least 100 different indigenous tribes of north east India depend on jhum for their subsistence. Diverse views abound on the ecological and economic impacts of large-scale deforestation of acres of forests for farming. In Nagaland, jhum farmers normally grew multiple crops as decided by the community. The pattern of jhum practiced in the state consists of the burning of trees, felling, drying and burning of the jhum field followed by sowing, inter-cultural operation, harvest, and fallowin. The UNDP programme in partnership with the government of Nagaland, aims to address land degradation in shifting cultivation locations.

(d) Meghalaya Shifting cultivation has traditionally been practised in Meghalaya for genera- tions. This has created a mosaic of forested and jhummed areas, resulting in disrupted connectivity of forests, fragmenting populations of wild animals and increasing inci- 79 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal dents of human-animal conflicts. The problem is most acute in the Garo Hills; three quarters of the state’s total number of households involved in shifting cultivation, belong to the Garo hills. As a result of jhum cultivation which involves slashing and burning of forests, rich wild habitats have been fragmented, affecting all kinds of wildlife. Jhum is a type of mixed cropping system practiced by Khasis, Garos and alike.

Some reports indicated a marked decrease in the number of families practising jhum cultivation in Meghalaya, but it was difficult to assess its success due to lack of reliable data. The implementation of the schemes to control jhum cultivation should not be a water-tight compartment, but has an integrated approach. Barring the decrease in the jhuming cycle from 20-30 years to 3-6 years, this method of cultivation is arguably the one that is most suited in the hills of Meghalaya and perhaps in the whole of north eastern region. The present allocation of funds of Rs. 10,000 per hectare for treatable areas was not sufficient for the required treatment because of the terrain and rainfall conditions in Meghalaya.

(e) Tripura The Tripura government has targeted to achieve paddy cultivation in more than 17,000 hectares of hill land under improvised Jhuming method in 2011-12. The traditional method of Jhum had been banned in the state few years ago and the government had introduced various rehabilitation packages for the hardcore Jhumias. Despite sin- cere effort and initiative for alternative sustainable livelihood opportunities, still about 25,000 primitive tribal people are practicing Jhum but we are able to motivate them to give up the traditional method, which reduced the environmental degradation as well as increased the productivity (The Shillong Times, 2011).

Shifting cultivation has been identified as one of the main human impacts influ- encing biodiversity in Tripura. Over the last few years a new class of shifting cultivators has emerged that has adopted non-traditional forms of jhooming, which have been responsible for the loss of biological diversity in the state (Gupta, 2000).

80 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Table 5 : Main Jhum Crops in Tripura Local Name English Name Scientific Name

Dhan Rice Oryza sativa

Mokkya Corn, Maize Zea mays

Job Dhan Barley Hordium vulgaris

Ghochya/Til Sesame Sesamum indicum

Kon Soal Fox tail millet Setariaitalica

Joar Sorgum/Broom corn Sorghum vulgare

Sora Kozu Aroides, Arum Colocasia esculenta

OolKozu Corm/Taro Amorphophalluscampanulatus

Matya-Alu Yam Capsicum annum

JummoBegoon Brinzal, Aubergine Solanum melongena

Jum/Kem Sumi Bean Vigna sinensis

Sal Kumuro Wax gourd, a variety of Benincasahispida bottle gourd

Karanga Sumi Winged bean Psophocarpustetragonolobus

Shimei Alu Cassava Manihot esculenta

Sabereng A basil like herb, a leafy Ocimumamericanum spice crop

Baghor Pada Cilantro? A corinader like Eryngium foetidum Eryngium foetidum leafy spice crop

81 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Amila Roselle, a leafy vegetable Hibiscus sabdariffa Hibiscus sabdariffa with sour taste

Arhar/Dumoor Sumi Cowpea Cajanuscajan

Holot Turmeric Curcuma longa

Ada Ginder Zingiberofficinale The people of Tripura were mainly dependent on agriculture for their livelihood and the aborigines of the princely state were primarily depended on the shifting cultivation, commonly known as Jhum cultivation. It is a very primitive, uneconomic and exhaustive form of cultivation. Plough cultivation was unknown to the tribal’s living in the interior of the state. Only the Bengali and Manipuri cultivators along with some tribal communities living in the plain lands and in the border land of Hill Tipperah were acquainted with the plough cultivations before partition. As Ganguly(1969) had men- tioned that, in the year 1955, there are 25,000 Jhumia families in Tripura and the total area of land under shifting cultivation was 16,00,000 acres, i.e. about 60 percent of the total area of the territory.

On the basis of the report of Census of India 1961, the total number of tribal populations in Tripura in the year 1961 was 3, 60,070, the number of tribal people depending on Jhum cultivation were 1,75,000, i.e. half of the tribal population were engaged in Jhum cultivation. Following the partition of India large number of Bengali displaced persons immigrated into Tripura for settlement. Most of the immigrants were rehabilitated in rural areas where tribal’s practicing shifting cultivation was also being settled in permanent colonies. This created its own problems of adjustment, as there was pressure on land (De, 2012).

The Reang tribe in Tripura, which practised shifting cultivation and still does to an extent, faces serious problems with the state government implementing measures to turn them into settled cultivators. Government programmes have widened social dis- 82 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal parities among the Reangs and brought in alternatives that cannot sustain them round the year. It argues that shifting cultivation, which aims at self-sufficiency, is still remu- nerative compared to other forms of cultivation if traditional forest and land rights are restored to the tribal people (Sengupta, 2013).

Mostly the Reang tribe of Tripura practiced jhum cropping at large. In Tri- pura over 10,039 hectares of land are under Jhum cultivation. In 1955, it was estimated that there were 25,000 jhumias families in Tripura and the total land under jhoom cultivation was 16,00,000 acres. After 1949, when Bengalis from Bangladesh migrated to plain lands of Tripura, the jhumias used to sell their jhum cultivation vegetables and rice to them at a very low price and this led to the exploitation of the poor tribes.

Table 6 : Number of Households and Persons Dependent on Jhum, Tripura, 1968 to 2007 Year Source of the Estimate No. of Households No. of Persons

1968 J. B. Ganguly 25,000 -

1978 Benchmark Survey 46,854 2.59 lakh

1987 Benchmark Survey 55,049 2.88 lakh

1999 Department of Tribal Welfare 51,265 -

2007 Forest Department 27,278 1.36 lakh Source : Government of Tripura.

Accordling to Tripura Human Development Report, 2007, we know that, traditionally, most of the tribal population practised shifting or jhum cultivation and were termed jhumias. The term jhumia is a generic term used for tribal people dependent on shifting cultivation as the primary source of livelihood. J.B. Ganguly’s book on the showed that in 1961 there were about 25,000 families who were dependent on jhum for their livelihood. By 1978, this number had increased to 46,854 families, of which about

83 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal 23,292 families were primarily dependent on jhum for their livelihood. In 1999, according to the Department of Tribal Welfare, 51,265 families were dependent on jhum, and the large majority of them were fully dependent on jhum. The big concentration of jhumia families was in Dhalai and South District. The total count shows a cleard decline in the number of jhumia families.

(f) Arunachal Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh has made a significant progress in gradually doing away with the age-old practice of jhum cultivation or shifting cultivation, which degrades the environment. In line with the Centre’s stress on conventional methods of cultivation, the state with a 72 per cent forest cover had been able to reduce the total area under jhum cultivation from 1,10,000 hectares to 84,000 hectares in the last 10 years. About 8.4 lakh metric tonnes of biomass gets lost due to burning of trees resulting in a huge emission of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides and other gases. The emission has been reduced by taking up rice and maize cultivation in terraces.

The harmful effects of jhum cultivation included rapid soil erosion due to deforestation of hill tops and slopes and high runoff velocity and siltation of reservoirs, rivu- lets and valleys. The harmful effects resulted in the rapid decrease of jhum productivity due to removal of top soil by runoff water and very little time to recuperate soil fertility due to reduced jhum cycle. Sixteen districts encompassing the eight Northeastern states, including West Kameng and East Siang districts in Arunachal Pradesh, are among the recently-identified 100 most climate-sensitive districts of the country.

Slashing or felling down of trees, herbs and shrubs for jhum cultivation reduces oxygen generation and burning of them pumps harmful carbon-monoxide, nitrous oxides and many other gases into the air. The state government’s attachment of top priority to agriculture, horticulture and allied sectors, would add to the national food productivity and help achieve 6.5 per cent annual growth by the end of 12th Five Year Plan set by the Agriculture Ministry (The Times of India, 2013).

84 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal The practice of the shifting cultivation is a major occupation for the people of Arunachal Pradesh. Some people have shifted from village to urban areas due to varied reason but majority of people do reside in the remote rural villages of the state. The only means of livelihood is to practice this kind of agriculture. Jhumming is very closely associated with the culture and tradition. The Jhumias have been depending on their Jhum and as they have cultivated many economical plants which may include vegetables, medicinal plants, spices, taroos and yams, grain etc. They practice rearing of pigs, cows, goats etc. The fodder and feeds of these animals also comes from the field thereby decreasing pressure on pastoral land. Hence it is linked to their economy (Murtem et. al, 2008).

Watershed Development Project in Shifting Cultivation Areas was taken up in seven States of North Eastern Region with 100 percent SCA as per directions of Na- tional Development Council in 1994-95. Recently, under National Afforestation Pro- gramme, problem of jhum cultivation was given special focus. Mid-term appraisal of Eleventh Five Year Plan mentions that as per report of Ministry of Rural Development, only 6.5 per cent of households have been reportedly engaged in shifting cultivation in the country. The percentage of area under jhum cultivation is 9.5 in North-Eastern region, while it is 0.5 per cent for central tribal belt (Jhum cultivation, 2011).

Merits of Shifting Cultivation According to the jumias, there are many advantages of jumfarming. Jumis an indigenous knowledge-based production system that helps to maintain the traditional culture and heritage of the indigenous peoples. Jumiasget diverse seasonal crops from jumfields and it secures their rice, vegetable and other food needs for at least a few months of the year.Jumis a zero-tillage cultivation system with minimum soil distur- bance and nutrient loss. Jumis rain-fed, so there is no need of watering or irrigation in a jum field. There is a higher agro-biodiversity in jumthan in lowland agricultural systems. Jumiashave their own seed preservation system for future cultivation. There is a great demand of seasonal and annual cash crops from jum, like ginger, turmeric, chili, cucumber (jummarfa), kozu/kochu (arum/aroides), etc. in the local market. 85 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Shifting cultivation is the source of income for rural people in hilly areas.When crops are cultivated, after a certain amount of time, the nutrients become depleted from the soil. Shifting cultivation means setting aside a different, more nutrient-rich plot of land in which to grow vegetables. In the past, farmers have switched between different plots of land, which has allowed for the soil in certain plots to regain nutrients.

Some proponents claim that an advantage of shifting cultivation lies in the fact that it does not use fertilizers or chemicals to force crops to grow in nutrient-depleted soil. It helps to keep a good amount of diverse nutrients in the soil. One crop might take all of the nitrates out of the soil so after a year or two have no nitrates in that area and the plant will not grow well. This is when would either leave that area alone for a few years or plant a crop that puts nitrates back into the soil. Crop rotation is keys in large-scale, long term operations.

Market demand for fruits and availability of saplings in the market have motivated the jumiasto opt for fruit orchards (particularly pineapple, mango, papaya and litchi) in the homesteads. Income and expenditure of some of the jumia households have increased because they are including market-driven cash crop cultivation like turmeric, chilli, ginger, aroides, and fruit trees like banana in their jum plots. In spite of the many benefits from jum, the jumias in the study areas also see some disadvantages.

Shifting cultivation is a form of land use which enhances biodiversity. Severe declines in plant diversity have been observed in most areas when shifting cultivation is replaced by permanent land use systems. Particularly worrying is the decline in agrobiodiversity. Shifting cultivators have preserved agrobiodiversity through local rules, practices and the informal networks for exchange of seeds and knowledge, thus ensuring food security of their communities. Along with the replacement of shifting cultivation comes the collapse of these networks, which results in a substantial loss of crop genetic resources. The availability of high genetic diversity in agricultural plants has, however, been identified as a key element in adaptation strategies to climate change.

86 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Demerits of Shifting Cultivation Shifting cultivation is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated temporarily, and then abandoned. This system often involves clearing of a piece of land followed by several years of wood harvesting or farming, until the soil loses fertility (Henriques, 2007). One of the most important negative environmental impacts of shifting cultivation is the damage that it causes to the soil system. It accelerates the soil erosion manifold. Besides causing air pollution due to burning, shifting cultivation is responsible for loss of soil nutrients and useful soil fauna and microbes. Burning of slash lowers soil acidity, organic matter and total nitrogen. Most shifting cultivation practices are subsistence level farming system having very low output/ input ratio compared to other farming systems/methods. Excessive agricultural activity of shifting cultivation not only decreases the forest area, but also changes the primary forest into secondary woodland of shrub. On the phase of soil property, it accelerated the soil and gully erosion, and acidification (Das, Choudhury, & Roy, 2012).

The cultivation of Jhum leads to loss of natural forest ecosystems creating huge impact on environment. The extraction and the felling of large tracts of forest cover on the onset of Jhum distribute the environment in many ways. Loss in forest cover results on climatic variation like-uneven rainfall, precipitation, wind, humidity etc.The loss in biodiversity affects the environmental climatic conditions of a region affecting the abode of various faunas.Deforestation that results from the cause of shifting cultivation interference with the rain as vegetation plays a vital role in the rain cycle. The mass destruction of forest cover with forest canopy gaps lead to deforestation and this limit in rain formation due to low limited evapo-transpiration.

The defect of jhuming lies in the fact that the land can produce crops only once in several years (5 to 19 years) depending on the jhum cycle. But under settled fanning, the same field can be brought under multiple cropping with scientific management -un der irrigation, which can produc two or more crops. Thus, productivity per bigha under jhum cultivation is significantly lower than the settled cultivation. The level of income from jhuming appears to be very poor compared to prevailing wage rates. The grow- 87 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal ing population has brought about a vicious circle of more area being jhum leading to shortening of fallow period and consequent deterioration of soil fertility, which requires bringing more plots under jhuming.

Conclusion Shifting cultivation is in transition across the world. The characteristics of the shifting cultivation are changing over time. Reducing fallow period, or in some cases with no fallow, and changing vegetation management practices are major alterations in shifting cultivation. The statistically valid information on biodiversity value of the shifting cultivation lands and impacts of changing practices on biodiversity is inadequate to establish clear relationships. Further research is recommended on effects of changing shifting cultivation practices on biodiversity. Shifting cultivation is common cultivation in north-eastern states. In India the total area under jhum cultivation is 0.94 m ha whereas North East India itself accounts for 80% of the jhum area (0.76 m ha).

Traditional land practices exacerbated by poverty and associated with a lack of technical knowledge is the main cause for the continuation of unsustainable shifting cultivation. Population pressure, inadequate land for cultivation, low education levels, policy planning and implementation without local participation are all factors that influence farmers’ decision to continue shifting cultivation. Intensive land management through agroforestry is a promising alternative that can sustainably manage the remaining forest resources. If adopted, such systems potentially provide good economic re- turns, and may significantly reduce rural poverty.

References Area under jhum cultivation significantly reduced in Arunachal Pradesh (2013, Aug. 9). The Times of India. Retrieved from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/flora-fauna/Area-under-jhum-cultivation-significantly-reduced-in-Arunachal- Pradesh/articleshow/21728980.cms. Darlong, V. (2000). Traditional community-based fire management among the Mizo shifting cultivators of Mizoram in northeast India. Retrieved from http://

88 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac798e/ac798e0j.htm. Das, S., Choudhury, S., & Roy, A. (2012). The success story of rehabilitation of jhumias in Tripura: A study on Baramura-Deutamura Range. Research Inventy: In- ternational Journal of Engineering and Science, 1(10), 25-29. Dash, B. (2006). Shifting Cultivation among the tribes of Orissa. Retrieved from http:// orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Orissareview/july2006/engpdf/76-84.pdf. De, N. (2012), Partition of India and its immediate effect on jhum cultivation of Tripura. International Journal of Social Science & Interdisciplinary Research, 1(8), 185-190. Ganguly, J.B. (1969). Economic problems of the jhumias of Tripura: A socio-economic study of the system of shifting cultivation in transition. Calcutta: Bookland. Garbyal, S. (1999). Jhuming (Shifting Cultivation) in Mizoram (India) and new land use policy: How far it has succerded in containing this primitive agriculture practice? Indian Forester, 125(2), 137-148. Available at:http://www.indianforester.co.in/ index.php/indianforester/article/view/5528. Gupta, A. (2000). Shifting cultivation and conservation of biological diversity in Tri- pura, Northeast India. Human Ecology, 28(4), 605-629. Kalita, D.C., & Bhowmick, B.C. (2011). Optimization of resources under settled and shifting cultivation in the hill zones of Assam. Ganpat University-Faculty of Management Studies Journal of Management and Research, 3,1-18. Karthik, T., Veeraswami, G.G., & Samal, P.K. (2009). Forest recovery following shifting cultivation: An overview of existing research. Tropical Conservation Science, 374-387. https://doi.org/10.1177/194008290900200401. Khongsai, C. (2014). Jhum Cultivation and its impact on Ecology Need for Viable Al- ternatives. http://e-pao.net/epSubPageExtractor.asp?src=education.Sci- ence_and_Technology.Jhum_Cultivation_and_its_impact_on_Ecology. Mizoram sees decline in jhum cultivation (2011, Sept. 8). The Shillong Times. Retrieved from http://www.theshillongtimes.com/2011/09/08/mizoram-sees-decline- in-jhum-cultivation/. Murtem, G., Sinha, G., & Dopum, J. (2008). Jhumias view on shifting cultivation in Arunachal Pradesh. Bulletin of Arunachal Forest Research, 24(1&2), 35- 89 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal 40. Ranjan, R., & Upadhyay, V. (1999). Ecological problems due to shifting cultivation. Retrieved from http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/nov25/articles12.htm. Sengupta, M. (2013). Shifting cultivation and the Reang tribe in Tripura. Economic and Political Weekly, 48(40). Retrieved from https://www.epw.in/journal/2013/40/special-articles/shifting-cultivation-and-reang-tribe-tripura. html. Tripura practises Jhum in 17,000 hectares for paddy (2011, Dec. 7). The Shillong Times. Retrieved from http://www.theshillongtimes.com/2011/12/07/tripura-practises-jhum-in-17000-hectares-for-paddy/#FDAzzE1FdQ5RS4uZ.99.

90 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Economic Empowerment of Women through NGO: A Case Study

Mriganka Saikia Pankaj Saikia Associate Professor Assistant Professor Dhing College, Nagaon (Assam) Dhing College, Nagaon (Assam)

Abstract Empowerment can be described as a process which helps people to have their control over the factors which affect their lives. Empowerment of women means developing them as more aware individuals, who are economically productive and independent and are able to make intelligent discussion in matters that affect them. Empowerment of women can help improve women’s position in society. Present study discusses about the nature and extent of impact of NGO on economic empowerment of rural women. Analysis has been conducted on the extent of economic empowerment achieved by the members of NGO through their participation. This study concludes with the note that due recognition must be given to women to lead an economically as well as socially empowered life.

Keywords : Empowerment, Economic Empowerment & Women Empowerment.

Introduction The word empowerment literally means becoming powerful. It is a process which gives individual or group of individuals to realize their full identity and power in all sphere of life. It involves many things like economic opportunities, social equality, personal rights, etc. From that point of view, the empowerment of women can be defined as process nourished by development policies and programmes that could enable women to get enough strength to challenge their submissive social conditions or status. Thus, empowerment in the context of women’s development is concerned as a way of defining, challenging and overcoming barriers in a women’s life through which she increases her ability to shape her life and environment. Empowering women and girls

91 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal with more choices and more freedoms is crucial to achieving a better future for all (Sen, 1999). The indicators of women empowerment as identified by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) has been classified into economic, social, political and qualitative.

At this juncture, amongst different dimensions of women empowerment an attempt is made here to deal with the case of empowerment of women from economic point of view or what can be termed as “Economic empowerment of women”. This can be done in one way by putting emphasis on involvement of women in income generating activities through their active participation in Non-Governmental Organization (NGO).

NGO and its Role on Women Empowerment NGO is a non-profit organization that operates independently of any government, typically one whose purpose is to address a social or political issue. It is a social voluntary organisation of social activist, group of persons, community, volunteers, civilians and citizens who are working or associated for social welfare and social development. NGO as an association includes groups and institutions with primary humanitarian and co-operative objectives rather than commercial objectives completely or widely independent from Government. The term “non-governmental organization” was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations (UN) was created (Thomas, 2014). According to the UN, any kind of private organization that is independent from government control can be termed an “NGO”, provided it is not-for-profit, non-prevention, but not simply an opposition political party.

NGO works for the betterment and upliftment of socio-economically and politically weaker section of the society and also tries to bring them in the main stream of society in order to move the society towards more improved and developed way of living and existence. As a community group and organisation, NGO provides and fulfils certain services, development-oriented tasks and works with aims and objectives to bring about required positive changes in society, community, areas and situations. Thus, as defined by the World Bank, NGOs are private organizations that pursue activities to 92 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development (Abbey, 2008).

They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers. Since the end of World War II, NGOs have had an increasing role in international development particularly in the fields of humanitarian assistance and poverty alleviation (Werker and Ahmed, 2008). Today, NGO activities include environmental, social, advocacy and human rights work, but are not limited to these activities only. They can work to promote social or political change on a broad scale or very locally. NGOs play a critical part in developing society, improving communities, and promoting citizen participation.

NGO is proving to be a helpful instrument for the women empowerment. NGO can provide sufficient guide as well as all kinds of help to engage womenin general and rural women particular in different income generating activities. Economic empowerment is a device to enable poor women to think beyond immediate daily survival and to exercise greater control over both their resources and life choices. It enables households to make their own decisions with regard to making investments in health and education, and increasing their level of income. Empowerment of women is possible through empowering them economically. Entrepreneurship development and income generating activities are a feasible solution for empowering women. It generates income and also provides flexible working hours according to the needs of their domestic demand. Economic independence is the need of the hour. Participation in income generating activities through NGO helps women in their overall empowerment.

Study Area The present study focuses on Panchajanya NGO situated at Auniati Satra, Dhing in the district of Nagaon. Panchajanya NGO was registered in the year 1998 with registration number RS/NG/254/C/155 with the name “Panchajanya Kalyan Kendra (Dhing)”. However in the year 2014, the NGO was renamed as “Panchajanya” and re- registered with the registration number RS/NG/254/P/364. This NGO was started with 93 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal 50 members consisting 25 male and 25 female and the membership has now reached 350. Out of this 350 members, 2800 (80 percent) are female and only 70 are male (20 percent). Initially all members were from Dhing area itself, but now its membership has been extended to different parts of the district.

Objectives of the Study Present study discusses about the impact of Panchajanya NGO on economic empowerment of its women members and also suggests necessary measures to increase women participation in income generating activities through NGOs.

Methodology Both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used in the methodology of this research. The study is based on primary data. The primary data has been collected purposively from selected women members of the Panchajanya NGO with the help of a well-structured questionnaire. Further, qualitative method has been used through focused group discussions (FGD) for gathering information regarding the general functioning and sense of empowerment of the selected women members of the NGO. Members have been asked to indicate their degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the help of a 5-Point Likert Scale. The binary logistic regression has been used to examine whether women participation in income generating activities through NGO has helped them empowered economically or not. The model has been used to find out women’s empowerment outcomes in this empirical analysis. The dependent variable is dichotomous variable representing whether they participate in financial matters of their family or not. In this regression model, the independent variables include income earned through their participation in NGO, level of education of the members and income of the husband or main earner of the household.

Significance of the Study The study focused on the role of NGO in empowering women economically which is done through some economic indicators. This study will benefit the Pancha- janya NGO to evaluate their projects on empowering women through their involvement

94 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal in different economic activities. This study will definitely help the government to understand the importance of NGOs in empowering women especially in rural areas.

Results and Discussion A. Economic Empowerment of Women Members Economic freedom plays a vital role to have recognition of women in a family. Distribution of members regarding different indicators of economic empowerment after joining the NGO is presented in table 1. It is found that 60 percent members have expressed that the NGO has moderate impact on raising their family income, while remaining 40 percent expressed the NGO has contributed highly on raising their family income. Thus, it means the NGO has contributed decently on raising their family income.

Table 1 : Distribution of Members Regarding Different Views on Different Indicators of Economic Empowerment after Joining the NGO.

Very Very Indicators High Moderate Low High Low Raising family income -- 64(40) 96(60) -- -- Level of saving -- -- 32(20) 112(70) 16 (10) Expenditure on food items 96(60) 64(40) ------Expenditure on education of 32(20) 32(20) 64(40) 32(20) -- the family members Participation in domestic fi- 16(10) 112(70) 16(10) 16(10) -- nancial matters Spend money in own discre- 48(30) 80(50) 16(10) 16(10) -- tion Recognition about economic contribution by family mem- 80(50) 48(30) 32(20) -- -- bers Provision of marketing according to their own prefer- 64(40) 64(40) 08(5) 24(15) -- ence

95 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Investing on other income -- -- 48(30) 80(50) 32(20) generating activity Financial security -- 16(10) 64(40) 48(30) 32(20) Improvement of standard of -- 16(10) 96(60) 32(20) 16(10) living

Source : Computed on the basis of primary data collected during the field survey. Figures in the brackets indicate the percentages of the total.

As far as saving is concerned, 80 percent of them viewed income from NGO is not enough to make saving for future. On the other hand, it is observed that 60 percent members rated very high regarding the matter of expenditure on food items for their family and remaining 40 percent rated high on the same issue. Again, 20 percent members has been rated very high, 20 percent rated high and 40 percent rated moderate in expenditure on education of their family members. Another positive aspect is that their contribution to family income has been well recognised by their family as 50 percent rated it as very high, 30 percent rated it high and remaining 20 percent rated it as moderate. Regarding the matter of participation in domestic financial matters only 10 percent rated it low, but 10 percent rated it very high, 70 percent rated it high and 10 percent rated it moderate.

As far as doing marketing according to their own preference is concerned, it is found that 40 percent members have been rated it as very high and another 40 percent have been rated it high. On the other hand, altogether 80 percent of them are able to spend the money they earned through NGO according to their own discretion as they rated this issue as very high and high when asked about the matter. This shows their economic freedom that they have in their family. One disappointing issue is emerged from the study is that members expressed that the amount of income earned through NGO is not enough to get financial security as 20 percent of them rated it very low, 30 percent rated it low and 40 percent rated it moderate, while only 10 percent women have viewed it is quite financially secure as they rated it high. Again, 70 percent of them do not able to invest on other income generating activity as they are unable to do new income gen- 96 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal erating activity with the help of income earned through NGO. It is also seen from the study that 60 percent has expressed fair satisfaction regarding the impact of NGO on the improvement of their standard of living, while 10 percent rated it high and remaining 30 percent have not seen any improvement of standard of living at all.

From above findings it can be concluded that this NGO has played a good role in empowering women economically though not completely. But it has to work hard to make all members empowered in their financial matters.

B. Econometric Analysis Attempt has been made to operate the binary Logit Regression Model regarding the impact of determinants of women participation in financial matters of the family. The result of this model is presented in table 7. The model summary indicates that the -2 Log Likelihood statistics is 9.894. This table also contains the Cox & Snell R Square and Nagelkerke R Square values, which are also the methods of calculating the explained variation. These values are sometimes referred to as pseudo R2 values. The explained variation in the dependent variable based on our model ranges from 59.2% to 83.4%, depending on whether we use the Cox & Snell R2 or Nagelkerke R2 methods, respectively. Nagelkerke R2 is a modification of Cox & Snell 2R , the latter of which cannot achieve a value of 1. For this reason, we prefer to report the Nagelkerke R2 value. The logit coefficients in table 2 represent the linear effect of a unit change in an independent variable on the log odds of a dependent variable, holding all other variables constant. Exponential transformation of the logit can be interpreted as the proportional change in the odds of a dependent variable for a unit change in an independent variable.

Table 2: Binary Logit estimates of the Determinants of Women Participation in Finan- cial Matters of the family. (N=160). Independent Variables Estimated coefficient in SE Significance logistic regression level

Income earned through NGO .002 .001 .066

97 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Education of the female members .001 .001 .245

Income of the husband or .803 1.042 .441 primary earner of the household

Constant -5.986 3.791 .114

Goodness of fit

-2 Log likelihood Cox & Snell R Square Nagelkerke R Square

9.894 .592 .834 Source : Computed on the basis of primary data collected during the field survey.

The dependent variable of this model is binary in nature (dependent dummy variable) which assumes value 1, if woman member of the NGO takes part in financial matters of the family and ‘0’ otherwise. There are three independent variables namely income earned through NGO by female members, education of the members and income of the husband or primary earner of the household. In this model, insignificant variables are education of the female members and income of husband or primary earner of the household. But these variables have positive relation with the dependent variable. It signifies that these variables positively affecting the probability of women participation in financial matters of their family. On the other hand, the level of income earned through income generating activities has positive significant impact on the probability of women participation in economic matters of their family. It is significant at 10 level. It indicates the fact that income is the main issue of empowering women economically. It is evident that the probability of women participation in financial matters of their family is positive and significant if the female members are earning. So, we can accept the hypothesis that women participation in income generating activities through NGO has helped them empowered economically.

Limitations of the Study The study considers only one NGO and its impact on empowering women eco-

98 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal nomically; hence it might not be a representation of whole NGOs and their impact on economic empowerment of participating women in NGOs. Again, this study has been limited to only those NGOs which are doing welfare activities for women. There is large number of NGOs running across the state which are working on empowering women in different political and socio-economic activities. But due to time and other technical constraints, it is not possible to take all NGOs in the present study.

Challenges From the study, following challenges can be drawn in empowering women: 1. Lack of storage facility to keep the raw materials throughout the year. 2. Inadequate finance is found as the major issue stands before empowering women economically. There is sufficient demand for the product of the NGO, but due to lack of sufficient fund it could not able to expand its supply to match the market demand. 3. Indifferent attitude of some government officials which de-motivate the proper functioning of the NGO. 4. Different skill development training programme has been provided from time to time, but it should be made more frequent so that they can actively take part in different training and workshop to acquire the necessary skill for their better skill development. 5. This NGO is not successful in covering all members of the society especially those who are living Below the Poverty Line. 6. Irregularity in earnings as their job in NGO is very seasonal.

Positive Outcomes Following positive outcomes has been emerged from this study: 1. Women have started taking part in decision making process of their family matters with their husbands as well as their head of the household. 2. Contribution towards the family in terms of health, education of children etc. 3. Expenditure on food items have also increased as they able to contribute to this important head of family budget. 4. Changing attitude and increasing confidence for better living. 5. Improved family income. 99 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal 6. Raising their social and economic status not only in family but also in the society where they live in. 7. The NGO has also able to make a market of its own as last year 3000 metric tonnes was supplied to International Yoga Day celebrated on 21 June. Different products have also sold in different trade fairs, exhibitions even in Pragati Maidan, Delhi. Last year it has sold its products worth of about Rs. 1.5 lakhs out of which 30 percent remained as profit of the NGO.

Suggestions for Better Functioning of NGO and Empowerment of Women 1. NGOs through micro-financing schemes can help the members to involve in income generating activities and thereby can improve their economic position. This would definitely help them to become empowered economically. 2. Provide self-employment training to the members by the government to help them in order to generate income and thereby help to reduce the level of poverty from the society. 3. Conducive atmosphere should be established among government, NGOs and SHGs. 4. Ensure participation of women members of NGOs in different social issues and community works.

References Abbey, E.M. (2008). Constructive regulation of non-government organizations. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 48, 370-376. Davies, T. (2014). NGOs: A new history of transitional civil society. New York: Oxford University Press. Dhillion, D.S., & Hansra, B.S. (1995). Role of voluntary organisation in rural development. Kurukshetra, 18(5), 10-13. Ruth, A. & Nina, H. (2005). Measuring empowerment in practice: Structuring analysis and framing indicators. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3510. Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. New York: Knopf Press. Suguna, B. (2006). Empowerment of rural women through self help groups. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. Werker, E., & Ahmed, F.Z. (2008). What do nongovernmental organizations do? Jour- nal of Economic Perspectives, 22(2), 74-75. 100 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

Why India is Shying Away from Its Frontiers?

Dr. Ratna Tayeng Assistant Professor Department of Anthropology Dera Natung Govt. College, Itanagar E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract As the contemporary world is heading towards a global-village, free-market system and international cooperation, border regions are seen not as constraints but as new opportunities. However, as things stand today, it is difficult to foresee India’s enhanced economic ties with eastern neighbor China. Consequently, border areas of Arunachal Pradesh have suffered considerably. There enveloped a thick cloud of poverty, illiteracy, lack of basic amenities of life in the border areas. This is further aggravated when by a simultaneous all-round development across the borders by the Chinese government. The paper provides valuable new insights into the present nature and extent of the problems of border areas in the Arunachal borderlands.

Keywords : India-China Borders, Borderlanders, Borderlands, Border Trades, Un- derdevelopment.

Introduction As the contemporary world is heading towards a global-village, free-market system and international cooperation, border regions are seen not as constraints but as new opportunities. There is also a debate going on, on the idea of a borderless world and that of the border as a space of interaction, activity and opportunities. Unfortunately, in these whole debates, the viewpoints of the borderlanders are very often gets lost. It cannot, however, be denied that it is the borderlanders who possess a large body of knowledge through their first-hand experiences. Hence, little information is in circulation about the problems faced by the borderlanders divided by the borders. In reality, the borders 101 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal often shrunk the resource base used by borderlanders and jeopardized their livelihood practices.

Arunachal has the largest share in the international border in North East India; it has 1100 km border with China, 440 km border with Myanmar and 160 km long border with Bhutan. This is a huge geographical advantage of Arunachal Pradesh in becoming a gateway to South-East Asia. Though, the state government on a number of occasions pursued centre to open the state to other countries. Yet, no forward move has been un- dertaken in this direction by the central government. Sanjib Baruah (2004) has rightly noted: “we are the prisoner of geography” and what Jairam Ramesh once said, “Pris- oners of an old mindset” (cited in Baruah, 2014). Ramesh (Ibid) even goes to argues that “the future of the Northeast lies in economic integration with Southeast Asia…it is a gateway to South East Asia…it is a geography of opportunities”. Contextualize in Arunachal, Narendra Modi’s new Act East Policy has generated a lot of hope among the borderlanders for a relook at the policy with a cross-border dialogue.

Arunachal as a Gateway to South East Asia History speaks a volume that almost all the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh had trade and cultural relation with people of neighbouring areas within and across the border. Jabin (2010, p. 126) noted that “this region was once a bridge connecting people, cultures and civilizations, and were a centre of trade and commerce have now been reduced to a periphery, backward and is dependent on subsidies from the central government”. Monpas of Tawang till very recently had economic, religious, political ties with Tibet. There were two trade routes from Tawang to Tibet: the Bumla route and the Zem- ithang route which are closed today. Nah tribe of Taksing, Upper Subansiri and Bangru tribe of Sarli, Kurung Kumey had close economic relations with Tibetan till very recently. It is said that in the past, these tribes used to go even Rima, Mipi, and Migyitun, to collect rock salt from these places. Libo, Ramos, Bori and Bokar group of Adis has close cultural affinities and economic ties with Lobha of China. Idu Mishmi of Upper Dibang Valley has close economic and cultural affinities with the people of China. It is said that there are Mishmi villages across the LAC in China, who belong mostly to the 102 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Miju Mishmi sub-group and are known as the Deng people. In the Chaglagham circle of Anjaw District, even today people very often visit relatives living on the other side (Digaru Mishmi of China). They are said to be speaking the same language and practicing the same culture. Yobin/Lisus of Vijaynagar, Changlang has close cultural affinities across the border. Meyors/Zakring in Kibito in Anjaw district has relatives across the border in China. Tangsa and Nocte also share close cultural affinities with Myanmar. Singphos and Khamtis have a similar experience across the border.

These cross-border movements of men and materials continued in a restricted way in the Indo-Myanmar border, however, these are completely sealed in the Indo- China border, particularly after the Chinese aggression in 1962. Misra (2013) noted “The borders did not exist on the ground for those living near them, even after lines were drawn and defended by the ‘modern’ nation-states. State witnessed continuous migration flows from both Bhutan and Myanmar. The borders, for them, were artificial constructs imposed by distant powers. So far as the Indo-China border is concerned, the 1962 Indo-China War was definitely a watershed. Movements across the borders were severely restricted”.

Trade was not the only means of interaction among the people living these borderlands. Pilgrimage, inter and intra-clan social interactions, movement of people in search of better livelihood options, and the seasonal migration of pastoralists constituted other dimensions of cross-border linkages (Dhar, 2000). Despite such historical link- age, today almost all traditional passes have completely sealed officially. Though, unofficially or illegally people continue to make contacts the people living on either side.

The threat of Chinese invasion makes opening up of border roads and border trades vulnerable. Though, Indian establishment has been fully aware of strategic developments like Railways, Highways, Airports, etc. along the Chinese side of the border for quite long. India so far, unable and not seems willing to build same road and infrastructure and military logistics on its side of border as China has been done, leaving most of the border areas backward forcing people to leave their lands. 103 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Hence, now, there is a great deal of neglect due to pervasive underdevelopment and lack of access to basic amenities. This is further aggravated when by a simultaneous all round development across the borders by the Chinese government. In the Tawang side of the border, the Chinese side has excellent paved roads and the rail line is just 40 km away from LAC. The people living in Kivito in Anjaw district of Arunachal Pradesh can always see the pace of development in China including the growth of townships with lights and other facilities as well as all-weather roads. According to the Border Area Development Programme, Department of Planning, Government of Arunachal Pradesh Report (2012, p. 2): “There are 1555 villages with a population of about 2,71,189 situated in the border blocks in Arunachal Pradesh. Even after about 10 years of implementation of BADP, the border blocks are yet to be opened up and are in utter backwardness due to their isolation and inaccessibility. The State Government, though handicapped by its limited resources, is committed to accelerate the pace of development and is trying its best for development of the border areas. But no perceptible dent in the backwardness could yet be made. Further, the backwardness of these areas becomes more pro- nounced in view of the advanced stage of development and rapid progress achieved on the other side of the Indo-China border”.

Unfortunately, most of the international borders area on Indian sides are barren land-marked with rocky and snow cover high hills, deep gorges and dense forests. This rocky soil and the snowy climatic condition are not conducive for cultivation. Hence, there is limited cultivated land due to hilly terrain. No doubt, though agriculture and animal rearing remain the main source of livelihood though it is not enough for the whole year. Hence, apart from agriculture and animal rearing, the majority of the population subsists on wage labour. Thus, many borderlanders are found to be working as labourers in Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) and GREF’s road construction work. They are also engaged as labourers to carry loads of defense forces up to the Chinese border.

Owing to all hardships, large portions of border areas are un-inhabited now and it is said that the people of border areas are migrating to the state capital and the dis- 104 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal trict headquarters for opportunities living behind their land and villages. Government employees, particularly teachers, posted in these areas are the worst sufferers who are denied facilities of a normal life and who have to walk multiple days of foot-march to reach their schools.

Nevertheless, realizing that the effective use of border road infrastructure has made China strategically dominant, recently, India has also launched a major project call Trans-Arunachal Highway to improve the connectivity in this borderland. The highway extends from one end of borderland to the other, i.e from Tawang in the west to Kanubari in the east covering 1,559. Unfortunately, until today, some progress has been made in the eastern part of Arunachal Pradesh, no much progress has made in the central and western part.

Arunachal has 50000 MW potential of hydroelectricity is a fact not just known to China but Indians as well. But, in spite of that fact, India neglected long years to develop the hydro potential. Today, besides churning out hundreds of hydropower MOUs on papers with a very poor scenario on public confidence and prior consent of project affected people, the practical implementation of hydro power policy and projects in Arunachal is very unlikely.

What is most interesting is that all the military logistics, planning and development in Arunachal are effectively bullied and influenced by China. In 2009, China -op posed a development loan by the Asian Development Bank to India for the development of Arunachal Pradesh. China also continues to make regular protests to India, especially when some important official visits the state. China has also continued to raise objec- tions to the building of mega hydroelectricity projects in Arunachal Pradesh. This is where a rather strange perspective emerges in the mind of Arunachalee. Besides these tall claims of territorial sovereignty, India has morally and strategically surrendered Arunachal in principle already to China to avoid large scale military confrontation to save mainstream India. Arunachalee are being kept as hostages for the safety of main- land Indians and their industries. Arunachalee are being -feed funds by the central gov- 105 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal ernment because they are morally obliged to do so after curtailing their right to become a major trading pass between Indian, China and other east Asian countries.

People now started saying that their state has come into national focus and importance due to the repeated territorial claims by China on Arunachal Pradesh. Accord- ing to Rehman (2014) “the local people perceive that development is taking place now because of strategic calculation and not out of considerations for the tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh”. Similarly, Jabin (2010, p. 128) noted “Increasing and improving transports and communication lines between their peripheries and the rest of country are priorities for both Beijing and New Delhi. However, the primary difference -be tween Beijing and New Delhi is that the former originated as an internal development programme targeted at the country’s western region while the latter began as a foreign policy strategy to enable New Delhi to reach out to East Asia”.

The Way Forwards It is a fact that while rest of India including some northeastern state has ben- efitted from greater engagement with ASEAN under the Look East Policy, Arunachal Pradesh though sharing the highest international border in the northeast has been left behind. People here have a moral right and survival need for economic and strategic progress. The people here are genuinely asking for the creation and opening up of new economic opportunities through border trades with China and which India has not been able to infuse till date.

Even on a trial basis, India should open a few places in the districts of An- jaw (Kibito), Changlang (Nampong) and Tawang, where illegal trade continues to take place. Based on these trials, action plan for the entire state may be formulated. There is no doubt that the state has huge potential to export agricultural products, horticultural products, dairy products and forest products. As per the study conducted by Modi, Abo, & Gombu (2015): Tawang produce big spice for China which is highly demanded, Pansu pass sell salt to Myammar, Tuting, Monigaon and Gelling illegally sell medicinal herbs to China which is also highly demanded in China. Not just Arunachal but the finished 106 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal goods of neighbouring states can find a way to neighbouring countries. But it seems that India is not interested to open trade with China at present, this could be explained from the fact that India recently decided not be a part of China’s BRI (Belt and Road Initia- tive), popularly known as 21st century Silk Routes. At presently, though unofficially, border trade takes place in Nampong and Pangsu Pass on the Myanmar side on 10th, 20th and 30th day of every month. Likewise, Myanmar nationals living around 16 km of the border are permitted to visit Nampong every Friday to procure necessary items.

Conclusion “New Delhi remain reluctant to credit its border states with adequate wisdom in foreign policy matters or in being able to draw up their own list of concerns and priorities when it comes to greater interactions across borders” (Jabin, 2010, p. 138). In this era of globalisation, no region can be left isolated for so long. The central government has to open up to give the indigenous people of the border state a share of the Act East policy. Since Arunachal Pradesh has the privilege of having the largest share of the international border with Burma and China it is highly expected that the Government of India should act decisively in developing the trans-border trade route to Myanmar and China.

Unfortunately, owing to the indecisiveness, people who live on the international border have to bear the brunt of underdevelopment with very little or no education and health care facilities available in the areas. And there is no reason why this should be prolonged any further. Honestly and genuinely, border villages along India-China border are the most backward places on the earth. No doubt, the Border Area Development Programme (BADP) has launched in the state in 1997 in order to remove the crucial disparity in physical and social infrastructure and to strengthen the economic condition of the remote border areas. Regrettably, nowhere in border areas, will you find any culverts, irrigation canals, river embankment, etc. raised or written in the name of the Border Area Development Programme.

107 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal References Baruah, Sanjib. (2004). Between South and Southeast Asia: Northeast India and the look east policy. In Sanjib Baruah (Ed.), CENISEAS Series (Papers 4). Guwahati: Centre for Northeast India, South and Southeast Asia Studies. Department of Planning, Government of Arunachal Pradesh. (2012). Border area development programme in Arunachal Pradesh report. Itanagar: Arunachal Pradesh. Dhar, Bibhash, (2000). Indigenous Trans-Himalayan trade: A study of the tribes of the Western Arunachal Pradesh. In Guru Das and R. K. Purkayastha (Ed.), Border trade: North East India and neighboring countries. New Delhi: Akansha Publishing House Jacob, Jabin T., (2010). Border provinces in foreign policy: China’s West and India’s Northeast. In Dilip Gogoi (Ed.), Beyond borders: Look east policy & North East India. Guwahati: DVS Publishers. Mishra, Deepak K. (2013). Developing the border: The State and the political economy of development in Arunachal Pradesh. In David N. Gellner (Ed.), Border- land lives in northern South Asia. London: Duke University Press. Mody, Philip, Abo, Tao, & Gombu, Tenzing. (2015). Cross border trading of Arunachal Pradesh with China, Myanmar and Bhutan: An analysis of major trade items. Asian Journal of Research in Marketing, 4(1), 181-190. Rahman, Mirza Zulfiqur, (2014). Territory, tribes, turbines: Local community percep- tions and responses to infrastructure development along the Sino-Indian border in Arunachal Pradesh. ICS Occasional Paper No. 7. Delhi: Institute of Chinese Studies.

108 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal

US-Nepal and India: Trilateral Relationson Global and Region- al Strategic Perspective

Vijay Jayshwal Visiting Faculty School of Law Kathmandu University, Nepal.

Abstract In the first section of paper, author has tried to clarify the indispensable and indivisible history of foreign policy of India with Nepal. Although Nepal’s foreign policy was always measured with comparing with our neighbouring nation as like Sino-Nepal relations will have the four basic characteristics with ‘c’ – cooperation, competition, confrontation and conflict. The concept of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) must be recognized and furnished by the foreign policy of Nepal. India is our strategic partner since time immoral. Nepal’s foreign policy is always been guided by the foreign policy of India and we shall see some similarities between these two countries foreign policy. India is revising their regional policy nowadays. They are also reviewing their regional involvement since 1947. A recent report says that “Non Alignment 2.0: A Foreign and Strategic Policy for India in the Twenty First Century’,a future policy of India must be centred on three “core objectives”: “To ensure that India did not define its national interest or approach to world politics in terms of ideologies and goals that had been set elsewhere; that India retained maximum strategic autonomy to pursue its development goals; and that India worked to build national power as the foundation for creating a just and equitable world order.

The second section of paper will illustrate the West eyes on East and our non- parallel rate of economic growth and benefit of Nepal from India’s growth. In the U.S.A. strategic guidance released in January 2012 has said that USA has shifted its strategic interest and priorities from the Atlantic to the Pacific, including the East and South

109 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Asia where these two giants are being situated. “U.S economic and security interest are inextricably linked to developments in the arc extending from the Western Pacific and East Asia into the Indian Ocean region and South Asia, creating a mix of evolving challenges and opportunities. Accordingly, while the US military will continue to contribute to security globally, we will of necessity rebalance toward the Asia- Pacific region” India is reformulating her bilateral ties with US and also ties with China to walk in line with changing scenario of world politics. We are secured in the sense that US have never shown her interest in Nepalese soil directly but have been played with Indian card. Ne- pal also needs to reformulate its bilateral ties with US independently keeping our strong relation with India.

The last section of paper will reconsider the possibility of Nepal’s further development and presence in some of Forums where India is taking lead. Such as, in SAARC, Indian diplomat J.N. Dixit has written that “time has come for the SAARC not shy away from becoming a forum for discussion on political issues which afflict then countries in the region” This forum shouldn’t limit to trade and co-operation in this regional level but most be favourable platform to discuss each country internal political conflicts.

Keywords : Hard Powers, Diplomatic Deficit, Chindia, Foreign Policy, NAM.

Strategic Position of Nepal in International Relation The existence of Nepal had been recognized even before the international boundaries had been fully and finally established. Mention of Nepal is found in the ancient history of both China and India. Nepal-China boundary is as old as the history of the two countries, but in contrast to the very ancient cultural, social, political and economic relations, Nepal-India boundary has a comparatively recent origin and its present boundary demarcation and delimitation took place after the Anglo-Nepal War of 1814-16 which was ended with signing of Treaty with The British East India Company who prepared a draft of the treaty with the signature ofLieutenant Colonel Paris Bradshaw on December 2, 1815 (Shrestha, 2000).

110 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Nepal’s King Prithvi Narayan Shah’s famous ‘Yam between two boulders’ quote reflects the great understanding of Nepal’s security dilemma, even as far back as the 18th century (Chaturvedy & Malone, 2012). Its geo-political position is becoming central point of concentration of Asian relation. Nepal has seen the repercussion when India and China were far with each other in the War of 1962 A.D. There is dilemma among the intellectual that what will be the impact on Nepal if China and India come closer with each other. Ultimately, as argued by Manish Dabhade and Harsh V. Pant, both countries have increased their interference in Nepal, while severely undermining ‘Nepal’s sovereignty and its ability to cope’ with these regional giants effectively (Dabhade & Pant, 2004). Nepal is bordered to the North by China and to the South, East and West by India. On the North side, Nepal has a 1400 km border with China while and on the East, West and South, Nepal has 1700 km border with India. The two neighbour’s quest of becoming superpowers in the nest 20 to 30 years and incredible economic rise have compelled Nepal to rethink its foreign policy basically regional policy from traditional buffer state mindset towards becoming a vibrant bridge between them (National Planning Commis- sion and Institute of Foreign Affairs, 2013). Nepal has to develop its regional policy in such a way where three governments from these three countries can sit and discuss together on equal footing about the development of Nepal. They are today concerning about the Trans-Himalaya Security and Economic Cooperation (Rivals, 2008) where Nepal should stand clearly. It is also compelling us for revision of our regional policy.

Countries size has nothing to do with the sound Foreign policy. It is traditionally perceived that Nepal is smaller is size which is hindrance for institutionalizing its foreign policy. Nepal is not a smaller country - there are more than 100 nations which are smaller than Nepal in size while it ranks 40th among 90 nations in population. We need to develop wholesome attitude while chalking out our foreign policy. Trade, aid and developmental issues have a direct bearing in the formulation of Ne- pal’s foreign policy. We have to hone our diplomatic skills (communicating and ne- gotiating capabilities) to effectively implement foreign policy. The foreign policy is objective phenomenon than the subjective one which means the result gives sound

111 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal element of foreign policy. Defining foreign policy doesn’t work anymore.- Anoth er essential element to know about the Foreign policy of any countries is to know about the diplomacy used by them. Nepal since its recognition in the international world is using Track 1 diplomacy in which the State was actively involved. It is time to Promote Track-2 diplomacy, and also the third version of diplomacy Track 1.5 – meaning involvement of both government and private sectors jointly in dealing with foreign governments. Our foreign policy was always measured with compare with our neighbouring nation as like Sino-Nepal relations will have the four basic characteristics with ‘c’ – cooperation, competition, confrontation, and conflict.

The concept of Public-Private Partnership (PPP) must be recognized and furnished by the foreign policy of Nepal. The geographical position of Nepal reveals important strategic concern over the two-rising economic of the world. Nepal was made landlocked countries through the Treaty of Sugauli concluded between the then British Empire and with Nepalese governing bodies. The British got the facilities of corridor in theeast and in the west;also, it got all the facilities and benefits. No provision of facility and concession was made for Nepal. India and the United States of America are coming closer due to shared belief in democracy, trade potential, geo-political interests and desire to prevent terrorism (Lal, 2011). United States is shifting its agenda from African states to Asian due to continuous raise of economic. Good relation exists between China and the United States largely because of economic reasons. India and China are also improving their bilateral relations on economic, security and border issues; including on removal of supposed irritants such as Tibet and Sikkim. The US naturally has an interest in containing China as an emerging military and nuclear power through improved relations with India while maintaining booming trade and investment with China (Shah, 2011). There seem to be a global and regional desire among the nuclear giants to avoid the emergence of a failed state and a desire for stable Nepal.

Indo-US and Nepal: Pyramidal Relations The international relations are guided by some of the principles such as Foreign Policy of Countries, diplomatic agreement, bilateral ties and mutual trust to each other. 112 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal Today’s condition is not the condition of cold war anymore which made distant with US for India. Development of good relations with all major powers without being con- strained by Cold War-era thinking of blocs and alliances adds to our ability to pursue our independent path as dictated by our national interest. The aim of our Foreign Policy is to create conditions where we can focus on the economic development in the regional and global level. Despite being one of the pioneers and founding members of the Non- Aligned Movement of 1961, India developed a closer relationship with the Soviet Union during the Cold War. India is constitutionally declared Socialist Democratic Republic Country which has dragged near to then communist blocks. This was the first instances when US was not actively allowed in the Asia to establish her power prevalence’s in this region. India began to review its foreign policy aftermath fall of Soviet Union in a unipolar world, and took steps to develop closer ties with the European Union and the United States. Current Indian foreign policy is based on maintaining strategic autonomy to promote and safeguard national interests.

The rapid growth of India’s economy which compel West to change their strategic relation from Pan African Countries to Asia which has expanded unparallel relation in bilateral trade, the close links between the Indian and American computer and Inter- net industries, a geopolitical coalition to balance the rise of an increasingly assertive China, the weakening of US-Pakistan relations over various ongoing disputes, and the 2008 reversal of long-standing American opposition to India’s nuclear program. Today, India and the US share an extensive cultural, strategic, military, and economic relationship. China as transforming herself as liberal communist is threatening the US hegemony in the world. The monistic political power of US is slowly decreasing in Asian region due to rise of Chinese potential growth which is alarming the conventional ideas of power relation around the world. There are series of agreement with India to decline the presence of China in this region.

India’s emergence as a rising world power and a mature market economy are significant to the region and the world. China as one of the world’s two indispensable emerging market along with India. India’s sprawling economy has shown itself capable of 113 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal growing as rapidly as China’s; in 2006 and 2007, Indian GDP surged 8.5 %. In 2012, according to the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), India likely eclipsed Japan as the world’s third largest economy (Chandler & Zainulbhai, 2013). This commendable growth has changed the position of India in minds of US people. The Americans are feeling more favourably toward several of the United States’ major allies in 2012 than they have in the past. This year’s ratings for Canada (96%), Australia (93%), Germany (86%), Japan (83%), and India (75%) are all record highs for those countries in Gallup trends that stretch back at least a decade. Additionally, the survey finds Great Britain (90%), France (75%), and Israel (71%) rated near their all-time highs. According to Gallup’s annual public opinion polls, India is perceived by Americans as their 6th favourite nation in the world, with 75% of Americans viewing India favourably in 2012, though this declined somewhat to 72% in 2014.

Until the 1980’s, US and India were strategically hostile; Indian elites had come to regard America as part of an encircling ring crafted to “keep it down” and Americans regarded India’s nonalignment as phony at best (Cohen, 2013). Today US is major strategic partner of India. History will attest to the fact that great national partnerships and alliances in the modern world thrive when all elements of government, corporate and civil societies are engaged. History is also likely to record that the 21st century will mark the rise of India as a global power. The United States looks forward to working closely with India both to develop our bilateral relations but also to cooperate to enhance the forces of world integration such as trade, communications and transport while combating the pernicious forces of disintegration such as terrorism and weapons of mass destruction. India strategic goals are basically to enable the domestic transformation of India by accelerated growth and a strategic autonomy that safeguards the national interest at all times in this overall global context.

India’s foreign policy has always regarded the concept of neighbourhood as one of widening concentric circles, around a central axis of historical and cultural common- alties. Nepal is natural and geopolitical allies with India all the time. The Independence 114 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal of Nepal is being recognized by India through time and again.

There was doubt in the International Community about the independent status and sovereignty of Nepal which we encountered in 1953’s when we apply for the member of UN. Some countries made reservation to us for not granting the membership of UN in early. Regional diplomacy and engagement of Nepal in the regional level has started in post 1953’s. The presence of Nepal was welcomed by India and USA too. But its importance has been increasing due to a number of significant factors, including the changing nature of international relations such as shifting balance of power towards the developing countries and regional blocs, rise of regional economic grouping and trading blocs and increasing interdependence and economic integration of states. Nepal started having Nepal started receiving bilateral aid in the 1950’s and 60’s initially from USA and India and then UK in the form of Colombo Plan. They were later joint by USSR and China. Switzerland, Australia, New Zealand and Japan became important donor in the second wave. Grants and technical assistance were the major form of aid.

India is Nepal’s strategic partner since time immoral. There is transformation of soft power with India and Nepal. Nepal’s foreign policy is always been guided by the foreign policy of India and we shall see some similarities between these two countries foreign policy. India is revising their regional policy nowadays. They are also reviewing their regional involvement since 1947. A recent report says that “Non Alignment 2.0: A Foreign and Strategic Policy for India in the Twenty First Century’, a future policy of India must be centred on three “core objectives”: “To ensure that India did not define its national interest or approach to world politics in terms of ideologies and goals that had been set elsewhere; that India retained maximum strategic autonomy to pursue its development goals; and that India worked to build national power as the foundation for creating a just and equitable world order.” In South Asia, India has been driven by the vision of encouraging regional integration to bring about peace and prosperity for the more than one and a half billion people living in this region. As part of this vision, this geography of hope, we have been

115 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal implementing a policy of asymmetric engagement in providing greater market access to our neighbours, which enables regional integration in a mutually beneficial manner. Nepal’s needs to review its regional policy with India since 1950’s and should give clear stand on it. Nepal shouldn’t act herself as puppet or platform for the Indian foreign policy. India and China are becoming close to each other which is being time and time proven by their increasing trade volume, their soft power and their hard power. Nepal needs to identify its soft power because the hard power will not make any sense to these two countries. Nepal’s can’t challenge the military and economic strength of these two nations. Nepal’s must develop attractive soft power as key of regional foreign policy. Nepal has always been upholding ‘One China’ policy and is committed not to allow Nepalese territory to be used against our friendly neighbour China’s core interests.

There is long history These three countries are indis- of bilateral relation pensable in international rela- with America and tion because of having the same India. These two system of governance. There are countries are econom- arguments saying that US,India ically powerful and and Nepal are natural allies. Ne- militarily sound. This pal and India relation and India triangular relation ex- with US and US with Nepal is amines theUS,India triogemetric in nature where the and Nepal relation. existence of one is determined by existence of other in international relations.

USA Nepal India Fig. 1: Triangular Relations of US, India, and Nepal.

Nepal’s Benefit with Indo-US Bond India status as a ‘rising power’ had led it to reorient and reformulate its relations with global powers. This has been particularly so since the end of Cold War and disintegration of Soviet Union which continued to be the most important strategic partner of India since the signing of the Bilateral treaty in 1971 till its collapse in 1991 ( Chakrab- arti, 2012). India’s economic growth has also been part of the success story in enhancing India’s global reach. This target of Asian tiger is being assisted by the US through series of Agreement ranging from Military Assistance to Cultural exchange. Nepal is being 116 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal always benefited because in word of Honorary Excellency Narendra Modi, “India is Ne- pal open country not locked” which says our closer relation with India. Indian foreign policy never disfavours the neighbour and Nepal are strongest allies with India where our substantial percentage of trade are with India which have contributed to growth their GDP.

There are four regional organizations or initiatives where Nepal is party and India has taken lead: the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi Sectoral-Economic Cooperation, the Indian Ocean Rim- Association for Regional Cooperation and the Mekong Ganga Cooperation Initiative. China, as another immediate neighbour, is a key priority of India’s foreign policy. Nepal is bordered to the North by China and to the South, East and West by India. On the North side, Nepal has a 1400 km border with China while and on the East, West and South, Nepal has 1700 km border with India. The two neighbour’s quest of becoming superpowers in the nest 20 to 30 years and incredible economic rise have compelled Nepal to rethink its foreign policy basically regional policy from traditional buffer state mindset towards becoming a vibrant bridge between them.

India has attempted to establish a strategic and cooperative partnership with China. It has emerged as the largest trading partner of India, and India’s engagement is now multi-faceted. The maintenance of peace and tranquillity on borders with China, and the quest for a peaceful, negotiated settlement of the outstanding boundary question, are areas of crucial importance in India’s bilateral relationship with China. India have specific policy called ‘Look East’ Policy, which have tried to reconnect and reach out in the civilization space share with near neighbours’ in Southeast Asia since the early 1990s. India is building strong bilateral ties, expanding their roles in regional organizations and working to build comprehensive economic partnerships.

India have tried to build mutually beneficial ties with all the major powers, fore- most among which is the United States. The relationship with the United States is in

117 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal fact built on shared values and converging interests. It is based on fundamental belief that both have mutually beneficial stakes in each other’s success. India have in the last decade, set up a comprehensive architecture of engagement based on broad political support in each of countries, strong people to people linkages, and a growing habit of cooperation. Over the past ten years, the two governments have put in place a very ro- bust agenda of cooperation for our partnership that is, to quote former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh, founded on both “principles and pragmatism. The United States will continue to make the necessary investments to ensure that we maintain regional access and the ability to operate freely in keeping with our treaty obligations and with international law. Working closely with our network of allies and partners, we will continue to promote a rules-based international order that ensures underlying stability and encourages the peaceful rise of new powers, economic dynamism, and constructive defence cooperation (Dixit, 2001).

Critics also argue the Indian hegemony in the regional level which has expressed tension of rivalry with Pakistan and excessive increase of Military expenditure. The 20th century had witnessed that the regional space is becoming increasingly essential for the power transition and projection. It is be serious threat to global rising power like India if she fails to maintain amicable relation with regional players through positive transformation in the zone, growth and peace. This makes it relevant to properly analyse the impact of Indian policy in SA region (Rajagopalan & Sahni, 2008). US have also given concentration to make good relation with other countries of Asia which is under continuous support of India. Nepal receives some % of aid in various sectors from US government which includes in education, health, infrastructure and others. Indo-US bond will provide more similar opportunity for Nepal. China has started showing its interest in Nepal due to Tibet uprising and their movement.

India’s major economic initiatives are mainly directed through the, “Look East Policy” which seeks to expand India’s link with the countries located in Southeast Asia and East Asia along with her burgeoning influence in the Asia-Pacific and Indian Ocean

118 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal zones. Joint economic initiatives involving South Asian countries like the South Asian Sub-regional grouping, the Kunming Initiative, the BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation), the Mekong-Ganga Coopera- tion, the BCIM (Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar) Economic Cooperation, the IOR- ARC (Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation) are mostly attempts to create extra-regional economic linkages between SA and SEA and East Asian countries. India is also showing her serious concern about the Human Security equally to the economic cooperation with regional blocks. There are growing regional conflict such as, Pakistan Vs India over Kashmir issues, China and India over border issues and others. India is in search of alternative security pact with joint venture of all regional players. Recent attempt to project an alternative security problematic in Southeast Asia through regional consensus building efforts to ‘Asianise’ the paradigm of human security is order to make it more appropriate for regional application, could perhaps be emulated in South Asia in this regard (Sucharithanarugse, 2000). Nepal can play its important role for figuring the no harm from Nepal sides to India which is our one pillar of foreign policy since 1947.

The regional involvement of India along with the cooperation of US shall benefit all the countries situated in this land. The year 2008 had witnessed positive symbol for the Asian countries which can strengthen our regional relations. In 2008, February, Pakistan adopted civilian rule through denouncing long military dictatorship, Bhutan constitutionally established democratic government, and Nepal successfully adopted the Constituent Assembly after ten years of insurgency and long political turmoil and Maldives ushered in multi-party democracy (Ganguly, 2010). This ray of hope reflects the numerous possibilities of this region to stand together for each other causes and development. Asian regional is culturally rich, naturally beautiful, economically growing, and militarily sound and there are many more hidden treasures in this region. India is leading this region towards progress and development. Indian policy makers need to spell out a new vision of a global order barring a vague preference for multipolarity (Kumar, 2008). The regionalism in the international power always assists for the accu- mulation of global power. The US is well versed with the idea of making strong regional 119 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal alliance in order to keep her global hegemony in rest of the world. India has adopted the same model where Indian presence in the Asian regional hemisphere has contributed for the development of her presence.

The colonization period of India was also concerned with the friendly relation with the neighbours. The British Raj and independent India in their geographic neighbourhood, Martin Wainwright pointed to the huge continuities across the great chasm of decolonization that separated them. “Although the two regimes differed markedly in their constitutional basis of power, their ethnic composition, and their long-term goals, the attitudes of their members toward South Asian security were remarkably similar” (Wainwright, 1995). India and USA are well aware about the relationship of each other in order to global suppression of terrorism which is mostly seen in the Asian region. The incidence of 9/11, 7/11 and11/11 had brought these two countries near to fight against global war to eliminate virus of terrorism from the region. Nepal is also duly victimized by the act of terrors because India always accused Nepal being transit point for the ter- rorist to enter into Indian soil. The triangular relationship with USA, India and Nepal must be strengthened in upcoming days.

Conclusion Nepal is strategically situated in such region where there is equal possibility of “confrontation and peace” with rising global economy of the world in upcoming future which we have seen in 1962 A.D. We till time are successful to maintain equidistance with these two countries. China in North side is growing tremendously which is challenging the US hegemony in this region. China and India are coming closer in various sector and Nepal is between these two giants of world who have targeted to expand their trade of 20 billion $ by end of 2020. The cheapest and reliable trade route for their trade is via the land of Nepal which covers 300 KM with maximum of three-hour driving. This example sets the possible percentage of economical support to Nepal if our government maintains the same level of trust and relation with these two countries. US are trying to minimize the influence of China in India while India is eager to expand her relation with China although they principally differ in governance. Their political 120 Dera Natung Government College Research Journal differences are becoming the minor issues and inferior over the economic cooperation between two “Asian Tiger” of world.

The political turbulence is pulling leg of our economic development agendas and growth. The stagnant economic growth and rising political distrust is hampering the national economy of country. Nepal is not being able to achieve the substantial percentage of benefit from these two countries bilateral trade. Nepal always favours the principle of five restraints which is guiding doctrine to maintain our any foreign relation in the regional and global level. The Indo-US strong ties in economic and military shall benefit Nepal through our distinctive bilateral relation with India. Nepal has recently concluded BIPPA with Indian side which is a ray of hope in coming future in areas of development. The US-India partnership also shall invite FDI in Nepal because our 65 % trades are with India and Nepal will be potential market for Indian based industries.

Hence, the Nepal’s perspective to Indo-US relation is very straightforward which says strong US-India relation will enhance strong Nepal, India and US bilateral and multilateral development. There is need to reformulate our regional policies with all considerations.

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