DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2018-009

Sociolinguistic Research among Selected Groups in Western Arunachal Pradesh Highlighting Monpa

Binny Abraham, Kara Sako, Elina Kinny, and Isapdaile Zeliang Sociolinguistic Research among Selected Groups in Western Arunachal Pradesh Highlighting Monpa

Binny Abraham, Kara Sako, Elina Kinny, and Isapdaile Zeliang

SIL International® 2018

SIL Electronic Survey Report 2018-009, August 2018 © 2018 SIL International® All rights reserved

Data and materials collected by researchers in an era before documentation of permission was standardized may be included in this publication. SIL makes diligent efforts to identify and acknowledge sources and to obtain appropriate permissions wherever possible, acting in good faith and on the best information available at the time of publication.

Abstract

This research was started in November 2003, initially among the Monpa varieties of Western Arunachal Pradesh, India, and was later expanded to Sherdukpen, Chug, Lish, Bugun and Miji because of their geographical proximity. The fieldwork continued until August 2004 with some gaps in between. The researchers were Binny Abraham, Kara Sako, Isapdaile Zeliang and Elina Kinny. The languages studied in this report, all belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family, have the following ISO codes:1 Tawang Monpa [twm], Tshangla (Dirang) [tsj], Kalaktang Monpa [kkf], Sartang (But Monpa) [onp], Sherdukpen [sdp], Hruso (Aka) [hru], (Aka) Koro [jkr], Chug [cvg], Lish [lsh], Bugun [bgg], and Miji [sjl].

[This survey report written some time ago deserves to be made available even at this late date. Conditions were such that it was not published when originally written. The reader is cautioned that more recent research may be available. Historical data is quite valuable as it provides a basis for a longitudinal analysis and helps us understand both the trajectory and pace of change as compared with more recent studies.—Editor]

1 See Ethnologue 2018.

Contents

1 Introduction 1.1 Overview 1.2 Peoples 1.2.1 Monpa 1.2.2 Tawang, Dirang and Kalaktang Monpa 1.2.3 Sartang, Lish and Chug 1.2.4 Sherdukpen 1.2.5 Aka 1.2.6 Bugun 1.2.7 Miji 1.3 Languages 1.4 Purpose and goals 1.4.1 Goals for Monpa survey 1.4.2 Goals for Bugun survey 1.4.3 Goals for Miji survey 2 Summary of findings 2.1 Language variation 2.2 Language use, attitude and vitality 2.3 Bilingualism 3 Language variation 3.1 Wordlists 3.1.1 Procedures 3.1.2 Site selection 3.1.3 Results and analysis 3.2 Recorded text testing 3.2.1 Procedures 3.2.2 Site selection 3.2.3 Results and analysis 3.3 Informal playing of narrative text 3.4 Questionnaire responses 3.4.1 Monpas and Sherdukpen 3.4.2 Bugun 3.4.3 Miji 4 Language use, attitudes and vitality 4.1 Questionnaire procedures 4.2 Questionnaires among the Monpas and Sherdukpen 4.2.1 Language use 4.2.2 Language attitudes and vitality 4.2.3 Dialects 4.3 Questionnaires among the Bugun 4.3.1 Language use 4.3.2 Language attitudes and vitality 4.3.3 Dialects 4.4 Questionnaires among the Miji 4.4.1 Language use 4.4.2 Language attitudes and vitality 4.4.3 Dialects

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5 Bilingualism 5.1 Sentence repetition test 5.1.1 Procedures 5.1.2 Sampling and site selection 5.1.3 Results and analysis 5.2 Questionnaires 5.2.1 Monpas and Sherdukpen 5.2.2 Bugun 5.2.3 Miji 6 Recommendations 6.1 Monpas 6.2 Sherdukpen 6.3 Miji and Bugun 6.4 Aka Appendix A: Wordlists Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing Procedures, Scores and Responses Appendix C: Sentence Repetition Test Appendix D: Language Use, Attitude, Vitality and Bilingualism Questionnaires References

1 Introduction

1.1 Overview

Arunachal Pradesh is bordered on the south by Assam state, on the west by Bhutan, on the north and northeast by China, and on the east by Burma (Myanmar). Before 1962, the state was known as Northeast Frontier Agency and was constitutionally a part of Assam. In 1972, Arunachal Pradesh was constituted as a union territory, and in 1987 it became the 24th state of India, with the capital at Itanagar. It is sparsely populated, with 1,383,727 people according to the 2011 census, inhabiting an area of 83,743 square kilometres. Most of Arunachal Pradesh is mountainous, with high ridges and deep valleys. The state’s main river is the Brahmaputra. The climate of the foothills is subtropical; in the mountains, temperatures decrease rapidly with altitude. Rainfall averages between two and four metres a year. Arunachal Pradesh’s rugged terrain makes transport and communications difficult. With few surfaced roads and no railways in the state, links with the rest of India are limited.

1.2 Peoples

This survey project covered the following people groups in the districts of Tawang, West Kameng and East Kameng: Tawang Monpa, Dirang Monpa, Kalaktang Monpa, Sartang, Lish, Chug, Sherdukpen, Aka, Bugun, and Miji. Information about these groups is presented in this section. Maps 1 and 2 show the location of the survey area and the districts of Arunachal Pradesh.

Map 1. Location of survey area

Created by Shinu PR, NLCI. Used by permission.

1 2

Map 2. Arunachal Pradesh districts

Created by Shinu PR, NLCI. Used by permission.

The populations of the various groups in this survey are shown in table 1.2

Table 1. Populations of the surveyed groups

Variety (according to census) Population Year of census Tawang 6,503 1981 Dirang 3,599 1981 Kalaktang 8,000 1971 But Monpa 348 1981 Lish 1,567 1981 Chug 483 1971 Sherdukpen 2,096 1981 Aka 2,947 1981 Bugun 625 1981 Miji 4,085 1981

2 In the 1991 census, the population of Monpa was reported to be 43,179. It appears that prior to 1991, population figures for various groups were reported separately, and that in the 1991 census they were classified together under the broad term of Monpa. 3

1.2.1 Monpa

The Monpa group is a tribal community found mostly in the West Kameng and Tawang districts of Arunachal Pradesh. Monpa is a generic name given by the Tibetans to the people living in the lowland. Their main centres of habitation are in and around the administrative headquarters of Tawang, Dirang, Bomdila and Kalaktang. The Monpa can be divided into two groups based on population: the larger group includes Tawang, Dirang and Kalaktang Monpa; the smaller group includes Chug Monpas, Lish Monpas and Sartang. These individual groups will be discussed in later sections of this report. The Monpas cover their bodies with varieties of well-designed woollen garments. The women also weave and make carpets of sheep wool. The men do wood-carving and painting. The Monpas are settled agriculturalists. Maize, millet, pulses, onion, paddy, and wheat are the main crops in their fields. The favourite beverage of the Monpas is a local alcoholic drink called phak, made from fermented maize. Both men and women drink in large quantities. Monpas are widely known for their hospitality and their gentleness to both people and animals. It is difficult to determine the route and approximate time of their migration to their present location and to trace their relationship either with the Tibetans or with Bhutanese, or even with the peoples of the pan-Indian region as a whole. This is because the Monpas never had the habit of maintaining any written records, nor do they have any written documents regarding their settlement in the present habitat. The Monpa people adhere strongly to their indigenous cultural practices. They celebrate many cultural festivals throughout the year related to agricultural practices and religious occasions. Marriage in Monpa culture is by negotiation. Cross-cousin as well as levirate marriage are also prevalent. Monogamy is the norm, but polygamy is not unknown. Monpas are strongly Buddhist, and their religious beliefs and practices are centred on the Tawang Monastery. They are very firm in maintaining their own religion. There are also small numbers of animists and Christians. The Monpas are very fond of religious songs and dances. Dances such as Ajilanom and Sathemine are popular. The Losar and Yorgya are the main festivals celebrated as per the Buddhist calendar and procedure. Literacy is generally very low among the Monpas; however, attitudes toward education for both boys and girls are positive. Because of better opportunities for education, it is assumed that the literacy rate among the Monpas is rising.

1.2.2 Tawang, Dirang and Kalaktang Monpa

As stated above, Tawang, Dirang and Kalaktang are larger subgroups among the Monpas. They have been referred to as Northern Monpas; other terms used for them include Brahmi and Monkit. Tawang Monpas are primarily settled in the Tawang district and number 6,503 according to the 1981 census. Tawang is known as the most beautiful tourist attraction in Arunachal Pradesh. Travelling north, the last administrative centre one passes is Zimithang, which lies on the international boundary between India and Tibet. The land is mostly sloped, with steep rocky mountains covered with snow from November to March. The Dirang Monpas are sometimes called Central Monpas (Singh 1995:216). According to the 1981 census, their population was 3,599, and they live in West Kameng district around the Dirang administrative centre. The Kalaktang, or southern Monpas, are settled around the Kalaktang administrative centre. The 1971 census did not mention the population of Kalaktang Monpa, but they are estimated to be nearly 8,000. The Kalaktang Monpas as well as Dirang Monpas are commonly known as Tsangla Monpas. The word ‘Kalaktang’ is derived from the name of a village around one kilometre from the Kalaktang town. In the beginning these Kalaktang Monpas settled in this village only. As the community developed, they began searching for low and flat land for agriculture as well as for business. As a result they scattered to the Assam/Bhutan boundary and settled there. One of the wordlist sites for these people is Balimu, which is on the international and inter-state boundary between Bhutan and Assam. 4

1.2.3 Sartang, Lish and Chug

Sartangs are found in Jerigaon, Sellary, Khoitam, Rahung, Darbu and Khoina villages of the Nafra and Dirang circles in West Kameng District. The Sartang people sometimes call themselves Matchopa or Bootpa or “But Monpa.” The latter two terms were heard during the course of the survey, while “But Monpa” is a term that Singh (1995) uses. We found during our fieldwork, however, that the people themselves prefer Sartang. Sar means “west,” tang means “object of worship.” Sometimes place names are used to refer to the language, such as Shingjee, Rahungjee, Khoitunjee and Khonujee. The 1981 census showed 348 people under the name “But Monpa;” no more recent reliable population information could be found for this group at the time this research was done. Based on the number of villages (six) and an average number of people in each village, the researchers estimate the community to be around 1000 people. The Sartang are divided into numerous exogamous clans (Khangs), all with equal status. The community as a whole is given a lower status by the rest of the Monpas; however, marriages between Dirang Monpas and Tawang Monpas are acceptable. Lish and Chug are found in and around Dirang (within a radius of four to five miles). It is commonly believed they are descended from an early wave of migrants from Bhutan. Chug Monpas are found only in Chug village. Their population was 483 according to the 1971 census. Lish are distributed in three villages: Lish, Lish Gompache and Lish Gompalok. According to the 1981 census, there were 1,567 Lish people. Lish and Chug are similar to Monpas in culture and religion. Chug Monpa and Lish Monpa are terms mentioned by Singh, and were also heard by the researchers during fieldwork. However, the Lish and Chug languages are different from other Monpa varieties, as will be seen in section 2. Chug and Lish were considered socially inferior by Monpas, hence intermarriage is not common between them.

1.2.4 Sherdukpen

The Sherdukpens are concentrated to the south of Bomdila, in the valleys of the Tengapani river, primarily in Shergaon, Rupa, Jigaon and Thungrao villages of Rupa circle. In addition to these villages, there are a few other settlements. The Sherdukpens are divided into three social classes: the Thongs, the Chhaos and the Yanlo. The distinction between the classes is seen on certain special occasions. The descendants of Japtang Bura, “the great father,” are known as Thongs, while the descendants of his attendants, who have slightly inferior social status, are called Chhaos. Yanlo are considered the lowest class and have no rights in the society. The classes are mutually exogamous. It is said that at one time the Sherdukpen and Sartang were essentially one group. They were separated during a war, however, and now consider themselves different communities. There are still some festival celebrations common to both groups.

1.2.5 Aka

According to Singh (1995:135), the Akas live in the southeastern part of the Bichom valley in the West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh.3 We also found Akas living in the East Kameng district. The term Aka, meaning ‘painted’ in Assamese, was given by Assamese and British administrators because of the custom of painting the face of their women. Hruso is the term preferred nowadays by the people. The Aka people in West Kameng district are known as Hruso Akas, and the people in East Kameng district are

3 In West Kameng, Akas are concentrated in Thrizino circle. Some of the village names are Jamiri, Husigaon, Gohainthan, Buragaon, Karangonia, Raindogonia, Yayom, Gijiri, Dijungonia, Tulu, Polatari, Raghupam and Tania. 5 known as Koro Akas.4 Both terms are also used for the language. According to the 1981 census, their population was 2,947.

1.2.6 Bugun

Pre-survey research revealed that the Bugun occupy seven villages in Tenga and Bichom valley in the neighbourhood of the Sherdukpen. According to local information, the Bugun are found in at least twelve villages5 in Singchung and Nafra circles of West Kameng District in Arunachal Pradesh. The Bugun are a small group living among the Akas but in separate villages of their own under headmen (Sen 1986:28). According to Singh (1995:185), no published work is available on the history of the Bugun’s migration. The people themselves report that they came to their present habitat from the north. The Bugun traditionally have been animists, but in recent years Buddhism has had an influence. The Bugun were called Khowa by their neighbours. The people themselves, however, prefer the name Bugun. The Buguns are gentle, hospitable and affectionate people, and are mainly agriculturists.

1.2.7 Miji

The Miji live in the valleys of the Bichom river of West Kameng and East Kameng districts. They are mostly found in the Nafra circle of West Kameng district and the Bameng and Lada circles of East Kameng district. There were 4,085 Miji according to the 1981 census. The name Miji was given by Akas. Mi means “fire” and ji means “giving.” The state government recognised them as Sajalong and Miji. The Miji and Aka are closely related. They share many beliefs and customs and have a long history of intermarriage. Within these two communities, both clans and sub- clans are exogamous.

1.3 Languages

All the languages covered in this survey belong to various branches of the Tibeto-Burman family. The Ethnologue lists Moinba (or Monpa); however, Chug and Lish appear in the Mahakiranti sub-branch. Interestingly, other languages in this branch are spoken in eastern Nepal. As will be discussed in section 3, the languages covered in this survey show notable divergence from one another. Because of this, tribes of the area use languages other than their mother tongues (such as Hindi, Assamese, Nepali and English) to speak with one another. However, some people have difficulty communicating in these languages because they do not know them well enough. Some groups know a neighbouring language and use that to communicate with those people. The speech of Dirang Monpas and Kalaktang Monpas has some similarity, but Tawang Monpas speak quite differently from these two. The languages of the Lish Monpas, Chug Monpas and Sartang differ significantly from the rest of the Monpas. Sartang closely resembles the language of the Sherdukpen. According to Singh (1995:288), Sherdukpen is closely related to But Monpa, Lish Monpa and Miji. They use Hindi, Assamese and Tshangla to communicate with one another. As noted above, the language of the Aka people in West Kameng district is known as Hruso Aka, and that of the people in East Kameng district is known as Koro Aka. The older generation are fluent in

4 Koro Aka is a term that was not found in any literature, but it was heard by the researchers during fieldwork, first mentioned by the Miji people, and then by the Koro Aka people themselves. 5 These villages are Wangho, Singchung, New Kaspi, Namphri, Mangopom, Diching, Sachita, Ramu, Situ, Lichini, Dikiang and Bichom. 6 their neighbouring languages, but the present generation is not interested in learning to speak the neighbouring languages. They speak other languages such as Hindi, and some of them English. The Miji people call themselves Miji, but identify their language as Namrei or Dammai. (Mijis in East Kameng refer to their language as Namrei and in West Kameng as Dammai.) They also speak neighbouring languages like Aka, Monpa, Assamese and Hindi. The Bugun community uses the term Bugun to refer to their language. They speak other languages of the neighbouring communities like Sherdukpen, Aka, and Monpa, and speak wider languages like Assamese, Nepali and Hindi. However none of these other groups are interested in learning to speak Bugun.

1.4 Purpose and goals

The original scope of this sociolinguistic survey was to look at But Monpa, as well as the relationships within the Monpa cluster as a whole. During the initial background research, it was decided to also include Sherdukpen. After the initial field research, Bugun and Miji were also surveyed; because of linguistic and logistical reasons, these two are included in this report. This is the reason different sets of goals are outlined below for each project. The primary purpose for all three projects is similar, namely to find out whether the various people groups researched need separate language development efforts.

1.4.1 Goals for Monpa survey

1. To define the geographical area inhabited by the Monpas. Tools: language information, informal interview, questionnaires.

2. To study the lexical relationships among the Monpa varieties. Tools: wordlists, recorded text testing, questionnaires.

3. To assess Hindi bilingualism among Monpa speakers. Tools: sentence repetition testing, questionnaires, observation.

4. To study language use, attitudes and vitality among Monpa speakers. Tools: questionnaires, observation.

5. To determine what written materials are available in Monpa. Tools: library research, visits to research institutes.

1.4.2 Goals for Bugun survey

1. To look at the relationships between Bugun and neighbouring languages. Tools: wordlists, questionnaires, interviews.

2. To find out what other languages the Bugun speak, and what their L2 is. Tools: questionnaires, interviews.

3. Find out the language use, attitude and vitality of the speakers towards their mother tongue. Tools: questionnaires, observation, interviews.

1.4.3 Goals for Miji survey

1. To find out whether there is any dialectical difference among the Miji. Tools: wordlists, questionnaires, interviews.

7

2. To determine the degree of language use and vitality, and attitude of speakers towards their mother tongue. Tools: questionnaires, observation, interviews.

3. To look at the relationships between Miji and neighbouring languages. Tools: wordlists, questionnaires, interviews.

4. To find out what other languages Miji speak. Tools: questionnaires, interviews.

2 Summary of findings

This section is a summary of the three areas which will be described in more detail in subsequent sections: Language variation; language use, attitudes and vitality; and bilingualism.

2.1 Language variation

Based on the tools utilised in this research for determining language variation, particularly wordlist comparisons, there is significant variation among the language varieties studied. Wordlist comparisons show that Tawang Monpa, Bugun, Miji and Aka (both varieties) show sufficient dissimilarity from all other languages covered in the survey to be considered different languages.6 Dirang Monpa, Kalaktang Monpa, Lish, Chug, Sartang and Sherdukpen show high similarity with only one other language, and are distinct from all others. Based on background research, lexical similarity findings and reported comprehension from questionnaires, comprehension testing was carried out between the sets of languages that had high lexical similarity. Comprehension testing was carried out using what is called recorded text testing (RTT). A story from Sartang was tested among speakers of Sherdukpen. Individual scores ranged from 10 to 100%, with a test average of 55%. Six of the eleven test subjects said the speech in the Sartang story was very different from theirs. Some stated they understood the speech of the story fully, and these people got the higher scores, but this is most likely due to their contact with Sherdukpen speakers. On the whole, there is sufficient information to suggest inadequate comprehension between these two varieties. Another RTT was developed in Dirang Monpa and tested among the Kalaktang Monpa community. Individual scores on this test ranged from 40 to 90%, with a test average of 55%. Questions asked to subjects after testing, as well as responses to the questionnaire, revealed varying perceptions of the difference between the two languages. Test scores did not correlate well with reported travel patterns, or with how much subjects had reported they could understand. Informal comprehension testing with a narrative story was carried out between Chug and Lish. Although most Chug test subjects said they speak a little differently from the Lish spoken in the story, most expressed difficulty in understanding the story fully. In addition, another story in Sartang was played in a different Sartang area. In response, all subjects said the language of the story was the same as the way people talk in their village, and everyone said they understood the story fully.

6 An explanation of what signifies a different language or dialect is found in section 3. 8

2.2 Language use, attitude and vitality

In general, from the questionnaire responses, speakers from the groups studied use their mother tongue widely in all domains, except in the market and with neighbouring villagers who speak a different language. All language groups have an overall positive attitude towards their mother tongues, as well as a positive attitude towards Hindi, the language of wider communication. Therefore, it appears that the vitality of the languages is also not in question in the immediate future.

2.3 Bilingualism

Bilingualism testing using what is called sentence repetition testing (SRT) was done among three Monpa communities: Tawang, Sartang and Kalaktang. Education played a key difference in test scores of subjects; those with 4th standard and above education scored higher than those with less education. Overall, test scores were still low, and not high enough for those tested to be considered adequately bilingual to understand deeper concepts in Hindi. The bilingualism questionnaire responses also indicate that most subjects are not able to use Hindi effectively and do not have adequate bilingual proficiency.

3 Language variation

One of the goals of this project was to examine the relationships among language varieties by defining the extent of their similarities and differences. The language variation study consisted of 1) wordlist comparison, 2) intelligibility testing, 3) informal playing of a narrative text and 4) a questionnaire.

3.1 Wordlists

3.1.1 Procedures

A common method of measuring the relationship among languages is to compare wordlists. The degree of similarity in wordlist vocabularies is referred to as lexical similarity. Speech communities that have more terms in common, i.e., a higher percentage of lexical similarity, are more likely to understand one another than are speech communities that have fewer terms in common—assuming there is no contact between speakers of the communities. Lexical similarity findings through wordlists give a broad overview of the relationships among speech varieties, and when percentages are low, signify distinct languages. In this survey, a wordlist consisting of 307 basic vocabulary items was collected among the various language communities. Wordlists were transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Each wordlist was compared with every other wordlist, item by item, to determine whether the words were phonetically similar. Those words judged to be similar were grouped together. This process of evaluation was carried out according to standards set forth in Blair (1990:30–33) and facilitated by using a computer program called WordSurv (Wimbish 1989). Once the entire wordlist was evaluated, the percentage of word pair similarities was calculated. Lexical similarity counting procedures, information about each wordlist, and wordlist transcriptions are contained in Appendix A.

3.1.2 Site selection

The researchers collected wordlists from each language group discussed in the introduction. Wordlists were collected from Aka and Miji communities because there were some reports that these languages were similar to Monpa and because they live close to Monpa communities. Within each Monpa group, wordlist sites were selected based on people’s reports of where the most pure variety was spoken, with an attempt made to gather wordlists representing the entire area where the people live. 9

Table 2. Locations where the wordlists were elicited

Language Village Circle HQ District Sartang Darbu Dirang West Kameng Sartang Darbu Dirang West Kameng Sartang Khoitam Dirang West Kameng Sartang Khoina Nafra West Kameng Miji Dibin Nafra West Kameng Miji Rurang Nafra West Kameng Miji Bisai Lada East Kameng Miji Nabolang Lada East Kameng Miji Nafra Nafra West Kameng Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa West Kameng Sherdukpen Shergaon Rupa West Kameng Hruso Aka Jamiri Rupa West Kameng Koro Aka Pisang Seppa East Kameng Dirang Monpa Dirang village Dirang West Kameng Dirang Monpa Dirang HQ Dirang West Kameng Dirang Monpa Namsu Dirang West Kameng Dirang Monpa Tempang Dirang West Kameng Dirang Monpa Sangti Dirang West Kameng Lish Monpa Lish Dirang West Kameng Chug Monpa Chug Dirang West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa Khalaktang Kalaktang West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa Balimu Kalaktang West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa Tomko Kalaktang West Kameng Tawang Monpa Zimithang Tawang Tawang Tawang Monpa Changprong Tawang Tawang Tawang Monpa Tawang Monastery Tawang Tawang Bugun Bichom Nafra West Kameng Bugun Kaspi Singchung West Kameng Bugun Namphri Singchung West Kameng Bugun Wangho Singchung West Kameng Bugun Singchung Singchung West Kameng

3.1.3 Results and analysis

The matrix in table 3 represents the results of the wordlist comparisons, expressed as a percentage of lexical similarity. For each wordlist site, the village name and district name are given, along with the character used in the WordSurv database (in brackets); the corresponding text box shows the name of the language variety. 10

Table 3. Lexical similarity percentages of all speech varieties compared

(s) Changprong/Tawang 70 (f) Tawang Monastery Tawang Monpa 66 65 (r) Zimithang/Tawang 26 26 26 (t) Namsu/W.Kameng 25 27 26 87 (u) Tempang/W.Kameng 25 27 26 79 79 (o) Dirang village/W.Kameng Dirang Monpa 25 27 25 74 75 81 (n) Sangti/W.Kameng 25 27 26 73 75 77 76 (k) Dirang HQ/W.Kameng 27 28 26 68 68 69 62 68 (h) Khalaktang/W.Kameng 26 28 27 71 70 71 67 69 79 (p) Balimu/W.Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27 28 27 70 67 67 67 67 69 72 (q) Tomko/W.Kameng 18 17 18 21 21 21 20 21 21 21 21 (c) Chug/W.Kameng Lish and Chug 15 17 17 18 18 19 19 19 17 17 18 62 (g) Lish/W.Kameng 11 11 10 15 15 14 14 15 14 14 13 26 32 (l) Darbu/W.Kameng 9 10 9 16 14 13 14 15 14 12 12 27 32 78 (d) Darbu/W.Kameng Sartang 9 9 8 15 14 13 12 13 13 13 12 28 30 63 64 (b) Khoitam/W.Kameng 8 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 25 29 60 58 52 (m) Khoina/W.Kameng 10 10 10 14 13 13 14 15 13 13 12 29 34 59 60 50 52 (i) Rupa/W.Kameng Sherdukpen 13 12 12 17 14 15 15 16 15 15 14 31 34 58 56 49 50 75 (E) Shergaon/W.Kameng 6 6 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 12 13 17 15 14 16 17 17 (z) Namphri/W.Kameng 6 7 6 9 9 8 7 7 8 8 7 13 14 20 19 17 18 19 20 83 (x) Bichom/W.Kameng 7 8 6 7 7 7 6 6 7 7 6 11 12 19 17 16 18 16 18 79 82 (y) Kaspi/W.Kameng Bugun 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 7 6 12 14 19 17 15 19 18 19 76 81 74 (v) Singchung/W.Kameng 5 6 5 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 6 12 13 19 18 16 20 19 19 75 81 72 81 (w) Wangho/W.Kameng 7 7 7 7 6 6 7 6 5 6 6 6 6 8 5 4 7 6 9 13 12 13 10 9 (B) Bisai/E.Kameng 6 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 6 5 6 5 7 4 4 7 5 8 14 12 13 10 9 83 (A) Nabolang/E.Kameng Miji 9 9 8 10 8 7 7 8 8 8 7 7 5 7 5 5 8 6 8 15 13 13 11 10 65 65 (C) Rurang/W.Kameng 8 8 8 8 7 6 6 7 7 7 6 8 8 7 6 5 7 6 6 12 11 12 9 8 64 65 77 (e) Nafra/W.Kameng 8 8 8 8 6 7 6 6 7 7 6 7 5 7 5 5 8 6 7 13 12 12 11 10 54 56 65 63 (D) Dibin/W.Kameng 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 4 4 6 5 6 7 5 4 7 6 6 8 7 6 8 8 16 15 16 17 14 (j) Jamiri/W.Kameng Aka 6 6 6 6 4 5 5 4 4 5 5 3 3 6 3 3 5 5 6 6 6 6 5 4 9 9 10 9 8 9 (F) Pisang/E.Kameng 11

Table 4. Ranges of lexical similarity between selected speech varieties

Language Varieties Range Within Tawang Monpa 65–70% Within Dirang Monpa 73–87% Within Kalaktang Monpa 69–79% Within Sartang 52–78% Within Sherdukpen 75% Within Bugun 72–83% Within Miji 54–83% Within Aka 9% Chug with Lish 62% Sartang with Sherdukpen 49–60% Dirang Monpa with Kalaktang Monpa 62–71% Lish and Chug with other Monpa varieties 15–21%

According to Blair (1990:24), when two speech varieties have less than 60% lexical similarity (using the counting procedures described in Appendix A), it can be concluded that those varieties represent different languages. For speech varieties that have greater than 60% lexical similarity, intelligibility testing should be done to determine their relationship. An examination of lexical similarity, table 4, reveals many percentages well below this 60% threshold, clearly indicating that they are different languages. Lexical similarity percentages between every language variety listed in the matrix are below 60% except for Dirang Monpa and Kalaktang Monpa, which range from 62 to 71%. The next closest relationship is between Chug and Lish at 62%, followed by Sartang and Sherdukpen, with percentages between 49 to 60%. Comprehension testing, formal and informal, was carried out between these pairs of languages (Dirang Monpa with Kalaktang Monpa, Sartang with Sherdukpen, and Chug with Lish), as discussed later in this section. All in-language percentages are above 60%, except within Sartang (52 to 78%), Miji (54 to 83%) and Aka (9%). Within Sartang, the highest percentage is 78%, which is between two wordlists from the same village, Darbu. The researchers found that the first wordlist informant included a lot of original words which are not really used now; thus another list was taken from Darbu. Although the similarity between these two wordlists is a comparatively low (78%), the differences between the two Darbu lists and the other Sartang wordlists (from Khoitam and Khoina) turned out to be minimal. The lexical similarity percentage between Khoitam and Khoina is 52%, which would normally represent different languages. Comprehension between Sartang varieties was evaluated with recorded stories, described in section 3.2 below. Within Miji the percentages range between 54 to 83%. Between the two wordlists from East Kameng district and the three wordlists from West Kameng, the similarity percentages are 65% and below. This low degree of similarity may be reflected in the difference in the language name used by Mijis in East Kameng (Namrei) and Mijis in West Kameng (Dammai). Akas are spread in both East Kameng and West Kameng districts. One wordlist was taken from the Hruso Aka (in West Kameng) and, after hearing about another Aka group, another wordlist was elicited from the Koro Aka (in East Kameng). Interestingly, the lexical similarity percentage between these Aka varieties is just 9%, much lower than what would be expected. Wordlists from the Bugun were collected at a later stage, and showed a surprising dissimilarity with all other languages compared (20% and below). The lexical similarity within the Bugun wordlists shows 72 to 83%. 12

3.2 Recorded text testing

3.2.1 Procedures

Through the use of recorded text testing (RTT), an attempt was made to assess the intelligibility levels between speakers of linguistic varieties shown by the wordlist comparison to be closely related. A three- to five-minute natural, personal-experience narrative is recorded on cassette from a mother tongue speaker of one of the speech varieties to be compared. The recorded narrative is first evaluated with a group of mother tongue speakers from the same region by a procedure called hometown testing (HTT). Mother tongue speakers from differing speech varieties then listen to the recorded story and are asked questions (in their mother tongue), interspersed in the story, to test their comprehension. Ten is considered the minimum number of people to be given this test; subjects’ responses to the questions in the story are recorded and scored. A person’s score is considered a reflection of his comprehension of the text, and the average score of all subjects at a test site is indicative of the community’s intelligibility of the speech variety of the story’s origin. The standard deviation, or variation, of the subjects’ scores is also calculated, which helps in interpreting how representative the scores are. After answering comprehension questions for each story, subjects are then asked further questions, such as how much they could understand and their opinion on how good the language was. These post-RTT responses give insight into subjects’ perceptions, which can then be compared with their performance on the test. For a fuller description of recorded text testing procedures, refer to Appendix B.

3.2.2 Site selection

Based on background research, lexical similarity findings and reported comprehension from questionnaires, recorded text testing was carried out between the following language varieties: 1) Dirang Monpa and Kalaktang Monpa and 2) Sartang and Sherdukpen. A story was developed in Dirang Monpa and tested among speakers of Kalaktang Monpa in Khalaktang village. Another RTT was developed in Sartang and tested among the Sherdukpen community in Rupa village. For evaluating comprehension between Chug and Lish, a formal RTT was not developed, but informal playing of a narrative text was utilised. Similarly, informal testing was done between Sartang varieties. The stories and questions used in the testing, demographic profiles of the subjects at each test site, individual test scores and post-HTT/RTT responses are presented in Appendix B.

3.2.3 Results and analysis

Table 5 shows the results of recorded text testing. The results of each HTT are displayed in the cells with the thicker border.

13

Table 5. Recorded text testing (RTT) results

Stories played Story played  Dirang village Khalaktang Darbu Rupa village Dirang Monpa village village Sherdukpen Daily Kalaktang  Sartang Community tested Hunting Story Activities Monpa Dog Story Story Cat Story Darbu avg 98% Sartang sd 5 subjects num 11 Rupa avg 55% 95% Sherdukpen sd 29 7 subjects num 11 11

Dirang avg 100% Dirang Monpa sd 0 subjects num 11

Khalaktang avg 55% 90% Kalaktang Monpa sd 18 7 subjects num 10 10

In interpreting RTT results, three pieces of information are necessary. The first is average percentage (shown as avg in the chart), which is the mean or average of all the participants’ individual scores on a particular story at a particular test site. Also necessary is a measure of how much individuals’ scores vary from the community average, called standard deviation (shown as sd in the chart). The third piece of necessary information is the size of the sample; that is, the number of people who were tested (shown as num in the chart). In general, RTT averages of around 80% or higher with accompanying low standard deviations (10 and below) usually indicate that people from the test point are able to adequately understand the recorded dialect. Conversely, RTT averages below 60% indicate inadequate comprehension. Hometown tests are considered validated when the average score is 90% or above. In this study, all four hometown tests averaged at least 90%, with the Kalaktang HTT averaging right at 90%. Since other testing was done in Khalaktang, villagers were somewhat reluctant to listen to the HTT story. Moreover, during the administration of the HTT there were some significant distractions in the village. These reasons might have affected the HTT scores. All HTT subjects, however, felt that the story was good and pure and was from their own village. The Sartang Dog Story from Darbu played among Sherdukpen subjects in Rupa had a test average of 55%, which would normally be interpreted to indicate inadequate comprehension. Individual scores of the eleven subjects, however, ranged from 10 to 100%, resulting in the high standard deviation of 29. Thus the test average may not be truly representative of the Sherdukpen community’s comprehension of the Sartang variety. Post-RTT responses varied as much as the test scores. Three subjects said they understood the Dog Story only a little, five said they understood half, and three said they understood the story fully. As for perceived differences, six subjects said the speech of the Dog Story was very different from theirs; three said it was only a little different. There is a general correlation between an individual’s RTT score and reported travel patterns. Subjects who said they had travelled to the Sartang area (and thus had been exposed to that speech variety) generally scored higher than those who said they had not travelled to the Sartang area. The Dirang Monpa Daily Activities Story tested among Kalaktang Monpa subjects also averaged a low 55%. The standard deviation for this test was 18, also considered high, with individual scores ranging from 40 to 90%. Post-RTT responses again had as much variation as individual test scores. Eight Kalaktang subjects said the speech in the Dirang story was only a little different, while two reported it 14

was very different from their own. Five subjects claimed they understood the story fully, while two said they could understand only a little. Every subject identified the story as Dirang Monpa. Unlike the previously discussed RTT, there is not much correlation between individual’s test scores and their reported travel patterns, making it more difficult to explain the high standard deviation for this test.

3.3 Informal playing of narrative text

A narrative text was recorded in the Lish language and played among ten speakers of Chug in Chug village. Selected post-HTT/RTT questions were asked after subjects listened to the story. Most of the Chug subjects (six) said they speak a little differently from the storyteller’s speech. Two subjects said the language is the same, while another said the tune is different. Only two subjects said they were able to understand the story fully, while the remaining eight subjects said they were not able to understand the story completely. Since lexical similarity percentages were low among the Sartang wordlists, a story in Sartang from Darbu (different from the Dog Story) was played in Khoina, also in the Sartang area. In response, all subjects in Khoina said the language of the story was the same way people talk in their village, and everyone said they understood the story fully.

3.4 Questionnaire responses

A few questions regarding the relationship between various speech varieties were included, asking subjects what language they use when they meet people from other groups, and how much they understand of different languages.

3.4.1 Monpas7 and Sherdukpen

2. When Monpas from Tawang area (Brahmi Monpas) visit you at your home, what language do you use?8

Tawang Hindi and Dirang Asked in… Hindi MT Monpa MT Monpa Dirang Monpa 2 10 2 2 Kalaktang 5 6 2 1 Monpa Sartang 7 3 0 1 3 Sherdukpen 5 4 0 5

Two subjects in Dirang Monpa said they use Tawang Monpa when they talk with Tawang people, while two each said Hindi and their mother tongue. But the most common answer to this question was Hindi. Among Kalaktang Monpa, five subjects said they use Tawang Monpa when meeting Tawang Monpas. But when it comes to Sartang we found that seven of them were able to speak in Tawang Monpa while three of them said they would use Hindi and another three Dirang Monpa. Only one subject from Sartang reported that he uses Hindi and mother tongue when talking with Tawang Monpas. Among Sherdukpens the subjects are almost equally divided into three categories, Tawang Monpa (five), Hindi and mother tongue (five) and Hindi (four).

7 Includes Tawang Monpa, Kalaktang Monpa, Dirang Monpa and Sartang (But Monpa). 8 The numbers used for the questions in the report correspond to the numbering used in the questionnaire. 15

3a. (to But Monpas and Dirang Monpas) When Sherdukpens or people from Shergaon, Rupa, Jigaon and Thungrao villages of Rupa circle visit you at your home, what language do you use?

Hindi and Asked in… Hindi MT MT Dirang Monpa 13 0 1 Sartang 1 13 0

Among the Dirang Monpa, all subjects except one said they use Hindi to communicate with Sherdukpens. Among the Sartang, the responses were nearly the opposite: all except one said they use their mother tongue to talk with Sherdukpens.

3b. (to Dirang Monpas and Sherdukpens) When Sartangs or people from Jerigaon, Sellary, Khoitam, Rahung and Khoina villages of Nafra circle visit you at your home, what language do you use?

Hindi and Asked in… Hindi MT MT Dirang Monpa 6 5 3 Sherdukpen 3 10 1

Five Dirang Monpa subjects said they use their mother tongue with Sartangs, six said they use Hindi and three use both Hindi and their mother tongue. Among the Sherdukpens, more subjects said they use their mother tongue; three said they use Hindi with Sartangs and one said Hindi and mother tongue.

20a. (to Tawang Monpas) Have you ever talked with Monpas from Dirang and Kalaktang (Tsangla Monpas)? b. If yes, how much did you understand?

Of forty one subjects, 71% said they had talked with Monpas from Dirang and Kalaktang. About equal numbers said they either understand everything or half of their speech.

21a. (to Kalaktang Monpas) Have you ever talked with Monpas from Dirang? b. If yes, how much did you understand?

Of the fourteen Kalaktang Monpas subjects asked, thirteen said they have talked with Monpas from Dirang. About equal numbers of subjects said they either understand everything or half of their speech.

22a. (to Kalaktang Monpas) Have you ever talked with Monpas from Tawang (Brahmi Monpas)? b. If yes, how much did you understand?

Nine of the fourteen Kalaktang Monpa subjects have talked with Monpas from Tawang. Only one said that everything of their speech is understood, two said half, while two-thirds said they could not understand anything.

23a. (Only to Dirang Monpas) Have you ever talked with Monpas from Kalaktang? b. If yes, how much did you understand?

Nine of the fourteen Dirang Monpas subjects have talked with Monpas from Kalaktang. Four subjects said they understand everything, four subjects said they understand 80%, while six subjects said they use only Hindi with Kalaktang Monpas.

24a. (to Dirang Monpas) Have you ever talked with Monpas from Tawang (Brahmi Monpas)? b. If yes, how much did you understand?

Eleven of the fourteen Dirang Monpas subjects have talked with Monpas from Tawang. Everyone said they either understand little or nothing at all. 16

3.4.2 Bugun9

15a. When you meet Sherdukpen people what language do you use? b. How much do you understand of their language?

The older Bugun people generally speak Sherdukpen, but the younger generation uses Hindi. Of twenty subjects, two people said they understand everything of the Sherdukpen language, four said they understand half and fourteen said not at all. The two subjects who said they understand everything are older people, the four subjects who said “half” are middle aged, and the rest are young people.

16a. When you meet Aka people what language do you use? b. How much do you understand of their language?

Most of the Bugun subjects responded that they use Hindi with the Aka, while a few use Aka and Miji. Two subjects said they understand everything, eight subjects said half and the rest “not at all.” Buguns, Miji and Akas live close together, which might be the reason for some people’s understanding of these languages.

17a. When you meet Monpa people what language do you use? b. How much do you understand of their language?

Eighty percent of the subjects said they use Hindi when they talk with Monpas. Others use both Monpa and Hindi. Sixteen subjects said they do not understand Monpa at all, three said they understand half of it, while one subject said he understands everything.

3.4.3 Miji

15a. When you meet Aka people what language do you use?

All the subjects responded that they use Hindi.

4 Language use, attitudes and vitality

A study of language use patterns attempts to describe which languages or speech varieties members of a community use in different social situations. These situations, called domains, are contexts in which the use of one language variety is considered more appropriate than another (Fasold 1984:183). A study of language attitudes generally attempts to describe people’s feelings and preferences towards their own language and other speech varieties around them, and what value they place on those languages. Ultimately these views, whether explicit or unexpressed, will influence the results of efforts towards literacy and the acceptability of literature development. Language vitality refers to the prospects for a language to continue to be spoken and passed on to succeeding generations. It is a reflection of the overall strength of a language, its perceived usefulness in a wide variety of situations, and its likelihood of enduring through the coming generations.

9 As mentioned in the introduction, fieldwork among the Bugun and Miji was done after fieldwork among the Monpas and Sherdukpen, and the questionnaires used were slightly different. Thus, questionnaire responses for Bugun and Miji are discussed separately. 17

4.1 Questionnaire procedures

An orally administered questionnaire was the primary method for seeking answers to questions on language use, language attitudes and language vitality. Informal interviews and observation were also utilised. The Language Use, Attitudes and Vitality (LUAV) questionnaire can be found in Appendix D. Subjects were sampled according to three demographic categories: education, age and gender, subdivided as follows:10 Educated (5th standard and above) and Uneducated (0 to 4th) Younger (age 30 and below), Middle (31–50), Older (above 50) Male and Female The LUAV questionnaire was administered, in Hindi, to a total of 107 subjects representing seven people groups, shown in table 6. The location of the interview sites is given in table 7.

Table 6. Distribution of sample of LUAV questionnaire subjects

Gender Age Education Group Female Male Younger Middle Older Uneduc Educ Tawang 7 6 5 4 4 8 5 Monpa (13) Kalaktang 7 7 5 6 3 7 7 Monpa (14) Dirang 4 10 7 4 3 6 8 Monpa (14) Sartang 8 6 7 4 3 11 3 (14) Sherdukpen 6 8 5 6 3 7 7 (14) Bugun (20) 8 12 4 11 5 6 14 Miji (18) 5 13 8 6 4 14 4 Total 45 62 41 41 25 59 48

Table 7. Location of questionnaire sites

Group Village District Tawang Monpa Changprong Tawang Kalaktang Monpa Khalaktang village West Kameng Dirang Monpa Dirang village West Kameng Sartang Darbu West Kameng Sherdukpen Rupa West Kameng Bugun Bichom, Kaspi, Namphri, West Kameng Singchung, Wangho Miji Bisai, Dibin, Nabolang, West/East Kameng Nafra, Rurang

10 In some cases, respondents with minimal levels of education were reluctant to answer the questionnaire. When the women had difficulty answering some of the questions, the language helpers or onlookers sometimes suggested some possible answers. 18

4.2 Questionnaires among the Monpas11 and Sherdukpen

4.2.1 Language use

Table 8 summarises the domains of language use reported by the sixty-nine Monpa and Sherdukpen questionnaire subjects. Results are shown indicating the percentage of subjects who gave a particular response. Categories of answers are separated into MT (mother tongue), Hindi, MTH (mother tongue and Hindi), MTO (mother tongue and others) and outside (a language other than Hindi, such as Nepali, Assamese Tibetan or English).

Table 8. Domains of language use among Monpas and Sherdukpen

Questions Response Domain 1. What language Bothi/ MT Hindi MTH MTO a Outside do you use… Tibetan a. With family Home 100% - - - - - members? Intra b. In the village? 100% - - - - - group c. With neighbouring villagers: c1. If they are Inter MT speakers of 100% - - - - - group your language? c2. If they speak a language 23% 52% 12% - - 13% different from yours? Market d. In the market? 13% 52% 22% 4% - 9% e. In Puja/ Religion 73% 1% - 7% 19% - Worship a‘Bothi’ was the word given heard by subjects for referring to Tibetan. It is not certain if this is the same as ‘Bhoti’, a broad name typically given to Tibetan-related language varieties.

In almost all of the domains studied, the mother tongue was reported by subjects to be the primary language used. Of sixty-nine subjects, every subject responded that they use the mother tongue in the home, village, and with neighbouring villagers who speak the same language. For puja, 72% reported using the mother tongue; 19% said they speak Tibetan in this situation. The second most widely used language as reported by subjects in this sample is Hindi, the state language. About half responded that they use Hindi at the market and with neighbouring villagers who speak a different language. In many market places, the speakers are outsiders who do not speak any Monpa language, and thus would be a reason a greater number of subjects speak Hindi in this situation.

11 Includes Tawang Monpa, Kalaktang Monpa, Dirang Monpa and Sartang (But Monpa). 19

4.2.2 Language attitudes and vitality

Several questions on the LUAV questionnaire were designed to help assess the attitudes of Monpa dialect and Sherdukpen speakers toward their mother tongue and Hindi. 4a. How would you feel if the younger generation stopped speaking your language?

Nearly all subjects from different groups said they would feel bad if the younger generation stopped speaking their language. Ten percent of the subjects said they would feel good.

5. Is it good for your children to learn how to read and write in your language?

Almost every subject responded that they would like to see their children learn to read and write in their mother tongue.

6. What language do you want your children to learn first? (If no children, if ever you had children?)

Overall, 71% of the subjects stated that their children should learn the mother tongue (whatever their respective language). Ten percent said children should learn Hindi first, and 10% said English. The researchers observed that, according to the understanding of some subjects, the mother tongue comes naturally, so children need to focus only on learning Hindi or other languages.

7. Would you like to read and write in your mother tongue?

Almost everyone said they want to read and write in their mother tongue.

8. Which language do you need to speak in order to get a job?12

Over 90% of the subjects said either Hindi, English or both Hindi and English are needed.

9. Is it good for a person to speak only MT?

Two-thirds of the subjects answered that it is not good to speak the mother tongue alone, with the remaining one-third responding that it is good to speak only the mother tongue.

10. Would you be happy if your child spoke only Hindi?

Overall, a majority of the subjects (71%) responded that they would not be happy if their child spoke only Hindi. The rest commented that it would be good if their children spoke only Hindi.

12. After fifty years, do you think MT (Monpa, Sartang/Sherdukpen) will be spoken?

Of 69 subjects, 63 responded that their mother tongue will be spoken by the coming generations. Three subjects felt that their language would die out, and three were not sure whether it would be spoken or not after fifty years.

4.2.3 Dialects

A few questions were asked about purity and variation within the language.

13a. In which village do you think the purest/sweetest variety (Monpa, Sartang/Sherdukpen) is spoken? 13 b. Why do you say this is the purest variety?

12 The objective of this question was to prepare a platform for the subject to answer the next question. 20

No one place emerged where the purest or sweetest Monpa/Sartang/Sherdukpen is spoken. Most people either said their own village, everywhere is pure, or they could not really say. When people were asked why a certain place was most pure, no clear response emerged.

14. Is there a village where your mother tongue is spoken differently from yours? If yes, where?

Most people felt there was at least some place that spoke differently than they do. The greatest percentage of people (22%) said that all other villages speak differently. The location that received the most responses (13%) was Shergaon, in Rupa circle.

4.3 Questionnaires among the Bugun13

4.3.1 Language use

Table 9. Domains of language use among Bugun Questions Response Domain 1. What language MT Hindi MTH Depends Others do you use… a. With family Home 80% 15% 5% - - members? Intra b. With children? 70% 10% 20% - - group c. In the village? 90% - 10% - - d. With neighbouring 1 2 3 4 5 villagers: d1. If they are Inter MT speakers of 100% - - - - group your language? d2. If they speak a language 65% - - 35% - different from yours? Market e. In the market? 25% 30% - 45% - f. In Puja/ Puja 90% 5% - - 5% Worship

Table 9 shows that, on the whole, Bugun speakers use their mother tongue widely in all questioned domains, except in the market, where Hindi is spoken more. In the market and with neighbouring villagers who speak a different language, a notable percentage of subjects responded, “It depends on what language the other person speaks.” In the home and village, a small percentage of subjects said they use both their mother tongue and Hindi.

13 As mentioned in the introduction, fieldwork among the Bugun, and Miji, was done after fieldwork among the Monpas and Sherdukpen, and the questionnaires used were slightly different. Thus, questionnaire responses for Bugun and Miji are discussed separately. 21

4.3.2 Language attitudes and vitality

5a. How would you feel if the younger generation stopped speaking your language?

All 20 Bugun subjects responded that they would feel bad if the younger generation stopped speaking their own language.

6. Is it good for your children to learn how to read and write in your language? 8. Would you like to read and write in your mother tongue?

All the subjects responded positively to these two questions, saying it is good if their children learn to read and write in their mother tongue, and that they themselves would like to do so.

7. What language do you want your children to learn first? (If you have children now, or ever had children)

All the subjects but one wanted their children to learn their mother tongue first. The subject who said he wanted his children to learn Hindi first is a teacher, which may be the reason behind his answer.

9. Which language do you need to speak in order to get a job?14

Fifty-five percent of the subjects stated that they would need to use Hindi to get a job, while the other 45% said it depends on what language the other person speaks.

10. Is it good for a person to speak only MT?

Of the 20 subjects, 18 said it is not good to speak only the mother tongue. The reason mentioned by the two subjects who said “yes” to this question was that it is their mother tongue and it is prestigious to speak one’s mother tongue.

11a. Would you be happy if your child spoke only another language?

All except one subject said they would not be happy if their children spoke only another language. One subject said speaking only another language is good since his language has no written form and may die in the future.

12. After fifty years, do you think Bugun will be spoken?

All the subjects felt that Bugun will continue to be spoken even after fifty years.

4.3.3 Dialects

13a. Is there a village where Bugun is spoken differently from yours? b. If yes, where? c. How different is it? (very different/some difference/ no difference)

Of the 20 subjects, 18 said there are places where the language is spoken differently, most saying Singchung and Wangho. No one stated a place where their language is spoken very differently from their own.

14. In which village do you think the purest/sweetest variety (Bugun) is spoken?

Half of the subjects said their own village; eight said there is no purest variety as such but that “all are same.”

14 As with Monpas and Sherdukpen, the objective of this question was to prepare a platform for the subject to answer the next question. 22

4.4 Questionnaires among the Miji

4.4.1 Language use

Table 10. Domains of language use among Miji

Questions Response Domain 1. What language do you MT Hindi MTH Depends Others use… a. With family members? 100% - - - - Home b. With children? 100% - - - - Intra c. In the village? 100% - - - - group d. With neighbouring

villagers: d1. If they are MT Inter 100% - - - - speakers of your language? group d2. If they speak a language different from 6% 94% - - - yours? Market e. In the market? 6% - - 94% - Puja f. In Puja/Worship 100% - - - -

It is clear from table 10 that all Miji subjects (18) said they speak their mother tongue in many domains questioned. With neighbouring villagers who speak a different language, 94% said they use Hindi. In the market, some use their mother tongue, but nearly all said the language they speak depends on the situation.

4.4.2 Language attitudes and vitality

4a. How would you feel if the younger generation stopped speaking your language?

All except one Miji subject said it is bad to stop speaking their own language. One subject responded “good” because their language is not developed.

5. Is it good for your children to learn how to read and write in your language? 7. Would you like to read and write in your mother tongue?

Everyone said it is good for their children to learn to read and write in their mother tongue. Subjects also all said they themselves would like to learn.

6. What language do you want your children to learn first? (If no children, if ever you had children)

All subjects wanted their children to learn Miji before any other language.

8. Which language do you need to speak in order to get a job?

All of the 18 subjects responded they would use Hindi in order to get a job.

9. Is it good for a person to speak only Miji?

All the 18 subjects said it is not good for a person to speak only Miji.

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10a. Would you be happy if your child spoke only another language?

Seventeen subjects said they would feel bad if their children spoke only another language, but one subject said it is good because their language is not developed.

11. After fifty years, do you think Miji will be spoken? All the subjects felt their language would continue to be spoken even after fifty years.

4.4.3 Dialects

12a. Is there a village where Miji is spoken differently from yours? b. If yes, where? c. How different is it?

Most of the subjects (15) responded there is no village where Miji is spoken differently. Three subjects reported there is some difference, and said people who live in Nafra area speak with a little different tune. These responses are in contrast to low lexical similarity percentages between the various Miji varieties. The low percentages may be explained in part because of wordlists not being checked.15

13a. In which village do you think the purest/sweetest Miji is spoken?

Most of the subjects (16) responded that Miji speakers speak the same way everywhere. One subject said Lada is where the purest Miji is spoken because, according to him, their speech is clear. Only after administering the questionnaire did the researchers learn he himself was from Lada. The remaining subject spoke on behalf of others, mentioning that everyone would say their own village language is most pure.

5 Bilingualism

Bilingualism “refers to the knowledge and skills acquired by individuals, which enable them to use a language other than their mother tongue” (Blair 1990:52). Bilingual ability is not normally uniformly distributed within a community. Different individuals and sections of a community are proficient to varying degrees, depending on their motivation and on the nature and extent of their contact with the second language.

5.1 Sentence repetition test

5.1.1 Procedures

One of the methods used for evaluating bilingual proficiency was the Hindi sentence repetition test (SRT). The SRT is a screening tool for a community-wide bilingual profile, not a diagnostic tool to assess an individual’s strengths and weaknesses in a second language (Radloff 1991). A sentence repetition test (SRT) consists of a set of fifteen carefully selected sentences, with three practice sentences at the beginning. The test starts with short, simple sentences, which become progressively longer and more grammatically complex. Each sentence is played once and the subject is evaluated on his or her ability to repeat each sentence accurately. A subject’s ability to accurately repeat the sentences of increasing difficulty is directly correlated with the ability to speak and understand the language: the higher the score, the higher the bilingual proficiency. SRT results are expressed as a point total out of the maximum 45 points. They are also expressed as an equivalent bilingual proficiency level or reported proficiency evaluation (RPE) level. The RPE levels

15 Experience with wordlist analyses from other projects of this type indicates that checking a wordlist generally increases its percentage with other wordlists by several percentage points. 24

range from 0+ (very minimal proficiency) to 4+ (approaching the proficiency level of a native speaker). Figure 1 shows the Hindi SRT score ranges with corresponding RPE levels. Further description of the SRT procedure, subjects’ SRT scores and demographic profiles for all subjects may be found in Appendix C.

5.1.2 Sampling and site selection

The demographic variables deemed most likely to influence bilingualism were education, age and gender.16 These factors were taken into account in the sample of subjects, which was subdivided as follows: Educated (4th standard and above) and Uneducated (0 to 3rd standard) Younger (ages 16 to 35) and Older (ages 36 and above) Male and Female In this survey the Hindi SRT was administered in three Monpa groups: Kalaktang Monpa (Khalaktang village), Sartang (Darbu village) and Tawang Monpa (Lhou village). Khalaktang village is close to the border of Bhutan, around one kilometre from Kalaktang town. The total population of the village is 203 according to 1991 census. It is connected by road to Bomdila and Tezpur. Darbu village is 25 kilometres from Bomdila towards Tawang on the main road. The total population of this village is 382 according to the 1991 census. This is a newly established village of villagers who have migrated from interior villages. Lhou is a large village which is 15 kilometres away from Tawang, the district headquarters, and is situated on both sides of the Tawang main road. The general population of Lhou village is approximately 1500.

5.1.3 Results and analysis

The Hindi SRT was administered to a total number of 131 subjects: 47 among Kalaktang Monpa of Khalaktang village, 24 among Sartang of Darbu village and 60 among Tawang Monpa of Lhou village. Figure 1 shows the percentage of SRT subjects scoring at each RPE level.

16 It was difficult to find older, educated females, and in some cases, female and uneducated subjects were unwilling to take the SRT because of their professed inability in Hindi. 25

Figure 1. Percentage of SRT subjects scoring at each RPE level. It is generally believed a person must be at an RPE level of at least 3+ in order to discuss and understand deeper concepts in a second language. Figure 1 shows that in each of the groups tested, there is a notable percentage of subjects who scored at RPE levels 0+ to 3. Among the Kalaktang subjects, 81% scored at these levels, among Sartang 83%, and 65% of the Tawang subjects scored at RPE level 3 and below. Tables 11 through 13 show the SRT results of each location, divided according to the demographic factors of education, age, and gender. Each box contains the number of subjects (n), the average SRT score for that group (Avg), the standard deviation (sd) expressed as a number of points (out of the 45 possible on the SRT), and the RPE level corresponding to the average score.

Table 11. SRT results among Kalaktang Monpa (Khalaktang village)

Uneducated Educated Total sample n=47 n=34 (72%) n=13 (28%) n=14 n=6 Avg=20 Avg=30 Younger sd=9.8 sd=5.9 Male RPE=2+ RPE=3 n=28 (60%) n=7 n=1 Avg=10 Avg=32 Older sd=9.3 RPE=3+ RPE=1+ n=8 n=6 Avg=10 Avg=30 Younger sd=8.1 sd=9.9 Female RPE=1+ RPE=3 n=19 (40%) n=5 n=0 Avg=8 Older sd=10 RPE=1+

26

Table 12. SRT results among Sartang (Darbu village)

Uneducated Educated Total sample n=24 n=14 (58%) n=10 (42%) n=11 n=7 Avg=10 Avg=30 Younger sd=11 sd=13 Male RPE=1+ RPE=3 n=21 (88%) n=2 n=1 Avg=3 Avg=30 Older sd=3.5 RPE=0+ RPE=3 n=1 n=2 Avg=16 Avg=20 Female Younger n=3 sd=2.1 (12%) RPE=2 RPE=2+ Older n=0 n=0

Table 13. SRT results among Tawang Monpa (Lhou village)

Uneducated Educated Total sample n=60 n=31 (52%) n=29 (48%) n=13 n=14 Avg=20 Avg=30 Younger sd=9.7 sd=8.9 Male RPE=2+ RPE=3 n=39 (65%) n=10 n=2 Avg=20 Avg=24 Older sd=9.3 sd=4.2 RPE=2+ RPE=2+ n=4 n=13 Avg=20 Avg=31 Younger sd=12.5 sd=10.2 Female RPE=2+ RPE=3 n=21 (35%) n=4 n=0 Avg=10 Older sd=12.1 RPE=1+

Among the SRT subjects in each of the three groups tested, education is clearly the most consistent measurable factor influencing Hindi bilingualism. Educated subjects, whether male, female, younger or older, consistently had higher averages than those subjects who are not educated, regardless of their gender or age. The demographic variables of gender and age had little correlation with SRT scores, and thus with Hindi bilingual proficiency.

5.2 Questionnaires

A few questions regarding the subjects’ bilingual abilities were included in the Language Use, Attitude and Vitality questionnaire, to get a picture of people’s self-reported ability in Hindi. These bilingualism questions were asked to 107 subjects, representing seven people groups. 27

5.2.1 Monpas and Sherdukpen17

15. Where did you learn Hindi?

Of the 69 subjects questioned, about half reported that they learned Hindi by talking with others, one-third said from school, and others said they learned Hindi from their childhood.

16. When do children start speaking Hindi?

Responses to this question were unique for almost every subject. The most common answer was ‘from childhood’, answered by one-third of the subjects. Others said ‘at school’ and answers with ages ranging from ages 2–7 years.

17. What occasions do you use Hindi mainly?

The most common response from subjects was the one-quarter who gave general answers of using Hindi whenever needed. Others gave more specific places such as the market, community gatherings, offices, and school. Non-Hindi speakers (17%) were not asked this question.

18. Is there anyone in your village who doesn’t speak your language at all?

Almost all subjects (88%) said “No”, four subjects said “Yes”, and four said “Maybe.”

19. How well do you understand the Hindi programmes broadcasted on radio and TV?

Twenty-eight percent of the subjects said they understand Hindi programmes on TV/radio fully, while 19% said they were not able to understand anything; 22% said they understand half. 12% of the subjects understood no Hindi.

5.2.2 Bugun

2a. What other languages do you speak? b. Which one do you know best? c. On what occasions do you use this language?

Hindi was the most common answer to the question of what other languages subjects speak. The rest gave various answers such as Aka, Miji, Monpa, Nepali, Sherdukpen, Assamese and English. Three-quarters of the subjects said that they know Hindi best. It was reported that the older generation speaks neighbouring languages well, unlike the younger generation. Everyone said they use other languages when needed.

3. Is there anyone in your village who doesn’t speak your language at all?

All responded that there is no one in the village who does not speak their language.

4. How well do you understand the Hindi/Assamese programmes broadcasted on radio and TV?

Answers varied from person to person. Half of the subjects said they understand everything, 35% responded they understand half, while the rest said they understand only a little.

17 As with the Language Use, Attitudes and Vitality section, questionnaire responses for Bugun and Miji are discussed separately from Monpas and Sherdukpen, since fieldwork was done at different times and the questionnaires used were slightly different. 28

5.2.3 Miji

1a. What other languages do you speak? b. Which one do you know best? c. On what occasions do you use this language?

Most of the subjects answered Hindi, while a few said other languages like Bangni, Assamese and English. One person said he doesn’t speak any other language except for his mother tongue. All except one said they understand Hindi best, and said they speak the language anytime.

2. How well do you understand the Hindi programmes broadcasted on radio and TV? Twelve of seventeen subjects said they understand “half” and five subjects said “little.”

6 Recommendations

Among all the language varieties in this study, the mother tongue is strongly used in nearly all social situations, particularly in the home and village. Though speakers of these different languages have favourable attitudes towards Hindi, it does not appear that Hindi, or any other language, is likely to replace their mother tongue in the foreseeable future. Among some groups the ability to understand Hindi and use materials in the language is limited. There seems to be good receptivity towards language development in the mother tongue. The study of language variation shows much dissimilarity between most of the groups. Based on these factors, it is recommended that language development be initiated in the mother tongue for each of the varieties discussed below. It is further recommended that mother tongue literacy should be a significant component of any language development programme. Before language development work is initiated, a number of factors and issues should be considered, such as how much vernacular materials should be produced, types of materials that would be relevant and appropriate for the community, whether materials in one language might serve as a reference for development in another language, the language(s) used in the materials, and the media in which they are produced.

6.1 Monpas

Monpas, although often recognised as one community, do not have a common language intelligible for all. This conclusion is supported by the findings of the survey. Consequently, there is no potential for a single language development programme that will cover all the Monpa communities. Tawang Monpa stands very different from all other Monpa varieties—and other languages covered in this project. Based on this, as well as healthy language use and attitudes among the community, it is recommended to have a separate language development programme for the group. Among the Dirang Monpa and Kalaktang Monpa, there is a certain degree of similarity in the language where shared projects may be feasible. However, the overall findings from the research make it unlikely that materials produced in either Dirang or Kalaktang can effectively serve the other group. Chug Monpa and Lish Monpa together are very different from all the other Monpa varieties. At the very least a separate project should be initiated to cover both groups together. It is not certain from the available data (wordlists and informal comprehension testing) whether a project in Chug or Lish would benefit the other. Once a project is in progress this may become more clear, and further survey may also be needed to help clarify the situation. Although Sartang (also referred to as But Monpa) is considered to be a Monpa variety, it is not linguistically similar to any of the other Monpa varieties, but is most similar to Sherdukpen. Although there was notable variation within the Sartang wordlists, informal testing indicates that there is good comprehension between Sartang speakers of different villages. It is felt that a single language development program would cover all Sartang speakers. 29

6.2 Sherdukpen

Though there is linguistic (and some cultural) similarity between Sherdukpen and Sartang, shared materials between these communities would probably not be feasible, based on results from the survey research. Thus language development work should also be initiated among the Sherdukpen people.

6.3 Miji and Bugun

Miji and Bugun each merit separate language development efforts as they prove themselves to be linguistically different from all other language varieties. Each of these groups have positive attitudes towards their mother tongue, and feel their languages will continue to be spoken in the future.

6.4 Aka

It is clear that both Koro Aka and Hruso Aka are very different from all other language groups covered in the survey. Furthermore, based on lexical similarity findings and people’s perceptions, Koro Aka and Hruso Aka themselves appear to be just as distinct from each other as they are from the other groups surveyed. Thus language development efforts in one variety of Aka may not reach the other group. It is recommended that further investigation be carried out to clarify this. Appendix A: Wordlists

Lexical similarity counting procedures18

A standardised list of 307 vocabulary items was collected from speakers at key locations for each of the speech varieties studied in this survey. In standard procedure, the words are elicited from a person who has grown up in the target locality. Ideally, the list is then collected a second time from another speaker at the same site. Any differences in responses are examined in order to identify the following: (1) inaccurate responses due to misunderstanding of the elicitation cue, (2) loan words offered in response to the language of elicitation when indigenous terms are actually still in use, and (3) terms which are at different places along the generic-specific lexical scale. Normally, a single term is recorded for each item of the wordlist. However, more than one term is recorded for a single item when more than one specific term occupies the semantic area of a more generic item on the wordlist. The wordlists are compared to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1), and of the remaining segments at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two more are rather similar. The criteria applied are as follows:

Category 1:

• Contoid (consonant-like) segments which match exactly. • Vocoid (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature. • Phonetically similar segments (of the sort which frequently are found as allophones) which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words.

Category 2:

• All other phonetically similar non-vocalic pairs of segments which are not supported by at least three pairs of words. • Vowels which differ by two or more articulatory features.

Category 3:

• Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar. • A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item and position. Blair (1990:32) writes, “In contextualizing these rules to specific surveys in South Asia, the following differences between two items are ignored: (a) interconsonantal [ə], (b) word initial, word final, or intervocalic [h, ɦ], (c) any deletion which is shown to be the result of a regularly occurring process in a specific environment.” Table 14 summarises lower threshold limits for considering words as phonetically similar with a specified length (number of segments or phones):

18 This description of lexical similarity counting procedures is partially adapted from that found in Appendix A of O’Leary (1992:207–208).

30 31

Table 14. Threshold limits of phonetically similar words

Word Length Category One Category Two Category Three 2 2 0 0 3 2 1 0 4 2 1 1 5 3 1 1 6 3 2 1 7 4 2 1 8 4 2 2 9 5 2 2 10 5 3 2 11 6 3 2 12 6 3 3

Some modifications to the lexical similarity grouping procedures summarised in Blair were also applied to the wordlists compared in this study. The need for this came about for several reasons. First, the wordlists were often not checked with a second mother tongue speaker of each speech variety. Second, the wordlists could not always be consistently elicited. In addition, the field workers’ phonetic transcription abilities varied with skill, experience and their own language background.

Modifications to lexical similarity procedures

Root-based groupings: Wordlists were not always consistently elicited. In some cases generic terms appear to have been given, while in other cases more specific terms have been given. Also, verb forms were not elicited consistently with regard to person or tense. Because of these factors, it was often necessary to group words based on what appears to be a common root morpheme, rather than based on words as a whole. Loose consonantal groupings: The field workers eliciting the words may have heard and transcribed the sounds slightly differently, and probably with increasing ability to distinguish similar sounds as they gained experience. Thus, some consonant correspondences have been liberally grouped as similar. Metathesis: In the case of metathesis, words were grouped as similar. As seen in the table 14, comparison between a two-segment word must have both segments in category 1. Since the rationale for the distribution is that at least half of the segments compared should be category 1, this principle was applied to two segment words so that a distribution of 1-1-0 was considered similar. Other exceptional rules: • Aspirated and unaspirated sounds were considered under category one. • Nasalised and unnasalised vowels were considered under category one. • Word-initial and word-final [ʔ] were ignored. • Lengthening in both vowels and consonants were ignored. • Disregarded /ə/ according to word-length. After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar or dissimilar according to the above criteria, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. This procedure was repeated for all linguistic varieties under consideration in the survey. The pair-by-pair counting procedure was greatly facilitated by use of the Wordsurv computer program. It should be noted that wordlist data and transcribed texts included in subsequent appendices are field transcriptions and have not undergone thorough phonological or grammatical analysis.

32

Wordlist information and language assistant biodata

Sartang/Khoitam/W.Kameng Sp MT: Sartang Other lgs: Hindi, Assamese, English, Nepali, Wordsurv db ref: b Bhutanese, Tibetan Date: 28.11.03 Rechecked: Yes Village: Khoitam District: West Kameng Miji/Nafra/W.Kameng Sex: Male Age: 60 Wordsurv db ref: e Education: 0 Date: 08.12.03 Occupation: Gauburah Village: Nafra Birthplace: Khoitam District: West Kameng Residence: Khoitam Sex: Male MT: Sartang Age: 42 Fa MT: Sartang Education: 5 Mo MT: Sartang Occupation: Ex.ASM Sp MT: Sartang Birthplace: Nafra Other lgs: Hindi, Nepali, Assamese Residence: Nafra Rechecked: Yes MT: Miji Fa MT: Miji Chug/Chug/W.Kameng Mo MT: Miji Sp MT: Miji Wordsurv db ref: c Other lgs: Hindi, Assamese, Nepali Date: 02.12.03 Rechecked: Yes Village: Parchu (Chug) District: West Kameng Monpa/Tawang Monastery/W.Kameng Sex: Male Age: 38 Wordsurv db ref: f Education: 8th Date: 03.12.03 Occupation: A.S.M Village: Tawang Monastery Birthplace: Parchu District: Tawang Residence: Parchu Sex: Male MT: Chug Age: 22 Fa MT: Chug Education: 0 Mo MT: Chug Occupation: N.A. Sp MT: Chug Birthplace: Shenup Other lgs: Hindi Residence: Monastery Rechecked: Yes MT: Monpa Fa MT: Monpa Sartang/Darbu/W.Kameng Mo MT: Monpa Sp MT: N.A. Wordsurv db ref: d Other lgs: Hindi Date: 27.11.03 Remarks: Collected from a lama in the Village: Darbu Buddhist Monastery at Tawang. District: West Kameng Rechecked: Yes Sex: Male Age: 40 Lish/Lish/W.Kameng Education: 12th Occupation: Ex-A.S.M Wordsurv db ref: g Birthplace: Darbu Date: 02.12.03 Residence: Darbu Village: Lish MT: Sartang District: West Kameng Fa MT: Sartang Sex: Male Mo MT: Sartang Age: 40

33

Education: 7 Sex: Male Occupation: Farmer Age: 32 Birthplace: Lish Education: 5 Residence: Lish Occupation: PHE MT: Monpa Birthplace: Jamiri Fa MT: Monpa Residence: Jamiri Mo MT: Monpa MT: Hruso Aka Sp MT: Monpa Fa MT: Hruso Aka Other lgs: Hindi Mo MT: Hruso Aka Rechecked: Yes Sp MT: Hruso Aka Other lgs: Hindi, Assamese Monpa/Kalaktang/W.Kameng Rechecked: Yes Wordsurv db ref: h Monpa/Dirang Dum/W.Kameng Date: 08.12.03 Village: Kalaktang Wordsurv db ref: k District: West Kameng Date: 02.12.03 Sex: Male Village: Dirang Age: 38 District: West Kameng Education: BA Sex: Female Occupation: Teacher Age: 40 Birthplace: Dengji (5km) Education: 0 Residence: Kalaktang Occupation: H/Wife MT: Kalaktang Monpa Birthplace: Dirang Fa MT: Kalaktang Monpa Residence: Dirang Mo MT: Kalaktang Monpa MT: Dirang Monpa Sp MT: Kalaktang Monpa Fa MT: Dirang Monpa Other lgs: English, Hindi, Nepali, Assamese Mo MT: Dirang Monpa Remarks: His speech was not very clear. Sp MT: Dirang Monpa Other lgs: Hindi, Nepali, Assamese Sherdukpen/Rupa/W.Kameng Rechecked: Yes Wordsurv db ref: i Sartang/Darbu/W.Kameng Date: 06.12.03 Village: Rupa Wordsurv db ref: l District: West Kameng Date: 04.02.04 Sex: Male Village: Darbu Age: 55 District: West Kameng Education: 4 Sex: Male Occupation: Progressive Farmer Age: 45 Birthplace: Rupa Education: 7 Residence: Rupa Occupation: Medical Service MT: Sherdukpen Birthplace: Darbu Fa MT: Sherdukpen Residence: Darbu Mo MT: Sherdukpen MT: Sartang Sp MT: Sherdukpen Fa MT: Sartang Other lgs: Hindi, Assamese Mo MT: Sartang Rechecked: Yes Sp MT: Sartang Other lgs: Hindi Hruso Aka/Jamiri/W.Kameng Sartang/Khoina/W.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: j Date: 10.12.03 Wordsurv db ref: m Village: Jamiri Date: 11.02.04 District: West Kameng Village: Khoina

34

District: West Kameng District: W.Kameng Sex: Male Sex: Male Age: 35 Age: 26 Education: 7 Education: 9 Occupation: Government Service Occupation: N.A. Birthplace: Khoina Birthplace: Balemu Residence: Khoina Residence: Balemu MT: Sartang MT: Kalaktang Monpa Fa MT: Sartang Fa MT: Kalaktang Monpa Mo MT: Sartang Mo MT: Kalaktang Monpa Sp MT: Sartang Sp MT: Kalaktang Monpa Rechecked: Yes Other lgs: Hindi, Assamese

Monpa/Sangti/W.Kameng Monpa/Tomko/W.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: n Wordsurv db ref: q Date: 19/03/04 Date: 29/03/04 Village: Sangti Pudung Village: Tomko (Morsing) District: West Kameng District: West Kameng Sex: Male Sex: Male Age: 23 Age: 25 Education: 8 Education: 0 Occupation: Businessman Occupation: N.A. Birthplace: Sangti Pudung Birthplace: Tomko Residence: Sangti Pudung Residence: Tomko MT: Dirang Monpa MT: Kalaktang Monpa Fa MT: Dirang Monpa Fa MT: Kalaktang Monpa Mo MT: Dirang Monpa Mo MT: Kalaktang Monpa Sp MT: N.A. Sp MT: N.A. Other lgs: Hindi Other lgs: Hindi Remarks: The wordlist was collected at Monpa/Dirang/W.Kameng Kalaktang. Wordsurv db ref: o Monpa/Zimithang/W.Kameng Date: 18/03/04 Village: Dirang Wordsurv db ref: r District: West Kameng Date: 05/04/04 Sex: Male Village: Zimithang Age: 26 District: Tawang Education: 10 Sex: Male Occupation: N.A. Age: 25 Birthplace: Dirang village Education: 0 Residence: Dirang village Occupation: Driver MT: Dirang Monpa Birthplace: Zimithang Fa MT: Dirang village Residence: Zimithang Mo MT: Dirang village MT: Tawang Monpa Sp MT: N.A. Fa MT: Tawang Monpa Other lgs: Hindi, English Mo MT: Tawang Monpa Rechecked: Yes Sp MT: N.A. Other lgs: Hindi, Nepali Monpa/Balemu/W.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: p Date: 31/03/04 Village: Balemu

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Monpa/Changprong/W.Kameng Bugun/Singchung/W.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: s Wordsurv db ref: v Date: 4/04/04 Date: 13/07/04 Village: Changprong Village: Singchung District: Tawang District: West Kameng Sex: Female Sex: Male Age: 23 Age: 37 Education: 9 Education: B.A Occupation: Government Service Occupation: U.D.C. Birthplace: Changprong Birthplace: Singchung Residence: Changprong Residence: Singchung MT: Tawang Monpa Fa MT: Bugun Fa MT: Tawang Monpa Mo MT: Bugun Mo MT: Tawang Monpa Sp MT: Bugun Sp MT: N.A. Other lgs: Hindi, English, Nepali, Assamese Other lgs: Hindi, English Rechecked: Yes Rechecked: Yes Bugun/Wangho/W.Kameng Monpa/Namsu/W.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: w Wordsurv db ref: t Date: 11/07/04 Date: 23/03/04 Village: Wangho Village: Namsu District: West Kameng District: West Kameng Sex: Male Sex: Male Age: 42 Age: 57 Education: 8 Education: 5 Occupation: N.A. Occupation: Political Leader Birthplace: Wangho Birthplace: Namsu Residence: Wangho Residence: Namsu MT: Bugun MT: Dirang Monpa Fa MT: Bugun Fa MT: Dirang Monpa Mo MT: Bugun Mo MT: Dirang Monpa Sp MT: Bugun Sp MT: Dirang Monpa Other lgs: Hindi, English, Assamese Rechecked: Yes Bugun/Bichom/W.Kameng Monpa/Tembang/W.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: x Wordsurv db ref: u Date: 06/07/04 Date: 21/03/04 Village: Bichom Village: Tembang District: West Kameng District: West Kameng Sex: Male Sex: Male Age: 29 Age: 41 Education: 12 Education: 12 Occupation: Business Occupation: Businessman Birthplace: Mongopom Birthplace: Tembang Residence: Bichom Residence: Tembang MT: Bugun Fa MT: Dirang Monpa Fa MT: Bugun Mo MT: Dirang Monpa Mo MT: Bugun Sp MT: Dirang Monpa Sp MT: Tawang Monpa Other lgs: Hindi, English Other lgs: Hindi, English, Assamese, Nepali, Remarks: The wordlist was collected at Dirang. Miji, Monpa. Rechecked: Yes

36

Bugun/Kaspi/W.Kameng Namrei/Bisai/E.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: y Wordsurv db ref: B Date: 12/07/04 Date: 28/08/04 Village: Kaspi Village: Bisai District: West Kameng District: East Kameng Sex: Male Sex: Male Age: 25 Age: 32 Education: 6 Education: 0 Occupation: Government servant Occupation: Gaubura Birthplace: Lichini Birthplace: Bisai Residence: Kaspi Residence: Bisai MT: Bugun MT: Namrei Fa MT: Bugun Fa MT: Namrei Mo MT: Bugun Mo MT: Namrei Sp MT: Bugun Sp MT: Namrei Other lgs: Hindi, English, Monpa, Aka, Miji Other lgs: Hindi Rechecked: Yes Bugun/Namphri/W.Kameng Dammai/Rurang/W.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: z Date: 12/07/04 Wordsurv db ref: C Village: Namphri Date: 26/08/04 District: West Kameng Village: Rurang Sex: Male District: West Kameng Age: 27 Sex: Male Education: 5 Age: 25 Occupation: Farmer Education: 8 Birthplace: Namphri Occupation: N.A. Residence: Namphri Birthplace: Rurang MT: Bugun Residence: Rurang Fa MT: Bugun MT: Dammai Mo MT: Bugun Fa MT: Dammai Sp MT: Bugun Mo MT: Dammai Other lgs: Hindi, Nepali, Assamese Sp MT: Dammai Other lgs: Hindi Namrei/Nabolang/E.Kameng Rechecked: Yes Wordsurv db ref: A Dammai/Dibin/W.Kameng Date: 28/08/04 Village: Nabolang Wordsurv db ref: D District: East Kameng Date: 25/08/04 Sex: Male Village: Dibin Age: 44 District: West Kameng Education: 10 Sex: Male Occupation: Teacher Age: 20 Birthplace: Nabolang Education: 5 Residence: Seppa Occupation: N.A. MT: Namrei Birthplace: Dibin Fa MT: Namrei Residence: Dibin Mo MT: Namrei MT: Dammai Sp MT: Namrei Fa MT: Dammai Other lgs: Hindi, Assamese, English Mo MT: Dammai Rechecked: Yes Sp MT: Dammai Other lgs: Hindi Rechecked: Yes

37

Sherdukpen/Shergaon/W.Kameng Koro Aka/Pisang/E.Kameng Wordsurv db ref: E Wordsurv db ref: F Date: 30/08/04 Date: 30/08/04 Village: Shergaon Village: Pisang District: West Kameng District: East Kameng Sex: Male Sex: Male Age: 23 Age: 23 Education: 10 Education: P.U.1st year Occupation: Business Occupation: Student Birthplace: Shergaon Birthplace: Pisang Residence: Shergaon Residence: Pisang MT: Sherdukpen MT: Koro Aka Fa MT: Sherdukpen Fa MT: Koro Aka Mo MT: Sherdukpen Mo MT: Koro Aka Sp MT: N.A. Sp MT: N.A. Other lgs: Hindi, English Other lgs: Hindi, English Rechecked: Yes

Wordlist Transcription

1 sky 5 haneiŋ { w } 1 medze { j } 6 ʃovogram { B } 2 namy { m } 7 mine { F } 2 nimituk { E } 7 nini { E } 2 nymy { bdl } 7 n̪ani { m } 2 nymythik { i } 7 n̪ini { i } 3 ŋam { nopqstu } 3 ŋamthuŋ { k } 3 moon 3 ŋamt̪uŋ { h } 1 laiŋam { o } 3 namduŋ { crs } 2 hŏbe { j } 3 namtuŋ { g } 3 laɲi { kqstu } 3 nə̆mt ̪ŭŋ { f } 3 laɲiŋ { p } 4 dʒaŋ { C } 3 laŋi { n } 4 nadʒaŋ { e } 3 laniŋ { h } 4 nadʒəŋ { D } 4 ala { F } 5 hamaŋ { vwxyz } 4 lə { ABCD } 6 gijaŋ { AB } 4 lei { frs } 7 muphe { F } 4 lu { e } 2 sun 5 atnamba { c } 5 namba { g } 1 ŋam { hknopstu } 5 namblu { im } 1 ŋamziɾ { q } 5 nambru { dl } 1 nami { cg } 5 namlu { E } 1 nimi { dl } 5 namluʔ { b } 1 nimiʔ { b } 6 habije { vwxyz } 1 nini { E } 7 ʃudʒoŋbijoŋ { B } 1 n̪ani { m } 1 n̪ini { i } 4 star 2 dɹu { j } 1 dətʃuŋ { CDet } 3 dʒoʔ { ABCDe } 2 lə̆tsə { j } 4 plaŋ { frs } 3 dydʒy̆k { ms } 5 hanai { vxyz } 3 tʃudʒuk { E }

38

3 tʃundʒək { l } 2 mud̪eŋma { n } 3 tʃydʒy { b } 2 mud̪jaŋba { opqtu } 3 tʃynzək { d } 3 mudiɾeŋma { h } 4 zək { i } 3 mud̪jaŋba { opqtu } 5 karma { cfghknopqrstu } 4 ɲedʒiləgo { j } 6 ladijaŋ { y } 5 ɲah { r } 6 sadijoŋ { v } 5 ɲia { s } 6 satijoŋ { w } 5 ŋah̥ { f } 6 tadijaŋ { xz } 6 phaŋlu { b } 7 mətʃoŋbijaŋ { A } 6 phaŋmenlu { E } 7 nitʃoŋbijoŋ { B } 6 phaŋɾo { l } 9 dure { F } 6 phaŋɾuŋ { d } 6 phankluŋ { i } 5 cloud 7 pharamphakhuŋ { v } 7 pharaŋphakhuwak { w } 1 maimaŋ { B } 7 ʃirbakhuwaŋ { z } 1 maimər { A } 7 saraŋbakhuwaŋ { y } 1 məmə { jt } 7 saraŋmokhuwaŋ { wx } 1 miemy { e } 8 tholiŋ { c } 1 mimu { CD } 8 thuŋliŋ { g } 2 mŭkba { F } a jomonəkəi { AB } 2 mŭkpa { chknopqtu } c sarmadʒa { F } 3 ʃuiŋti { Eb } d pahu { m } 3 synty { dlm } 3 toŋti { g } 8 wind 4 saja { frs } 5 sti { i } 1 jo { ABCDe } 6 tʃakamaŋ { xyz } 2 mile { F } 7 sĕkmou { x } 3 ɲedʒĕʃə { j } 7 skəmou { vw } 4 nămʃuŋ { cgm } 5 bosom { l } 6 rain 5 nosum { Ei } 1 ŋamsu { hknopqtu } 6 nosum { Ei } 1 nam { frs } 6 nysujam { b } 1 namu { cg } 7 hrut { s } 1 nimi { E } 8 aʃam { x } 1 nymy { i } 8 hasam { vwyz } 2 fro { ABCDe } 9 phsăm { d } 3 bətʃhuh̥ { l } a ɾidi { hknopqtu } 3 nytʃu { b } a ʃot { fr } 3 n̪atʃu { m } 9 lightning 3 pə̆tʃuh̥ { d } 4 jedʒăʃə { j } 1 bhaʔ { m } 5 haphije { vwxyz } 1 bruʔ { cr } 6 məju { F } 2 dʒambuloʔ { Ce } 6 namu { cg } 2 nadʒabule { D } 6 nymy { i } 3 mivolaʔ { k } 4 ɲălap { f } 7 rainbow 5 ɲelogo { j } 6 namkliŋ { g } 1 dʒimodəkhe { D } 6 namtaʔbu { b } 1 dʒumodəkhre { e } 7 nimibatapa { E } 1 rumudəkhre { C } 7 nymybæh̥ { l } 2 mŭdʒamba { k } 7 nymybatapa { i }

39

8 tʃhuŋba { d } 5 khamua { z } 9 waŋmoŋ { h } 5 khobu { x } a lo { s } 6 tʃo { hkosu } b taŋlem { t } 6 tʃuməlit̪i { p } b taŋlemkhen { u } 6 tʃumkhuki { c } b t̪aŋhempan { q } 6 tʃumoŋkhou { w } c muŋtaŋ { n } 7 khokhaŋkheh̥ { l } d taŋlem { t } 8 digiŋhu { m } d taŋlemkhen { u } 9 dʒamtʃo { t } d t̪amlept̪am { o } 9 dʒamtʃutʃetmo { E } e t̪aŋhempan { q } a ɾitaŋpu { nq } e t̪aŋhepka { p } b stau { v } f halijaʔ { vwy } c kharuwai { w } f haliwau { z } c təpməkhən { x } g hakhəlam { x } d kjamtʃo { r } h gijaŋbərija { AB } e ɕətərəlou { AB } I misimele { F } f fə { D } f və { C } 10 thunder g sasi { F }

1 druk { h } 12 mountain 2 dirteʔ { c } 3 dʒaŋgən { e } 1 lah̥ { frs } 3 nadʒaŋgaŋ { C } 1 lu { Ebim } 3 nadʒaŋgəŋ { D } 1 luh̥ { l } 4 d̪uŋd̪uŋmala { k } 2 ligɔŋ { g } 5 muŋdir { t } 3 ɾiwo { dt } 5 muŋdirkhen { u } 3 ɾju { knou } 5 muŋdirpan { q } 4 goŋ { F } 5 muŋphoka { h } 4 pham { vw } 5 muŋt̪aŋ { o } 4 phaŋ { yz } 6 draŋdruŋ { l } 4 phu { j } 7 nămtʃɾe { d } 4 phuŋ { Dex } 7 namtuŋlimde { g } 4 poŋ { ABC } 7 namynatʃha { m } 5 bəɾaʔ { p } 8 mut ̪irka { p } 6 ʃaʔ { c } 9 nimibatapa { E } 7 zoɾ { hq } 9 nymihikbu { b } 9 nymyhikpa { i } 13 water a t̪aŋlepkan { n } 1 və { ABCDe } b hakhəlaŋ { z } 2 khau { g } b haklam { vwxy } 2 kho { Edilmv } c gijaŋbəra { B } 2 khou { bwxyz } c gijaŋgərom { A } 2 khu { cj } d mugmadʒa { F } 3 ɾi { hknopqtu } e ɲedʒĕbjo { j } 4 tʃi { Ffrs } f bɾu { frs } 14 river 11 sea 1 bədʒaŋkho { d } 0 (no entry) { dgjy } 1 dʒankou { b } 1 gjatʃo { f } 1 maŋkou { c } 2 laʔto { b } 2 tuŋkhan { i } 3 stərilu { e } 3 vəjaŋ { B } 4 thozamtʃuʃinmu { i }

40

3 vijaŋ { D } 3 khale { z } 4 khamua { z } 4 nagdʒu { ACe } 4 kho { Ev } 4 nakdʒo { D } 4 khoɲoi { w } 4 nakhədʒo { B } 4 khu { j } 5 ɲijakhərə { v } 4 khujoʔ { l } 5 ɲijakləja { x } 4 khuma { g } 6 nagdʒu { ACe } 5 roŋ { fs } 6 nogzə { j } 6 goŋɾi { ot } 7 khotʃela { F } 6 ɾi { ku } 6 ɾigoŋɾi { n } 17 dust 6 ɾijama { hp } 1 bla { frs } 7 gafũ { m } 1 blasa { pq } 8 ɲjamtsan { r } 2 dŭjpo { d } 9 druŋ { q } 2 duipa { cknotu } a və { C } 2 duipoʔ { b } b kaʃat { xy } 3 nolmo { j } c tsi { F } 4 nadəmo { Ce } d vədo { Ae } 4 nanəmoʔ { AB } 15 soil/ground 5 ɲijaphəla { vwxy } 5 ɲijaphəlap { z } 1 naʔ { ABCDe } 6 purtʃi { hp } 1 no { j } 7 saplutuiba { i } 2 sa { ghkm } 9 dʒaphulu { m } 2 saʔ { ctu } 9 tʃaphulu { E } 2 sah̥ { fnopqr } 9 tʃhaphuɾuh̥ { l } 2 so { i } a pəʃambəlam { A } 2 soːh̥ { d } b bərən { D } 2 soʔ { b } c mepumolo { F } 2 soh̥ { l } d ɲogma { g } 2 suʔ { x } 3 satʃa { s } 18 stone 4 ɲijaʔ { vwyz } 1 ubu { F } 5 atuŋ { E } 2 gor { frs } 6 khu { F } 3 gəloŋ { CD } 3 huloŋ { e } 16 mud 3 kə̆loŋ { AB } 1 dʒiŋzaŋ { kno } 3 luŋ { Ecghkmnopqtu } 1 dʒinsan { qr } 3 lyŋ { i } 1 iŋsaŋ { p } 3 ɾŭiŋ { d } 1 juŋtʃaŋ { h } 3 ɾyŋ { l } 1 ʃimzaŋ { f } 3 ruŋ { b } 1 sintʃaŋ { st } 4 labau { vwxy } 1 ziŋtʃan { u } 4 lubu { z } 2 gatʃi { m } 5 khunu { j } 2 gotʃuŋ { E } 2 gutʃuŋ { i } 19 sand 2 kə̆tʃuŋ { d } 1 bai { CDe } 2 khaʃoŋ { w } 1 bali { jtvwxyz } 2 khatʃam { g } 2 besa { c } 2 khatʃham { c } 2 betʃa { fghknoprsu } 2 kutʃuŋ { bl } 2 betʃo { E } 3 kalija { wy }

41

2 petʃa { q } a thŭɾu { dl } 3 khobo { l } b thŭɾu { dl } 3 khŭbo { d } b thulu { Ei } 4 mukho { i } 5 pho { b } 23 yesterday 6 ɕəgəroi { AB } 1 degau { CDe } 7 gəpha { m } 1 təganogo { AB } 8 bupi { F } 2 dijo { Eivwxz } 2 duju { cg } 20 gold 3 dʒŭoha { d } 1 ʃə { Cj } 4 d̪aŋ { frs } 1 san { Bvwxyz } 5 ɸu { j } 1 seʔ { A } 6 iɲiŋ { h } 1 sen { De } 6 iniŋ { pq } 1 ser { bcfghklmnopqrstu } 7 iŋam { u } 1 seɾ { d } 7 iŋom { ko } 1 sin { Ei } 7 ɲiŋam { t } 2 ai { F } 8 məʃaŋ { b } 9 luŋne { l } 21 silver a khokniho { l } b naru { m } 0 (no entry) { F } c thəmijaŋ { y } 1 dəman { e } d ŋamtʃa { n } 1 dəme { C } e ban { F } 1 demaŋ { D } 1 laman { Bvwxyz } 24 tomorrow 1 ləmə { j } 1 nəmə { A } 1 basaŋ { i } 2 ɲiŋ { i } 1 masaŋ { E } 2 niŋ { Ebdlm } 1 pə̆saŋ { l } 3 ŋoi { knopqtu } 1 phsaŋ { d } 3 ŋui { cfghrs } 2 dɹaha { j } 2 dʒaha { j } 22 today 3 lanʔlu { m } 3 luŋlu { b } 1 d̪eʃ { fst } 4 ŋamtʃa { pt } 2 huŋgə { ABC } 4 ŋamtʃha { ko } 2 huŋhu { e } 4 ŋamtsi { u } 2 hũ̴e { D } 4 namtʃaŋ { h } 3 jo { j } 5 dawo { C } 4 tenoŋ { h } 5 nawo { De } 4 thĭnuŋ { kopqtu } 6 nokor { frs } 4 thŭɾu { dl } 7 muŋkha { cg } 4 t ̪inuŋ { n } 8 imnuŋ { n } 5 thŭɾu { dl } 8 iŋɾoŋ { q } 5 thulu { Ei } a thimijak { w } 5 tru { b } a thimijaŋ { vxz } 6 thala { cg } b pəthou { y } 6 thalu { m } c saŋma { F } 6 thulu { Ei } d nanəgo { AB } 7 t ̪eis { r } 8 sto { vwxyz } 25 week 9 seɲe { F } a thalu { m } 0 (no entry) { bc }

42

1 naniʃik { m } 2 tuŋhen { m } 1 nĭmisik { d } 2 t ̪uŋan { d } 1 niniʃik { i } 3 ɲeŋt̪hur { n } 2 benamzum { o } 3 ɲiŋ { hoptu } 2 binazuŋ { ku } 3 niŋthuɾ { kq } 2 boinamzuŋ { n } 4 ʔodʒe { j } 2 ŋamzum { o } 6 dəraŋ { AB } 3 dunkhahin { g } 6 dure { Ce } 5 dʒaŋkhomija { D } 6 duren { D } 5 dʒoŋgomija { Ce } 7 dau { vx } 5 geŋgəmija { AB } 7 tau { w } 6 hăpt ̪a { ls } 8 etam { z } 6 hopt ̪a { h } 8 tam { y } 7 ɲegimu { j } 9 maja { F } 8 ʒa { f } a tumreh { fr } 9 tʃei { r } a duntʃi { t } 28 day a d̪untsi { p } 1 namka { c } c inaŋzum { q } 1 nani { m } d damlije { v } 1 nemi { g } d tamlei { z } 1 nimi { dl } d tamlija { wxy } 1 nimijan { b } e nufusit { E } 1 nini { Ei } f məneroŋ { F } 2 dʒaŋtaŋ { Ce } 26 month 2 gijaŋtaŋ { AB } 3 jow { j } 1 namba { g } 4 ɲent { s } 1 namblu { i } 4 ɲetho { j } 1 nambluaŋ { b } 5 ŋam { nopqtu } 1 nambluhen { m } 5 ŋamthur { h } 1 nambɾu { l } 5 t̪inuŋamthur { k } 1 nambruwan { d } 6 plaŋ { f } 1 namlahin { c } 8 d̪eʃ { r } 1 namlu { E } 9 nai { vwxyz } 2 khobe { j } a hũ̴e { D } 3 laji { o } b miɲe { F } 3 laɲi { ptu } 3 laŋi { n } 29 morning 3 lani { q } 1 namneŋ { n } 3 lanithur { hk } 1 namniŋ { kopqtu } 5 lə { ABCD } 1 namsaŋ { cg } 5 lu { e } 2 betpuk { h } 6 habije { vwxyz } 3 meduwo { D } 7 lə { ABCD } 3 meiduo { e } 7 leʔ { frs } 4 naleŋ { fr } 8 ala { F } 5 niru { E } 5 nuru { bdil } 27 year 6 saxa { j } 1 tom { g } 7 jokpho { m } 1 tomhin { c } 8 meiduo { e } 1 tomrit { s } 8 midʒu { C } 2 tuaŋ { b } 9 naileiaŋ { s } 2 tuŋ { Eil } a hamijaŋ { vwxyz }

43

b nəgoja { B } 2 dʒaŋgau { Ce } b nəgou { A } 2 geŋgau { A } c məniktʃi { F } 2 keŋgau { B } d maŋpa { F } 2 tʃaŋgau { D } 3 ɲegi { j } 30 noon 4 næmi { g } 4 nambõŋ { c } 1 hanai { xy } 4 namphoŋ { g } 1 hatãu { bd } 5 ʃen { s } 1 hatomo { i } 5 tʃen { r } 1 hatõ { El } 5 tʃĭn { f } 2 bətʃan { c } 6 namphoŋ { g } 3 gajotan { m } 6 nophuŋ { dl } 4 guŋzi { fr } 6 nŭpʃaŋ { b } 5 jenaŋ { knoqtu } 6 nuphu { i } 5 jenaŋam { hp } 7 najoatʃhi { m } 6 məgəlobom { B } 8 habiu { vxyz } 6 məgəlou { AC } 8 hatu { w } 6 mogolu { e } 9 ɲijoɲijo { E } 7 namka { g } a mepa { F } 8 xumdʒu { j } 9 tʃorən { s } 33 paddy rice a ləthuŋa { v } a luthua { z } 1 ʔo { j } b haŋlituwa { w } 2 aɲsoʔ { e } c agəluluŋ { D } 2 enʃo { C } d məniktʃi { F } 3 barakhu { h } 4 khi { F } 31 evening 5 nisːe { Ei } 1 ɲijo { Ei } 5 niʃə̆liaʔ { c } 1 ɲiɾi { hkopqtu } 5 niʃik { gwx } 1 ɲŭjŏ { d } 6 nuh̥ { frs } 1 ŋeɾi { n } 7 ɾa { knopqtu } 1 nojo { l } 8 tʃhu { lm } 2 nami { cg } 8 tʃhuăse { d } 2 num { f } 8 tʃuaʔri { b } 3 dʒid̪u { j } 9 ŋijan { vz } 4 gəjiŋ { D } 9 ŋiŋ { y } 4 geji { C } 9 ŋiŋgausik { x } 4 gejin { e } a ŋam { AB } 4 kəjen { AB } b an { D } 5 naphuŋ { m } 34 uncooked rice 6 nopt̪ { r } 7 tʃiniba { b } 1 ʔolgə { j } 8 nuptæk { s } 2 andəgən { Ce } 9 habitʃuaŋ { vw } 3 khu { knotu } a hadʒoŋ { xyz } 4 d̪ep { frs } b maraidʒimi { F } 5 khoŋbaɾa { q } 5 khoŋma { h } 32 night 6 nĭmdi { cg } 7 nodop { Ei } 1 binaŋ { hpu } 8 ɾakhaŋtʃhu { d } 1 buinaŋ { knot } 9 tʃu { b } 1 pinaŋ { q } a baɾakhuh̥ { p }

44

b tʃhuaseʔ { lm } 1 aʃam { h } c ŋiŋgam { yz } 1 oʃum { r } c ŋiŋgau { vwx } 2 adʒaki { F } c ŋiŋgaumətʃeje { x } 3 majʃəŋ { c } d ŋamnəgam { A } 4 mitʃi { blm } d ŋiŋgam { yz } 4 pə̆tʃĩ { d } e an { D } 5 moʃop { g } f kerakhə { F } 6 phentaŋ { Ei } 6 phinaŋ { hnpqtu } 35 cooked rice 6 phintaŋ { ko } 7 ɕə̆ban { A } 1 ʔăʋa { jk } 7 ʃibat { B } 2 ha { Ei } 7 ʃibo { z } 2 he { b } 7 sə̆be { j } 2 hɛ { l } 7 sibeʔ { CDe } 2 hoi { g } 8 spo { x } 3 to { fhps } 8 spou { wy } 3 toptʃe { qr } 8 spõʔ { v } 3 toʃaŋ { u } 3 totʃaŋ { knot } 38 potato 4 tʃavəkhə { C } 4 tʃavoʔ { De } 1 dʒatumplu { g } 4 tʃhawa { c } 1 dʒogtaŋ { ko } 4 tʃhuhe { dm } 1 dʒoktaŋ { nt } 5 mətʃere { y } 1 dʒu { Ebdil } 5 mətʃije { vwxz } 2 khe { rs } 6 atʃan { A } 2 kheh̥ { f } 7 mam { F } 3 laɕoɲija { A } 8 tʃhuhe { dm } 3 laʃoɲija { B } 3 lasadʒu { m } 36 wheat 3 lasaɲekʃi { j } 1 boŋ { hkopu } 3 lasaniki { F } 1 raŋboŋ { bt } 3 lasiɲau { D } 2 ko { fs } 3 lasiɲio { Ce } 2 kompu { n } 4 pasagom { h } 3 buku { E } 4 pasagoŋ { p } 3 məku { d } 5 madʒie { y } 3 muku { il } 5 madʒua { z } 4 phijo { ACDev } 5 maŋtʃə { v } 4 phijok { xyz } 5 mətʃə { x } 4 phijuk { w } 5 mətʃəu { w } 5 phoʔ { c } 6 tʃəktaŋ { c } 5 phoskar { g } 6 tʃokt ̪aŋ { qu } 5 phu { jlm } 39 cauliflower 5 poʔ { g } 5 pu { F } 0 (no entry) { bcdeghijkrsu } 6 nas { r } 1 kobi { ABCDFnop } 7 mo { q } 1 kobibabu { l } 8 tʃoʔ { x } 1 kobibua { x } 1 kophiru { f } 37 corn 1 phulkobi { Etvyz } 2 daŋaren { m } 1 ʔoʃum { s } 3 mumlomnaŋ { q } 1 ʔotʃum { f } 4 marəepuŋwa { w }

45

40 cabbage 44 branch 0 (no entry) { bcdeghijksu } 1 ʔoɸotsa { j } 1 momloŋnaŋ { n } 1 ʃoɸo { j } 1 mumt̪oklom { hp } 2 da { notu } 2 petʃahru { f } 3 ăla { frs } 3 bandagobi { Ert } 3 alaʔ { c } 3 kobi { ABCDFovxz } 3 alak { gh } 3 kobikhubam { y } 3 alejak { p } 3 kobison { l } 3 aljak { q } 4 daŋdaŋkəre { m } 4 apaŋ { d } 5 ʃiŋʃawa { q } 4 aphaŋ { bl } 6 marebui { w } 4 aphaŋalo { E } 4 aphoŋ { i } 41 eggplant 4 phoŋ { w } 5 gonotʃaŋ { B } 1 bando { f } 5 mənətʃaŋ { A } 1 bandu { ckrs } 5 mətʃitʃau { C } 1 bantho { Ehnptu } 6 odətʃaŋ { e } 1 banthu { go } 7 ɾa { k } 1 bot ̪ho { l } 8 hiŋapaŋ { d } 1 mantho { imvwxyz } 8 hiŋaxiŋ { m } 1 məthou { b } 9 udətʃa { D } 1 pant ̪ho { q } a tatʃi { F } 1 pə̆t ̪ho { d } b edəphou { vxyz } 1 penthu { e } 2 baigon { ABCD } 45 leaf 2 khatʃo { j } 3 kadu { F } 1 məlam { A } 1 məle { C } 42 peanut 2 ʔə̆xe { j } 3 alap { Ei } 0 (no entry) { b } 3 aɾap { d } 1 badam { ABCDEFcdefhij 3 arap { bl } klmnopqrstuvwxyz } 3 erap { v } 2 maŋkha { g } 3 golap { B } 43 tree 3 palăp { frs } 3 rap { wxyz } 1 hiŋ { Ebmvwxyz } 3 ulap { g } 1 hiŋʔama { g } 4 ʃiŋʃaʋa { hk } 1 hiŋamuŋ { dl } 5 luala { m } 1 hiŋthiŋ { i } 6 ʃawa { nopqtu } 2 oʔni { e } 7 ulaʔ { c } 2 ʃoɲi { j } 7 ulap { g } 2 uɲi { C } 7 uleʔ { De } 2 uniʔ { D } 8 nino { F } 3 genoi { A } 3 gonoi { B } 46 thorn 4 ʃæŋ { r } 4 ʃiŋ { chknopqtu } 1 bazau { i } 4 ʃjaŋ { fs } 1 bədʒau { E } 5 lã { F } 1 bədʒo { blm } 1 gədʒik { D } 1 gədʒu { e } 1 gəzau { B }

46

1 khəzau { A } 6 ɾih { r } 1 phedʒok { g } 6 rui { s } 1 phizoʔ { c } 7 brau { BC } 2 bitʃu { C } 7 brə { A } 2 kutʃu { j } 7 bro { D } 2 tʃu { frs } 8 fu { F } 3 tʃekaŋ { dl } 4 egeu { v } 49 fruit 4 ekeu { w } 1 ăjuŋ { d } 4 məgəm { xz } 2 avə { b } 4 migeu { x } 2 evoi { vwxz } 5 zu { hknopqtu } 2 hiŋava { m } 6 sona { F } 2 voi { y } 7 məthau { y } 3 malaŋ { i } 7 migeu { x } 3 melaŋ { E } 47 root 3 milaŋ { l } 4 ʃə̆dʒe { j } 1 ʔə̆kʃe { j } 5 ʃĭŋtok { f } 2 ʔĭhĩ { d } 5 ʃiŋdo { rs } 2 ʔihi { il } 6 se { hkp } 2 ahi { b } 7 uʃu { cg } 3 hrăwa { f } 8 zas { nu } 4 lej { g } 9 goŋ { ot } 5 gokhrən { B } a pema { q } 5 khrən { C } b nesi { F } 5 okhriŋ { e } c gutan { AB } 6 ra { kno } c uthen { CDe } 6 rabo { E } 6 rawaʔ { crs } 50 jackfruit 7 tʃa { hpq } 0 (no entry) { BDbcdefgijkl 8 dik { m } mnopqrstu } 9 eraŋ { vwxyz } 1 khand̪ălase { h } 9 neraŋ { F } 2 brokothali { y } a məkhən { A } 2 kotal { CFvxz } a ukhən { D } 3 jabuk { w } b ɾu { tu } 4 dʒagutan { A } 5 barmemulaŋ { E } 48 bamboo 1 ɕi { k } 51 coconut (ripe) 1 ʃi { noqtu } 0 (no entry) { bcdegijk } 1 sə { j } 1 naɾijal { Dforstuy } 1 soh̥ { f } 1 naɾikol { ABCEFlmpqvz } 2 dʒiu { e } 1 naɾkol { nwx } 3 liʃiŋ { hp } 1 narkolăse { h } 4 ma { Eim } 4 mai { z } 52 banana 4 mai { y } 4 me { b } 1 lamrep { fr } 4 meʔ { d } 1 larmep { s } 4 meh̥ { l } 2 laisi { h } 4 mei { cg } 2 leisi { ckptu } 4 moi { vw } 2 lesi { noq } 4 muẽ { x } 2 lisi { g }

47

3 bosuŋ { l } 8 ʃe { u } 3 musuŋ { Ebim } 9 neram { F } 3 pə̆suŋ { d } 4 ləlaŋ { AB } 56 sugarcane 4 rilaŋ { CDe } 1 d̪ŭgo { j } 5 xol ̪o { j } 2 gəlaŋdʒaŋ { Ce } 6 səm { vwxyz } 2 gedaŋ { D } 6 siŋ { x } 2 kəlaŋdʒan { AB } 7 gerdʒi { F } 3 khŏmin { fhq } 53 mango 3 khomdiraŋ { u } 3 khomd̪aɾaŋ { kt } 0 (no entry) { bcdeg } 3 khomtheɾaŋ { no } 1 am { ABCDEFfhijkl 3 khumin { p } mnopqrtuvwxyz } 3 ʃeŋlakhomin { r } 1 amredoŋpo { s } 3 selikomin { s } 4 mə̆dʒu { c } 54 flower 4 tʃulamidʒu { g } 1 mentoʔ { c } 5 mitʃhi { lm } 1 mĭnto { fgrs } 5 mitʃi { Ei } 1 minto { E } 5 mitʃiry { b } 1 mint ̪u { bdi } 7 mitʃhi { lm } 2 momnaŋ { hnopqtu } 7 mitʃi { Ei } 2 momnaʋ { k } 7 phə̆tʃiʔ { d } 3 gəbo { AB } 8 nəa { xyz } 3 ʃoba { j } 8 nəŋə { vw } 4 babu { l } 9 ra { F } 4 gəbo { AB } 57 betelnut 4 uboʔ { CDe } 5 nephu { F } 0 (no entry) { fgr } 6 hẽaraŋ { m } 1 goi { chkopqt } 7 bua { x } 1 gove { F } 7 ebua { x } 1 gugæ { s } 7 ebũa { vw } 1 gui { bs } 7 humbua { y } 2 ʃetə { j } 7 ɲinbua { z } 3 sali { Edilmvwxyz } 4 tamalan { ABCD } 55 seed 4 tamul { eu } 6 ʃiŋkoptaŋ { n } 1 ʔə̆sə { j } 2 ăli { DEdilm } 58 lime (for betelnut) 2 li { cghknopqt } 3 ăli { DEdilm } 0 (no entry) { bcdg } 3 ari { bl } 1 tʃhin { im } 3 erai { vwx } 1 tʃhui { o } 3 rii { y } 1 tʃhun { Cfhjkpux } 4 murui { z } 1 tʃina { D } 5 malai { C } 1 tʃon { l } 5 tailoi { AB } 1 tʃun { ABEFnrstvwyz } 6 ăli { DEdilm } 1 tʃuna { e } 6 ari { bl } 2 thuli { q } 6 thedʒo { e } 6 theli { e } 59 liquor 7 ʒu { frs } 1 băŋtʃaŋ { fkpqs }

48

1 pə̆tʃaŋ { B } 1 ʃaʔ { bgs } 1 tʃaŋ { ACDer } 1 ʃia { c } 1 tʃə { j } 1 ʃitʃuŋ { CDe } 2 ju { hnotu } 1 ʃja { fkr } 3 pha { bl } 2 ɸu { j } 3 phaʔ { c } 3 su { EFim } 3 phak { Edgim } 3 suʔ { dl } 3 phua { vwxyz } 4 ŋa { n } 4 sai { F } 5 ebei { z } 5 ebije { x } 60 milk 5 epije { vw } 6 məbi { y } 1 ʔoma { fs } 7 sĭkijuŋ { AB } 1 oma { r } 2 aphu { j } 63 salt 2 apu { F } 3 dut { y } 1 h�̃ { m } 3 dut̪ { e } 1 ha { cg } 4 ɲeo { vw } 1 hu { i } 4 ɲiŋ { im } 2 iɲtʃha { hkq } 4 ɲju { g } 2 iŋtʃa { nop } 4 ɲuŋ { E } 2 intʃa { tu } 4 ɲyn { dl } 2 tʃa { fr } 5 niuŋ { b } 2 tʃaʔ { s } 5 niw { xz } 3 lə { AB } 5 nu { hknotu } 3 lu { CDe } 5 nuʔ { c } 4 xu { j } 5 numːa { h } 5 suɹe { y } 5 numa { pq } 5 surəja { x } 6 ʃufunu { D } 5 suruwa { vwz } 7 nag { A } 6 pro { F } 8 mənaŋ { B } 7 huŋ { Ebdl } 9 ʃunovə { C } 64 onion 61 oil 0 (no entry) { b } 1 luboxu { j } 1 maŋtʃhy { l } 2 num { cfgsu } 1 moŋtʃi { d } 2 nuŋ { r } 2 piaʒ { e } 3 pandʒaŋvə { AB } 2 pias { ABFz } 3 pheŋdʒanrə { De } 2 pjas { Cjy } 4 si { hknopqt } 3 dʒon { x } 5 tho { Eil } 4 mũak { w } 5 thou { bdw } 5 pəkhemu { D } 6 ləfəfə { y } 6 tʃoŋ { Ecfghiknopqrstuv } 6 tal { m } 7 maʃiŋ { m } 6 tələjə { v } 6 tel { Cx } 65 garlic 6 tele { F } 1 kemoŋ { B } 6 thel { z } 1 maŋ { g } 62 meat 1 maŋtʃhy { l } 1 moŋ { d } 1 ɕa { h } 1 moŋsiŋ { Ei } 1 ʃa { opqtu } 1 moŋtʃu { d }

49

1 muaŋ { vxyz } 68 tiger 2 khikmo { Ce } 1 bu { o } 2 kiomu { A } 1 buat̪a { nu } 3 lam { hknopqtu } 1 buʃu { kt } 4 lasan { j } 2 khaila { h } 4 losan { F } 3 laptʃa { c } 5 maʃiŋ { m } 4 phõ { E } 5 məsiŋ { b } 4 phujam { g } 5 moŋsiŋ { Ei } 4 phuŋ { bdilm } 6 tʃhĕt { fs } 5 keŋgraŋ { B } 7 ɾə̆ʃu { c } 5 təgraŋ { A } 8 tʃotʃu { r } 5 tiŋdraŋ { D } 9 tʃuŋ { w } 5 tiŋgraŋ { Ce } a pəkhemu { D } 6 ʃə̆kʃə { j } 66 red pepper; chilli 7 teh { s } 7 t ̪a { r } 1 adə { Fj } 8 semtʃen { pq } 2 dʒaijo { AB } 8 tʃĕn { f } 2 dʒaju { D } 9 batʃaeŋ { z } 2 dʒalim { y } 9 matʃuwa { vwz } 2 dʒau { Ce } 9 mətʃua { xy } 2 tʃalau { x } a tʃaru { F } 2 tʃalem { xz } 2 tʃalijau { vw } 69 bear 3 moŋ { Edilm } 1 ʔomɕa { h } 4 mu { b } 1 omʃa { knopqtu } 5 sol { f } 2 ʃijathum { c } 5 sola { rs } 3 ʃə̆tʃo { j } 5 solo { g } 3 ʃistaŋ { e } 5 solu { chot } 3 ʃitʃaŋ { ABCD } 5 sulu { knpqu } 4 sathom { g } 67 elephant 4 sə̆thum { z } 4 stəm { vwxy } 1 atʃhə { j } 4 st ̪uŋ { Ebdilm } 1 atʃi { CDe } 5 wam { frs } 1 lampotʃhe { f } 6 sumo { F } 1 lamptʃa { rs } 1 lamputʃhe { cq } 70 deer 1 mimilaŋputʃhe { h } 1 dʒaʃiki { cg } 2 satʃila { gknot } 2 ɸumi { j } 2 setʃila { u } 3 gaɕa { h } 3 stoŋ { Ei } 3 gaʃa { noptu } 4 susanthou { b } 3 gaʃja { k } 4 susant ̪hoŋ { dm } 3 kaʃa { qr } 4 susan̪t̪hoŋ { l } 4 tʃho { fs } 5 meme { p } 5 ʃiʃə { A } 6 ɲijathoŋ { vwxz } 5 ʃistʃu { Ce } 6 nathoŋ { y } 5 ʃitʃu { BD } 7 atai { AB } 6 sə̆ki { d } 7 hati { F } 6 sikiʔ { l } 6 ski { Ebim } 7 dətʃhai { vwxyz }

50

8 sui { F } 5 bə̆tʃam { E } 5 patʃam { i } 71 monkey 5 pĕtʃam { b } 5 pə̆tʃam { d } 1 dʒuduŋ { Eim } 6 pam { xyz } 1 dʒutuŋ { l } 7 phau { vw } 1 ʃəduŋ { z } 1 ʃedom { c } 74 crocodile 1 stuŋ { vwxy } 1 zuduŋ { bd } 0 (no entry) { dglpq } 2 hiŋtʃaŋdakpu { g } 1 khodei { Ei } 3 pra { frs } 1 khudon { c } 4 ʃəbo { A } 2 khavoi { v } 4 ʃəduŋ { z } 2 khawai { wxyz } 4 ʃedom { c } 2 khuwa { bm } 4 ʃoɸu { j } 3 ɾidon { hkntu } 4 ʃubo { BCD } 4 ʃebdʒa { j } 4 ʃudo { e } 5 vəphi { CDe } 5 zala { hknoptu } 5 vəpi { AB } 5 zalamu { q } 6 tʃhugzin { fs } 6 lasu { F } 6 tʃukʃeŋ { r } 6 tʃusen { o } 72 rabbit 7 tefəbə { F } 0 (no entry) { CFbcdegkmqr } 75 house lizard (gecko) 1 hălah̥ { f } 2 jos { h } 0 (no entry) { Bdfgklmqtz } 3 khoha { i } 1 busimən { e } 4 pohapohu { j } 1 gusuman { A } 5 kaɾgos { Bluxy } 2 dadʒə { j } 6 semtʃen { n } 3 dontʃiktʃikpa { c } 7 gɾoŋtaŋ { o } 3 tʃikpaphi { b } 8 seʃa { p } 4 duŋduŋma { hp } 9 regoŋ { t } 5 tʃamtʃi { Ei } 9 rekoŋ { s } 6 abitʃaŋ { no } a truk { vw } 6 aiptʃaŋ { u } b səli { z } 7 sãs { s } c ʃidʒam { A } 8 kotʃaloma { r } d dʒuk { D } 9 ŋeaijo { F } e stoptʃaŋkha { E } a baphijaŋ { v } b səkimatʃoŋ { wx } 73 snake c pharbuwaŋ { y } d bətʃabətʃi { D } 1 buʃila { hknop } d bitʃaptʃi { C } 1 butʃila { tu } 1 putʃhla { q } 76 turtle 2 bəu { AB } 2 bhu { D } 0 (no entry) { kq } 2 by { j } 1 adʒario { D } 2 gabu { F } 1 adʒero { x } 2 ɲabəu { e } 1 adʒiro { Cem } 2 nabu { C } 1 adʒora { z } 3 muri { frs } 1 dʒazero { AB } 4 phŭlu { cg } 1 hadʒira { y } 5 batʃham { lm } 1 otʃero { wx }

51

2 duli { g } 5 tʃi { v } 2 d̪uɾi { no } 5 tʃoi { xyz } 3 koiʔ { l } 6 akle { F } 4 hudrigambu { i } 4 hudrik { E } 79 cat 5 gatʃa { h } 1 ăʃa { j } 5 kătʃːu { d } 1 aʃa { F } 5 katʃo { j } 2 d̪aniŋ { h } 5 katʃu { btu } 3 gaʃu { De } 6 ɾiba { p } 3 kaʃə { A } 6 rube { fr } 3 kaʃu { BC } 6 ruipæ { s } 4 jaŋmu { c } 7 tʃadaŋ { c } 5 ɲaŋbu { g } 8 fudərai { v } 5 ɲəmbi { Ei } 9 rakap { F } 5 ɲem { vxyz } 77 frog 5 ɲijam { w } 5 ɲimbu { hp } 1 duŋdaʔ { c } 5 nambu { notu } 1 duŋta { g } 5 namby { bdklm } 2 dʒou { ABCDe } 5 nimu { q } 3 kjakpa { ku } 6 ʒim { frs } 4 paip { frs } 4 paiphu { p } 80 cow 4 paipu { Eh } 1 bama { f } 4 pepu { q } 1 ʃama { g } 5 ɾĭtːu { d } 2 dərfu { e } 5 ɾikə̆tu { i } 3 hu { bd } 5 ɾiktu { bl } 3 khu { l } 5 rutʃua { y } 4 pholxu { j } 5 rutu { m } 6 wa { knopqtu } 6 ʃedʒa { j } 6 wadamo { h } 7 beŋkuɾta { o } 7 ʃoi { c } 7 beŋkut̪a { nt } 8 spu { Ei } 8 tapəguru { F } 9 ʃhu { m } 9 rak { vx } 9 ʃhua { z } 9 rap { wx } a bah̥ { s } a ɹusua { z } a pa { r } a rutʃua { y } b sati { F } c dʒufu { C } 78 dog c ʃufə { AB } 1 batha { im } c ʃufu { D } 1 betha { E } c səbəvə { v } 1 bithɛ { l } c səuwa { w } 1 pə̆the { bd } c suvəə { xy } 1 wathi { cg } c suvəva { z } 2 khi { frs } 2 khu { hknopqtu } 81 buffalo 3 ʃyjo { j } 1 bhuŋ { g } 4 ʃadʒik { D } 1 bruŋ { chnopqrtu } 4 ʃazeʔ { e } 2 duip { f } 4 sadʒi { C } 3 midek { F } 4 zazai { AB } 4 ɸəmə { j } 5 tʃai { w }

52

5 meɲtʃa { k } 84 goat 6 ʃukhre { Ce } 1 khəʃə { j } 7 dʒei { bm } 1 sətʃe { m } 7 ze { dl } 2 ra { frs } 7 zəge { Ei } 2 raba { hk } 8 mahæ { s } 2 rawa { nopqtu } 9 ʃitʃik { wy } 3 ɕuprem { B } 9 sədʒik { vz } 3 ʃəpen { A } 9 sigik { x } 3 ʃəphə̆rən { e } a ɕəkəram { B } 3 tʃeprem { CD } a ɕəkham { A } 4 ʃeɾa { c } b ʃəkhen { D } 4 sala { g } 82 horn (of buffalo) 5 dʒy { l } 5 zyi { di } 1 ʔə̆ʃə̆bdʒa { j } 6 ziŋ { b } 2 h̥ruwa { fr } 7 spin { vwxyz } 2 ɾuba { s } 8 ze { E } 2 ʋaɾoŋ { o } 9 sobe { F } 2 waɾuŋ { npqu } 2 waroŋ { hkt } 85 pig 3 kheŋ { Egi } 1 dʒio { C } 3 khiaŋ { c } 1 dʒo { B } 4 aʃidʒuŋ { D } 1 dʒoʔ { AD } 4 ʃudʒuŋ { e } 1 dʒuo { e } 5 tʃaŋ { bm } 2 pha { frs } 5 tʃeŋ { dl } 2 phakpa { hknopqtu } 6 erijaŋ { vxyz } 3 ʃaba { g } 6 erijok { w } 3 ʃiabaʔ { c } 7 məsəʃoŋ { AC } 4 sŭwaʔ { d } 7 məsəzuŋ { B } 4 suwak { dlm } 8 nuru { F } 4 swaʔ { Ebi } 83 tail 5 evoʔ { v } 5 ʋo { jx } 1 ʔexem { j } 5 vok { yz } 2 ăne { d } 5 wok { w } 2 aɲa { Ei } 6 lele { F } 2 ana { m } 2 ane { bl } 86 rat 3 ɕampi { hk } 3 ʃamphi { otu } 1 dʒək { BDe } 3 ʃampi { npq } 1 dʒəu { AC } 4 adəmai { C } 1 dʒu { s } 4 adəmek { D } 2 pŭtʃurba { h } 5 mədərə { e } 3 rh̥umo { j } 6 mæŋgo { s } 4 sămtu { cg } 6 megon { f } 5 sə̆thə { m } 6 mejoŋ { r } 5 sə̆top { l } 7 eɲoi { vwxyz } 5 stăp { d } 7 ɲuj { g } 5 stop { Ebi } 7 nui { c } 6 tʃhu { knoqtu } 8 mənəmərai { A } 7 kam { F } 8 mənəməre { B } 8 ʒupho { f } 9 niraŋ { F } 9 psakpa { p }

53

a sut ̪o ka { r } 4 tʃhə { j } b thuŋ { vwxyz } 4 tʃoi { AB } 5 ŋa { cghknopqtu } 87 chicken 5 uŋa { x } 5 uŋə̃ { z } 1 doʔ { e } 6 nuŋ { bdlm } 1 dok { C } 7 ũa { vwy } 1 dou { AB } 8 ŋola { F } 1 dup { D } 2 dʒuo { j } 90 duck 3 goga { knoqtu } 3 gowa { h } 1 ʔosa { j } 3 guwa { p } 1 husõ { e } 4 huki { c } 1 muso { D } 4 wakhi { g } 1 ŋuso { xy } 5 kha { rs } 1 osa { m } 5 khama { f } 1 oso { vw } 6 batʃe { lm } 1 ũso { ABCz } 6 pə̆tʃe { bd } 2 aŋso { g } 6 petʃha { Ei } 3 gelendi { Enopqrstu } 8 khe { vwx } 3 gelenti { h } 8 kheiʔ { z } 3 geliŋta { f } 8 kheiduə { y } 3 gilendi { bc } 9 tʃupdʒa { F } 4 hãs { Fk } 4 husõ { e } 88 egg 5 hõ { i } 1 dori { C } 5 huhã { d } 1 doriet { B } 5 huhõ { dl } 1 doriŋ { ADe } 5 husõ { e } 2 ăjuŋ { dim } 5 muso { D } 2 juŋ { l } 91 bird 4 dʒedʒe { j } 5 goitham { knotu } 1 bədʒə { C } 5 gotham { hq } 1 bədʒi { A } 5 kotham { p } 1 bəzii { D } 6 hudʒoŋ { c } 1 budʒuʔ { e } 7 khalum { frs } 2 hu { Ebi } 7 petʃhakhalum { E } 2 huʔ { dl } 8 ʔogoŋ { g } 2 hua { cg } 9 pə̆tʃeuŋ { b } 3 kha { hknopqt } a eri { x } 3 kho { u } a khere { vwyz } 4 musə { j } b tʃutʃi { F } 4 pəɕə { B } 5 ʃop { f } 89 fish 6 pule { F } 7 fo { y } 1 ɲa { fr } 7 fu { m } 1 ŋa { cghknopqtu } 7 fua { vwxz } 2 ɲa { fr } 8 za { s } 2 ɲiu { E } 9 ʃja { r } 2 ɲja { s } 2 ɲu { i } 92 insect 3 thri { Ce } 3 tri { D } 0 (no entry) { l }

54

1 bilo { B } 7 tʃidʒemo { E } 1 biluŋ { ACe } 7 tʃiŋʃor { f } 1 bŭlːu { j } 8 gəvoʔ { C } 2 bu { hknpqtu } 9 adʒa { F } 2 bunaka { o } a suŋsuruŋ { p } 3 trəkhuŋ { D } 4 gon { frs } 95 fly 5 khroŋtʃuŋ { c } 1 bədʒuŋlo { CDe } 6 phi { E } 1 pədʒoŋlo { AB } 6 phu { gm } 2 bitʃiŋ { Ei } 6 phy { bi } 2 pə̆tʃi { b } 7 saŋdʒoʔ { d } 3 joŋbu { h } 8 bĕtʃoo { vyz } 4 dʒama { p } 8 pə̆sija { x } 4 zamba { knoqtu } 8 pə̆tʃoo { w } 5 phu { cg } 9 kapekapu { F } 6 praŋ { frs } 93 cockroach 8 tʃăpim { dlm } 9 tʃhələbjo { j } 0 (no entry) { f } a madʒoumue { y } 1 batʃɾuŋ { d } a mədʒau { z } 1 butʃuluŋ { Ei } a mədʒo { vwx } 1 pătʃhuŋ { l } b lagalu { F } 1 pitʃuruŋ { b } 2 zulu { chopqrstu } 96 spider 2 zuɾu { k } 1 baʃidərgau { C } 3 thumtʃə { j } 1 basidərgiaŋ { e } 4 tʃhiʔduŋ { g } 1 batʃibəgau { D } 5 dʒaŋdʒi { CD } 2 băɾoŋba { n } 5 zaŋzia { ABe } 2 broŋbu { o } 5 zaŋzikma { m } 2 buŋpu { k } 6 sakpa { n } 3 nant̪ɾisaŋsoŋ { dm } 7 sarigau { vwxyz } 4 phusaŋgumbu { c } 8 sasugula { F } 4 saŋkopa { g } 5 phy { b } 94 bee 5 phyadok { l } 1 mădʒəd̪u { j } 6 preʃuŋ { i } 2 mai { B } 6 treʃum { E } 2 mei { D } 7 ɾoŋʃuŋbu { h } 2 miʔ { Ae } 8 ʃagəxa { j } 3 mizumba { u } a hampalam { s } 3 mizuŋba { t } a haŋpalam { f } 3 muzuma { h } a haŋplaŋ { r } 3 nizumba { koq } b raguŋ { vwxz } 3 nuzumba { n } b raguŋʃejam { y } 4 tʃăŋkwĕm { d } c atəroŋba { tu } 4 tʃhankhom { l } d abigoŋsu { q } 5 siŋsur { qrs } e khoŋsama { p } 6 tʃhutʃhu { c } f nərija { A } 7 tʃə̆khəma { m } f nərijanam { B } 7 tʃəmut { vwxyz } g murpalo { F } 7 tʃhimu { i } 7 tʃi { b } 7 tʃiʔtʃhuama { g }

55

97 ant 4 khɾuʔ { l } 4 khɾuk { divxyz } 1 h̥rok { f } 4 khruʔ { b } 1 h̥rokpu { s } 5 kæktuŋ { s } 1 h̥ropu { r } 5 kektoŋ { E } 2 khaŋdʒila { hpqtu } 6 laŋ { r } 2 khaŋtʃila { kno } 7 uː { e } 3 khetʃho { g } 8 mathaŋ { m } 3 khintʃhoʔ { c } 9 gou { A } 4 săŋdʒoʔ { l } 9 mogou { B } 4 saŋdʒo { bdm } a dəkhijaŋ { D } 4 sandʒok { Ei } a tokijaŋ { C } 5 ɕəni { AB } c dʒupara { F } 5 ʃiŋiŋ { CDvwyz } 5 siiŋ { x } 100 face 5 siɲi { ej } 6 paʃu { F } 1 ʔokhumo { j } 2 ba { q } 98 mosquito 2 bah̥ { frs } 3 doʔ { g } 0 (no entry) { f } 4 doŋpa { cghknoptu } 1 koŋtʃuŋ { g } 4 doŋpu { E } 1 kroŋtʃu { c } 5 dʒuik { b } 1 kroŋtʃuŋ { Eitu } 5 zyk { dlm } 1 kuɾoŋtʃuŋbu { ko } 6 gamija { CDe } 1 troŋtʃum { hp } 6 khamija { AB } 2 pheli { r } 6 mədʒia { y } 2 phelu { s } 6 mədʒija { z } 3 səxən { j } 6 midʒa { vw } 4 sərədaŋ { D } 6 mizija { x } 4 sirdoŋmai { A } 7 bo { i } 4 sirijaŋdo { C } 8 aɲia { F } 4 sirijoŋdaŋmai { B } 4 suriŋdaŋ { e } 101 neck 5 tampi { b } 6 tʃapimdʒoŋ { d } 1 ʔənəxo { j } 7 mədʒou { y } 2 dəmu { D } 8 matʃhaɾ { l } 2 domə { AB } 9 timpuladʒo { m } 2 dumu { e } a zamba { n } 3 lara { F } b toŋʃuŋ { q } 4 bəthuŋ { l } c tʃikdʒoŋ { z } 4 hendoŋ { c } c tʃikitʃoŋ { vwx } 4 hiŋthoŋ { g } d tatu { F } 5 thuŋtʃe { i } 6 ɲeu { s } 99 head 6 ɲo { fr } 7 ŋam { h } 1 ʔekhje { j } 7 ŋaŋ { knopqtu } 1 kijatuŋ { w } 8 bəthuŋ { l } 2 ɕaɾam { h } 8 orutuŋ { E } 2 ʃaɾaŋ { nqtu } 8 phə̆t ̪uŋ { d } 2 ʃjaɾaŋ { kop } 8 rutuŋ { b } 3 got { f } 9 dro { m } 4 khloʔ { c } a ejua { vx } 4 kholo { g } a japu { w }

56

a jua { yz } 2 nophuŋ { Eim } b demitraŋ { C } 3 naguŋ { tu } 3 nah̥ { frs } 102 hair 3 nahum { h } 3 nak { k } 1 ʔeketʃe { j } 3 nakhuŋ { p } 2 gə̆zaŋ { Edim } 3 naku { q } 2 gidʒan { l } 3 nawu { n } 2 kə̆zaŋ { b } 5 nebijoŋ { ABC } 2 khazijaŋ { vxyz } 5 nibiuŋ { e } 2 khazijau { w } 5 nibuŋ { D } 2 khsaŋ { g } 6 nawu { n } 2 khuʃaŋ { c } 6 nawuŋ { o } 3 khra { frs } 7 kepe { F } 4 tʃam { pq } 4 tʃham { hknotu } 105 ear 5 uphiu { e } 5 wophijo { C } 1 ʔĕɸə { j } 6 gopal { B } 2 dʒo { ABC } 6 gopə { A } 2 dʒoʔ { D } 7 dʒumi { F } 2 dʒuo { e } 8 umu { D } 3 gathuŋ { m } 3 gythyn { i } 103 eye 3 kə̆thyŋ { bd } 1 ʔiɲi { j } 3 khutuŋ { cgl } 2 kamby { l } 3 khutuŋtʃilak { E } 2 khaʔby { b } 4 na { hpq } 2 khabə { m } 4 negaŋ { kotu } 2 khambyi { d } 4 nejagaŋ { n } 3 khabə { m } 4 nelăp { frs } 3 khebi { E } 5 khõ { vwxyz } 3 khŭbi { i } 6 ra { F } 4 khum { c } 106 cheek 4 khumu { g } 5 mər { C } 1 ʔekhimoʔadʒu { j } 5 məri { e } 2 d̪oŋpa { os } 6 meloŋ { fs } 2 d̪uŋpa { fgk } 6 minoŋ { r } 2 toŋpa { qr } 7 miŋ { hknopqtu } 3 gamijatʃə { C } 8 mijak { vwxz } 3 gamijeadʒiŋ { e } 8 mije { y } 3 gəmijaatʃuŋ { D } 9 meʔ { D } 3 kəmijeadʒen { AB } 9 mẽ { AB } 4 guɾghaŋ { p } a niram { F } 4 khurkhaŋ { htu } 5 koptaŋ { c } 104 nose 6 mikiŋ { b } 6 zykmĭkĭŋ { d } 1 ʔuʃə { j } 7 dumpulok { E } 2 aphuŋ { b } 7 tʃiphilok { i } 2 ephuŋ { vwxyz } 8 zyskŭk { l } 2 hempoŋ { g } 9 dʒaphui { m } 2 heŋphoŋ { c } a pus { n } 2 maphuŋ { l } b mədʒiamabau { vwxyz } 2 mə̆phuŋ { d } d aɲaməpu { F }

57

107 chin 6 iri { v } 6 ri { wxyz } 1 ʔĕgado { j } 7 jaʔkhi { D } 2 gamdei { Ei } 7 jakhe { B } 2 gamdi { hprstu } 7 jakhijoi { A } 2 gamthi { dko } 2 gamti { n } 110 tooth 2 gamtʃi { q } 2 gumdu { f } 1 ʔethu { j } 2 kamduŋ { c } 1 tə { AB } 2 kamt ̪i { l } 1 thu { Ce } 3 gutʃa { BCD } 1 tu { D } 3 gutʃaʔ { Ae } 2 ɕa { hn } 4 hiŋkuɾ { g } 2 ɕja { k } 5 tʃakho { b } 2 ʃa { pqtu } 6 nijokhu { m } 2 ʃah̩ { o } 7 ʃĕandəkhau { vw } 3 hintuŋ { c } 7 semtəkham { xyz } 3 ʃiŋtuŋ { g } 8 tʃokpra { F } 4 nithiŋ { bm } 4 nuthuŋ { E } 108 mouth 5 butuŋ { l } 5 nuthuŋ { E } 1 ʔə̆nzu { j } 5 pətyn { d } 2 go { e } 6 wah̥ { frs } 3 hotʃok { g } 7 toktʃe { i } 3 tʃho { b } 8 ʃinijat { wx } 3 tʃotʃo { l } 8 ʃiniŋ { vyz } 3 tʃutʃo { d } 9 phi { F } 4 kha { frs } 5 khotʃu { c } 111 elbow 6 noaŋ { hkq } 6 nowaŋ { noptu } 1 apobe { j } 7 ditʃe { m } 2 găzaŋkhlogpa { h } 8 sphun { v } 2 gaɾaŋkili { koqtu } 9 ʃijam { w } 3 gɾimoŋ { f } 9 sem { xyz } 3 gɾumoŋ { rs } a ɲek { B } 4 hudʒulu { g } a ɲeləi { A } 5 larbuŋ { F } b niwi { C } 6 ikli { Ebi } b nui { D } 6 ikri { dl } c natʃau { Ei } 6 klikpa { p } d sapu { F } 7 paʔtʃəŋkaŋ { A } 7 patʃeka { B } 109 tongue 7 patʃiŋku { e } 8 watʃpau { x } 1 ʔedʒabla { j } 8 watʃrap { w } 2 dʒakihi { e } 9 tʃiʔ { c } 3 lapho { i } a jitʃri { m } 4 la { Em } c tʃiŋkhaŋ { n } 4 le { bdhknpqtu } d phrow { v } 4 lɛ { l } d saphrom { y } 4 leh̥ { fors } d tʃapram { x } 4 loi { cg } f patʃrom { z } 4 tale { F } g paŋtrəŋkhu { C } 5 lakʃi { C } h gi { D }

58

112 hand 9 mabijaŋ { z } a watduweʔ { y } 1 ʔagdʒə { j } c iksabo { E } 2 găzaŋ { h } d lartʃe { F } 2 gaɾaŋ { knopqtu } 3 gi { ABCe } 115 fingernail 4 hu { g } 4 hut { c } 1 ʔĕdʒitʃə { j } 5 la { F } 2 găzaŋtʃiŋna { h } 5 lah̥ { frs } 2 gaɾaŋtʃiŋnaŋ { ptu } 6 wat { vwxyz } 2 tʃinaŋ { knoq } 7 ik { Ebdilm } 3 giten { ABCe } 8 giphijoŋ { D } 4 hutʃhuŋ { c } 4 hutʃiŋ { g } 113 palm 4 ikʃiŋ { bd } 4 iktʃiŋ { Eilm } 1 ʔə̆gdʒəkhu { j } 5 bəsen { vx } 2 gineluŋ { AB } 5 pə̆sen { y } 3 găzaŋpatʃarma { h } 5 pəʃen { z } 3 gaɾaŋpar { knopqtu } 5 pətʃijat { w } 4 lalatiaŋ { f } 6 zimpoŋ { frs } 4 lapai { F } 7 legəphu { D } 4 laten { rs } 8 larphe { F } 5 giphijaŋ { Ce } 5 viphijaŋ { vz } 116 knee 5 watbijaŋ { y } 5 watphje { x } 1 ʔəʃpə { j } 6 huphala { g } 2 gumlaktoŋ { h } 6 hutphara { c } 2 gumziŋ { otu } 7 ikpaɾ { dl } 3 kholokpa { fprs } 7 iktʃapar { Ei } 3 klokpu { E } 8 akham { z } 3 kloktʃi { q } 9 ikthuŋ { bm } 3 kolokpa { ckn } a pri { w } 3 legəphu { C } c gitʃo { D } 3 leikhu { D } 3 leiklopa { g } 114 finger 3 lekəpiu { ABe } 4 lapikhom { dl } 1 ʔĕdʒətʃə { j } 4 lipikhom { b } 2 brama { ct } 5 niphik { i } 2 burom { b } 6 japikra { m } 2 găzaŋbruma { h } 7 ləspau { vx } 2 gaɾagatuŋ { u } 8 lagijoŋ { yz } 2 gaɾaŋbruma { knopq } 8 lakijuŋ { w } 3 iktʃi { i } 9 bisugoŋ { F } 3 iktʃŭdo { d } 4 lap { fs } 117 foot 4 lapu { r } 5 ditʃo { B } 1 ʔə̆ʃə̆ku { j } 5 githə { D } 2 bhi { hkpu } 5 gitʃoʔ { ACe } 2 bifaɾa { o } 6 husada { g } 2 bih̥ { nt } 7 ʔiʔpɾomu { l } 2 bipai { F } 8 ikadu { m } 2 biɾiŋbu { q } 9 bijaŋ { vwx } 3 latʃoŋ { m }

59

3 letoŋ { r } 2 moŋnam { u } 4 laʔ { E } 2 moŋnaŋ { hknopqt } 4 lai { Ccyz } 3 məpə { A } 4 le { bd } 3 məpre { BC } 4 leh̥par { l } 3 nipi { F } 4 lei { ABgx } 3 nuphri { e } 4 leikhu { e } 4 pep { fs } 4 lemin { s } 4 phe { r } 4 lemintiŋma { f } 5 ʃakho { cg } 4 letoŋ { r } 5 səkuʔ { l } 5 latʃapar { i } 5 skuk { Edim } 6 loe { v } 5 skup { b } 6 lue { wx } 6 ekhuk { vwxyz } 7 ajem { D } 6 skuk { Edim } 7 zəai { D } 118 bone 121 blood 1 ʔə̆xə̆be { j } 2 khaŋ { hknopqtu } 1 dʒai { e } 3 mariaŋ { AB } 1 dʒi { knoqtu } 3 miliaŋ { Ce } 1 medʒai { B } 4 ɾoʃba { f } 1 ʃə { j } 4 ɾoska { r } 1 ʒi { AC } 5 reipa { s } 2 ha { Eim } 6 ʃukuʃ { cg } 2 he { bd } 7 səkiʔ { l } 2 hɛh̥ { l } 7 skiʔ { b } 2 hoi { cg } 7 skik { Edi } 3 ji { hp } 8 ezak { w } 4 khra { frs } 8 ezeŋ { vxz } 6 efua { vwx } 8 nizeŋ { y } 6 məfai { z } 9 abau { D } 6 nəfai { y } a nira { F } 7 fənʃo { D } b axik { m } 8 evi { F }

119 fat 122 sweat 1 ʔə̆bi { j } 1 ʔə̆ɸu { j } 2 ăjo { dg } 2 ɕipt ̪aŋ { p } 2 ăjoʔ { dgl } 2 ɕŭpt̪aŋ { hk } 2 ajo { Ebim } 2 ʃupt̪aŋ { noqtu } 2 ejo { yz } 3 fen { AB } 2 eju { vwx } 3 fenʃo { C } 3 jan { h } 3 frən { e } 4 məmbau { ACe } 4 gətʃhik { i } 4 məmbou { B } 5 khotʃhikbu { b } 5 si { hknopqtu } 5 khotʃipu { l } 6 tʃakpa { c } 5 kutʃikbo { d } 7 tʃhi { frs } 6 muiwa { f } 8 aʔphri { D } 6 ŋoiphi { E } 9 ufu { F } 6 ŋuiba { rs } 7 namliŋ { g } 120 skin 7 namtʃhanami { c } 8 nakhã { m } 1 ʔə̆tʃhə { j } 9 haniju { vwx }

60

9 haniwa { yz } 3 dʒap { pq } a ruk { D } 3 dʒiap { c } b eve { F } 4 d̪ekhe { i } 5 gəbaŋ { e } 123 belly 5 kəbaŋ { AB } 5 məgəbaŋ { C } 1 ʔə̆ləxo { j } 6 geptiŋ { frs } 2 fəriŋ { b } 6 getʃi { n } 2 səɾiŋ { d } 6 getʃik { tu } 2 seri { m } 7 lispo { g } 2 siɾiŋ { Eil } 8 naguŋ { m } 3 hiliŋ { c } 8 raguŋ { x } 3 hiɲiŋ { g } 9 tʃhiŋkhaŋ { hko } 4 kepa { frs } a hadu { v } 5 pholoŋ { h } a ləbəu { z } 6 putʃi { knopqtu } b ephiŋbaŋ { x } 7 rok { e } c phadum { y } 7 ruk { C } c phaduŋlaŋ { z } 8 elui { vwx } c phapuŋzak { w } 8 lui { yz } d za { D } 9 gai { F } e ɲakhu { E } a nəgəʔ { A } f puro { F } a nəgu { B } c luŋ { D } 126 body 124 heart (organ) 1 ʔoso { ju } 1 ʔə̆lə̆biu { j } 1 aʃo { bm } 2 loŋvə { A } 1 eso { vw } 2 luŋthaʔ { cg } 1 so { dl } 2 luŋvəuk { Be } 2 liʔ { E } 3 ʃiloŋ { m } 2 lismamu { g } 3 suluŋ { El } 2 lui { i } 3 syləŋ { b } 2 luipo { fs } 3 syluŋ { di } 2 lusmama { c } 4 niŋ { rs } 2 luspu { hknopqrtu } 4 niŋga { f } 3 ʃuʔ { z } 5 thimluŋ { kn } 3 ʒai { AB } 5 thiŋlom { hu } 3 zaʔ { Ce } 6 thimluŋ { kn } 3 zug { g } 6 timnuŋ { o } 4 ga { F } 7 eləbau { vwx } 5 ʃuʔ { z } 7 ləbəu { z } 5 siu { xy } 7 ləbuʔ { y } 127 person 8 məɲijo { C } 9 kəbaŋlaŋ { D } 0 (no entry) { kmuy } a raludaŋa { F } 1 athek { d } b sem { pqt } 1 ethego { D } 2 bŭdihin { g } 125 back 3 dʒiɾiŋ { Ei } 4 hando { b } 1 ʔə̆tʃəbo { ju } 4 hanendoʔ { l } 2 aky { b } 5 maŋma { c } 2 ky { d } 6 miʔ { frs } 2 kyː { l } 7 ɲijə { AB }

61

7 ɲiuʔ { Ce } 6 niza { t } 8 ɲijə { AB } 7 nəmeg { e } 8 nə̆na { j } 8 burmin { r } 9 soŋ { n } 9 nəmrai { ABC } 9 soŋa { otu } a numazə { D } 9 soŋo { hp } b muip { s } 9 tʃoŋga { q } c hõamu { y } a bran { vwx } c hõamua { z } b tharathamaŋ { z } c muru { F } 130 father

128 man 1 ʔau { j } 2 ăbo { di } 1 bŭd̪ŭn { gu } 2 ăpha { f } 1 pədəŋ { c } 2 aba { ABg } 2 dʒĭɾiŋ { d } 2 abo { CFelm } 2 dʒihu { E } 2 abou { b } 2 dʒiriŋ { bil } 2 abu { D } 3 mə̆hu { j } 2 ap { y } 3 mih̥ { fs } 2 apa { chknopqrstu } 4 ɲəjə { AB } 2 aphu { y } 4 ɲiju { C } 2 aphua { vwxz } 4 nuʔ { D } 3 atʃhi { o } 4 nuvə { e } 3 atʃi { E } 5 soŋa { ntu } 5 soŋo { p } 131 mother 5 tʃoŋga { q } 1 ămah̥ { f } 5 zoŋa { k } 1 ămuʔ { bd } 6 phjoksa { h } 1 ama { cghknopqrstu } 7 t ̪hurta { k } 1 ami { i } 8 ʃokp { r } 1 amo { m } 9 bran { yz } 1 amu { Eily } a ʃam { o } 1 amua { vwxz } b moro { F } 2 ami { i } b soŋo { p } 2 aɲe { AB } c dʒihu { E } 2 aɲi { Cej } c dʒuhu { m } 2 anai { D } d bəfəə { vwx } 3 aje { F } 3 ami { i } 129 woman 3 aɲe { AB } 1 ămah { fu } 3 aɲi { Cej } 2 dhudma { c } 3 bimi { wx } 132 husband 3 dimi { v } 1 ʔăja { i } 3 dʒimi { Ei } 1 age { v } 3 dʒymy { dlm } 1 aja { Em } 3 dʒymykhɾe { b } 1 aje { dlw } 3 mimi { Fj } 1 ge { xz } 3 tʃhimi { q } 2 age { v } 4 esma { g } 2 ge { xz } 5 mijoktʃa { h } 2 ɲige { y } 6 ɲidʒa { u } 3 ʔəlʃi { j } 6 ɲizoka { p } 4 zofa { g } 6 ŋiza { kno }

62

5 dewai { e } 135 daughter 5 duwai { D } 1 ʔosam { j } 5 mədewai { C } 2 burmin { fr } 6 dʒuhu { b } 3 damu { c } 7 juŋpa { kqtu } 3 dəmi { y } 8 makpo { frs } 3 dimi { Evwxz } 9 oʔi { c } 3 dymy { bdilm } a ɲige { y } 3 dʒŭmu { g } a nəgai { AB } 3 zomu { s } b phaiapa { o } 4 giəmai { D } b phjama { n } 4 ʒəmrai { A } b phoibu { h } 4 zamĭn { hknopqtu } b phuibu { p } 4 zəmrai { B } c ratʃi { F } 4 zəmrə { Ce } 133 wife 4 zomu { s } 5 satəi { x } 1 ʔăjo { i } 6 mimiuŋa { F } 1 aje { vw } 1 aju { Edlm } 136 elder brother (gen) 1 je { xyz } 1 ʔaja { jmo } 1 uja { cg } 2 abakhau { v } 2 ʔoɸom { j } 2 abam { y } 3 băksə̆r { frs } 2 abau { x } 4 dʒymy { b } 2 abe { bl } 4 zəvə { C } 2 abeakhou { d } 5 ŋizi { n } 2 abu { i } 5 nĭzi { hkq } 2 abua { w } 5 zəvə { C } 2 abukhau { E } 5 zi { ABe } 3 ada { bcg } 6 phăjama { hp } 3 adam { xz } 6 phaiama { ou } 4 ata { hp } 6 phejama { t } 5 atʃh { fr } 7 gi { D } 6 au { hkqtu } 8 wii { F } 6 awu { n } 134 son 7 akəvo { D } 7 akhəvo { C } 1 ʔosa { j } 7 kəvoi { AB } 1 sa { q } 7 khəvoʔ { e } 2 ăd̪u { d } 8 teintʃoatʃi { s } 2 adu { blm } 9 avaŋ { A } 2 du { Ei } a ama { F } 3 bŭza { fr } 3 ʒəvəi { A } 137 elder sister (gen) 3 za { hknoptu } 3 zəvə { BCe } 1 ʔama { ABj } 4 kutʃhi { g } 1 ʔawu { g } 5 tʃaʔla { c } 1 abau { v } 6 zokpu { s } 1 abə { m } 7 dəfua { vwxyz } 1 abua { w } 8 nuvəzi { D } 1 amo { Ce } 9 morauŋa { F } 1 amu { D } 1 au { cr } 2 ʔop { f }

63

3 ăɲeakho { d } 9 ʃadaino { v } 4 teintʃoobu { s } a mimua { w } 5 ʔama { ABj } a mimuduwa { x } 5 abau { v } b bəmənou { yz } 5 abə { m } c naɲiŋ { optu } 5 ana { hknopqtu } d raŋai { B } 5 ane { bl } d rəai { A } 6 anukhau { Ei } e ɲijaɲe { D } 6 bəməkhou { y } e ɲijaŋha { C } 6 bumukhou { z } 6 bumuwa { x } 140 friend (male) 6 mimuabau { x } 1 ʔodʒo { j } 7 ofo { F } 1 adʒo { D } 138 younger brother (gen) 1 mədʒo { ABe } 2 dʒaɾo { h } 1 ʔonu { j } 3 khə̆nŭŋ { d } 1 anuŋ { bdgl } 3 khunuŋ { bl } 1 ne { F } 4 loʔ { cg } 1 nu { e } 4 ɾok { Eikmnotu } 2 ăbeădʒăŋ { d } 4 ɾoko { pq } 3 prisozokpu { s } 5 madʒro { C } 3 ʃokpu { f } 5 mədʒo { ABe } 4 boɲi { k } 6 puna { fs } 4 boɲiŋ { hnot } 7 khomdʒa { r } 4 boniŋ { q } 8 egau { v } 4 buɲiŋ { pu } 9 etʃak { w } 5 khutʃi { c } a edʒia { z } 6 ɲijaŋɲiw { C } a eza { y } 7 abutʃaŋ { E } a izaʔ { x } 7 unutʃaŋ { i } b adʒiŋ { F } 8 ʔoh { r } 8 athabo { m } 141 name 9 akhua { vwxz } 1 ʔəɲəɲə { j } 9 khue { y } 2 ădʒeŋ { Edm } a raŋ { B } 2 adʒen { bil } a rəə { A } 3 biŋ { cg } b ɲanu { D } 3 ebeŋ { vwxyz } 3 mbeŋ { y } 139 younger sister (gen) 3 meŋ { frs } 1 ʔoɲum { j } 3 min { hk } 1 ʔonuma { g } 3 miŋ { nopqtu } 1 ʔow { r } 4 mə̃rn { ABCDe } 2 anutʃaŋ { E } 4 meŋ { frs } 2 anutʃaŋdu { i } 4 min { hk } 3 dʒumu { c } 4 miŋ { nopqtu } 3 ʃomu { f } 5 niraŋ { F } 4 meriŋadʒen { d } 4 miɾiŋ { l } 142 village 4 miriŋadʒan { b } 1 duŋ { hknopqtu } 5 ne { Fe } 1 luŋpa { g } 6 zi { hknq } 2 gabijaŋ { Ce } 7 thamo { m } 2 kabijaŋ { ABD } 8 prisozomu { s }

64

3 jyh̥ { rs } 146 roof 3 y { f } 1 jamkhumu { E } 4 ɲətʃhə { j } 1 jamnakpa { i } 5 thak { y } 1 jamtʃŭŋ { dm } 5 thap { vwxz } 2 pheithuŋ { otu } 5 thia { b } 2 phethuŋ { nq } 5 thiup { c } 3 ɲeltʃə { j } 5 thuk { E } 4 neipuŋ { e } 5 thyk { dilm } 5 phaibŭŋnaŋ { hp } 6 kotʃo { F } 6 tampe { b } 143 house 7 thosa { f } 7 tʃoi { k } 1 jam { Ebdilm } 8 wamtʃa { cg } 1 nam { AB } 9 khajap { l } 1 wam { cg } a phan { r } 2 khem { rs } a phaŋ { s } 2 khim { f } b sabakhuŋ { v } 4 ɲan { e } c məkau { wx } 4 ɲe { CFj } d situwaŋ { y } 4 ɲeon { D } e saphuje { z } 5 phai { np } f dikhijoŋphuŋ { D } 5 phaji { h } f tikhijoŋla { C } 5 phe { k } f tikijuŋ { A } 5 phei { oqtu } g təkroŋ { B } 6 hõ { vwxyz } i gartoŋ { F }

144 door 147 wall of house 1 kau { Ei } 1 ăzăɾ { d } 1 ko { bdl } 1 tʃar { r } 1 koh̥ { firs } 2 jamlok { Eitu } 1 kotam { c } 2 lok { s } 1 kotaŋ { hknopqtu } 2 pheilok { o } 1 kuthuŋ { g } 3 ɲetəkʃə { j } 3 ɲĕgdəʃe { j } 4 paŋtuŋ { b } 4 vaphi { Ae } 4 pitoŋ { F } 4 vimphi { C } 5 gihuŋphai { D } 5 joŋko { m } 5 phai { e } 6 habiŋ { vwxyz } 5 phaiɾed̪aŋ { h } 7 banphik { D } 5 ʃamphai { C } 7 banpi { B } 5 taipai { A } 8 delakoŋ { F } 6 sakpa { s } 6 tʃikpa { cfgklnoq } 145 window 7 notho { m } 1 kaudu { i } 8 hazaŋ { vwxyz } 2 khirki { ABCDFejwx } 9 phaiɾed̪aŋ { h } 3 kotʃuŋ { bcdfkmnoqrstu } 9 ɾed̪aŋ { p } 3 kotʃyŋ { lp } a baŋbijaŋ { B } 3 kutʃuŋ { h } 148 pillow 4 ɲalo { g } 5 hotʃou { yz } 1 dĭkʃo { j } 5 mĕlatʃou { v } 2 khukhum { c } 6 paŋthuŋ { E } 2 khumu { g }

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2 ukhum { D } 151 clothing 3 tharo { vwxyz } 1 gijeʃjo { j } 4 ŋai { fs } 2 horigri { e } 4 ŋas { hknopqrtu } 3 jentʃamkhamuŋ { h } 5 skom { Ei } 4 joʔ { Ebd } 6 gokəm { AB } 4 joʔmuʔ { l } 6 khukhum { c } 4 juŋ { v } 6 nukhən { e } 4 juŋdampha { y } 6 wokhən { C } 4 juŋgəwa { w } 7 saŋkhom { bdlm } 4 juŋgu { x } 8 dʒukire { F } 5 khau { ktu } 149 blanket 5 khou { tu } 6 penaka { f } 1 gombolo { AF } 7 tʃhojo { i } 1 gombul { C } 8 tuthuŋ { c } 1 khombal { y } 9 jadə { m } 1 kombolo { Eej } 9 wad { g } 1 kombulou { B } a genmape { s } 2 lembo { dil } b khamtʃudaŋ { no } 2 lombu { b } b khamu { q } 3 neloʔ { cg } b khamuŋ { p } 4 phaŋa { h } c pih { r } 4 thaŋa { fknopqst } d jegua { z } 5 kapu { m } e gabugəi { A } 6 tantʃam { r } e gəigal { B } 7 tʃutuk { u } e geibeloŋ { D } 8 emau { w } f gərwari { C } 8 imoŋ { vx } g gileəkəle { F } 8 jomaŋ { z } 9 gəpho { D } 152 cloth

150 ring (on finger) 1 gəri { C } 1 gije { ABDj } 1 dʒə̆tʃelje { j } 1 gile { F } 2 gilan { ABDm } 1 pije { f } 2 gile { Ce } 2 gəri { C } 2 lale { F } 2 grə { e } 3 kid̪op { l } 3 jo { im } 3 seldŭp { f } 3 joʔ { Ebdl } 4 tʃajduʔ { g } 3 juŋ { vwxyz } 4 tʃedum { c } 4 khamu { q } 4 tʃhaid̪um { h } 4 khamuŋ { hp } 4 tʃidop { bd } 4 khau { knot } 4 tʃodop { i } 4 khou { u } 4 tʃodum { kq } 5 wad { cg } 4 tʃoiduŋ { noptu } 6 pe { s } 5 lapɲonum { r } 6 pih { r } 5 sonup { s } 6 gənat { vxyz } 153 medicine 6 kəna { w } 7 istop { E } 1 dao { e } 1 dawa { ABCDFxyz } 2 d̪oxa { j } 3 man { Ebcdfhiklnopqrstu }

66

3 men { m } 157 broom 3 pen { g } 1 braŋphaktʃaŋ { h } 4 mo { vwx } 2 ɲeso { j } 154 paper 2 naʃi { CD } 2 nesi { e } 1 kako { F } 3 ʃertʃaŋ { h } 1 khakho { j } 4 tʃaɲtʃɾi { dl } 2 ʃadʒipriʔ { Ce } 4 tʃantʃaɾan { knotu } 2 sidʒipeʔ { AD } 4 tʃantʃəɾi { bg } 3 ʃo { mz } 4 tʃantʃiɾi { i } 3 ʃuk { f } 4 tʃantʃiriŋ { E } 3 suʔ { vw } 4 tʃhamtʃhaɾaŋ { c } 4 ʃijok { xz } 5 namɕoirə { A } 5 seu { y } 5 namʃoi { B } 6 ʃigu { cg } 6 ʃet ̪am { q } 6 ʃugu { hknopqrstu } 6 tʃaktam { r } 6 sə̆ga { d } 6 tʃertam { fs } 6 sigi { E } 7 lipakhoa { m } 6 sygi { b } 8 maibaktʃam { p } 6 sygy { il } 9 sasəraŋ { vwxz } 7 ʃasi { B } a bigma { y } b ebikma { z } 155 needle c dʒaru { F } 1 duedʒuʔ { Ce } 158 spoon (for eating) 1 duwazi { D } 2 kham { hknopqrtu } 1 dʒagba { j } 2 khap { fs } 1 dʒap { vxz } 3 phi { l } 1 tʃap { w } 3 phĭli { bim } 2 klem { fs } 3 phiʔ { d } 2 lem { hknopqtu } 3 phli { E } 2 plem { r } 4 psi { cg } 3 pantʃo { ABD } 5 səkʃə { j } 3 phentʃuʔ { e } 6 simen { vwxyz } 4 sə̆ko { i } 7 tigamsərei { AB } 4 sko { E } 8 bedʒi { F } 5 tʃaŋkho { dl } 5 tʃaŋkhu { b } 156 thread 6 tʃhobi { g } 1 dʒaŋ { e } 6 tʃhoi { c } 2 haŋ { Ebdilm } 8 tʃikholo { m } 2 hauŋ { c } 9 pili { F } 2 hwaŋ { g } a dau { y } 3 kŭpa { k } b dʒembu { C } 3 kŭpo { D } 159 knife (to cut meat) 3 kutpa { fnoqrstu } 3 kutpaŋ { hp } 1 bali { g } 4 iraŋdi { F } 1 baɾi { co } 5 məraŋ { vwxyz } 2 betʃasa { j } 5 məʃin { j } 3 bra { Ei } 6 kəbo { ABC } 4 handu { l } 6 kŭpa { k } 4 handudu { bdm } 6 kŭpo { D } 5 kiotʃuŋ { s }

67

6 tʃhoŋ { p } 162 bow 6 tʃhoŋdaza { h } 1 rak { vwxyz } 6 tʃoŋza { o } 2 geri { C } 6 tʃowaŋ { qtu } 2 gri { e } 6 tʃowaŋza { kn } 2 khiri { Dj } 7 mədəkhui { vz } 2 le { F } 7 məkhui { xy } 2 li { cfghikmnopqrstu } 7 metəkhui { w } 2 miʔri { l } 8 tʃutʃuŋ { fr } 2 mili { E } 9 vaitʃoŋʒi { ABCD } 2 ri { b } 9 vetʃin { e } 4 miʔ { d } a kaple { F } 4 miʔri { l } 160 hammer 6 kə̆rai { AB } 0 (no entry) { bc } 163 arrow 1 martăl { j } 1 tʃaŋzerma { h } 1 martul { Fq } 2 dimin { noqtu } 2 peɾilakt ̪o ŋ { h } 2 diminzu { p } 3 khatoŋ { n } 2 lidimi { k } 3 thoŋ { ko } 3 mə̆tʃhə { j } 3 thuŋ { dim } 3 məthua { y } 3 toŋ { Efgrst } 3 mẽt { vxz } 4 tʃəmpo { ABCDe } 3 miʔ { cg } 5 hambaɾ { lu } 3 mijak { w } 6 laktom { p } 3 mik { bi } 7 dʒabam { z } 3 nə { ABe } 7 dʒabau { vx } 3 nələn { CD } 7 dʒabu { y } 4 mla { frs } 8 dʒabau { vx } 5 ɾiʔ { dlm } 8 dʒabu { y } 6 dʒili { E } 8 tʃapau { w } 7 pa { F } 161 axe 164 spear 1 beŋɾa { hotu } 1 bijaŋɾa { knpq } 0 (no entry) { cr } 2 blu { De } 1 dʒijoŋ { z } 2 bulu { C } 1 dʒoʔ { B } 3 bulu { C } 1 dʒoŋ { AEdltux } 3 pə̆lə { A } 1 dʒuŋ { CDbe } 3 phĕlu { BEi } 2 khabar { ho } 3 phɾu { d } 2 khabaɾa { p } 3 phullu { bm } 2 phar { q } 3 phuɾu { l } 3 tiŋkaŋ { gn } 4 phodʒe { j } 4 tʃhumi { k } 5 tewan { frs } 4 tʃijoŋ { vwy } 6 rakpa { F } 4 tʃudʒu { j } 7 thabijou { vz } 5 zat ̪i { i } 7 thabiu { y } 6 ʃei { m } 7 thabu { x } 7 duŋ { f } 7 thapijoŋ { w } 7 thuŋ { s } 8 pha { cg } 8 neŋkroŋ { F }

68

165 fire 4 bamkham { x } 4 boemokhəm { z } 1 ba { Eim } 4 maikhən { ABCDe } 1 bai { y } 5 mebun { f } 1 be { bl } 5 memoŋ { r } 1 beʔ { d } 6 miwan { s } 1 bei { cg } 7 mŭkʃə { j } 1 mai { ABCDe } 7 mui { k } 1 me { rs } 8 milaməkə { F } 1 meh̥ { f } 2 mai { ABCDe } 168 candle 2 me { rs } 2 meh̥ { f } 0 (no entry) { bcem } 2 mi { hjknopqtu } 1 la { f } 2 mila { F } 2 mumbati { BEFdghijkln 3 ba { Eim } opqrstuxyz } 3 bai { y } 3 botʃua { v } 3 be { bl } 4 buematʃou { w } 3 beʔ { d } 5 mairiaŋ { ACD } 3 bei { cg } 3 boe { vwxz } 169 boat 0 (no entry) { cmtu } 166 ashes 1 khĭ { b } 1 bla { frs } 1 kho { s } 2 sə̆phije { y } 2 ly { j } 2 spije { vwxz } 2 nõ { dl } 3 d̪huo { f } 2 ru { e } 4 mailodəbuʔ { Ce } 3 na { v } 5 maibu { D } 3 nau { Ey } 5 mjoŋmu { j } 3 naw { fghikpqwx } 6 thuli { knoq } 3 nõ { dl } 6 thulu { hp } 4 dʒaɲtʃi { n } 7 bɾoptʃhaplu { Ei } 4 dʒatʃi { o } 7 tʃăphɾu { dl } 5 per { r } 7 tʃaphlu { bm } 6 holoŋ { F } 8 tʃhuba { c } 7 ijen { ACD } 8 tʃukphak { g } 7 jam { B } 9 khari { tu } 8 khiuŋ { z } a lonobou { AB } 9 dru { s } b mepuruku { F } 170 road 167 smoke 1 ali { i } 1 bakhy { lm } 2 gaɾilam { nopqt } 1 baky { Ebdi } 2 gaɾilym { dm } 1 boekhau { v } 2 lam { hku } 1 bukhu { cgw } 2 lamdʒin { s } 2 bukhu { cgw } 2 ləmu { E } 2 mugu { hp } 2 ləmua { vwxyz } 2 muhu { q } 2 lembaŋ { Ce } 3 mugi { notu } 2 lemnoŋ { f } 3 mugu { hp } 2 lym { b } 3 muhu { q } 2 lymădoʔ { l } 4 baiŋkham { y } 3 ɾhaŋtan { r }

69

4 huma { cg } 4 d̪ilan { q } 5 motoxabo { j } 4 d̪ilo { ntu } 6 radʒa { F } 4 d̪inla { p } 7 gaɾilam { nopqt } 4 d̪intʃam { h } 7 labaŋ { ABD } 5 vəopha { z } 7 lam { hku } 5 vəwa { w } 7 lamdʒin { s } 6 dʒejobei { j } 7 ləmu { E } 7 geid̪u { f } 7 ləmua { vwxyz } 7 geigosu { s } 7 lembaŋ { Ce } 8 ɾum { b } 7 lemnoŋ { f } 9 lua { v } a kiakt̪imo { r } 171 path b thevəə { x } c dai { BDe } 1 ham { m } c daina { AC } 1 huma { cg } d iiləŋ { F } 2 labaŋ { ABD } 2 lam { hknopqtu } 173 to come 2 ləmu { E } 2 ləmuaʃija { z } 1 ʔoŋdu { f } 2 ləmuthuaʔ { y } 1 ʔoŋgo { d } 2 lembaŋ { Ce } 1 ʔoŋniba { lr } 3 lam { hknopqtu } 1 uŋgei { m } 3 ləmu { E } 2 agə { j } 3 ləmuaʃija { z } 2 ago { ij } 3 ləmuthuaʔ { y } 3 dʒa { g } 3 lembaŋ { Ce } 4 hokaʔ { e } 3 luməa { x } 5 kheɾnim { b } 3 lym { bd } 6 luŋdeʔ { c } 3 lymtʃand̪oʔ { l } 7 ŭntʃham { h } 4 ləmuaʃija { z } 7 unla { p } 4 ləua { vw } 7 untʃu { o } 4 luməa { x } 8 ŭɾu { kno } 5 lam { hknopqtu } 9 gunpha { z } 5 ləmu { E } a ʔuhan { q } 5 lym { bd } a ukhen { tu } 5 nə̆mu { i } b hoŋgosu { s } 6 ʃaŋnaŋ { f } c thavəə { vxy } 7 xabo { j } d tən { w } 8 ɾhan { r } e kha { B } 9 raŋdaŋ { s } e khanam { C } a radʒa { F } f kona { A } g hodei { D } 172 to go h rantʃeŋ { E } 1 ʔoŋboʔ { d } i tajalaŋ { F } 1 ʔoŋmo { im } 174 to stand 1 oŋba { l } 1 oŋtʃeŋ { E } 1 tʃeimuʔ { b } 1 uŋdeʔ { cg } 2 gəroŋ { B } 2 dun { y } 2 gijon { ADe } 2 geid̪u { f } 3 gudʒu { j } 3 dai { BDe } 4 joʔtʃibo { d } 3 dun { y } 4 tʃiba { l } 4 d̪i { ko } 4 tʃima { m }

70

5 khimo { i } 2 ʃoŋlai { o } 5 khimu { E } 2 ʃoŋlaka { p } 5 khiŋgide { c } 2 ʃoŋlakhan { tu } 5 khiŋma { g } 2 ʃoŋlalan { q } 6 dalaŋ { F } 2 ʃoŋɾaŋtʃham { h } 6 laŋgosu { s } 3 dʒoagalaŋ { F } 6 laŋni { r } 3 dʒoŋkhaŋ { C } 6 laŋzugu { f } 3 dʒukaŋ { e } 7 theŋtʃoi { o } 3 dʒuŋam { D } 7 thiŋkhən { tu } 4 hamna { A } 7 thiŋkhu { kn } 5 ŋeitʃotʃo { fr } 7 thiŋman { q } 6 ɾintʃhoi { k } 7 thindʒok { p } 7 atʃolumu { b } 7 thintʃhoŋtʃham { h } 7 ʃiʃoʔlama { c } 8 rio { wx } 7 tʃalomo { d } 8 rioma { v } 7 tʃoʔlama { g } 9 dʒaimage { z } 7 tʃoŋloma { l } 9 dʒoi { y } 8 thum { w } a magarangiu { C } 8 thuŋ { x } 8 thuŋmage { vz } 175 to sit 8 thuŋmo { Eim } 8 thuŋmu { y } 1 dəkmu { y } 9 ipʃu { n } 1 duk { x } a ɲetʃogosu { s } 1 dukma { v } b reivija { B } 1 dukmage { z } 1 dymba { l } 177 to walk 1 dymo { d } 1 dymoʔ { i } 1 ʔoʔkhaŋ { d } 1 dymuʔ { b } 2 dai { e } 1 tuk { w } 2 daiʔna { B } 3 gijoŋ { BD } 2 daidəwo { C } 3 gijona { A } 2 deidu { f } 4 zugza { r } 2 naidaidu { D } 5 deiŋma { m } 4 dʒu { j } 5 deŋradʒuŋ { C } 5 daŋkhən { u } 5 duŋdʒuma { c } 5 d̪amku { n } 5 duŋmo { E } 5 d̪aŋba { k } 6 dʒuʔ { eg } 5 d̪aŋkhu { o } 6 dʒulaŋ { F } 5 d̪aŋla { p } 6 dʒuma { g } 5 d̪aŋtʃham { h } 7 laŋo { p } 6 maɲu { g } 7 laŋtʃe { k } 7 ɾoba { l } 7 laŋtʃhontʃham { h } 7 ɾome { m } 7 laŋtʃoi { no } 7 ɾomo { Ei } 7 laŋtsukhən { u } 8 tʃouʔ { b } 8 ʃidu { f } 9 wama { c } 9 xowe { j } a dikhən { t } a sitgosu { s } b thaŋman { q } b tʃholan { q } c kjapt̪i { r } b tʃokhən { t } d geigosu { s } e lua { wxy } 176 to rest e luamage { v } 1 ʔə̆xə { j } e luapha { z }

71

f kona { A } f ələmage { v } g ilaŋ { F } f ləŋvəə { y } f tətʃou { w } 178 to fly g khutpha { x } h alamduŋ { z } 1 ganei { CD } h atʃauduŋ { z } 1 gəndai { e } i aluŋ { D } 1 kənoina { AB } i jaluŋuŋge { m } 2 hurdu { f } j jimlaŋ { F } 2 hurgosu { s } 3 odɹo { j } 180 to kick 4 phenla { p } 4 phentʃham { h } 1 bist̪int̪erpan { q } 5 pir { r } 1 bitiŋpækhən { t } 5 pirkhən { tu } 1 bitiŋpewo { ko } 6 psilomu { k } 1 bitiŋphitʃham { h } 6 psiʃo { n } 1 bitiŋpinla { p } 7 ʃerbaʔ { g } 1 pitiŋ { n } 7 ʃeroŋde { c } 2 gədɹə { j } 7 ʃintʃu { o } 3 latʃui { m } 9 tʃankhan { d } 3 latʃuiɾaʔbo { d } 9 tʃanmo { E } 3 latʃuɾaba { l } 9 tʃen { m } 3 latsuiɾaʔkhum { b } 9 tʃenɾoba { b } 4 lakhi { E } 9 tʃhanba { l } 4 lakhy { i } 9 tʃhanmo { i } 5 laitegeŋ { D } 9 tʃirpan { q } 5 təgeŋna { AB } a khei { wx } 6 letoŋ { fr } a kheipha { z } 6 litomda { g } a khemage { v } 7 toŋmoŋtama { c } a kheŋpha { y } 8 dəgrən { e } b malaŋ { F } 8 tekraŋ { C } 8 terkhən { u } 179 to enter 9 lækimipigosu { s } 1 ãŋgo { b } a koŋmage { vy } 2 buluŋdai { e } a lagoŋ { x } 2 məloijandaina { BC } a laigoŋ { z } 3 dailena { A } a loekoŋ { w } 3 deilaŋgedu { f } b gadʒaŋlaŋ { F } 4 dʒimjo { j } 181 to swim 5 humaʒa { g } 6 luptʃhaŋ { h } 1 gaŋpaliʒa { g } 7 ɲanmo { i } 1 ganpan { q } 7 naŋad̪i { n } 2 hudɹo { j } 7 naŋga { or } 3 ikɲiŋmo { i } 7 naŋkhowama { c } 4 brəona { A } 7 naŋmo { E } 5 kei { fr } 8 phainaŋgaʔuɾu { k } 5 keibogosu { s } 9 phepsuo { d } 6 khophikhuʔ { b } a aliŋoŋma { l } 6 khophu { m } c nupʔunla { p } 6 kohaʔbo { d } c nupkhən { tu } 7 ʃaŋ { e } d korkid̪lan { q } 7 tʃaiantʃham { h } e neŋageigosu { s } 7 tʃajanla { p }

72

7 tʃei { t } 6 nad̪oktʃham { h } 7 tʃelema { c } 6 nahadokpan { q } 7 tʃiaŋ { C } 7 negaŋkathawo { k } 8 vəsaŋna { B } 8 nŭŋmoʔ { d } 9 ɾigaɲjewo { k } 8 nuapha { y } 9 ɾigaŋjapʃo { n } 8 numo { E } a menma { l } 8 nuŋma { lm } b ɲepkhən { u } 8 nuwamage { v } c ɾiai { o } 8 nũa { w } d phakmage { v } 9 rei { CDe } d phat { wxz } 9 roina { AB } d phatpha { y } a akhən { t } e ju { D } a nakhən { u } f khopaŋpiŋ { E } b ʃilaŋ { F } g sibramaŋ { F } 184 to wait 182 to see 1 brănu { f } 1 adʒelaimu { b } 2 dʒaʔbo { d } 2 daima { c } 2 dʒaʔma { cl } 2 duima { g } 2 dʒakmo { Ei } 3 goɾla { p } 2 dʒaknidʒomuʔ { b } 3 gotkhən { tu } 2 dʒaŋnaŋ { k } 3 gotpan { q } 3 laŋdʒuime { m } 3 gotpo { k } 3 laŋma { g } 3 gotʃu { no } 4 nomtʃhomtʃham { h } 4 hodʒo { j } 5 rə̆dʒan { e } 5 kottʃham { h } 6 xokʃu { j } 6 læmboʔ { d } 7 noŋkhən { t } 6 lanmo { Ei } 7 noŋkhu { no } 7 gaŋna { AB } 7 noŋtʃukhən { u } 7 waŋ { CDe } 7 nuŋkala { p } 8 gədilaŋ { F } 8 purongosu { s } 9 tegosu { s } 9 nagannuŋman { q } 9 t ̪erni { r } a titu { r } 9 t ̪eso { f } b kənna { A } a lema { lm } b khan { wz } b rəg { x } b khandʒaŋ { D } b rək { wz } b khanmage { v } b rəkmage { v } b khanpha { xy } b rekpha { y } c kherdʒaŋna { B } d raŋbija { C } 183 to hear e dʒopolaŋ { F } 1 dʒədʒo { j } 185 to cry 2 hama { cg } 3 joʔba { b } 1 gijoana { k } 3 joʔmoʔ { i } 2 gibla { p } 3 joi { z } 2 gittʃham { h } 3 joipha { x } 3 khə̆ { e } 4 ɲangosu { s } 3 khekhan { i } 4 ɲanini { r } 3 khibʔde { g } 4 ɲanu { f } 3 khija { E } 5 naʃu { no } 3 khikma { c } 6 nad̪okla { p } 4 gepan { q }

73

4 gepkan { nt } 5 klago { fs } 4 gepkhən { u } 5 klakgosu { s } 4 gepʃu { o } 6 katʃek { y } 5 kʃo { j } 6 khatʃiau { z } 6 krəmna { ABCD } 6 khoatʃik { E } 7 ŋuigosu { s } 6 kotʃikmo { im } 7 ŋurni { r } 7 hetʃobo { d } 7 ŋusu { f } 8 ɾitʃhabuantʃam { h } 8 tʃeʔbo { d } 8 ɾitso { q } 8 tʃei { m } 8 ɾitsokhən { t } 8 tʃeibaʔ { b } 8 ɾitsothakpo { k } 8 tʃema { l } 9 tʃakhən { u } 9 tʃo { wz } 9 tʃasu { n } 9 tʃoapha { xy } 9 tʃəʔde { g } 9 tʃomage { v } 9 tʃhoude { c } a dʒolaŋ { F } 9 tʃija { w } a xuʃəʃə { j } 186 to cook b lomage { v } c tʃaupha { x } 1 heɾaʔbo { d } d pukhulaŋ { F } 1 heɾaʔmuʔ { b } e thyma { l } 1 raʔmo { Ei } 2 khu { BCej } 188 to eat 3 tʃureʔme { m } 4 thæk gosu { s } 1 he { b } 4 thaʔkhən { u } 1 hetʃŭbo { dm } 4 thagtʃham { h } 2 hetʃŭbo { dm } 4 thakhu { no } 2 tʃaba { g } 4 thakla { p } 2 tʃadʒo { j } 4 thakpo { k } 2 tʃəna { A } 4 thĕgo { f } 2 tʃhadiʔ { c } 4 tokhrən { t } 2 tʃhuma { l } 5 tʃakma { g } 2 tʃu { BCDe } 5 tʃema { l } 2 tʃumo { Ei } 5 tʃhodma { c } 3 sasuh̥ { f } 5 tʃhokteni { r } 4 tolaŋ { F } 6 mətʃəremage { v } 4 t ̪otʃaŋ { n } 7 kəna { A } 4 zalaŋ { q } 7 khəne { D } 5 dʒakhən { tu } 8 ta { w } 5 dʒanla { p } 9 soŋman { q } 6 toptʃidʒaigosu { s } a dau { yz } 7 zalaŋ { q } a dauapha { x } 7 zamtʃham { h } d tʃaŋlaŋ { F } 7 zana { k } 7 zei { o } 187 to boil (water) 8 sərni { r } 1 dʒən { De } 9 mətʃitʃimage { v } 1 dʒom { B } a tʃepha { x } 1 dʒɹən { C } a tʃije { wz } 2 gutʃeʔmuʔ { b } a tʃipha { y } 3 lakla { o } b dʒanla { p } 3 loŋla { p } b zana { k } 4 zəmna { A } 5 kladu { r }

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189 to drink 191 to bite 1 dʒaman { q } 1 dʒekahuʔ { b } 1 dʒamkhən { tu } 2 kumo { i } 1 dʒamla { p } 3 ŋaman { q } 1 dʒamʃu { kno } 3 ŋamkhen { u } 1 dʒamtʃham { h } 3 ŋamkowa { k } 2 kholiŋboʔ { d } 3 ŋamla { p } 2 liŋma { lm } 3 ŋamʃu { no } 2 liŋmo { Ei } 3 ŋamtʃham { h } 2 liŋmu { b } 3 ŋom { r } 2 ɲuŋma { g } 4 zaʔdeʔ { c } 3 ɲiuŋdeʔ { c } 4 zĕgboʔ { d } 3 ɲuŋma { g } 4 zegde { g } 4 thoŋ { BCe } 4 zima { l } 4 thoŋgosu { s } 5 khrik { w } 4 thoŋme { D } 6 ta { B } 4 thoŋmo { r } 6 taʔna { A } 4 thoŋo { f } 6 thaʔ { e } 4 toŋna { A } 6 thai { CD } 5 thudʒo { j } 6 thodʒo { j } 6 khoŋaŋ { v } 6 thokmage { v } 7 ŋaŋ { wz } 6 thokpha { xz } 7 ŋaŋpha { xy } 7 nik { w } 8 tʃalaŋ { F } 8 tʃigu { f } 8 tʃikrasu { s } 190 to sing 8 tʃilaŋ { F } 8 tʃipha { y } 1 dʒiu { CD } 9 kaʔkhen { m } 1 dʒu { es } a dʒamkhən { t } 2 huʔniboʔ { d } b remmo { E } 3 hũŋtămu { b } 4 jeena { A } 192 to laugh 5 ɲoɾla { p } 5 ɲoɾo { f } 1 dʒeimuʔ { bm } 5 ɲorduni { r } 1 dʒiadeʔ { c } 5 ɲorgosu { s } 2 gegosu { s } 5 ɲurkhən { tu } 2 geid̪u { r } 5 ɲurtʃu { o } 2 geso { f } 6 ŋaŋɲirpo { k } 3 seʔ { y } 7 ŋanzamtʃham { h } 4 ŋarban { q } 8 nuxədʒo { j } 4 ŋarbo { k } 9 tamo { Eim } 4 ŋaren { t } a teideʔ { cg } 4 ŋarkhen { u } a teima { g } 4 ŋarla { p } b jurtʃu { n } 4 ŋarʃu { no } b ɲurtʃu { o } 4 ŋartʃham { h } c nima { l } 5 tho { CD } d bue { wz } 5 thou { e } d ebubue { v } 5 tona { AB } e baipha { x } 6 ʃeʔpha { z } e mə̆bai { y } 6 ʃijaʔ { x } f kada { B } 6 tʃhəjo { j } g ruberulaŋ { F } 6 tʃijo { vw } h ɲirpan { q } 7 zamo { Ei }

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7 zeida { g } 7 tʃoana { A } 7 zema { l } 8 ɲego { f } 7 zemo { d } 9 throʔmo { e } 8 ŋolaŋ { F } 9 tru { j } a d̪ygma { lt } 193 to speak b soʔme { m } c ʃətur { r } 1 ʔinma { gt } d jerkhen { u } 1 ænmoʔ { d } d ukhən { t } 2 ænmoʔ { d } e ʃiatɲekgosu { s } 2 amma { l } f sipha { z } 2 amo { im } g the { C } 3 sipha { y } h tʃua { D } 4 anahu { b } i amo { E } 5 ektʃham { h } j puslaŋ { F } 6 ta { B } k muuja { w } 7 jakːan { n } l tʃoskan { n } 7 jakla { op } 7 jakpan { q } 195 to know 7 jekhən { tu } 7 jerkhen { u } 1 brekhen { t } 7 lojakpo { k } 1 gumʃikan { n } 8 poŋpoŋlede { c } 1 seikhen { u } 9 siatu { f } 2 deʔme { m } a amo { im } 2 d̪aŋxudʒo { j } a somo { Ei } 2 d̪anbo { d } b tʃhedʒo { j } 2 d̪anmo { Ei } c throʔ { e } 2 d̪enma { gl } d ʃiatgosu { s } 2 godem { b } e ɲekt ̪ini { r } 3 seksaspan { q } f je { w } 4 haguntʃu { o } f jemage { v } 5 itpha { z } f jepha { x } 5 itphat { y } f jopha { z } 5 itʃeʔ { c } g reena { A } 5 ĩt { w } h ʃoʔ { C } 6 kangosu { s } h tʃoʔ { D } 6 kano { f } i rulaŋ { F } 6 khanini { r } 7 nĭ { Be } 194 to tell 7 nina { A } 1 ʔinsma { g } 8 selo { p } 2 anboʔ { d } 8 sena { k } 3 antʃema { i } 8 sentʃham { h } 4 indeʔ { c } 8 tʃenla { o } 5 jakpo { kp } a thejakpha { x } 5 jaksaspan { q } a thekmage { v } 5 jaku { o } b ŋintʃina { C } 5 jekpega { h } b nintʃe { D } 5 jemage { v } c phulaŋ { F } 5 jepha { x } 196 to forget 5 jerkhen { u } 6 joŋlutʃibaʔ { b } 1 graŋdʒokplakpo { E } 6 joupha { y } 1 graŋgimekhen { u } 7 tʃo { B } 1 grandʒamekhen { t }

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2 kaɲdʒipha { g } 198 to dream 3 ŋaʔdade { c } 1 bambambe { bm } 4 khoʃadʒo { j } 1 banbanba { l } 5 ŋataɲdʒi { k } 1 banbanbo { di } 5 ŋatgegosu { s } 2 mibrin { fr } 5 ŋatla { o } 2 milbintoŋgosu { s } 5 ŋatpan { q } 3 benkhaŋaida { g } 5 ŋatʃham { h } 3 deŋkhaŋaideʔ { c } 5 ŋatu { fr } 4 moŋʃit̪hoŋla { p } 5 ŋat̪akan { n } 4 moŋʃo { no } 5 ŋat ̪ka { p } 4 moŋʃu { t } 6 phalakmani { bm } 4 moŋʃuthoŋkhen { u } 6 phlokmo { i } 4 moŋtʃot ̪o ŋla { kq } 6 phɾagbo { d } 4 muŋʃi { h } 6 phɾakba { l } 5 baŋ { E } 7 ɬaŋ { AB } 5 banbanba { l } 7 ɬaŋtʃo { C } 5 banbanbo { di } 7 saŋtʃo { D } 5 ebaŋ { z } 7 thlaŋ { e } 5 ebaŋbaŋ { x } 8 bijadan { y } 5 eboboŋmage { v } 8 bijapha { x } 5 epoŋ { w } 8 bijẽ { vz } 5 məbaŋ { y } 8 pija { w } 6 tʃhimijo { j } 9 ʃapoŋa { F } 7 taimat { B } 197 to sleep 7 taiməna { A } 7 thaimeʔ { e } 1 ʔiwo { kn } 8 theme { C } 1 iho { t } 8 themema { D } 2 dɹumudʒo { j } 9 niramsi { F } 3 dʒi { BCDe } 3 dʒiŋbo { d } 199 to do/make 3 dʒiŋma { lm } 0 (no entry) { gkq } 3 dʒiŋmo { Ei } 1 ăntʃam { h } 3 dʒina { A } 1 tʃotʃam { h } 3 dʒinmaɾmu { b } 2 dʒureʔdaraʔhu { b } 4 ʔipʃu { o } 3 d̪adʒo { j } 4 ipan { q } 4 jad̪u { r } 4 ipka { p } 4 jagu { f } 4 ipkhen { tu } 4 jakgosu { s } 4 iptʃham { h } 4 jame { m } 5 men { y } 5 ledeʔ { c } 5 menpha { z } 6 naŋna { A } 5 mijanpha { x } 7 ɾaʔəm { l } 5 mijen { w } 7 ɾad̪bo { d } 5 mijenmage { v } 7 ɾamo { Ei } 5 mindeʔ { c } 7 rəna { A } 5 minma { g } 7 relaŋ { F } 6 ɲema { r } 8 rəna { A } 7 ŋeigosu { s } 8 ru { Be } 7 ŋejo { f } 9 ʔanzu { o } 8 gulaŋ { F } a ʔalo { n } a alo { pt } b ɾappha { z }

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b reʔpha { x } 9 səthe { D } b reipha { y } 9 sŭthu { e } b ret { w } 9 suthə { C } b retmage { v } b tʃan̪d̪ini { r } c rutʃine { C } c ɲexo { t } d therore { D } d brui { x } e akhen { u } d bruimage { v } d bruipha { yz } 200 to work d prui { w } e ŋosalaŋ { F } 1 ălo { k } 2 d̪adʒo { j } 202 to dance 3 leikaakhen { u } 3 leikhaledeʔ { c } 1 lem { o } 3 leikojak gosu { s } 1 lembo { nt } 3 leka { fg } 1 limda { g } 3 lekaʔalo { n } 1 lindeʔ { c } 3 lekaʔanzu { o } 2 nukʃəd̪adʒo { j } 3 lekaăntʃham { h } 3 mopatʃilaŋ { F } 3 lekaalo { pt } 4 ʃiupha { xy } 3 lekaɾaʔmo { l } 4 ʃu { w } 3 lekoraʔmu { b } 4 ʃuba { l } 3 likoɾad̪bo { d } 4 ʃumage { v } 4 proʔmo { Ei } 4 sumo { Eim } 5 tairorəna { A } 5 tʃambrogo { f } 5 theiroru { Be } 5 tʃamlemakhen { u } 5 therore { D } 5 tʃamlembo { k } 5 therorutʃine { C } 5 tʃamposuboʔ { d } 6 bilakjamẽ { m } 5 tʃhamdʒomtʃham { h } 7 jad̪u { r } 6 t ̪eimu { bm } 8 ɲakalaŋ { q } 7 dʒai { BCD } 9 bə̆liremage { v } 7 dʒaina { A } 9 blerepha { y } 7 zai { Ae } 9 bleret { wx } 8 bɾudʒoŋla { p } 9 blija { z } 9 dʒoŋman { q } a relaŋ { F } b phɾod̪u { r } c brokgosu { s } 201 to play d kasiu { z } 1 ʃijangosu { s } 203 to throw 2 janlamu { b } 2 jəmba { l } 1 ɕa { e } 2 jeŋbo { d } 1 ɕai { C } 3 leide { cg } 2 dʒowadʒo { j } 4 loʔmo { Eim } 3 gemtʃham { h } 5 ɲepăntʃham { h } 4 h̥athoŋo { f } 5 ɲepakhen { u } 5 kədəina { A } 5 ɲepan { q } 5 khədoi { B } 5 ɲepʃu { o } 6 moʔmo { i } 5 ɲipla { p } 6 mobaʔ { l } 6 ŋjewo { kn } 6 moboʔ { d } 7 ʃano { f } 7 phertʃu { n } 8 st ̪ud ʒo { j } 7 phir { o } 9 ɕutuna { A } 7 phirakhen { u } 9 ʃətə { B } 7 phirpho { k }

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7 phirpok { t } 4 rimo { Eim } 8 termo { Ei } 5 ɾyboʔ { d } 8 tyme { m } 5 ɾyma { l } 9 tosadeʔ { c } 5 rimo { Eim } 9 tosama { g } 5 rumamu { b } a theimamu { b } 6 səri { B } b kalaŋ { F } 6 seruna { A } b kaman { q } 6 siriu { C } c ot ̪huk { r } 6 siru { e } d watgosu { s } 7 thogtʃham { h } e gemo { p } 7 thowatgosu { s } f fen { y } 7 togo { f } f fijan { w } 8 tokpan { q } f fijenmage { v } 8 tokteni { r } g ʃantʃo { D } 8 t ̪okgemo { p } h phenpha { xz } 9 ɹiŋmage { v } 9 reŋ { w } 204 to lift 9 reŋpha { xy } a phetʃuru { D } 1 daʔmuʔ { b } b urulaŋ { F } 2 dʒuŋboʔ { d } c bekhen { t } 2 dʒuŋma { g } 2 dʒuŋmo { i } 206 to pull 3 ijaŋna { A } 3 jan { Be } 1 byjo { j } 4 jigu { f } 2 dʒakphalo { p } 4 jikgosu { s } 2 dʒaŋakhen { u } 5 khaŋde { c } 2 dʒaŋku { o } 5 khaŋmo { Ei } 2 dʒaŋpan { q } 6 ʃaŋ { C } 2 dʒaŋpo { kt } 6 tʃaŋ { wz } 2 dʒaŋtʃham { h } 6 tʃaŋpha { xy } 3 kheŋde { c } 6 tʃanmage { v } 3 kheŋma { g } 7 loʔma { l } 3 kheŋmo { Ei } 7 loljo { j } 4 horo { D } 8 phulan { q } 4 roʔ { Ce } 8 phulo { kop } 5 taʔgimu { b } 8 phuʃu { n } 6 teŋgosu { s } 9 phuntʃham { h } 6 teŋnini { r } b tʃame { m } 7 tjaŋo { f } c thurni { r } 8 kheŋmo { i } d phuakhen { u } 8 tʃaŋku { n } d ukhen { t } 8 tʃeŋbaʔ { lm } e iroru { D } 8 tʃeŋboʔ { d } f dʒotʃilaŋ { F } 9 ɹiipha { xy } 9 ɹii { wz } 205 to push 9 ɹimage { v } 1 bɾako { kn } a ɕaana { A } 1 bɾaw { o } b bre { B } 1 brekakhen { u } c walaŋ { F } 2 duama { g } 207 to tie 2 dudeʔ { c } 3 d̪hədʒo { j } 1 duŋma { g } 4 reŋ { z } 2 damakhen { u }

79

2 damgosu { s } e satmuã { z } 3 dʒo { Be } e satpha { xy } 3 dʒoana { A } f sii { D } 3 dʒogə { C } f simə { C } 3 dʒoi { z } 3 dʒoipha { xy } 209 to weave (on loom) 4 gɾago { f } 1 dagdeʔ { g } 4 gɾaho { t } 2 joɾakmo { b } 5 waʔdeʔ { c } 3 kamuŋnamtʃham { h } 6 hakboʔ { d } 3 khawnamzu { o } 6 hakmo { E } 3 namkhan { nt } 6 hogmo { im } 3 namkhen { u } 7 phjoxojo { j } 3 namla { p } 8 pholaŋ { F } 4 rok { w } 8 phoma { l } 4 rokmage { v } 8 phomu { b } 4 rokpha { xy } 9 thigtʃham { h } 5 phadeʔ { c } 9 thikbo { k } 5 phamo { E } 9 thikpan { q } 6 ɾagbo { d } 9 thiu { o } 6 ɾogmo { im } a tʃheŋla { p } 7 tʃomna { A } a tʃhikpo { p } 8 thekgosu { s } a tʃiŋnini { r } 8 thijo { j } b va { D } 8 thikpan { q } c t ̪amtʃu { no } 8 tjego { f } d phoŋ { w } 9 khuma { l } d phoŋmage { v } a gentur { r } 208 to wipe b məroʔ { z } c gəitʃom { B } 0 (no entry) { F } d ɕən { C } 1 biʔdeʔ { c } e grətriŋ { D } 2 dɹagdɹa { j } e zantriŋ { D } 3 jaitʃham { h } f gilephoŋ { F } 3 jajbo { p } g thrən { e } 4 lepeziʔmuʔ { b } h naŋbo { k } 5 phaakhen { u } 5 phakhen { t } 210 to sew 5 phakpo { ko } 1 jotʃĭmo { b } 6 sə̆khiu { e } 2 gəikhrə { B } 7 sot̪ini { r } 2 grəkhri { D } 7 sot ̪u { f } 2 khrə { e } 8 ʃeena { A } 2 khrəmna { A } 9 imo { E } 2 khri { C } 9 yboʔ { d } 3 kʃijo { j } 9 yma { l } 4 ʃiŋde { c } 9 ymo { i } 4 ʃiŋdi { g } a zuhama { gm } 5 tjego { f } b saŋwatgosu { s } 6 tʃagmo { im } c tʃospan { q } 6 tʃakmo { E } d ʃepo { B } 7 tʃhogtʃham { h } d ʃeʃu { no } 7 tʃokan { n } e ʃatmage { v } 7 tʃokhen { u } e sat { w } 7 tʃokla { p }

80

7 tʃokpo { kqt } 8 sokhomenmo { l } 8 tʃiboʔ { d } 8 soxotʃiboʔ { d } 8 tʃima { l } 9 tʃhe { e } 9 kɾopgosu { s } 9 tʃhima { g } a soksu { o } 9 tʃhulu { r } a tʃokpo { kqt } 9 tʃuigosu { s } b ŋɾopt ̪ur { r } a zikan { n } c phijok { wz } b luspuzigpo { t } c phijukamage { v } b zigpan { q } c phjokpha { xy } b zipo { p } d gilephe { F } c ʃausut { w } c ʃut { vz } 211 to wash c sutpha { xy } d dʒalei { B } 1 jokhotʃimo { b } d dʒatʃe { C } 2 zeikhen { tu } d dʒatʃeŋ { D } 2 zigpan { q } e khruktʃemo { E } 2 zigtʃham { h } f gadulaŋ { F } 2 zipla { p } g dusputʃhuɾde { c } 3 adʒo { D } 3 mədʒo { e } 213 to cut something 4 lei { B } 5 jotʃimo { d } 1 dapde { cg } 5 tʃam { z } 2 dʒojo { j } 5 tʃaŋmotʃoigosu { s } 3 doŋkhen { u } 5 tʃau { w } 3 d̪oŋba { ko } 5 tʃejo { j } 3 d̪oŋkan { n } 5 tʃelu { r } 3 d̪oŋla { p } 5 tʃhemo { Ei } 4 ŋramo { f } 5 tʃhide { cg } 5 phaŋmo { i } 5 tʃhukan { n } 6 raʔmu { b } 5 tʃhyma { lm } 7 taina { A } 5 tʃjo { f } 7 thai { Dem } 5 tʃomage { v } 7 thaine { C } 5 tʃŭlo { k } 8 zaman { q } 6 dʒiksu { o } 8 zambo { kt } 7 satpha { y } 8 zeid̪u { r } 7 sutpha { x } 9 tʃagtʃham { h } 8 sələ { F } 9 tʃegboʔ { d } a tʃeena { A } 9 tʃegmo { il } b phijaŋna { A } 9 tʃekmo { E } c matʃorə { C } a tupgosu { s } b tʃala { p } 212 to take bath b tʃei { vwz } 1 aʃomemo { b } c tʃeipha { xy } 2 ɕeɾaŋtʃŭlo { k } d roŋ { w } 3 luiptʃju { f } e voăna { A } 4 luʃpuzigtʃham { h } h rap { B } 4 luspuzigpo { t } i tʃulaŋ { F } 4 luspuzigtʃu { o } 214 to burn 4 luspuzikhen { u } 5 leiʔna { A } 1 bedʒikmo { b } 6 sawtʃhemo { im } 2 bhiboʔ { d } 7 sotʃejo { j } 3 dide { c }

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4 tʃigo { f } 2 dɹu { j } 5 fran { e } 3 laəna { A } 5 fraŋ { D } 3 lao { e } 5 frəna { A } 3 leu { v } 6 gokhen { u } 3 leupha { x } 6 gokpan { q } 3 liu { z } 6 gokpo { kpt } 3 liupha { y } 6 goktʃham { h } 4 muigosu { s } 6 goktʃu { o } 4 mujo { f } 6 goku { n } 5 tʃhomtʃham { h } 7 dʒijopha { y } 5 tʃhoŋdamo { i } 8 pejo { j } 5 tʃomɾemo { Eb } 8 peneʔ { C } 5 tʃoŋakhen { u } 9 bima { l } 5 tʃoŋalo { kt } 9 dima { g } 5 tʃoŋiede { c } 9 ɾimo { im } 5 tʃoŋo { p } a totgosu { s } 5 tʃoŋɾagboʔ { d } a t ̪ot ̪in i { r } 5 tʃoŋɾama { lm } b antʃux { o } 5 tʃoŋrepha { x } c ʃuit { v } 5 tʃoŋret { Cw } d hau { w } 6 moilini { r } e fupha { z } 7 kholo { q } e fũppha { x } 8 bitʃu { o } f batʃamo { E } 9 khod̪ilo { n } g melaŋ { F } a khau { B } b phekho { D } 215 to buy c koilaŋ { F }

1 lejaŋbo { kn } 217 to steal 1 leŋbo { t } 1 leŋkhen { u } 1 bigulede { c } 1 leŋtsu { o } 2 drobenantʃham { h } 2 ŋokisaspola { q } 3 droganpa { q } 3 ŋeso { f } 3 gɾogan { n } 4 ŋolo { p } 3 gɾonalo { k } 4 ŋontʃham { h } 3 gɾowan { ot } 5 pan { B } 4 jaumo { Ei } 5 phan { C } 4 jobo { d } 5 phənʔna { A } 4 jone { b } 5 phəʃəlo { j } 4 juma { l } 5 phen { De } 5 ʃikhau { B } 6 ʃeide { cg } 5 tʃəkhə { e } 6 ʃone { b } 5 tʃəkhəna { A } 7 ɲegosu { s } 5 tʃikhə { C } 7 ɲet ̪ur { r } 6 gau { v } 8 tʃeboʔ { d } 6 məgəgau { wz } 8 tʃema { lm } 6 məgəgoupha { x } 8 tʃhamo { Ei } 6 məkəkou { y } 9 pheiʔpha { x } 7 kʃatʃudʒo { j } 9 phek { vwyz } 8 kŭso { f } a bəbəlaŋ { F } 8 kunma { r } 8 kunmajgosu { s } 216 to sell 9 ŭma { g } 1 ʔoŋthama { g } a dʒojo { m }

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b dhuben { p } b tharijamage { v } c guranakhen { u } c lije { z } d tʃikhu { D } c ɹeipha { x } e brakuŋ { F } c ɹije { w } d jepha { y } 218 to lie, fib e hoɬə { D } f bulaŋ { F } 1 haɾdʒa { g } 2 labotʃoʔ { e } 220 to give 3 mălo { j } 4 sodaektʃham { h } 1 bi { en } 5 sotʃatu { f } 1 biʔne { C } 6 ste { E } 1 biugosu { s } 6 stegoŋbe { bm } 1 bikhen { u } 6 stegõmo { di } 1 bilo { kpqt } 6 st ̪eʔgomba { l } 1 bintʃham { h } 7 zaʔlede { c } 1 bintʃu { o } 8 zo { r } 1 biʒu { f } 8 zogjakbo { knq } 2 dʒidʒo { j } 8 zohand̪am { p } 3 ʃima { cg } 8 zokjakhen { tu } 3 tʃhimo { Eil } 9 pæŋgosu { s } 3 tʃimamo { bm } a phatʃa { o } 4 beɾini { r } b khəlam { z } 5 tʃhibo { d } b klam { xy } 6 phebi { D } b klau { v } 6 phi { wz } b kləlaja { w } 6 phimage { v } c khloina { A } 6 phipha { xy } d dʒau { B } 7 beina { A } d dʒiu { D } 8 ralaŋ { F } e ɹiu { C } 9 phi { wz } f molalaŋ { F } a bai { B }

219 to take 221 to kill 1 haɲi { c } 1 ʔide { c } 2 khuɾo { f } 2 ʔomamo { b } 3 laba { g } 2 ʔomaɾe { d } 3 ladʒo { j } 2 ʔomo { im } 4 phaji { n } 2 aʔdama { g } 4 phakhen { tu } 2 atomo { E } 4 phalo { pq } 3 lilaŋ { F } 4 phantʃham { h } 4 ʃengimkholo { q } 4 phawo { k } 4 ʃentʃham { h } 5 ɬəʔne { C } 4 seŋemo { p } 5 lə { e } 5 ʃidʒo { j } 5 ləna { A } 5 ʃijewo { k } 6 ɾot ̪i ni { r } 6 gaina { AB } 7 wadgosu { s } 7 sotgosu { s } 8 tʃhubo { d } 7 soto { f } 8 tʃhuma { l } 7 sot̪ini { r } 8 tʃhumo { Eim } 8 syʔ { h } 8 tʃune { b } 9 wai { De } 9 miniroi { B } 9 waitʃo { C } a doktʃu { o } 9 wamage { v }

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a yma { l } a snule { i } b ʃekhen { tu } a sulo { F } b ʃeʃu { no } b siŋdiagosu { s } c ua { wz } b siŋdur { r } c uapha { xy } b sinu { fh } c vijerat { v } 222 to die d inza { z } d izakhə { w } 1 ʔide { g } e bəʃunrepha { y } 1 ʔimale { d } e pəʃunpha { x } 1 ʔimo { Ei } f loraŋ { B } 1 ida { v } g matʃodori { C } 1 idən { y } h avirə { D } 1 idoŋ { m } i adʒap { E } 1 idun { z } 1 ii { w } 224 to hate 1 iloŋ { c } 1 imale { b } 1 ănuŋtiŋbo { d } 1 ipha { x } 2 blaɲuba { i } 2 dʒudʒo { j } 3 dəkhə { e } 3 teina { AB } 4 dujaŋbaŋ { c } 4 ʃeljan { q } 5 gadʒanbagaba { g } 4 ʃigosu { s } 6 hæn { b } 4 ʃika { p } 7 minime { C } 4 ʃikan { nt } 7 minimena { A } 4 ʃikhen { ru } 7 miniroi { B } 4 ʃilo { k } 8 mazuvjo { j } 4 ʃindʒi { o } 9 miʃinu { f } 4 ʃinsu { o } 9 misinu { s } 4 ʃintʃham { h } a semmapheka { h } 4 ʃirni { r } b păsaŋni { l } 4 ʃiʃu { f } b zapɾekatinla { k } 4 tʃi { CDe } c ləŋzi { m } 4 tʃilaŋ { F } c lizijak { w } 5 ʔoʔma { l } d snoipha { x } e magɾakan { no } 223 to love e magrakhen { u } 1 ʔedʒadadʒo { j } e saraŋgoŋkhen { t } 2 bĭlajuŋne { b } f arakmajaŋ { y } 3 gade { g } g prakpan { q } 3 gadi { c } h gotkilamomala { p } 4 geɾalo { k } i bortʃu { o } 4 gɾakhen { tu } j arajoŋ { x } 4 gɾantʃu { o } j arəkjaŋ { v } 4 grakan { n } k khoŋtʃirni { r } 5 mədʒovəna { A } k ɹidʒek { z } 6 luŋdʒaŋ { e } l aŋiru { D } 6 luŋʒaŋ { A } m bedʒapa { E } 7 nalbo { j } n hõtʃi { F } 8 saŋba { lm } 225 one 8 saŋbo { d } 9 sempheka { h } 1 ʔa { j } 9 semphelan { q } 2 akheʔ { e } a phakla { p } 2 akhijo { BC }

84

3 han { Ebdim } 228 four 3 hin { cg } 1 bə̆si { Eik } 4 thi { frs } 1 pʃi { bnopq } 5 thur { hknopqtu } 1 psi { cdhlmtu } 6 atro { D } 2 bli { Defs } 7 hanan { l } 2 plih̥ { r } 8 dʒe { yz } 3 bəlei { C } 8 dʒijo { vx } 3 pəlei { AB } 9 tʃo { w } 3 phəhi { g } a aŋ { A } 4 psə̆xi { j } b akho { D } 5 ri { w } b akhowa { A } 6 kope { F } c itʃe { F } 7 vi { vxyz } 226 two 229 five 1 geni { Ce } 1 kha { cg } 1 kene { F } 1 khu { Ebdilm } 2 kʃə { j } 2 leŋa { frs } 3 ɲes { g } 2 ŋa { hknopqtu } 3 ɲiʔ { i } 3 boŋu { C } 3 ɲijan { v } 3 buŋu { D } 3 ɲiŋ { wxz } 3 pugu { e } 3 nei { frs } 3 puŋu { AB } 3 niʔ { dlxy } 4 pom { j } 3 niʃ { bc } 5 gu { z } 3 nit { E } 5 guwa { v } 3 nitʃiŋ { hknopqtu } 5 guwe { x } 4 nari { m } 5 kuwa { w } 5 gərin { D } 5 uwe { y } 5 kəran { B } 6 pe { F } 5 kherə { A } 6 kene { F } 230 six 6 kherə { A } 1 gro { frs } 227 three 2 khum { h } 1 ʔum { g } 2 khuŋ { knopqtu } 1 sam { notu } 3 ra { B } 1 san { h } 3 re { CD } 1 sum { fkrs } 3 reʔ { e } 1 tsam { pq } 4 xe { j } 2 dʒə { j } 5 tʃhuʔ { g } 3 gətən { e } 5 tʃhyk { l } 3 kəthən { D } 5 tʃuk { E } 3 khətəm { ABC } 5 tʃy { bm } 4 ʔum { g } 5 tʃyk { cd } 4 ʔuŋ { dl } 6 ra { B } 4 əm { w } 6 rak { y } 4 om { c } 6 ram { A } 4 um { bmvxyz } 6 rap { vwxz } 4 uŋ { Ei } 7 suphi { F } 5 kala { F } 8 khyt { i }

85

231 seven 234 ten 1 his { c } 1 ɬən { C } 1 ŋis { f } 1 lən { ABDe } 1 nis { rs } 1 ʃan { cg } 1 ʃis { g } 2 se { hnopqtu } 2 mə̆lija { vwxyz } 2 sje { k } 2 mija { ABDe } 2 sou { b } 2 mijak { C } 2 sõ { Edilm } 3 mɹo { j } 2 suã { xy } 3 ro { F } 2 sũ { w } 4 zum { hknopqtu } 3 suŋa { v } 5 ʃis { g } 3 suwa { z } 5 siʔ { b } 4 tʃih̥ { frs } 5 sik { Edilm } 5 xə { j } 6 phala { F } 232 eight 235 eleven 1 gen { r } 2 get { fs } 1 lenuŋ { er } 3 jen { hknopqtu } 1 lijaŋ { C } 4 ʃəgdʒə { j } 1 liŋun { D } 4 saɾdʒe { bm } 2 ʃamʃihin { cg } 4 saɾdʒeʔ { d } 3 sahan { Ei } 4 saɾgeʔ { cg } 3 sõlahan { bdlm } 4 saɾgjat { i } 4 soŋthur { hknopqtu } 4 saɾtʃe { l } 5 tʃithi { fs } 4 sardʒat { E } 6 xəjoʔa { j } 5 məlau { z } 7 sənadʒe { xyz } 5 milija { vwxy } 7 sənatʃau { w } 6 ɕəgə { AB } 7 sonatʃe { v } 6 səgə { D } 8 lənkhijo { AB } 6 səgəi { e } 9 phalajaleitʃe { F } 6 tʃigə { C } 7 rala { F } 236 twelve

233 nine 1 lankəŋ { B } 1 ləkhəraŋ { A } 1 d̪ŭgu { frs } 1 ləngəni { e } 1 gu { hknoptu } 1 legĕreŋ { C } 2 gu { hknoptu } 1 liŋgeriŋ { D } 2 ŋu { q } 2 ʃamʃnis { c } 3 gaje { F } 2 ʃamsinɲes { g } 4 ɕətan { AB } 3 xəjokʃe { j } 4 sətən { CDe } 4 səɲik { i } 4 st̪ə { j } 4 sinit { E } 5 dəkhy { imx } 5 sənaɲiŋ { wy } 5 deke { vwz } 5 sənaŋeŋ { vx } 5 dikhi { E } 5 sənani { z } 5 thəkhei { y } 5 soŋleni { b } 5 thekiui { b } 5 soŋlenik { l } 5 theky { dl } 5 soŋnitʃiŋ { hknopqtu } 5 t̪hikhu { cg } 5 sõlenik { m } 5 sõloniʔ { d } 6 tʃide { r }

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6 tʃiŋnei { fs } 2 hazari { ABCDe } 7 phalakene { F } 3 traŋtahin { c } 4 toŋta { gpqrstu } 237 twenty 4 toŋtathuɾ { kno } 4 toŋthur { u } 1 bə̆ʃa { j } 4 toŋtoan { b } 2 gənilən { Ce } 4 toŋtra { fh } 2 gerlem { D } 4 toŋtʃahen { m } 2 kərənlən { A } 4 t̪oŋt̪oʔwan { dl } 3 khăli { frs } 5 jamsua { w } 3 khai { i } 3 khaidur { q } 240 few 3 khaihin { g } 3 khaithur { hp } 1 ătʃen { d } 3 khan { Eb } 1 atʃedo { blm } 3 kheihin { c } 2 alaŋ { i } 3 khethuɾ { knotu } 2 laŋan { E } 3 khohen { m } 3 iu { z } 3 khowan { dl } 4 aŋthur { q } 4 etʃek { w } 4 aniŋthur { p } 4 etʃet { vx } 4 anithur { h } 4 nitʃok { yz } 4 saŋthur { n } 5 kərənlən { A } 4 tʃathur { tu } 5 kərətan { B } 5 daudin { g } 6 nifra { F } 6 halamd̪i { rs } 6 halamhim { c } 238 hundred 7 meʔ { ej } 1 bəluŋ { C } 7 mija { ABCD } 1 bluŋ { De } 8 tit̪aŋ { h } 1 pələ { F } 9 tʃaluthi { f } 1 pəloŋ { AB } a tʃjamtuɾta { ko } 2 dʒahin { g } b khige { F } 2 dʒan { E } c mədətua { vw } 2 dʒathur { hkpqtu } d ədʒa { x } 2 dʒehin { c } d uidʒa { xy } 2 dʒoai { i } 241 some 2 dʒoan { b } 2 dʒohen { m } 1 abelise { c } 2 dʒowan { dl } 1 azalisi { g } 3 gja { fs } 2 ajaŋsoʔ { b } 3 gjadi { r } 3 anithur { h } 3 gjathur { no } 4 atʃeʔen { d } 4 ɸoxa { j } 5 xama { j } 5 vem { v } 6 jerothi { f } 5 vijamtʃa { w } 7 sydwĕ { i } 5 vijaŋdʒa { x } 8 themade { Be } 5 vindʒe { yz } 8 thiin { D } 8 thimadi { C } 239 thousand 9 tʃat { u } 9 tʃhatʃhatʃhona { k } 1 dʒosoŋ { i } a muʔ { l } 2 hădʒaxa { j } b melate { m } 2 hazar { EFv } c dʒi { r } 2 hazardʒa { xyz } d bakthi { s }

87

e haŋanu { n } 3 galugaŋga { g } e haŋginu { q } 4 gaŋa { q } f tʃjaŋ { o } 4 gaŋpo { f } g naka { p } 4 gaŋpu { hkostu } h otʃan { t } 4 kaŋpo { p } i mədətua { v } 4 kaŋpu { cn } i mididʒa { x } 5 dʒap { vwxyz } i ɲabutu { z } 5 zaptaŋ { E } j jeuʔtʃa { w } 6 məsuŋ { e } k uidʒa { y } 7 vjo { j } l mai { A } 8 tʃaŋma { r } m munijanijaŋ { E } 9 ahuŋ { D } n khige { F } 9 mihuŋ { A } a məvəu { A } 242 many b vendaŋ { C } c mihijoŋ { B } 1 ʔaɲe { j } d neme { F } 2 ajaŋ { b } 3 amat { i } 244 big 3 ame { m } 4 dertʃamunu { f } 1 ʔelaŋ { g } 5 abadʒa { F } 2 ăd̪oʔ { d } 5 badʒa { x } 2 ado { D } 5 badʒo { z } 2 adoʔ { cl } 5 dʒepo { i } 2 adok { Ebm } 5 dʒeptʃaŋ { E } 2 odok { i } 6 jor { qs } 3 djo { j } 6 juɾ { c } 4 məhiŋ { e } 7 jumoʔ { l } 5 taŋphu { q } 7 jymoʔ { d } 5 taŋpu { hknoptu } 9 meka { g } 5 thenbu { fr } 9 meno { e } 6 them { s } b otpa { hp } 6 thenbu { fr } c ʃama { h } 7 tʃhilu { h } c tʃatʃi { u } 8 khoŋtʃigu { s } c tʃhatʃha { kot } 9 bou { xyz } d tespe { n } 9 ebou { vw } e zagpu { o } a mədəbu { B } f jol { r } a mədo { AC } g hokje { r } b tʃoŋ { F } h ame { m } h bame { v } 245 small h mənau { ABCwy } 1 ʔĕmisa { j } h pamei { x } 2 adʒendo { bm } i anau { D } 2 atʃan { E } i mənau { ABCwy } 2 atʃandu { i } i məno { z } 2 tʃoŋd̪oʔ { dl } 3 aɲiŋtsa { q } 243 all 4 kati { c } 1 ăthem { dm } 5 mezuʔ { e } 1 athom { il } 6 plju { r } 1 athym { b } 6 priu { s } 1 tham { z } 6 pru { fs } 2 dʒebdoŋ { i } 7 ʃadaʔ { g }

88

8 ãiza { n } 1 uli { cg } 9 mijadʒui { ABCD } 2 ju { j } a zembu { t } 3 məiʔ { e } a zimbu { kou } 3 məji { C } a zimu { hp } 3 məlei { AB } b ejuŋ { wxy } 4 tʃhipu { koq } b ẽeu { v } 4 tʃitpu { hnpt } b iu { z } 5 ũmo { F } c uŋa { F } 6 lupo { r } 7 dʒirtʃen { u } 246 long 8 ai { D } 8 elai { wz } 1 aɾeŋ { Elm } 8 lai { vxy } 1 araŋ { bdi } 9 lai { vxy } 2 məpijaŋ { ABCDe } 9 liu { s } 3 pʃu { j } 9 lju { f } 4 ɹiŋku { fs } 4 ɾiŋbu { nortu } 249 light (not heavy) 4 ɾiŋmu { p } 4 rinbu { hkq } 1 ăɾuŋd̪oʔ { dl } 6 uliŋ { g } 1 aruŋdu { Ebmt } 6 uriŋ { c } 1 ɾuŋ { i } 7 ephijam { wz } 3 jaŋbu { noqrtu } 7 məpijaŋ { ABCDe } 3 jaŋphu { hps } 7 phijaŋ { vxy } 3 jaŋpo { f } 8 galaŋ { F } 3 jaŋpu { c } 3 jaŋpuza { k } 247 short (length) 3 jaŋʃo { g } 1 ʔĕtʃesa { j } 4 lə̆to { j } 2 ăthoŋ { di } 5 maləthaŋ { C } 2 athuŋdu { Em } 5 mədəthaŋ { e } 3 inza { k } 5 mənətaŋ { AB } 4 khanda { cnoqt } 6 nəthou { z } 4 khandi { p } 6 tho { v } 4 khanthur { u } 6 thou { wxy } 4 khanti { h } 7 alithaŋ { D } 5 aruŋ { D } 7 maləthaŋ { C } 5 məruŋ { ABe } 8 usa { F } 6 tʃekmo { b } 250 fat 6 tʃetoŋ { F } 7 tʃoŋdo { l } 1 adoʔ { bl } 7 tʃuŋtso { g } 1 adok { E } 8 tombo { r } 1 aduk { m } 8 t ̪ompu { fs } 1 aduo { D } 9 dəm { v } 2 biŋtʃen { dknou } 9 dum { xy } 3 bokbok { i } 9 edəm { w } 4 dʒajakpa { c } 9 eduŋ { z } 5 d̪jo { j } a maderiu { C } 6 elaŋ { Fg } 7 kijaʔpa { r } 248 heavy 8 baŋ { xy } 8 məbaŋ { z } 1 ali { bdilm } 8 toktumaŋ { h } 1 alitʃaŋ { E } 9 phiak { f }

89

a toptʃen { t } 6 mətərə { B } b giakpa { s } 7 ʃoŋ { o } c thaŋpu { pq } 7 tʃoŋ { F } d khəbup { w } 9 saptʃataŋpu { q } e tʃoŋ { F } 9 taŋpu { h } f bou { v } 9 tʃaitaŋpu { p } f mədəbou { AB } a texo { j } f mədəbu { Ce } b tʃhilu { h } c khandʒaŋ { m } 251 thin d ɾiŋbu { r } d riŋthuŋ { s } 1 ʔĕd̪ə̆xasa { j } e belaktaŋ { u } 2 aʃuŋ { b } e sei { x } 3 kempa { cs } e tʃei { t } 3 kempo { f } f koɾgoɾ { n } 4 tokzimu { h } g aphijaŋ { D } 4 zembuza { k } g ephijaŋ { v } 5 kɾemʃipːa { no } h thi { E } 5 kreŋkreŋ { i } i madəvijaŋ { C } 5 tʃakɾeŋ { r } 6 məsəni { e } 253 narrow 6 məsəniŋ { C } 6 sinija { y } 0 (no entry) { kt } 7 məsəni { e } 1 ʔemiʃa { j } 7 məsəniŋ { C } 2 atʃap { i } 7 məsərei { A } 3 atʃaŋdu { E } 8 ʃaladin { g } 3 at̪uŋdu { b } 9 tʃoŋd̪oʔ { dl } 4 gjabru { f } a adʒadu { m } 5 mezuʔ { e } b temtem { p } 6 phaɾakat̪i { c } c pirkoŋ { t } 7 saptʃaniŋtsa { q } c reŋkoŋ { E } 8 mərək { B } d dukpudʒa { u } 9 ʃada { g } e tʃampu { q } a phɾutʃoŋd̪oʔ { d } f kətʃen { v } a tʃhaŋdoʔasoʔ { l } f khətʃek { w } a tʃoŋdʒoŋ { u } g khijan { x } b gətʃe { m } h kherijaŋ { z } c toŋbu { r } i mobu { B } d tʃei { s } j mijazə { D } e dʒembu { t } k uŋa { F } e ʃoŋzimbu { o } e tʃaizimbu { p } 252 wide, broad e zimu { h } 1 araŋ { bl } f tʃupɾak { n } 1 elaŋ { g } g dəəm { v } 1 erai { wyz } h khərok { w } 2 athat { i } i ekhok { z } 3 biŋtʃhen { k } i nəkhok { x } 4 gjad̪hen { f } j dətʃoi { y } 5 phaɾa { c } k məbəu { A } 5 phɾuwado { d } l madəɲe { C } 6 mədəlou { e } m aru { D } 6 mədoŋ { A } n radʒa { F } 6 mətəlo { A }

90

254 deep n amaŋa { F } o agiboo { E } 1 dogaŋ { c } 1 gaŋ { f } 256 full 2 toŋtʃen { nortu } 2 t ̪oŋkaŋ { k } 1 aphiŋ { bdm } 3 amã { F } 2 dăkja { f } 4 adʒi { m } 3 gu { j } 4 adʒy { l } 5 lən { D } 4 dʒyɾui { d } 5 len { Be } 5 how̆ dĕʔ { g } 6 phiɬaŋ { C } 6 kampoŋ { b } 6 phiŋba { Ei } 7 arək { D } 6 phuŋbe { knotu } 7 marik { C } 6 phuŋka { hp } 7 mərə { AB } 7 psiŋdeʔ { c } 7 məruʔ { e } 7 ʃiŋde { g } 8 thiŋriŋku { s } 8 tʃhuʔuɾuwa { l } 8 tiŋpu { hp } 9 tempba { s } 8 waŋtiŋɾimbu { q } 9 tempke { r } 9 ɾju { j } a ɾid̪impula { q } a betʃou { v } b elei { z } b dʒam { wxyz } b elija { w } d agi { E } b lei { xy } d agy { i } b lija { v } c ləndaŋ { A } 255 shallow d bra { F }

0 (no entry) { u } 257 empty 1 ătʃŭŋ { d } 2 aɾtʃadu { bm } 1 ʔəɸo { j } 2 atʃapdu { i } 2 aɾuk { l } 3 bə̆so { j } 2 aruk { Ebdim } 4 huʔpan { g } 3 akhijaŋ { D } 5 lema { hp } 3 mihijaŋ { AB } 5 lemlem { o } 3 mikhijaŋ { Ce } 6 məruʔmaŋ { e } 4 toŋpa { fghknopqrstu } 7 tatabe { c } 4 toŋpabe { c } 8 nətʃeja { x } 5 esəloi { z } 8 tʃĕge { f } 5 sloi { vwxy } 8 tʃeja { y } 6 kuŋa { F } 9 t̪oŋkaŋmala { k } a tʃhaŋdo { l } 258 hungry b ɲoŋbo { r } 1 binaŋ { pt } c tʃiroptiu { rs } 1 binaŋkhuka { h } d ŋeŋe { o } 1 binaŋkhukhen { u } e ɾid̪iŋpumala { q } 1 binaŋkhulːa { knoq } f ãiza { n } 2 bɾem { r } g lakhuŋ { v } 2 bremnesu { fs } h etʃau { wz } 3 frantʃi { e } i toŋme { t } 3 frentei { AB } j mətə̆vijo { A } 4 akhuŋ { m } k məbəu { A } 4 hekũŋboʔ { d } l matrio { B } 4 khuŋba { il } m arukmaŋ { D } 5 hetʃuŋni { b } m marikmaŋ { C }

91

6 loxoʃə { j } 8 phijaŋ { wxyz } 8 ʃii { y } 9 tʃhertʃher { hp } 8 tʃii { vwxz } a abələatʃi { m } 9 fentʃi { D } b aboɾo { l } 9 frantʃi { e } c phijam { v } 9 ventʃi { C } c phijaŋ { wxyz } a hõ { E } d ulaŋ { F } b sama { F } c khamde { cg } 261 sour

259 thirsty 1 kheti { Ei } 2 ulaŋa { F } 1 bekemo { f } 3 kʃo { j } 1 pekemt̪i { r } 4 batʃi { m } 1 pekemu { s } 4 tʃakwa { l } 2 hekuŋba { b } 4 tʃebe { b } 3 jaŋde { g } 4 tʃhu { f } 3 juŋba { l } 4 tʃhurpu { hknopq } 3 juŋboʔ { d } 4 tʃĩti { d } 3 khajuŋ { m } 4 tʃju { rs } 4 rulugo { F } 4 tʃumpa { g } 5 lukɾo { j } 4 tʃumteʔ { c } 6 loŋkhijaŋ { ABC } 4 tʃuŋ { vxy } 6 luŋkhijam { e } 4 tʃurtʃur { tu } 6 luŋkhijaŋ { D } 5 atʃuʔ { D } 7 ɲuba { i } 5 etʃiŋ { wz } 8 ɾinaŋ { pt } 5 mətʃuŋ { ABCe } 8 ɾinaŋsopka { h } 8 ɾinaŋsopkhen { u } 262 bitter 8 ɾinaŋsopla { knoq } 1 akhiok { i } 9 tʃhoŋ { c } 1 akhu { D } a kanehoŋ { v } 1 ekhou { wz } a khahənaŋ { z } 1 khau { f } a khanahaŋ { x } 1 kho { rs } a khanahou { w } 1 khou { vxy } a khanaŋraŋ { y } 1 məkhu { ABCe } b hoɲijo { E } 2 məfai { A } 3 kamʃo { j } 260 sweet 3 khakhen { t } 1 ʔatʃĩ { d } 3 khaliŋkhaliŋ { u } 1 atʃi { Ei } 3 khalu { hpq } 2 tʃĕbeʔ { b } 3 khau { f } 2 tʃiɾi { c } 3 khawan { kno } 3 ʔobida { g } 4 ădʒuŋ { d } 4 dʃə̆mtʃu { j } 5 aka { F } 5 juŋbu { knoq } 6 atʃak { Em } 5 juŋmu { p } 6 tʃaʔdeʔ { c } 6 adʒaŋ { D } 6 tʃakbe { b } 6 mədʒan { Be } 6 tʃakde { g } 6 mədʒijaŋ { C } 6 tʃhiba { l } 6 mezaŋ { A } 7 ɲokpo { frs } 263 spicy, hot 8 joŋjoŋ { tu } 1 hoʔbe { b } 8 mədʒijaŋ { C }

92

1 hoba { l } 1 hũlũbe { b } 1 hobo { d } 2 arən { D } 2 tʃhinla { kn } 2 mərən { e } 2 tʃikhen { tu } 2 məren { C } 3 jeideʔ { cg } 3 ɲaŋoŋloŋ { c } 4 khaso { q } 4 rigjaga { r } 5 khaudʒikpo { frs } 4 rygijo { s } 6 aʃiu { D } 5 xəɲjo { j } 6 məʃiu { C } 6 anuŋ { l } 6 məʃu { ABe } 7 gafuŋ { m } 6 nəsə { j } 8 zitkhen { u } 7 moŋba { Ei } 9 ɕitkala { p } 8 tʃherbu { o } a dʒidpæn { t } 9 jopũ { m } a dʒipan { oq } 9 ʃokpu { h } b eʃuŋ { vwyz } a hasokɭa { p } b ʃoŋ { x } b etʃək { vz } c ʃikan { n } c ra { w } d barokhan { E } c rau { xy } e ala { F } d ukuŋ { F } f ram { B } f roma { A } 264 ripe 266 fast 1 dʒomde { g } 1 dʒoŋkhen { t } 1 adʒoʔ { bdm } 1 dʒum { x } 1 dʒok { vy } 1 dʒuŋbo { d } 2 dodʒo { s } 1 dʒuŋkaŋ { l } 3 dʒok { vy } 2 henĭbe { b } 3 dʒokpu { hknopqtu } 3 hijaʔdeʔ { c } 5 kəthau { w } 4 dʒuŋbo { d } 5 kətʃo { j } 4 juŋba { i } 6 mabədʒa { C } 4 juŋkhan { E } 6 məgdʒa { e } 5 məmrem { C } 7 pasa { c } 5 məɾə̆n { Be } 8 ʃeʃaɾa { g } 6 mĭnka { hp } 9 ʃet { f } 6 miŋkhen { u } 9 ʃetpo { r } 6 minla { k } a tʃeŋ { x } 6 minpan { o } b ebi { z } 7 ɲju { j } c məkhəgija { A } 8 tʃoʃu { frs } c məkheto { AB } 9 juŋpə̆hu { m } d ipsiŋba { E } a ameŋ { D } e agəthup { D } a emen { y } f etere { F } a emeŋ { wz } g atʃer { i } a men { x } g atʃher { l } a mena { A } b thulan { q } 267 slow c thunmala { n } 1 anoːdu { b } d emijan { v } 1 anodu { Ei } e iŋi { F } 1 nadu { m } 2 noʔd̪uʔ { dl } 265 rotten (fruit) 3 hasta { cg } 0 (no entry) { dfghik } 4 kole { r }

93

5 ŋăɾaŋja { f } 5 sŭsu { Egiu } 5 ŋanaŋ { s } 6 ɾigmatʃikpan { o } 6 ʃau { j } 7 jo { vxy } 7 tʃaptʃe { knoq } 7 jojo { wz } 7 tʃaptʃi { u } 8 tʃudʒundʒun { C } 7 tʃhapten { hp } 9 etʃegeetʃegere { F } 8 jampe { t } 9 ɹasei { z } 270 dry 9 ɹasija { vwxy } 1 ʔoʔõ { Edlm } a məʃaʃo { A } 1 ʔõː { i } b dumo { CD } 1 oŋo { F } b nəroi { A } 2 aɹloŋ { c } b nomo { B } 3 iɾkõ { b } c eseese { F } 4 kempa { frs } d dəm { e } 5 kɹo { j } d dumo { CD } 6 akhijaŋ { D } d nomo { B } 6 məkhəjam { e } 268 same 6 mekhijan { ABC } 7 saŋbola { k } 1 ăt ̪ːu { dm } 7 saŋbu { noqtu } 2 akhi { e } 7 saŋka { hp } 3 dolu { h } 8 war { g } 3 d̪ulula { p } 9 egau { vx } 4 dʒexjũ { j } 9 ekau { w } 5 hanandoʔ { l } 9 gou { y } 5 hando { i } 9 nəgou { z } 5 handou { b } 6 mahinden { g } 271 wet 7 adu { E } 1 dɹu { j } 8 pluiraŋ { fs } 2 dʒiŋzaŋ { k } 9 ɾitʃikpu { kno } 3 jenlu { h } a tʃikdabe { c } 4 khaledʒeʔduŋ { m } b ŋonbu { tu } 4 khile { l } b ŋot ̪o { r } 4 khle { i } c puspu { q } 4 khli { d } ̈ d ŏdʒe { z } 5 khulumale { b } d õ { vwxy } 7 ablija { D } e ʒanroi { AB } 7 məbilija { e } f nəroi { A } 8 ʃerpa { fr } g akhendə̆re { C } 9 ʃiɾi { o } h zendi { D } 9 ʃira { tu } i dʒaredʒa { F } 9 ʃirila { k } a bet ̪ar { n } 269 different a pet ̪ar { o } 1 ʔədɹo { j } b let̪a { q } 2 age { bdlm } c aʃiŋ { E } 3 nakanaka { f } c eʃoŋ { vxyz } 4 ʃizun { e } c uʃiŋ { cg } 4 sizaŋ { AB } d dʒasu { s } 4 siziŋ { D } e ruipa { s } 5 soe { s } f d̪amkala { p } 5 soso { hknpqrt } g eʃoi { w } 5 sosoʔ { c } g eʃoŋ { vxyz }

94

h emam { x } 9 atʃo { D } h emum { w } 9 etʃui { z } i eləŋ { x } 9 mətʃo { C } j ala { F } a məlai { B } k məgəjo { A } b edʒai { F } k məgəro { B } c tʃaŋpu { pqtu } k məgeru { C } c tʃhaŋpu { ho }

272 hot 274 good 1 ătʃik { Edil } 1 ʔu { j } 1 atʃi { bm } 2 adʒa { m } 1 etʃek { vwy } 2 adʒak { l } 1 tʃep { x } 2 adʒap { Ebdi } 1 utʃi { cg } 3 dju { f } 2 adʒiu { D } 4 jakpu { q } 2 mədʒiu { C } 4 lekpu { h } 2 mədʒu { Be } 4 ljakpu { p } 2 mələ { A } 4 nakpa { g } 2 məzi { A } 5 kapla { F } 3 ʃu { j } 6 mavi { C } 3 tʃo { q } 6 məvi { ABe } 3 tʃotʃo { notu } 7 avirə { D } 3 tʃu { fs } 8 phelo { nt } 4 sopla { k } 8 phelula { kou } 5 tʃhabu { h } 9 udʒo { c } 5 tʃhabula { p } a t ̪ego { r } 5 tʃherpa { r } b namda { s } 5 tʃo { q } c vije { vwxyz } 5 tʃotʃo { notu } 5 tʃu { fs } 275 bad 6 lua { z } 1 ănuŋ { dlm } 7 eluŋ { w } 1 aɲu { i } 7 ukuŋ { F } 1 aŋuba { b } 8 ătʃik { Edil } 2 dukpu { hnoqtu } 8 adʒiu { D } 2 duktsa { fs } 8 atʃi { bm } 3 d̪uphula { k } 5 mau { j } 273 cold 6 məɲi { C } 1 ătʃeʔĕn { d } 6 məni { ABe } 1 atʃen { m } 7 nakpapaŋ { g } 1 atʃhan { Ei } 8 udʒan { c } 1 etʃai { vwx } 9 harkhja { r } 1 utʃen { cg } a maljaka { p } 2 khurla { kn } b avije { vwxyz } 2 kurban { h } c aɲirə { D } 3 mətʃo { C } d bedʒakpa { E } 3 mətʃou { Ae } e kaʃuŋ { F } 4 ŋakpa { rs } 4 nakpa { f } 276 new 5 nəŋu { j } 1 ʔə̆kə̆n { j } 6 rembe { b } 1 ʔohan { g } 7 tʃui { y } 1 ăhan { dl } 8 ɾamkhan { l }

95

1 afan { bim } b tʃadoŋ { m } 1 ohan { E } c bodgiu { s } 1 okhon { c } d phutkhen { u } 2 sarpa { fs } e dʒui { y } 2 seru { r } f baŋa { AB } 3 məgəniu { Ce } f khana { E } 3 məkərə { AB } g bra { A } 4 siŋba { knoqtu } i mapulaŋ { F } 4 siŋma { hp } j edʒok { x } 5 evo { z } k edʒok { x } 5 evoŋ { w } k etʃõ { w } 5 mvəo { y } l muduŋ { z } 5 ovou { v } m tʃoda { v } 6 ewã { x } n mutʃun { z } 7 agənu { D } o dʒolek { x } 7 məgəniu { Ce } 8 niŋoŋ { F } 279 above

277 old 1 ʔodɹu { j } 2 atʃuŋ { b } 1 tʃalaŋ { F } 2 tʃaŋkho { c } 2 ʔə̆me { j } 3 ist̪aŋan { d } 2 aman { Eil } 5 khinto { i } 2 omen { cdgm } 6 khoa { g } 3 atʃan { b } 6 khotʃamŋa { g } 4 manba { noqtu } 6 tʃaŋkho { c } 4 manma { hp } 7 takpa { f } 4 manpa { k } 7 teka { k } 5 aʃoʔ { D } 8 khumu { E } 5 məʃoʔ { ABCe } 8 khuŋlo { l } 6 ɲiŋma { r } 8 khuŋro { m } 6 ɲĩŋpah̥ { fs } 8 lakhuŋ { vwxyz } 7 ehe { v } a thajoŋ { C } 7 ehek { wxyz } a thaŋiu { D } a thaŋjuŋ { e } 278 broken a thuŋa { p } 1 botu { f } a thuŋga { hnotu } 2 dʒeʔboʔ { d } b jur { rs } 2 dʒekhan { l } c tʃado { A } 3 gedʒuide { g } d thajoŋ { C } 4 geɾloŋ { c } d tʃajoŋ { AB } 5 khəjau { j } e utoŋpa { F } 5 khja { i } f kate { q } 6 baŋ { D } 280 below 6 mabaŋ { C } 6 məbaŋ { e } 1 beita { c } 7 phoʔd̪ilan { h } 2 ist̪aŋanɾo { d } 8 photka { p } 3 khja { g } 8 photkan { nt } 4 khuɾo { lm } 8 photpan { or } 4 khuto { Ei } 8 phot ̪iɲdʒi { k } 5 maŋa { f } 8 potpan { q } 5 phaŋa { h } 9 etʃõ { w } 7 toŋte { qt } a zekmaniʔ { b } 8 phɾaŋga { knou }

96

9 phumu { CD } d anoi { z } 9 phumum { e } d enui { w } a suŋkhu { b } d noi { vxy } b xam { j } e atʃua { z } c mur { s } f məni { Ce } c ŋur { r } f məroi { AB } d dʒupka { p } g aɲiŋ { D } e ɾadjan { p } h kapdul { E } f jola { o } i ele { F } g bətʃou { vwxyz } h ləwa { x } 283 right i məmə { A } 1 atʃho { ilm } i phumu { CD } 1 atʃoto { E } i tʃama { AB } 1 atʃou { b } k keka { F } 2 heʔ { d } 281 far 3 huʃu { g } 4 jas { hpq } 1 ʔəxə { j } 5 jeipa { fs } 2 atʃho { dm } 6 jomlok { k } 2 atʃoʔ { Ebl } 7 lajoŋ { h } 3 humaŭliŋ { g } 8 ɕədʒen { AB } 4 arən { D } 8 sidʒən { Ce } 4 maraŋ { C } 8 sidʒiŋ { D } 4 mərən { ABe } 8 tʃədʒə { j } 5 okhjo { i } 9 thita { c } 6 thăɾiŋbu { kt } a ewa { r } 6 thaoriŋ { c } b pheltʃoʔ { u } 6 thariŋbu { hpqru } b phelutʃok { not } 6 thariŋph { s } c phazui { wz } 6 thora { f } c phozoi { vx } 7 dʒaŋlimbu { n } d havik { y } 7 dʒaŋɾiŋbu { o } e idʒa { F } 8 ruaŋ { vwxz } 8 ruwaŋ { y } 284 left 9 adʒa { F } 1 axe { m } 2 ɸovo { j } 282 near 3 jomlokpatsok { otu } 1 tepka { ntu } 3 jon { hpq } 1 t̪hepza { ko } 3 joŋba { r } 2 ʔəɲisə { j } 3 joŋlakpa { n } 2 aɲedo { d } 3 jonpa { fs } 2 anedu { b } 4 mekhe { i } 2 aneduʔ { l } 4 mikheto { E } 3 ana { i } 5 mijoŋ { h } 3 maŋa { s } 6 ɲimlakpa { g } 3 məni { Ce } 7 phelitʃok { k } 4 hantaŋ { g } 8 savijo { D } 5 kepka { hq } 8 sivijo { ABCe } 8 ɾaga { h } 9 tʃoʔ { d } 8 ɾeka { fr } 9 tʃoita { c } 9 teapkho { c } a hetan { l } a aɾeŋ { m } b ehe { b } c ɾemnaŋ { p } c phavik { vwxz }

97

d hazoi { y } 4 mətʃi { AB } e pakailaŋ { F } 4 mətʃu { e } 5 oɾkhejaʔ { c } 285 black 6 tʃalu { ptu } 6 tʃhalo { h } 1 tʃhaŋloŋ { p } 6 tʃhalu { knoq } 1 tʃhaŋlu { hko } 7 atʃu { D } 1 tʃhaŋluŋ { nqtu } 7 tʃu { j } 2 gju { jk } 3 mlemph { s } 288 green 3 mleŋban { r } 3 mleŋpo { f } 1 dʒaŋku { p } 4 amu { D } 2 ʔŏho { dl } 4 momo { ABCe } 2 oho { Ebim } 6 esai { vwx } 3 dʒju { j } 6 esui { z } 4 ʔijaŋ { g } 6 soi { xy } 4 jaŋ { c } 7 ma { F } 4 jaŋlu { kot } 8 atʃõ { E } 4 jaŋluŋ { nqu } 8 atʃuŋ { bdilm } 4 jeŋnoŋ { h } 9 utʃham { cg } 6 məlo { ABCe } 7 ŋău { frs } 286 white 8 alu { D } 1 ăzõ { dilm } 9 ere { xyz } 1 adʒõ { E } 9 erije { vw } 2 adʒan { b } a re { xy } 3 balaŋbu { pqtu } b jetʃa { F } 3 balimin { h } 289 yellow 3 baluŋbo { kno } 4 mugram { Be } 1 ʔaha { Eim } 5 gro { j } 1 ʔĕhe { dl } 6 jaŋkar { cg } 1 ehe { b } 7 keɾu { r } 2 dʒju { j } 7 kher { fs } 3 duŋtʃoŋ { F } 8 emoŋ { wz } 4 dʒoi { xy } 8 emou { vx } 4 edʒoi { vxz } 9 magəran { C } 4 etʃui { w } 9 məgijaŋ { A } 5 serbu { chknoq } a laproŋ { F } 5 seru { tu } b adraŋ { D } 5 siɾu { r } c emou { vx } 5 sirph { s } c mõu { xy } 5 sirpo { f } 5 tʃerbu { p } 287 red 6 gətsilo { D } 6 gesilo { e } 1 ʔĕhĕʔ { dg } 6 kəʃoilo { A } 1 ehek { Ebilm } 7 madʒro { C } 2 lã { F } 7 mədʒo { B } 2 liu { frs } 8 dʒuŋ { g } 3 eʃaik { vxz } 3 eʃek { w } 290 when (near future) 3 ʃei { y } 3 ʃeik { x } 1 ăd̪uŋ { dilm } 4 matʃə { C } 1 adaŋ { c }

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1 aduŋlua { b } 4 suh̥ { fr } 2 gailo { f } 5 suh̥ { fr } 3 giti { hknoqtu } 5 tʃhu { e } 3 git̪ija { p } 5 tʃiu { CD } 5 khe { j } 6 haŋuŋ { w } 6 kekhren { D } 6 haniju { vxyz } 6 kukhrin { ABCe } 7 təə { AB } 7 tʃetoŋ { g } 8 aʃuna { F } 8 geiʃ { s } 9 sija { no } 9 gurku { r } a sulo { s } a kətʃuŋ { vwxyz } b nadʒuna { F } 293 what d ado { E } 1 ʔaza { g } 291 where 2 abe { c } 3 atja { b } 1 ʔăwa { g } 4 hăŋ { hkpqtu } 2 băga { ko } 4 haŋja { no } 2 hagə { j } 5 mu { E } 2 waga { hnptu } 5 mua { i } 3 bĭd̪e { d } 6 pə̆tʃõ { dl } 4 hagona { F } 7 tan { C } 5 gadʒe { s } 7 tən { AB } 5 kătʃe { f } 7 then { e } 5 kale { r } 7 tin { D } 6 khəjo { D } 9 zi { f } 6 khija { Ce } a miti { m } 7 ɲakha { i } b niw { wx } 7 nəkha { E } b niwka { v } 8 thalua { b } c ɲijaga { z } 9 tʃŏ { l } d higi { F } 9 tʃoro { m } e ha { j } a khəjo { D } f zilo { rs } b khək { B } g nije { y } c jakpan { q } d khroi { A } 294 how many e kătʃe { f } 1 ʔaphin { g } e kale { r } 1 mipheːn { d } e kə̆so { xy } 2 abehiŋ { c } e kəʃoo { vwz } 3 gest ̪uja { k } f hagə { j } 3 gest ̪ur { n } f hata { c } 4 go { f } 5 hămthur { h } 292 who 6 jepaja { i } 1 dʒu { j } 7 golo { s } 2 mi { cgm } 8 khəɲja { ABj } 2 mija { dl } 8 kiɲo { e } 2 mila { b } 9 botuana { l } 2 ni { E } a nepha { m } 3 mija { dl } b thokʃuaŋ { b } 3 mila { b } c gedʒaŋ { tu } 3 ɲija { i } c gedʒaŋja { o } 3 ni { E } c gesaŋ { p } 4 si { hkpqtu } c kezaŋ { q }

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d katʃem { r } 7 thaŋɾoʔ { d } e napan { E } 8 those { j } f khama { y } 9 uɲu { hnp } f khemo { xz } 9 uɲumo { o } f khemodʒa { v } a thuwetʃalo { l } f khemotʃia { w } b tibadʒi { m } g kənio { C } c hordʒilo { s } g kiniu { D } d othu { t } h hargina { F } d udu { r } e liʃe { F } 295 this thing f oinotsaŋ { u } g ola { q } 1 uthu { hko } h throŋdʒa { v } 1 utu { p } h throŋphomono { wx } 2 heji { j } i thibamigijaŋ { y } 3 hə̃ŋai { B } j thedʒi { z } 3 huŋji { C } 3 huŋlo { Ae } 297 these things 4 othatʃalo { b } 4 thaʔetʃalo { l } 1 ʔutbatso { f } 5 otʃima { c } 1 othugaŋpu { t } 6 təkə { d } 1 utba { h } 7 thua { i } 1 utgambu { u } 8 thadʒi { m } 1 uthubagmo { o } 9 uthdʒilo { s } 1 uthuhaŋlja { k } a oɲu { t } 1 utu { p } b uturɲatsaŋ { n } 1 utugampu { n } c utnotʃan { u } 2 ʔŭtʃigaŋga { g } d atha { q } 2 utʃimagaŋpu { c } d othai { E } 2 utʃu { r } e ehihi { v } 3 athagaŋa { q } f heiphomono { wxy } 3 athoumdʒyŋ { b } g mənohi { x } 4 haŋmihoŋ { B } h dʒije { z } 4 henaji { j } i ɬo { D } 4 huŋlona { Ae } j tiʃe { F } 4 huŋmuhuŋhi { C } k ʔŭtʃhi { gr } 5 thɾuŋthaŋ { d } k ʔutʃ { f } 6 twagi { i } k uthu { hko } 7 thaʔetʃalo { l } l othai { E } 8 athun { m } l uthu { hko } 9 umgoŋph { s } a athagaŋa { q } 296 that thing a othugaŋpu { t } 0 (no entry) { k } b hephamənothe { y } 1 ʔot { f } b hithəə { vz } 2 odʒetʃalodʒe { b } b hithebomono { x } 3 ot̪hijaʔma { c } c hithebomono { x } 4 paitʃia { B } c zaphomono { w } 4 paitʃəlo { Ae } d aheŋlo { D } 4 phetʃilo { D } e thithai { E } 4 phetʃoi { C } f tiʃe { F } 6 teita { g } 298 those things 6 tethigo { i } 7 thaŋai { E } 1 ʔotbatho { f }

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2 ăthek { d } 3 ni { ABCDce } 3 phetʃorenai { C } 3 no { vwxyz } 4 othaimagaŋpu { bc } 3 nu { F } 5 paitʃolona { Ae } 4 ih { rs } 6 teitagaŋga { g } 6 tethitigːe { i } 301 2nd sg. (honorific) 7 thuwetʃalo { l } 1 bha { j } 8 thosana { j } 2 inaŋ { f } 9 ujohaŋlja { k } 2 nan { hknopqtu } a ʔoɲugampu { n } 2 naŋ { Ebcdgi } a uɲu { p } 2 naŋdʒi { l } a uɲuba { h } 3 ni { ABCDe } a uɲubagmo { o } 3 no { vwxyz } b thivathun { m } 3 nu { F } c abadʒa { F } 4 nare { m } d od̪o { r } 5 ih { rs } e gaŋpo { s } e oigaŋpu { u } 302 3rd sg. (generic/male) e othugaŋpu { t } f dʒidʒaithə { v } 0 (no entry) { u } g jorla { q } 1 ʔi { j } g khetmono { w } 1 ai { AB } h thedʒibomono { x } 1 jai { E } h theizap { z } 2 ʔui { g } i dʒaphaməgijaŋ { y } 3 be { fr } j ano { D } 4 d̪an { knp } k loŋtʃianalo { D } 5 hoi { c } l thutai { E } 6 khuə { b } n pitʃimihõŋ { B } 7 nan { ht } 7 naŋ { d } 299 1st sg. (I) 8 i { Ce } 9 oe { vz } 1 dʒaŋ { hknopqtu } 9 uwe { x } 2 go { vxz } 9 wa { i } 2 gu { Ebilmxy } 9 we { w } 2 gũ { d } a thei { y } 2 ko { w } a thiwadʒi { m } 3 ɲijan { ABe } a thuwe { l } 3 nijaŋ { CD } c um { s } 4 ga { cg } d digi { o } 4 go { vxz } e nunuzimbu { q } 4 gu { Ebilmxy } f phetʃu { D } 4 gũ { d } g li { F } 5 ŋei { fr } 5 ne { F } 303 3rd sg. (female) 6 ne { F } 6 no { j } 0 (no entry) { u } 7 ɲeh { s } 1 jai { E } 2 ʔi { j } 300 2nd sg. (familiar) 2 i { e } 3 thuwe { l } 1 bha { j } 3 uwe { vxz } 2 inaŋ { f } 3 wa { i } 2 nan { hknopqtu } 3 we { w } 2 naŋ { Ebdgilm }

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4 nan { ht } 6 nabluŋ { i } 4 naŋ { bcd } 7 nai { E } 5 tʃoi { C } 7 naiba { hp } 6 khawadʒi { m } 8 naʃi { nt } 6 thei { y } 8 nume { F } 6 thuwe { l } 9 naɾgaŋpu { c } 7 zamin { n } 9 naɾugaŋga { g } 7 zamiŋ { k } a naʃi { nt } 7 zaminzimbu { q } a naʃibak { oq } 9 umraŋ { s } a naʃtiba { u } a moi { r } b jira { r } b d̪an { p } c dʒei { A } c digi { o } c dʒi { D } d phetʃu { D } e nangam { k } e li { F } f ʔuid̪amu { g } 306 2nd pl. (honorific) f be { f } 1 dʒei { A } g ai { AB } 1 dʒi { D } 304 1st pl. 1 dʒihõŋ { B } 1 dʒiməʃuŋ { e } 1 aɕigaŋpo { k } 1 dʒo { j } 2 aiba { h } 2 ina { C } 3 ani { ACe } 3 irbanaŋ { s } 3 animihõŋ { B } 3 itaŋbanaŋ { f } 4 ga { Ei } 4 khiraŋ { b } 4 gu { lm } 5 nabluŋ { i } 5 gaɾkaŋpu { c } 6 nai { E } 6 gyɾy { d } 6 naiba { hp } 7 gəthəe { z } 7 nangam { k } 7 kəthəa { vw } 8 naɾugaŋga { g } 7 khət ̪he { bxy } 8 nargaŋpu { c } 8 galu ganga { g } 9 naŋthekdʒi { l } 9 ŋadaŋ { s } 9 nathe { y } 9 ŋataŋ { f } 9 nathəa { vwz } b aɲijaahuŋ { D } 9 nathek { dmx } b ɲi { jr } a naʃi { t } c dʒam { p } a naʃibak { noq } c dʒaŋ { nq } a naʃtiba { u } d aʃi { otu } b jiɾa { r } e lime { F } c naʃi { t } c nume { F } 305 2nd pl. (familiar) 307 3rd pl. 1 dʒiməʃuŋ { e } 1 dʒmihõŋ { B } 1 ʔot { f } 2 dʒo { j } 2 athek { d } 3 irbanaŋ { s } 2 ethe { wx } 3 itaŋbanaŋ { f } 2 wathek { b } 4 ina { C } 3 bad̪o { f } 5 năŋthek { l } 5 daʃi { u } 5 năthek { dm } 5 d̪aʃibak { noq } 5 nathe { y } 6 na { j } 5 nathəa { vwz } 6 phaina { e } 5 nat̪hek { bx } 7 wabluŋ { i }

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8 walu { g } g beɾa { r } 9 lime { F } h inamehijaŋ { C } a naʃehane { k } i airaahuŋ { D } b thiwathi { m } j jar { E } b thuwe { l } k nathəa { v } d oɲaba { t } l d̪aiba { hp } e bhirbanaŋ { s } l thei { y } f ethəe { z } m waɾbaʔ { c } g aira { AB }

Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing Procedures, Scores and Responses

Recorded text test procedures19 The extent to which speakers of related linguistic varieties understand one another can be studied by means of recorded texts. Such studies investigate whether speakers of one variety understand a narrative text of another variety and are able to answer questions about the content of the text. The accuracy with which subjects answer these questions is taken as an index of their comprehension of that speech form. From the percentage of correct answers, the degree of intelligibility between speech forms is inferred. The recorded text testing method used in this survey is based on the procedures described in Casad (1974) and Blair (1990). Short, personal experience narratives are deemed most suitable for recorded text testing in that the content must be relatively unpredictable and the speech form should be natural. Folklore or other material thought to be widely known is avoided. A three to five minute story is recorded from a speaker of the regional vernacular, and then checked with a group of speakers from the same region to ensure that the spoken forms are truly representative of that area. The story is then transcribed, and a set of comprehension questions is constructed based on various semantic domains covered in the text. Normally, a set of fifteen or more questions is initially prepared. Some of the questions will prove unsuitable—perhaps because the answer is not in focus in the text, or because the question is confusing to native speakers of the test variety. Unsuitable questions are deleted from the preliminary set, leaving a minimum of ten final questions for each RTT. To ensure that measures of comprehension are based on subjects’ understanding of the text itself and not on a misunderstanding of the test questions, these questions are recorded in the regional variety of the test subjects. This requires an appropriate dialect version of the questions for each RTT at each test location. In the RTTs used in this study, test subjects heard the complete story text once, after which it was repeated with test questions and the opportunities for responses interspersed with necessary pauses in the recorded text. Appropriate and correct responses are directly extractable from the segment of speech immediately preceding the question, such that memory limitations exert a negligible effect, and indirect inference based on the content is not required. Thus the RTT aims to be a close reflection of a subject’s comprehension of the language itself, not of his or her memory, intelligence or reasoning. The average (or mean) of the scores obtained from subjects at one test location is taken as a numerical indicator of the intelligibility between speakers of the dialects represented. In order to ensure that the RTT is a fair test of the intelligibility of the test variety to speakers from the regions tested, the text is first tested with subjects from the region where it was recorded. This initial testing is referred to as the hometown test. The hometown test serves to introduce subjects to the testing procedure in a context where intelligibility of the dialect is assumed to be complete since it is the native variety of the test subjects. In addition, hometown testing ensures that native speakers of the text dialect can accurately answer the comprehension questions used to assess understanding of the text in non- native dialect areas. Once a text has been hometown tested with a minimum of ten subjects who have been able to correctly answer the selected comprehension questions with an average score of 90% or above, the test is considered validated. It is possible that a subject may be unable to answer the test questions correctly simply because he or she does not understand what is expected. This is especially true with unsophisticated subjects or those unacquainted with test taking. Therefore a very short pre-test story with four questions is recorded in the local variety before beginning the actual testing. The purpose of this pre-test is to teach the subject what is expected during the RTT procedures. If the subject is able to answer the pre-test questions, it is assumed he or she will be a suitable subject. Each subject then participates in the hometown test in his or her native variety before participating in RTTs in non-native varieties. Occasionally, even after the pre-test, a subject fails to perform adequately on an already validated hometown test. Performances of

19 This description of recorded text test procedures is adapted from that found in Appendix A of O’Leary (1992).

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such subjects are eliminated from the final evaluation, the assumption being that uncontrollable factors unrelated to the intelligibility of speech forms are skewing the results. In this study, subjects performing at levels of less than 80% on their hometown test were eliminated from further testing. When speakers of one linguistic variety have had no previous contact with that represented by the recorded text, scores of the subjects from the test point tend to be more similar—especially when those scores are in the higher ranges. Such consistent scores are often interpreted to be closer reflections of the inherent intelligibility between speech forms. If the sample of subjects (a minimum of ten) accurately represents the speech community being tested in terms of the variables affecting intelligibility, and the RTT scores show such consistency, increasing the number of subjects should not significantly increase the range of variation of the scores. However, when some subjects have had significant previous contact with the speech form recorded on the RTT while others have not, the scores usually vary considerably, reflecting the degree of learning that has gone on through contact. For this reason, it is important to include a measure of dispersion, which reflects the extent to which the range of scores varies from the mean—the standard deviation. With 100 possible points (that is, 100 percent), a standard deviation of more than 12 to 15 is considered high. If the standard deviation is relatively low, say 10 and below, and the mean score for subjects from the selected test point is high, the implication is that the community as a whole probably understands the test variety rather well, either because the variety in the RTT is inherently intelligible or because it has been acquired rather consistently and uniformly throughout the speech community. If the standard deviation is low and the mean RTT score is also low, the implication is that the community as a whole understands the test variety rather poorly and that regular contact has not facilitated learning of the test variety to any significant extent. If the standard deviation is high, regardless of the mean score, one implication is that some subjects have learned the test variety better than others. In this last case, inherent intelligibility between the related varieties may be mixed with acquired proficiency, which results from learning through contact. The relationship between RTT scores and their standard deviation can be seen in table 15:

Table 15. RTT scores and standard deviation

HIGH LOW

Situation 1 Situation 2 HIGH Many people understand the story well, Most people understand but some have difficulty. the story. Average score Situation 3 Situation 4 LOW Many people cannot understand the story, Few people are able to but a few are able to answer correctly. understand the story.

High standard deviations can result from other causes such as inconsistencies in the circumstances of test administration and scoring, or differences in attentiveness or intelligence of subjects. Researchers involved in recorded text testing need to be aware of the potential for skewed results due to such factors, and to control for them as much as possible through careful test development and administration. Questionnaires administered at the time of testing can help researchers discover which factors are significant in promoting contact, which facilitates acquired intelligibility. Travel to or extended stays in other dialect regions, intermarriage between dialect groups, or contacts with schoolmates from other dialect regions are examples of the types of contact that can occur. In contrast to experimentally controlled testing in a laboratory or classroom situation, the results of field-administered methods such as the RTT cannot be completely isolated from potential biases. Recorded texts and test questions will vary in terms of their relative difficulty and complexity, or in the clarity of the recording. Comparisons of RTT results from different texts need to be made cautiously. It is therefore recommended that results from RTTs not be interpreted in terms of fixed numerical thresholds, but rather be evaluated in light of other indicators of intelligibility such as lexical similarity, dialect opinions, and reported patterns of contact and communication. In general, however, RTT mean scores of

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around 80% or higher with accompanying low standard deviations are usually taken to indicate that representatives of the test point dialect display adequate understanding of the variety represented by the recording. Conversely, RTT means below 60% are interpreted to indicate inadequate intelligibility.

RTT stories

Dog Story (Darbu)

This story was told on March 15, 2004, by a 40-year-old male with 12th education. He is a mother tongue speaker of Sartang, born, brought up and living in Darbu village, West Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh.

\n 1 \p gu zuho ptean chebo \g I yesterday dog-one bought \f ‘I bought a dog yesterday.’

Question 1 \q What did he buy? \a A dog.

\n 2 \p pten chere rekhui pte ni rongmo thag bobo \g dog-one bought-after kept dog to tie chain no \f ‘After buying the dog, there was no chain to tie it.’

\n 3 \p ozero nuru wo yure bozar umda ala-tingbo \g after-that morning early got-up market go thought \f ‘Early in the morning I got up and thought about going to the market.’

\n 4 \p tingre bucho anilano pte ni rongmo thag bo khan-ro-o \g after-thinking why because dog to tie chain no ?20 \f ‘Because there was no chain to tie the dog.’

\n 5 \p Thag ji bucho anilano turung ji mumo bo \g chain which why because here which get not \f ‘That kind of chain (one) will not get here.’

\n 6 \p bozar ro-o dumobo \g market from get \f ‘Get (it) from the market.’

20 When the meaning of a form is not clear, ‘?’ is given as the gloss.

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\n 7 \p muru wo yore ptinchire ojero jo ling he chu jore \g morning early got-up brush-teeth after-that tea drunk food ate after-that \f ‘Early in the morning I got up, brushed my teeth, drank tea and ate (some) food.’

Question 2 \q What did he drink after brushing his teeth? \a Tea.

\n 8 \p chuche chuikhe limro gari jagbo \g time 6-am at-road vehicle waiting \f ‘At 6 o’clock I waited by the road for a vehicle.’

Question 3 \q What time did he wait for a vehicle by the road? \a 6 am.

\n 9 \p gari jagre-chuche shi-khe tata sumo gari more taon \g vehicle wait-wait-time 7-am tata sumo vehicle got town \f ‘Waited and waited at 7 o’clock got tata sumo to go to town.’

\n 10 \p ro ure ojero ji ghu pte tha shubo bde rang mubo \g to went after-that in this dog chain searched where every get-not \f ‘Searched for the chain everywhere but did not get it.’

Question 4 \q What did he search for in the market? \a A chain.

\n 11 \p dukan an khuido \g shop one only \f ‘Only in one shop.’

\n 12 \p oji chere khire gu thui khui jamro khi ni morako \g after-that bought again I village towards home back to come \f ‘After buying it, I came back home.’

\n 13 \p gari mumobo limro jagre jubo \g vehicle get-no on-the-road wait remain \f ‘On the road I waited for a vehicle but did not get (one).’

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\n 14 \p jagre jugre oji lukhuingkhi khitan bas pe nire \g wait remain after-that later ? bus came ? \f ‘After waiting for some time, the bus came.’

\n 15 \p oji bas ro-o khire jam pha ni khire go-o pte ni rongre \g after-that bus from back home reached to again my dog to tie \f ‘From the bus I came back home and tied my dog.’

Question 5 \q Where did he come back by bus? \a Home.

\n 16 \p oji ro-o pte ni sho kho chuinchi ojiro hoe chi \g after-that from dog to body water wash after-that food give \f ‘After that I washed the dog and gave (it) food.’

Question 6 \q To what did he give bath? \a The dog.

\n 17 \p ojero pte nirong yumo je pte dei gu dei yumo ji sangbo \g after-that dog tied more ? dog to me to more in happy \f ‘After tying the dog I felt more happy.’

\n 18 \p oji pte yo pcho anilano jamro zuzu bogni tumo chuiro go pte che khano chao \g this dog to why because home at thief not come for my dog buy purpose \f ‘The purpose of buying this dog is to watch (my) home so that a thief may not come.’

Question 7 \q Why did he buy a dog? \a To watch his home.

\n 19 \p pte ba ni lano nuphung zuzu bunim \g dog have to ? night thief come-not \f ‘Having the dog thief will not come at night.’

\n 20 \p ani bude pte debkhi yengchom nuru nuru thuikhe limkhui chere \g children also dog with play morning morning village-at road-on running \f ‘Children can also play with the dog, every morning at village road (it) can run.’

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Question 8 \q Who can play with children? \a The dog.

\n 21 \p lede ajab ji pte ji yamo chuiro ajab \g so good this dog is more for good \f ‘This dog is of more good.’

\n 22 \p ojero aluin menyenitubo oji pteo re zdung de jagbo \g after-that in come-not this dog-which field monkey also watch \f ‘This dog will not allow to come inside and will also watch the field so that monkey will not come.’

Question 9 \q What will not come into the field? \a Monkey.

\n 23 \p pte be nilano pte rang sumchan ngo likhuing khi \g dog when there is dog also animal later follow \f ‘When there is dog it (dog)can follow (hunt) animal (wild).’

\n 24 \p pteo achung khui chong rubo \g dog responsibility kept ? ? \f ‘All these responsibilities are kept on dog.’

\n 25 \p othi pte ji bucho anilano gurei thuikhui mumobo \g this dog which why because us-to village-at find-not \f ‘I purchased this dog because it is not found in our village.’

Question 10 \q Why did he buy this kind of dog? \a Not found in the village.

\n 26 \p othi pte yumo ji acho ro-o ee-e \g this dog more which different from others \f ‘This dog is more different from other dogs.’

\n 27 \p gong ji pte yano gong ji tongtho khoan \g price which dog one price which thousand twenty \f ‘One dog cost even up to twenty thousand.’

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Question 11 \q How much does this dog cost? \a 20,000.

\n 28 \p loso pte ajeng ji tomy ale chong-robo \g ? dog name which tomy called kept \f ‘I kept the dog’s name Tomy.’

\n 29 \p ojero aphu ojero khidere ani che tumo chuero \g after-that male after-that again child to get for \f ‘I want to buy another female dog for this dog to get child.’

\n 30 \p amen akhui che demo \g female now to buy \f ‘Now I have to buy a female dog.’

\n 31 \p rabo gu toro akhui nin bo \g doing i have now money no \f ‘To do that I have no money now.’

\n 32 \p hukha-roo ki dere amen chemo \g after-that again ? female will-buy \f ‘After that I will buy a female dog.’

\n 33 \p ojero aji abo ongre anui tumo \g after-that both mating with child birth \f ‘So that there may be reproduction.’

\n 34 \p anui-che oji-ro go thuik jiringne \g child which i village people \f ‘and give the puppies/babies to the villagers.’

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Hunting Story (Rupa)

This story was told on March 30, 2004, by a 53-year-old uneducated male. He is a mother tongue speaker of Sherdukpen, brought up and living in Rupa village, West Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh.

\n 1 \p tung khanglonik loga mo yatpa \g year 62 we war flee \f ‘During the war in 1962 we fled from Tibet to here.’

Question 1 \q What happened in 1962? \a War.

\n 2 \p tung khanglonik ga mo ya-raro \g year 62 we war flee \f ‘When war begin in 1962 we fled.’

\n 3 \p tung khabung-lobeshi ho-go sekiya ri-phu \g year 64 i deer shoot \f ‘In the year 1964 I shot a deer.’

Question 2 \q In which year did he shoot the deer? \a 1964.

\n 4 \p ghar shan zo ga pesi thuba ghar sit diphauba-yo \g we 11 pm we 4 block we seven chased \f ‘Eleven of us went, four of us blocked the way and seven were chasing from behind the animal.’

\n 5 \p phau raro ung rorau sekiyo da-joraroro jelogu mik-yo rikraro \g chase after gone after deer doesn’t-want-to-come-out then-I arrow shoot-after \f ‘I shot with an arrow towards the deer because it did not want to come out.’

Question 3 \q With what did he shoot the deer? \a Arrow.

\n 6 \p athong seki muraro \g that deer got \f ‘We got that deer.’

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Question 4 \q What did they get? \a Deer.

\n 7 \p jalo ghar ghan do sekigi uro hidi-ro raro \g then we 11 tm deer cut distribute after \f ‘Then eleven of us cut up the deer and distributed (the meat).’

Question 5 \q How many of them cut up the deer? \a Eleven.

\n 8 \p zelo gatshi yo tung mo jare khera-ro tung khuyo ghatshi betshe tsha raro \g then my-father ? year war flee coming-after year 5 my-father gun bought after \f ‘My father bought a gun five years after fleeing.’

Question 6 \q After how many years did his father buy a gun? \a Five years.

\n 9 \p oji logu betsho zan thirikba shrathi rikba setung \g then I gun mountain-goat also-shoot kind-of deer-shoot bear

\p thirikba sekangtirik jik zithiriba \g shoot boar-shoot stag also-shoot \f ‘Then with the gun I shoot mountain goat, a kind of deer, bear, boar and stag.’

\n 10 \p ayo zelo sapospai raro gutsham naro yamlo chhero yal-digo \g then hunters after i wife bring house separate then

\p sapararo dithi Riro dumthiriro singthising zungthi zung \g hunting son-bringing-up daughter-bringing-up brought up holding baby \f ‘After hunting for sometime I got married and separated my house and brought up sons and daughters by hunting.’

Question 7 \q Where did he bring his wife? \a House.

\n 11 \p yo duthi suribasi duimathi nyu ri-basi uthangsi dikpudiksak araro yo \g ? son meat-bring-up daughter fish bring-up like-this wrong-doing then ? \f ‘Though it is sin killing animals and fish he was doing this to bring up his children.’

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Question 8 \q What did he do to bring up his children? \a Hunting.

\n 12 \p ga angkhang zigibadan mu bedan yo rik pro-ro chuba jiring zougi-yo \g we are education-not nothing not ? farmer doing eating man also \f ‘As we are not educated we work in the field for our livelihood.’

Question 9 \q What did he do to earn his livelihood? \a Farmer.

\n 13 \p dikpudikso urara thong sering tero chong-puro-uru tsura ling-re dothire \g wrong-doing working like this support like-this-doing eating drinking son-also

\p dimuthirire seki ezek longba yo \g daughter-also-bring-up now old getting ? \f ‘It was wrong to support ourselves like this, but we did (it).’

\n 14 \p sino yu gayu tung khonglo-ung rama yo tung \g now then we year 63 old-now ? year \f ‘Now we are 63 years old.’

Question 10 \q How old is he now? \a 63.

\n 15 \p thong pai thung kho-niyo-ung yo thong-siyo dikpudikso thira pati dikso dira pati \g like that year 63 ? as-it-is wrong-doing ? ? ? ? ? \f ‘Like that in the year 63 we repented from wrong doing.’

\n 16 \p sinyo zik nahoa thuk-naba ga-jo \g now become old stop we \f ‘Now as we became old we stop doing wrong.’

Question 11 \q Why did he stop doing? \a Because he is now old.

\n 17 \p sinajo dikpudikso bratshopa long naba \g now wrong doing stop doing \f ‘Now I stopped doing wrong (sin).’

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\n 18 \p sinajo thisi jo khartam silung asi yo sapo khanti nyia-pora khanti-yu \g now like this story become like ? hunting doing fishing doing

\p thuik dikpudikso rakhanthi khartam si-thilung nabayu yu \g village wrong-doing doing story like-story become ? \f ‘Now hunting and fishing in the village became a story.’

\n 19 \p thisira yu thinu tisira yu yupsing iberedila yo \g like this thinking like this story old age \f ‘When I think back at the old age it has become like story.’

\n 20 \p asu-adzap-abiayap oboudzap omoudzap dilo sumu-sangiyat keinakhan nijorango \g ancestors father mother olden-days god-and-goddesses declare nobody \f ‘About our forefathers and mothers only gods and goddesses know.’

\n 21 \p ho bancho sumu-sangiyat kenakhan sungkhit-surokhit \g stop saying god-and-goddesses declare name-of-a-mountain

\p kenakha nokiyo guampu tisira chu-ro-lingro yo tshiraliyu phuro-bazu gi yo \g declare like-this all-together like-this eating-drinking ? like-this working ? ? \f ‘Now stop saying god and goddess and declared sungkhit-surokhit and like this we eat and drink together.’

Question 12 \q What did they do together? \a Eat and drink.

\n 22 \p gatkiyo asu-bidi-lo tisirayo ubulo tsura-baza \g we-are forefather-and-grandmother-days like-this good-food eating-staying

\p dikpudik-si-thira sapothirapa nyiapoth \g wrong-doing hunting fishing \f ‘Our forefathers and mothers did hunting and fishing to eat good food though it was wrong.’

Question 13 \q Who were hunting for good food? \a Forefathers.

\n 23 \p suthi rikpa nyiu-thi ui thisrere niktsik nye sodzaba \g meat killing fish killing like-this word one speaking \f ‘I am speaking about killing animals and fish.’

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Daily Activities Story (Dirang Monpa)

This story was told on March 18, 2004, by a 60-year-old uneducated male. He is a mother tongue speaker of Dirang Monpa; born, brought up, and currently living in Dirang village in West Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh.

\n 1 \p atinung namne gogaraptur-zik-panga. \g today morning cock-crowing. \f ‘This morning the cock was crowing.’

\n 2 \p yezang tinung branpa-di saspola-de yakgi. \g we today farming need told. \f ‘We want to get up and go to work in the field.’

\n 3 \p unuwange hanbu ankho-ola torkhan-rikhan za-thak-nge. \g get-up now work cooking eat. \f ‘We got up, cooked food and made ourselves ready.’

\n 4 \p za zam phe dila-gi. \g eat and after that \f ‘Then we ate and left.’

\n 5 \p onla wa kurta neka-dilengi wa ngia-tap-tha tap-phe-wangi. \g then cow horse went cow here and-there. \f ‘After that we went and (tied) horse and cow here and there.’

\n 6 \p onla dasi leka-gade alengi aya phintang dom-ngiching-cham-asa \g then they work doing rhym maize acres-two-three

\p asi chonga se songthur bakphangi ak-phan-gi. \g we man ten eleven plough self \f ‘Ten (or) eleven of us ploughed in two (to) three acres of maize.’

Question 1 \q How many of them were working in the land? \a Ten or eleven.

\n 7 \p godum thur-dam bak-pana angia chinga chundanzi. \g first-time one-acre self this after finished \f ‘First of all we finish ploughing one acre of land.’

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Question 2 \q How many acres did they plough first? \a One.

\n 8 \p chaini-ayi chin go-dum thur bak pana oinla ingu chumsi. \g then after first-time one self then that also finished. \f ‘Then another land was (ploughed) and finished all.’

\n 9 \p ongi-so phintang bang esang male-mana. \g then maize lawn this-much not-there. \f ‘There was not much grass where we were to (sow) the maize.’

Question 3 \q What were they going to sow? \a Maize.

\n 10 \p bang enchan mana-onla aya asi uthu mia-ka omla \g lawn this-much nothing-there rhym we here place now

\p betpe la betpe chum-bola. \g very-fast tm very-fast finished. \f ‘There was not much grass, so we finished very fast.’

\n 11 \p mo-dincha asibak gam-putheke omchang leka bra ancha daksi. \g go we-all we-all now work different doing told. \f ‘And said let’s go and do another job (work).’

\n 12 \p mo-omla di dilajengi kompu Sara chiang chonmola. \g now tm go-and millet removing-of little was-enough. \f ‘Now we will go and pluck the grass from among millet.’

\n 13 \p kompu sara a alan gi ayinla onla phega wangi kompu \g millet removing-of tm do and Then then house come-and millet

\p sara chumsi wangi phega wangi. \g removing-of finish and house come. \f ‘After finishing removing grass from millet we come back home.’

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Question 4 \q Where did they come back after the work? \a House.

\n 14 \p oinla onla so-dasi phesonga-bak gangpu chonzi. \g after then they family-members all were \f ‘Then when we reached home all family members were there.’

Question 5 \q Who were there at home when they came back? \a Family members.

\n 15 \p asi-tso rokti-bak ganpu duntshang pheng-gi. \g we friends all party did \f ‘When we reached home we started a party (there) with friends.’

\n 16 \p aiya dunsang la anze-anze buinang ngamchon oinla-singgala \g rhym party tm did-did night whole after-that

\p goga zik-pangi gowa-ziksi. \g chicken crowing chicken \f ‘Then we had a party all night (until) the cock crowed (in the morning).’

\n 17 \p oinla It cholengi oinla onla it cholengi namne choka la \g after tm slept after then tm slept morning side tm

\p ngam-sangsang-ma-chong mala. \g sun-already-rose no. \f ‘Then we slept and slept and got up when the sun had already risen.’

\n 18 \p ezang tinung mala-mala ngamla chose yu zam-mizam \g i-am today no-no evening rose alcohol drink

\p michonala krik-po-mala dezang yu zam-cho-gem si wangi. \g sit-if not-good thinking alcohol drink-drink we with-out. \f ‘If we sit and drink always like this it will not be good.’

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\n 19 \p dina omchang-namne-choka wa kurta mia-ka dilengi wa kurta \g went now-morning cow horse went went cow horse

\p mia-ka onchang wa-tap kurta-tap ansi wangi. \g went after-that cow-here-and there-horse do-and come-and. \f ‘Then in the morning we went and tied cow and horse here and there and came back.’

Question 6 \q When did they tie cow and horse there and here? \a Morning.

\n 20 \p angi phega wangi una. \g then house came then \f ‘Then we returned home.’

\n 21 \p oinla enang-gu chon-pasi omchangwe mala-mala di-yak-ngi. \g after afternoon sit-passed then no-no thinking \f ‘It was afternoon then, and thought it is not good to sit like this.’

\n 22 \p zang tinung-gu rokti-bak-gi yu zangsa-di-yakla yula zangla tinung \g we today friends alcohol drink-told alcohol drink today

\p la-mazam-ba di-yak-ngi yu-la zang tinung la ma zamba di-yakngi. \g no-drink told alcohol we today tm no drink told. \f ‘Friends told let’s drink today also but we said we won’t drink today.’

Question 7 \q Who made him drink? \a Friends.

\n 23 \p ingu yu zami choi mala di-yangi zang enge yak-ngi chona. \g yesterday alcohol drink sit no told we told like-this sit. \f ‘Yesterday also we sat and drank.’

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Question 8 \q When did they sit and drink? \a Yesterday.

\n 24 \p roktibak-gi mano-na bang-alangi zam-rik si-ayengu zangla \g friends not-listen forcefully drink yesterday drink

\p mazam-ma-na-ayi rokti-bak zaman-gi onla ngang bro la-aye yurtse Yurtse. \g no-drink-nothing friends-self drink then sing dance did sang sang. \f ‘Friends forced me to drink, but I did not drink, while they drank, sang and danced.’

Question 9 \q What did they do while they were drunk? \a Sang and danced.

\n 25 \p ngur-pangi onla chapkelang thur la thur gi-cho ngang la kesanga \g sang then very one tm one tm song tm (a-type-of-song)

\p ngur-pan-mu gumto-gumne sok-pan dak-pan-mu hangdak-pan-mu \g sang (a-type-of-song) remaining told then-what-said

\p yak-ngi yak-ngi ngurtse ngurtse. \g told told sang sang. \f ‘When drank one after another we sang (various songs) Kesang, Gumto-gumne, singing and dancing.’

\n 26 \p angi-la onla dasi-bak-la gam-pu-theke roktibakla yu zam-ngi tala tili-phengi \g then then they-self all friends-self alcohol drunk there here

\p rindinzi. \g fell. \f ‘Then all of them drank and fell here and there and slept.’

Question 10 \q What happened to them because they were drunk? \a Slept/fell here and there.

\n 27 \p zangla zang thur ta omchang ye-zangula yula ma-zamla-chimla di-ayi \g drink drink one tm then we alcohol not-drink thinking

\p oi-gila mazamba di-yakngi ngam-pu za-angi-chona. \g then not-drink told good sat. \f ‘Then we sat and thought it would be good if we didn’t drink.’

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Cat and Monkey Story (Kalaktang)

This story was told on March 27, 2004, by an 18 year old female with 10th education. She is a mother tongue speaker of Kalaktang Monpa, born, brought up, and living in Kalaktang village, West Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh.

\n 1 \p kothur nimu niktsing thasing. \g one-there cat two that \f ‘Once there were two cats.’

Question 1 \q How many cats were there? \a Two.

\n 2 \p niktsing lamngi lamngi omarang phethur nga phethur ruman-tsun-mala. \g both search search after-sometimes house-one tm house-one found \f ‘They both searched after some time they found in one house.’

Question 2 \q Where did they find bread? \a One house.

\n 3 \p un phethur ga nup-ni gotpan-tsun-mala binang khulan-tsun-mala. \g that house-one tm enter to-see hungry feeling \f ‘They were hungry so they entered one house to see.’

\n 4 \p un nimun niktsing un nannga hang-hung-rang malan tson mala. \g that cat both that inside nothing no to-have no \f ‘As they went inside nothing was there.’

Question 3 \q Who went inside? \a Two cats.

\n 5 \p onge un lamngi lamngi phim thur thongman-tsun-mala. \g then that search search bread one found \f ‘After searching they found one bread.’

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Question 4 \q What did they find? \a One bread.

\n 6 \p thong ni un phim ngia buni phika solan-tsung-mala tasing niksing. \g found it that bread tm took out to-go both two \f ‘After they found it, they both took it out.’

\n 7 \p onge umarang phim ngia buni peska buni nimu niktsing kho-alan-tson-mala. \g then after-sometime bread tm took outside took cat both quarrel \f ‘After taking that bread outside they quarrel.’

Question 5 \q What did they do after taking out the bread? \a Quarrel.

\n 8 \p om tasing hang alo om-ni omarang dilen-tsun-mala tasing niktsing. \g then both what to-do wait after-sometime went both two \f ‘Not knowing what to do, after some time they both went.’

Question 6 \q What did they do? \a Wait.

\n 9 \p dine omarang tasing niktsing phim lamngi lamngi umarang phim \g when after-sometime both both bread search search after-sometime bread

\p thur ngia suni zala tsosa dilang-tson-mala. \g one tm took-out monkey to to-go \f ‘They searched bread after sometime they found one and went to the monkey.’

Question 7 \q To whom did they go with the bread? \a Monkey.

\n 10 \p zala ngia unga kg zir tsulanla-thong-mala. \g monkey tm there kg weight to-do \f ‘Monkey was there to weigh.’

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\n 11 \p kg zir-buga zala sang-mu tsulangi dhan uga di-ni nimu niktsin \g kg weighing monkey clever have that there to-go cat both

\p thongman-gi zala uga got-sulang-tsun-mala. \g found monkey there observing \f ‘Monkey was observing the cats while weighing because he was clever.’

Question 8 \q How was the Monkey? \a Clever.

\n 12 \p umarang nimungia phim zerge jakpan-tsun-mala. \g after-sometime cat-tm bread to-weight told \f ‘After sometime cat told to weigh the bread.’

Question 9 \q What did the cat say? \a To weight the bread.

\n 13 \p zala gi phim ngia kg zir-ban-tsun-mala zir bu-ga zala gi \g monkey tm bread tm kg weight-to weight after monkey tm

\p sangmu alani gi phim ngia zir-bu-tsun-mala. \g clever being tm bread tm weight \f ‘Monkey weighed the bread after weighing, being clever, monkey weighed the bread.’

\n 14 \p onge unga zir-ni kg ngia utsoka phim niktsi raka philan kg zer-ban kg dzepsuk tsusaga \g then there weight kg tm one-side bread both the to-put kg weight kg more place \f ‘Then monkey put the bread one side heavier.’

Question 10 \q How much did the monkey put on one side? \a More.

\n 15 \p kg gu tong-te-tong jutu zala gi phutni angeng thur hapan-tsun-mala. \g kg also down-and-down coming monkey the bread-broke little one eat \f ‘When the kg is heavier one side the monkey bread little and eat.’

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Question 11 \q How much did he break and eat? \a A little.

\n 16 \p zala gi sangmu ga gangpu hapthalo alan-tsun-mala-mi. \g monkey the clever tm all to-be-eat tried \f ‘The clever monkey try to eat all.’

Question 12 \q What did the clever monkey try to do? \a Eat it all.

\n 17 \p untsoka thani utsoka thani zirban-tsun-mala. \g that-side to-keep this-side to-keep weighing \f ‘Keep on weighting this side and that side.’

\n 18 \p utsoka dzepsok tsukan zala gi phut-ni hapt alan-tsun-mala. \g this-side heavy to-have monkey the bread-broke to-be eat \f ‘When other side is heavier the monkey break and eat.’

\n 19 \p tsange zirban-tsun-mala tsange zirban-tsun-mala. \g again weight again weight \f ‘Weight again and again.’

\n 20 \p tsange utsoka jan-pan-tsun-mala tsen utsoka zirban-tson-mala. \g again this-side more-on-one-side again this-side weight \f ‘If the other side is more monkey weight the other side again.’

\n 21 \p tsengi utsoka tsen utsoka zirban-tsun-mala haptani-tsun-mala. \g again this-side again this-side weight eaten \f ‘Weight again and again and eaten up.’

\n 22 \p umarang tsing thakpa phim aning thur luspan-tsun-mala. \g after-sometime last at bread little one remain \f ‘After sometime the bread remaining very little.’

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\n 23 \p un phem ngia gu un zala gi hapthalan-tsun-mala. \g that bread tm also that monkey tm eaten \f ‘The remaining little bread was also eaten up by the monkey.’

\n 24 \p hapthaluga onge un nimu niktsing tasing niktsing ngia phan ngia \g eaten-after tm that cat both both two-cat tm bread tm

\p zala zirkho ani bin thalani phim nya zala gi hapthalan malang-chon-mala \g monkey weigh ask to Give bread tm monkey tm eaten no more \f ‘The cat asked the monkey to give the bread that he had finished when there was no more.’

\n 25 \p umarang nimu niktsing ngia ungen son dilan la rotson lakni. \g after-sometime cat two tm from-there out to-go tm angry become \f ‘Actually the two cats become angry from there and went.’

Question 13 \q What was the expression of the cat? \a Angry.

\n 26 \p phem ngia zala gi hapni dzipu ngia zala dzipan-tson-mala. \g bread tm monkey the ate profit tm monkey profit \f ‘At last the profit was monkey.’

Question 14 \q What did the monkey get? \a Profit.

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Subject background information, RTT scoring chart key and post-HTT/RTT questions

The following background information was obtained for each test subject (designated with a subject ID number):

1. Date 2. Name21 3. Sex 4. Age 5. Education 6a. Birthplace 6b. Brought up 6c. Current residence/how long 6d. If moved, how long 7a. Mother tongue 7b. Language now spoken in home 8. Father’s mother tongue 9. Mother’s mother tongue 10. Spouse’s mother tongue 11. Lived or stayed in another place/how long 12. Travelled to another place

RTT scoring chart key:

Q1, Q2… Score for each question of the story 10 = fully correct 5 = partially correct 0 = incorrect TTL: Total score for each subject PCT: Percentage for each subject Average score: Average score of all subjects Standard deviation: Statistical measurement for range of scores Above 12 high Below 10 low Number: Number of subjects who took the test

Codes used in the transcription of texts (code and its meaning)

\n : Sentence number \p : Phonetic transcription of text \g : Word-by-word English gloss of transcribed text \f : Free (natural) English translation of text QUESTION:15 Question number \q : English translation of question \a : Expected answer for question \a2, a3… : Alternate answer(s) for question with given point value TM : tense marker

21 Test subject names are not included in this report.

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Notes:

Alternate answers for story questions have been compiled from subjects’ responses during this survey. Post-HTT questions:

1. Where do you think the person who told this story is from? 2. a. Is the speech good? b. [if not good] What is not good about it? 3. Is this the way people talk in your village? 4. Did you hear any mixing with another language?

Post-RTT questions:

1. a. In what language do you think the story was told? b. Where do you think the storyteller is from? c. What helps you know the storyteller is from that place? 2. a. Is the speech good? b. [If not good] What is not good about it? 3. a. Is the speech pure? b. [If not pure] In what way is the speech not pure? 4. a. Is the storyteller’s speech a little different or very different from your speech? b. [If different] In what way is it different (pronunciation, words, style)? 5. How much of the story did you understand?

(If subject did not name a place for the story, the following questions are ignored.)

6. How many times have you gone to the area where you said the storyteller is from? 7. How often do people from that area come to your village?

Codes used for the RTT and in biodata

Biodata codes DRB Darbu RUP Rupa DRG Dirang KLT Kalaktang CHG Chug KHO Khoina

Codes in the tables E Educated U Uneducated MT Mother tongue NA Not applicable EDU Education F MT Father’s mother tongue M MT Mother’s mother tongue SP MT Spouse’s mother tongue

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Recorded text testing scores and post-HTT/RTT responses

Dog Story in Darbu village

Subject biodata Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT DRB 01 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 18 Y M Sartang DRB 02 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 23 Y M Sartang DRB 03 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 23 Y M Sartang DRB 04 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 40 M M Sartang DRB 05 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 51 O M Sartang DRB 06 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 31 M M Sartang DRB 07 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 18 Y M Sartang DRB 08 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 55 O F Sartang DRB 09 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 36 M M Sartang DRB 10 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 60 O M Sartang DRB 11 West Kameng Sartang 3/19/2004 Darbu 52 O M Sartang

Biodata continuation Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E DRB 01 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 5 E DRB 02 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 03 Sartang Sartang NA Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 04 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 5 E DRB 05 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 06 Sartang Sartang D. Monpa Darbu Darbu NA 10 E DRB 07 Sartang Sartang NA Darbu Darbu NA 8 E DRB 08 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 09 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 5 E DRB 10 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 11 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U

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Darbu HTT scoring Sub ID Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 Q 11 TTL PCT DRB 01 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 DRB 02 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 DRB 03 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 DRB 04 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 100 91 DRB 05 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 DRB 06 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 100 91 DRB 07 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 DRB 08 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 DRB 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 DRB 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 DRB 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 110 100 Average: 98% Standard deviation: 5 Number: 11

Darbu post-HTT responses SubID Story Type 1 2ah 2bh 3 4 DRB 01 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 02 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 03 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 04 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 05 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 06 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 07 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 08 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 09 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed DRB 10 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA No Not mixed DRB 11 Dog Story HTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed

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Hunting Story in Rupa

Subject biodata Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT F MT RUP 01 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 27 Y F Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 02 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 72 O F Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 03 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 51 O M Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 04 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 40 M M Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 05 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 32 Y M Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 06 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 36 M M Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 07 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 52 O M Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 08 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 48 M F Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 09 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 20 Y F Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 10 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 42 M F Sherdukpen Sherdukpen RUP 11 West Kameng Sherdukpen 1/4/2004 Rupa 17 Y M Sherdukpen Sherdukpen

Biodata continuation Sub ID M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How Long Edu U-E RUP 01 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 10 E RUP 02 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 03 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 10 E RUP 04 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 05 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 5 E RUP 06 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA Eng E RUP 07 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 8 E RUP 08 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 09 Sherdukpen NA Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 10 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 9 E RUP 11 Sherdukpen NA Rupa Rupa NA 7 E

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Rupa HTT scoring Sub ID Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 Q 11 Q 12 Q 13 TTL PCT RUP 01 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 120 92 RUP 02 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 120 92 RUP 03 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 0 100 77 RUP 04 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 10 0 90 69 RUP 05 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 0 10 110 85 RUP 06 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 0 100 77 RUP 07 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 10 110 85 RUP 08 10 10 10 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 0 90 69 RUP 09 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 0 10 100 77 RUP 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 0 100 77 RUP 11 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 0 0 100 77 Average: 95% Standard deviation: 7 Number: 11

Rupa RTT scoring Sub ID Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 Q 11 TTL PCT RUP 01 10 0 0 0 0 10 10 0 0 10 10 50 45 RUP 02 10 10 0 10 10 0 0 0 10 10 10 70 64 RUP 03 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 100 91 RUP 04 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 20 18 RUP 05 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 91 RUP 06 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 0 90 82 RUP 07 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 60 55 RUP 08 0 10 10 0 10 0 10 10 10 0 0 60 55 RUP 09 0 10 0 0 10 0 0 0 10 10 0 50 36 RUP 10 0 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 50 45 RUP 11 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 9 Average: 55% Standard deviation: 29 Number: 11

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Rupa post-HTT/RTT responses SubID 1 1a 1b 1c 2a 2b 2ah 2bh 3 3a 3b 4 RUP01 Here Bithingji Don’t know NA Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP02 Here Rahung Rahung By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP03 Here Rahung Rahung By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP04 Here Rahung Rahung Because I Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed have heard RUP05 Here Rahung Rahung By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP06 Here Rahung Rahung By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP07 Here Don’t know Bomdila side By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP08 Here Rahung Rahung By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP09 Here Bithingji Bithingji By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP10 Here Rahung Rahung By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed RUP11 Here Sellary Sellary By Language Yes NA Yes NA NA Yes NA Not mixed

Post-HTT/RTT responses continuation SubID 4a 4b 5 6 7 8 RUP01 Little different Tune, Words Little NA NA NA RUP02 Little different Words Half Never Sometimes NA RUP03 50%understand Tune, Words, Style All Travelled through Sometimes NA RUP04 Very different Tune Little 2 times Sometimes NA RUP05 Very different Tune All Many times Many times NA RUP06 Very different Tune, Words, Half 3,4 times Frequently NA Pronunciations RUP07 Very different Tune, Words Half 1time Sometimes NA RUP08 Very different Tune All Never Sometimes NA RUP09 Very different Tune, Words Half Never Sometimes NA RUP10 Little different Tune, Words Half Never Sometimes NA RUP11 80% understand Tune, Words Little Never Sometimes NA

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Daily Activities Story in Dirang village

Subject biodata Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT F MT DRG01 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 18 Y M Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG02 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 53 O M Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG03 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 21 Y F Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG04 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 40 M M Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG05 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 37 M M Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG06 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 26 Y M Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG07 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 51 O F Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG08 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 49 M F Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG09 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 48 M F Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG10 West Dirang 3/22/2004 Dirang 55 O M Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa DRG11 West Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 44 M M Dirang Dirang Kameng Monpa Monpa

Biodata continuation Sub ID M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How Long Edu U-E DRG01 Dirang Monpa NA Dirang Dirang NA 10 E DRG02 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 12 E DRG03 Dirang Monpa NA Dirang Dirang NA 8 E DRG04 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 3 U DRG05 Dirang Monpa NA Dirang Dirang NA 0 U DRG06 Dirang Monpa NA Dirang Dirang NA 0 U DRG07 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 9 E DRG08 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 0 U DRG09 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 10 E DRG10 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 0 U DRG11 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 9 E

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Dirang HTT scoring Sub ID Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 TTL DRG01 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG02 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG03 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG04 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG05 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG06 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG07 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG08 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG09 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 DRG11 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 Average: 100% Standard deviation: 0 Number: 11

Dirang post-HTT responses SubID Story Type 1 2ah 2bh 3 4 DRG01 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG02 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG03 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG04 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG05 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG06 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG07 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG08 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Little Bhutan mixed DRG09 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG10 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed DRG11 Daily Activities Story HTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed

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Cat and Monkey Story in Kalaktang Subject biodata Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT KLT01 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 16 Y M Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT02 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 22 Y F Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT03 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 37 M M Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT04 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 21 Y F Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT05 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 44 M F Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT06 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 21 Y F Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT07 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 30 Y M Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT08 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 37 M M Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT09 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 36 M F Kalaktang Monpa Monpa KLT10 West Kameng Kalaktang 3/29/2004 Kalaktang 61 O F Kalaktang Monpa Monpa

Biodata continuation How Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence Edu U-E long KLT01 Kalaktang Kalaktang NA Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 10 E Monpa Monpa village village KLT02 Kalaktang Kalaktang NA Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 5 E Monpa Monpa village village KLT03 Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U Monpa Monpa Monpa village village KLT04 Kalaktang Kalaktang NA Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 7 E Monpa Monpa village village KLT05 Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U Monpa Monpa Monpa village village KLT06 Kalaktang Kalaktang Dirang Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U Monpa Monpa village village KLT07 Kalaktang Kalaktang Miji Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U Monpa Monpa village village KLT08 Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 12 E Monpa Monpa Monpa village village KLT09 Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 9 E Monpa Monpa Monpa village village KLT10 Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U Monpa Monpa Monpa village village

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Kalaktang HTT scoring Sub ID Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 TTL PCT KLT01 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 90 KLT02 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 KLT03 10 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 90 KLT04 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 KLT05 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 90 90 KLT06 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 0 10 10 80 80 KLT07 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 80 80 KLT08 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 90 KLT09 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 KLT10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 Average: 90% Standard deviation: 7 Number: 10

Kalaktang RTT scoring Sub ID Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Q 4 Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 TTL PCT KLT01 10 0 10 10 10 0 0 10 10 10 70 70 KLT02 5 0 10 0 10 10 10 0 5 10 60 60 KLT03 5 0 10 10 0 10 0 0 0 10 45 45 KLT04 0 0 10 10 10 0 5 0 10 0 45 45 KLT05 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 50 50 KLT06 5 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 85 85 KLT07 5 0 0 10 10 0 10 0 0 5 40 40 KLT08 0 0 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 70 70 KLT09 10 10 10 10 10 0 10 10 10 10 90 90 KLT10 0 10 0 0 10 0 0 10 10 10 50 50 Average: 55% Standard deviation: 18 Number: 10

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Kalaktang post-HTT/ RTT responses SubID Story Type 1 2ah 2bh 3 4 4a KLT01 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed Little different KLT02 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed Little different KLT03 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed Little different KLT04 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed Little different KLT05 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed Very different KLT06 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed Little different KLT07 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed Very different KLT08 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA Yes Not mixed Little different KLT09 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed Little different KLT10 Daily Activity/Cat Story HTT/RTT Here Yes NA NA Not mixed Little different

Post-HTT/ RTT responses continuation SubID 4b 5 6 7 8 KLT01 Words 80% understand 2,3 times Once in a while NA KLT02 Tune All Many times Many times NA KLT03 NA All 6,7 Times Many times NA KLT04 NA No Never Many times NA KLT05 Words, meaning All 1,2 times Not at all NA KLT06 NA Little Never Many times NA KLT07 Words, Style Little Never Few times NA KLT08 Words, Tune All 4,5 times Once in a while NA KLT09 Words, Tune All Never Once in a while NA KLT10 Don’t Know NA Never Once in a while NA

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Biodata Chug informal RTT Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT F MT CHG01 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 20 Y M Chug Chug CHG02 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 50 O M Chug Chug CHG03 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 20 O M Chug Chug CHG04 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 46 M M Chug Chug CHG05 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 25 Y M Chug Chug CHG06 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 21 Y M Chug Chug CHG07 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 19 Y F Chug Chug CHG08 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 25 Y F Chug Chug CHG09 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 35 Y M Chug Chug CHG10 West Kameng Chug 3/17/2004 Chug 65 O M Chug Chug

Biodata Chug informal RTT continuation Sub ID M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E CHG01 Chug NA Chug Chug NA 0 U CHG02 Chug Chug Chug Chug NA 0 U CHG03 Chug NA Chug Chug NA 0 U CHG04 Chug Chug Chug Chug NA 0 U CHG05 Chug NA Chug Chug NA 0 U CHG06 Chug NA Chug Chug NA 0 U CHG07 Chug NA Chug Chug NA 8 E CHG08 Chug Chug Chug Chug NA 10 E CHG09 Chug Chug Chug Chug NA 0 U CHG10 Chug Chug Chug Chug NA 0 U

Chug informal RTT responses Sub ID Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 a Q 3 b Q 4 Q 5 Q 6 CHG 01 Here NA Good NA Yes No Not “fully” CHG 02 Here NA Good NA NA No Not “fully” CHG 03 Lish 2 times Good NA Little different No Not “fully” CHG 04 Lish Many times Good NA Little different No Not “fully” CHG 05 Lish Many times Good NA Little different No Not “fully” CHG 06 Lish Many times Good NA Little different No Not “fully” CHG 07 Lish 2,3 times Good NA Tune different No Not “fully” CHG 08 Lish Many times Good NA Yes No All CHG 09 Lish Many times Good NA Little different Mixed little Not “fully” CHG 10 Lish Many times Good NA Little different No All

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Biodata Khoina informal RTT Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT KHO 01 West Kameng Sartang 11/3/2004 Khoina 38 M M Sartang KHO 02 West Kameng Sartang 11/3/2004 Khoina 36 Y F Sartang KHO 03 West Kameng Sartang 11/3/2004 Khoina 32 Y M Sartang KHO 04 West Kameng Sartang 11/3/2004 Khoina 67 O M Sartang KHO 05 West Kameng Sartang 11/3/2004 Khoina 32 Y M Sartang KHO 06 West Kameng Sartang 11/3/2004 Khoina 36 M M Sartang KHO 07 West Kameng Sartang 11/3/2004 Khoina 45 M M Sartang KHO 08 West Kameng Sartang 11/3/2004 Khoina 34 M F Sartang

Biodata Khoina informal RTT continuation Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E KHO 01 Sartang Sartang Sartang Khoina Khoina NA 10 E KHO 02 Sartang Sartang Sartang Khoina Khoina NA 9 E KHO 03 Sartang Sartang Sartang Khoina Khoina NA 5 E KHO 04 Sartang Sartang Sartang Khoina Khoina NA 0 U KHO 05 Sartang Sartang Sartang Khoina Khoina NA 8 E KHO 06 Sartang Sartang Sartang Khoina Khoina NA 7 U KHO 07 Sartang Sartang Sartang Khoina Khoina NA 7 U KHO 08 Sartang Sartang Sartang Khoina Khoina NA 0 U

Khoina RTT responses Sub ID Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 a Q 3 b Q 4 Q 5 Q 6 KHO 01 Darbu Many times Good NA Yes No All KHO 02 Darbu Many times Good NA Yes No All KHO 03 Darbu Many times Good NA Yes No All KHO 04 Darbu Many times Good NA Yes No All KHO 05 Darbu Many times Good NA Yes No All KHO 06 Darbu Many times Good NA Yes No All KHO 07 Darbu Many times Good NA Yes No All KHO 08 Darbu Not Travelled Good NA Yes No All

Appendix C: Sentence Repetition Test

Hindi SRT procedures

A sentence repetition test (SRT) is based on the premise that people’s ability to repeat sentences in a second language is limited by their level of mastery of the morphology and syntax of that second language. The greater proficiency they have in that language, the better able they are to repeat sentences of increasing length and complexity. A sentence repetition test is developed separately for each language to be tested. Detailed procedures for developing and calibrating SRTs are presented in Radloff (1991).22 The sentences selected are calibrated against an evaluative instrument called the reported proficiency evaluation (RPE), where mother tongue raters are provided a detailed framework of proficiency descriptions against which to evaluate the proficiency of their second language speaking acquaintances.23 The half-levels of the RPE describe increasing levels of proficiency in a second language, as elaborated below.

Description of reported proficiency evaluation (RPE) levels

Level 0+ (Very minimal proficiency)

Memorized proficiency. Able to satisfy immediate needs using rehearsed utterances. Able to use at least fifty words in appropriate contexts.

Level 1 (Minimal, limited proficiency)

Able to satisfy minimum courtesy requirements and maintain very simple face-to-face conversations on familiar topics. Understands only very simple speech, and needs frequent repetition. A person at this level has a very heavy accent, which makes understanding difficult. Examples: Can understand and correctly respond to questions about marital status, nationality, occupation, age, and place of birth; could buy a bus ticket, and get off at intended destination.

Level 1+ (Elementary proficiency, plus)

Can initiate and maintain predictable face-to-face conversations and satisfy limited social demands. Vocabulary is limited to basic personal and survival areas. Can do anything a Level One can do, and a few of Level Two. Examples: Might be able to give one’s life story and talk about one’s plans and hopes.

Level 2 (Adequate, basic proficiency)

Able to satisfy routine social demands and limited requirements in other domains. Can talk about and understand everyday topics, but has difficulty with some topics. A person at this level has great difficulty

22 Radloff, Carla F. 1991. Sentence repetition testing for studies of community bilingualism. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington. 23 RPE levels as assigned by mother tongue raters show an internal consistency, but have not yet been correlated with any other, more widely recognized, scale of second language proficiency. The rationale and methodology for the reported proficiency evaluation is also included in Radloff (1991).

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dealing with complications or conflicts if they arise. Pronunciation is almost always understandable. Has a heavy accent that forces people to concentrate when listening, and sometimes causes misunderstanding. Examples: Can engage in superficial discussions on current events, about oneself, or about family and work; can also understand native speakers talking about simple topics. Can describe a recent job or activity in some detail, and can describe the local political structure.

Level 2+ (Good, basic proficiency)

Able to satisfy most requirements with language usage that is often, but not always, acceptable and effective. A person at this level can do all the things a Level Two person can do and a few things of Level Three. Examples: Might be able to cope with a social blunder, or discuss alternative views on a controversial topic.

Level 3 (Good, general proficiency)

Able to speak the language with sufficient structural accuracy and vocabulary to participate effectively in most formal and informal conversations in practical, social and occupational topics. Has a marked “foreign” accent, but this does not impede understanding. Normal educated speech is understood quite well. Examples: Can successfully defend position and understand an opposing point of view. Can understand native speakers talking with each other on a variety of topics. If unjustly accused of something, could successfully explain the misunderstanding. Language skills are adequate for coping with emergency situations. At this level, the formation of close friendships is not hindered by language ability.

Level 3+ (Very good, general proficiency)

Is often able to use the language to satisfy needs in a wide range of sophisticated and demanding tasks. Is usually able to understand idiomatic speech that native speakers use when talking with each other. Can do all the things a Level 3 person can do, and some of the things of a person at Level 4. Examples: Can usually convey exact meaning in a technical or professional discussion.

Level 4 (Excellent proficiency)

Able to use the language fluently and accurately on all levels normally pertinent to needs. Grammatical errors are only rarely made, and these are corrected automatically and unconsciously. Vocabulary is adequate for all technical, social and practical situations. Examples: Can naturally alter speech style for talking intimately with a friend or respectfully to a high government official. Can understand humour and language puns, and can effectively use the language to participate in fun and humorous situations.

Level 4+ (Approaching native speaker proficiency)

Speaking proficiency is regularly superior in all respects, usually equivalent to that of a “well educated,” highly articulate native speaker.

How does SRT assess bilingualism?

A sentence repetition test provides a rapid assessment of a person’s second language proficiency, suited to the purposes of a bilingualism survey. It is the goal of such a survey to obtain a profile of the second

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language proficiencies in the community under investigation; that is, a picture of what percentage of the population can be projected to be at each of the different levels of proficiency. In order to determine this, a large and representative sample of the population must be tested. This speaks to the need for an assessment instrument that is quick and easy to administer. A short administration time, however, is offset by careful attention to the development and calibration of a sentence repetition test. The SRT provides a general assessment, thus, the researcher must be able to place full confidence in the results through strict attention to the quality of each developmental step.

Development of SRT

The development and calibration of an SRT proceeds through several steps. First, a preliminary form of the test is developed with the assistance of mother tongue speakers of the test language. The proficiency of a large group of second language speakers of the test language is assessed through a second, more descriptive proficiency standard instrument, in this case, the reported proficiency evaluation. These people are then given the preliminary form of the SRT. Fifteen sentences are then identified which proved to be the most discriminating of performance and which also represent increasing complexity and length. These fifteen sentences are calibrated against the proficiency assessments from the RPE. This fifteen-sentence final form of the test is used in the bilingual survey, and the resulting test scores are interpreted in terms of equivalent RPE proficiency levels. The Hindi SRT used for bilingualism testing in this survey was developed by Bryan Varenkamp (1991). The calibration of a sentence repetition test results in a range of scores reflecting an equivalent RPE level of proficiency. The ranges of scores corresponding to RPE levels for Hindi SRT are shown below:

Hindi SRT score (out of maximum RPE Proficiency description 45 points) level 44–45 4+ Near native speaker 38–43 4 Excellent proficiency 32–37 3+ Very good, general proficiency 26–31 3 Good, general proficiency 20–25 2+ Good, basic proficiency 14–19 2 Adequate, basic proficiency 08–13 1+ Limited, basic proficiency 04–07 1 Minimal, limited proficiency 00–03 0+ Very minimal proficiency

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SRT scoring key

General comments:

Gender, number and tense are clearly marked in Hindi on the verb; thus, any variation of vowels, nasalisation and—often—consonant combination will change the meaning.

Specific comments:

The following charts summarise the scoring system and suggest ways to mark the different types of possible errors. Such markings are used on the training sheets.

3 points Perfect, no errors in the sentence. 2 points One error in the sentence. 1 point Two errors in the sentence. 0 points Three or more errors in the sentence.

o A word omitted from the sentence. w A wrong word or word ending (grammatical error), including a word substituted for another. > or < Any change of word order (counts as one error). ~ ~ A word distorted so as to alter meaning. + A word or phrase added to sentence. R A word or phrase repeated (counts as one error).

For repeated words, if the speaker corrected and went on, the researchers tended not to count this as mistake. If they intentionally repeated, or if they repeated the word elsewhere in the sentence, the researchers counted it as a mistake. When a phrase was misplaced either forward (<) or backward (>), the researchers counted it only as one mistake for the sentence, not one mistake per word. Sometimes if a sentence was full of errors, the researchers just drew a squiggly line under it, not noting each error. Or if a subject simply stopped trying or never said anything for a sentence, the researchers simply drew a straight line under it. Specific comments can be found detailed for each sentence in the elaborated transcription of the final SRT form.

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Sentence repetition testing among Sartang, West Kameng

Biodata for Sartang subjects

Mother Lived or stayed in SubID Sex Age Y-O Education U-E How long? Travel tongue other places DRB01 M 40 Y 12 E Sartang Many places Not asked Widely travelled DRB02 M 18 Y 8 E Sartang Not asked Not asked Not asked DRB03 F 25 Y 8 E Sartang NA NA NA DRB04 M 18 Y 0 U Sartang Shillong, Tawang S 3 months, Shillong T 2 years DRB05 M 18 Y 8 E Sartang NA NA NA DRB06 M 19 Y 5 E Sartang NA NA NA DRB07 M 30 Y 0 U Sartang Itanagar, Tawang I 2 months, NA T 1 month DRB08 M 24 Y 4 E Sartang Tezpur, Tawang 1 month Tezpur Tez DRB09 M 45 O 5 E Sartang NA NA NA DRB10 M 35 Y 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB11 M 40 Y 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB12 F 17 Y 5 E Sartang NA NA NA DRB13 M 60 O 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB14 M 35 Y 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB15 M 30 Y 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB16 M 40 Y 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB17 M 60 O 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB18 M 20 Y 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB19 F 36 Y 3 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB21 M 25 Y 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB22 M 20 Y 0 U Sartang Itanagar 1 month NA DRB23 M 30 Y 5 E Sartang NA NA NA DRB24 M 25 Y 0 U Sartang NA NA NA DRB25 M 18 Y 5 E Sartang NA NA NA

143

Scores for Sartang subjects

SubID S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 TTL Level Score DRB01 3 3 3 3 2 0 2 3 3 3 2 0 0 1 2 31 Good general proficiency 3 DRB02 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 0 0 33 Very good general 3+ proficiency DRB03 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 18 Adequate basic 2 proficiency DRB04 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 0 35 Very good general 3+ proficiency DRB05 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 42 Excellent proficiency 4 DRB06 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 0 1 0 26 Good general proficiency 3 DRB07 1 3 2 3 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Limited basic proficiency 1+ DRB08 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 0 0 34 Very good general 3+ proficiency DRB09 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 0 2 2 0 0 30 Good general proficiency 3 DRB10 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 1 0 1 1 3 0 0 0 24 Good basic proficiency 2+ DRB11 1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 Minimal limited 1 proficiency DRB12 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 Adequate basic 2 proficiency DRB13 2 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 Minimal limited 1 proficiency DRB14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Very minimal 0+ proficiency DRB15 1 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 8 Limited basic proficiency 1+ DRB16 3 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Minimal limited 1 proficiency DRB17 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Very minimal 0+ proficiency DRB18 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 Adequate basic 2 proficiency DRB19 3 2 2 3 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 Adequate basic 2 proficiency DRB21 3 0 3 3 1 0 2 1 0 0 2 2 1 0 0 18 Adequate basic 2 proficiency DRB22 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 26 Good general proficiency 3 DRB23 1 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 Minimal limited 1 proficiency DRB24 0 3 2 3 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 Limited basic proficiency 1+ DRB25 0 3 1 1 3 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 Limited basic proficiency 1+

144

Sentence repetition testing in Kalaktang, West Kameng

Biodata for Kalaktang Monpa subjects

Lived or Mother SubID Sex Age Y-O Education U-E stayed in How long? Travel tongue other places KLT01 M 34 Y 12 E Kalaktang NA NA Widely KLT02 M 42 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA Delhi KLT03 M 16 Y 10 E Kalaktang NA NA Tezpur KLT04 F 21 Y 7 E Kalaktang NA NA Darjeling KLT05 M 25 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT06 M 37 Y 5 E Kalaktang NA NA Guwahati KLT07 F 24 Y 5 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT08 M 24 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT09 M 36 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT10 M 41 O 6 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT11 F 43 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT12 M 25 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT13 M 52 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT14 F 60 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT15 F 23 Y 12 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT16 M 20 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT17 M 37 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT18 M 25 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT19 F 44 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT20 M 25 Y 5 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT21 F 28 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT22 M 75 O 0 U Kalaktang 3 yrs in Delhi NA Widely KLT23 M 50 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT24 F 24 Y 6 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT25 M 30 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT26 F 25 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT27 M 26 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT28 M 60 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT29 F 19 Y 5 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT30 F 18 Y 0 U Kalaktang 2 yrs Shillong NA NA KLT31 M 26 Y 5 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT32 M 70 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT33 M 18 Y 8 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT34 M 19 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA

145

Lived or Mother SubID Sex Age Y-O Education U-E stayed in How long? Travel tongue other places KLT35 F 18 Y 10 E Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT36 M 77 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA Widely KLT37 F 25 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT38 F 30 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT39 M 31 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT40 F 45 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT41 M 40 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT42 M 34 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA Assam KLT43 M 50 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT44 F 61 O 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT45 F 18 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT46 F 19 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA KLT47 F 18 Y 0 U Kalaktang NA NA NA

146

Scores for Kalaktang Monpa subjects

SubID S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 KLT01 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 KLT02 2 3 2 3 3 0 2 1 0 2 1 1 KLT03 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 KLT04 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 2 KLT05 3 2 3 2 3 0 2 2 0 1 0 0 KLT06 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 3 3 3 2 0 KLT07 3 2 3 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 KLT08 2 3 3 2 1 1 3 1 0 0 0 0 KLT09 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 0 2 2 3 KLT10 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 1 KLT11 3 2 2 0 1 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 KLT12 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 0 1 KLT13 1 0 3 0 2 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 KLT14 1 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 KLT15 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 KLT16 3 3 3 3 3 1 2 0 2 3 1 2 KLT17 3 2 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 KLT18 2 2 3 1 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 KLT19 3 3 3 1 2 3 1 2 2 2 3 0 KLT20 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 3 2 2 3 KLT21 3 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 KLT22 2 0 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 0 3 3 KLT23 3 2 3 2 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT24 2 3 3 2 2 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 KLT25 3 3 3 3 3 0 3 3 0 3 1 2 KLT26 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 0 0 2 KLT27 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 1 0 2 1 KLT28 2 2 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT29 2 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 3 3 2 1 KLT30 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 3 0 0 0 0 KLT31 3 3 3 2 3 1 3 3 1 3 2 2 KLT32 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT33 3 3 3 3 2 1 1 2 0 2 2 2 KLT34 2 2 3 2 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 KLT35 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 KLT36 3 2 0 3 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 KLT37 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

147

SubID S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 KLT38 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT39 2 0 1 3 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 KLT40 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT41 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT42 3 3 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT43 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT44 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 KLT45 3 1 3 0 3 2 3 2 0 0 0 0 KLT46 3 3 2 2 3 1 2 3 0 1 0 0 KLT47 3 3 3 3 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0

148

Scores for Kalaktang Monpa subjects, continuation

SubID S13 S14 S15 TTL Level Score KLT01 3 3 3 43 Excellent proficiency 4 KLT02 1 0 0 21 Good basic proficiency 2+ KLT03 2 3 1 40 Excellent proficiency 4 KLT04 3 1 2 40 Excellent proficiency 4 KLT05 0 0 0 18 Adequate basic proficiency 2 KLT06 1 0 0 30 Good general proficiency 3 KLT07 0 0 0 15 Adequate basic proficiency 2 KLT08 0 0 0 16 Adequate basic proficiency 2 KLT09 0 0 0 30 Good general proficiency 3 KLT10 0 0 0 32 Very good general proficiency 3+ KLT11 0 0 0 11 Limited basic proficiency 1+ KLT12 2 1 0 29 Good general proficiency 3 KLT13 0 0 0 9 Limited basic proficiency 1+ KLT14 0 0 0 6 Minimal limited proficiency 1 KLT15 1 1 0 32 Very good general proficiency 3+ KLT16 1 2 0 29 Good general proficiency 3 KLT17 0 0 0 9 Limited basic proficiency 1+ KLT18 0 0 0 13 Limited basic proficiency 1+ KLT19 0 0 0 25 Good basic proficiency 2+ KLT20 0 1 2 33 Very good general proficiency 3+ KLT21 0 0 0 8 Limited basic proficiency 1+ KLT22 1 2 0 24 Good basic proficiency 2+ KLT23 0 0 0 14 Adequate basic proficiency 2 KLT24 0 0 0 17 Adequate basic proficiency 2 KLT25 2 0 0 29 Good general proficiency 3 KLT26 0 0 0 24 Good basic proficiency 2+ KLT27 1 1 0 28 Good general proficiency 3 KLT28 0 0 0 7 Minimal limited proficiency 1 KLT29 2 0 0 32 Very good general proficiency 3+ KLT30 0 0 0 20 Good basic proficiency 2+ KLT31 1 2 0 32 Very good general proficiency 3+ KLT32 0 0 0 1 Very minimal proficiency 0+ KLT33 2 2 0 28 Good general proficiency 3 KLT34 0 0 0 13 Limited basic proficiency 1+ KLT35 1 1 0 33 Very good general proficiency 3+ KLT36 0 0 0 14 Adequate basic proficiency 2 KLT37 0 0 0 3 Very minimal proficiency 0+

149

SubID S13 S14 S15 TTL Level Score KLT38 0 0 0 3 Very minimal proficiency 0+ KLT39 0 0 0 11 Limited basic proficiency 1+ KLT40 0 0 0 0 Very minimal proficiency 0+ KLT41 0 0 0 0 Very minimal proficiency 0+ KLT42 0 0 0 10 Limited basic proficiency 1+ KLT43 0 0 0 0 Very minimal proficiency 0+ KLT44 0 0 0 0 Very minimal proficiency 0+ KLT45 0 0 0 17 Adequate basic proficiency 2 KLT46 0 0 0 20 Good basic proficiency 2+ KLT47 0 0 0 15 Adequate basic proficiency 2

150

Sentence repetition testing in Lhou, Tawang

Biodata for Tawang Monpa subjects

Lived or stayed How SubID Sex Age Y-O Education U-E Mother tongue Travel in other places long? LHOU01 M 60 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU02 M 25 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU03 M 19 Y 12 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU04 M 35 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU05 F 30 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU06 F 28 Y 7 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU07 M 43 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU08 M 62 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU09 F 35 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU10 F 39 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU11 F 19 Y 12 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU12 M 22 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU13 M 22 Y 0 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU14 M 25 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU15 F 40 Y 0 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU16 M 40 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU17 M 37 Y 12 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU18 F 21 Y 10 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU19 F 20 Y 10 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU20 M 25 Y 10 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU21 M 20 Y 7 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU22 M 40 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU23 F 25 Y 0 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU24 M 58 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU25 M 18 Y 10 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU26 M 47 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU27 F 19 Y 9 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU28 M 30 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU29 F 18 Y 12 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU30 M 56 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU31 F 26 Y 9 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU32 F 16 Y 10 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU33 M 21 Y 8 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU34 F 50 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU35 F 50 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA

151

Lived or stayed How SubID Sex Age Y-O Education U-E Mother tongue Travel in other places long? LHOU36 M 67 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU37 M 23 Y 12 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU38 F 60 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU39 M 28 Y 5 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU40 M 38 Y 12 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU41 M 27 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU42 M 32 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU43 M 18 Y 10 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU44 M 20 Y 12 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU45 M 55 O 4 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU46 M 53 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU47 F 22 Y 11 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU48 M 20 Y 8 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU49 M 32 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU50 F 27 Y 12 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU51 M 37 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU52 M 50 O 6 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU53 F 29 Y 10 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU54 M 48 O 8 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU55 M 40 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU56 F 27 Y 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU57 M 65 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU58 M 21 Y 8 E Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU59 F 60 O 0 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA LHOU60 M 36 Y 4 U Tawang Monpa NA NA NA

152

Scores for Tawang Monpa subjects

SubID S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 LHOU01 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 1 LHOU02 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 LHOU03 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 LHOU04 3 2 2 2 3 0 2 0 0 1 2 0 LHOU05 3 3 3 3 3 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 LHOU06 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 3 2 2 LHOU07 3 3 3 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 LHOU08 3 3 3 2 3 0 1 1 0 2 0 0 LHOU09 1 2 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 LHOU10 3 3 3 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 LHOU11 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 1 2 2 0 2 LHOU12 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 0 0 LHOU13 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 LHOU14 2 2 2 0 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 LHOU15 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 1 0 1 0 0 LHOU16 3 2 2 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 LHOU17 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 LHOU18 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 0 1 LHOU19 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 LHOU20 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 1 2 LHOU21 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 1 3 LHOU22 3 3 2 2 3 1 2 2 0 1 0 3 LHOU23 3 3 1 2 3 0 2 1 2 1 2 1 LHOU24 3 2 3 1 2 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 LHOU25 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 LHOU26 1 0 0 0 3 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 LHOU27 3 3 2 3 3 1 3 0 0 2 0 0 LHOU28 3 2 3 2 2 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 LHOU29 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 LHOU30 3 2 0 0 3 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 LHOU31 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 3 1 0 LHOU32 2 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 LHOU33 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 3 2 2 LHOU34 3 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 LHOU35 3 2 3 3 3 2 2 3 1 3 2 1 LHOU36 3 3 0 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 0 LHOU37 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 LHOU38 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0

153

SubID S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 LHOU39 3 3 2 3 3 1 1 3 0 0 0 0 LHOU40 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 1 2 2 LHOU41 3 3 0 3 3 1 1 3 0 1 0 1 LHOU42 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 LHOU43 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 LHOU44 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 LHOU45 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 1 2 2 3 LHOU46 2 3 2 0 2 2 3 3 3 0 2 2 LHOU47 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 1 3 1 3 LHOU48 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 2 3 1 1 LHOU49 3 1 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 2 0 LHOU50 3 3 3 3 2 1 3 3 2 3 3 2 LHOU51 3 3 2 3 2 1 2 2 0 2 1 2 LHOU52 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 3 0 1 0 0 LHOU53 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 LHOU54 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 LHOU55 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 LHOU56 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 LHOU57 3 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 LHOU58 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 2 1 0 0 LHOU59 1 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 LHOU60 3 3 3 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 0

154

Scores for Tawang Monpa subjects, continuation

SubID S13 S14 S15 TTL Level Score LHOU01 3 0 2 27 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU02 3 0 0 35 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU03 3 3 2 42 Excellent proficiency 4 LHOU04 0 0 0 17 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU05 2 0 0 23 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU06 3 2 2 36 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU07 0 0 0 15 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU08 0 0 0 18 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU09 0 0 0 6 Minimal limited proficiency 1 LHOU10 0 0 0 17 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU11 3 0 2 31 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU12 0 0 0 20 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU13 0 0 0 16 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU14 0 0 0 11 Limited basic proficiency 1+ LHOU15 0 0 0 6 Minimal limited proficiency 1 LHOU16 0 0 0 11 Limited basic proficiency 1+ LHOU17 3 3 3 44 Near native speaker 4+ LHOU18 2 2 0 31 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU19 2 2 2 40 Excellent proficiency 4 LHOU20 2 0 0 31 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU21 3 2 0 37 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU22 1 0 0 23 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU23 0 0 0 21 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU24 0 0 0 14 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU25 2 3 3 43 Excellent proficiency 4 LHOU26 0 0 0 6 Minimal limited proficiency 1 LHOU27 0 0 0 20 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU28 0 0 0 14 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU29 3 3 2 44 Near native speaker 4+ LHOU30 0 0 0 11 Limited basic proficiency 1+ LHOU31 3 0 0 29 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU32 3 2 0 37 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU33 3 1 2 36 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU34 1 0 0 22 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU35 0 0 0 28 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU36 0 0 0 19 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU37 2 3 2 39 Excellent proficiency 4

155

SubID S13 S14 S15 TTL Level Score LHOU38 0 0 0 4 Minimal limited proficiency 1 LHOU39 0 0 0 19 Adequate basic proficiency 2 LHOU40 3 3 2 37 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU41 2 0 0 21 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU42 3 1 0 39 Excellent proficiency 4 LHOU43 3 3 3 42 Excellent proficiency 4 LHOU44 3 3 1 42 Excellent proficiency 4 LHOU45 2 1 1 34 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU46 1 2 1 28 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU47 3 2 0 34 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU48 1 2 0 32 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU49 0 0 0 24 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU50 2 1 0 34 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU51 0 0 0 23 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU52 2 0 0 21 Good basic proficiency 2+ LHOU53 2 2 1 40 Excellent proficiency 4 LHOU54 1 0 0 27 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU55 0 0 0 3 Very minimal proficiency 0+ LHOU56 3 2 0 36 Very good general proficiency 3+ LHOU57 1 0 0 7 Minimal limited proficiency 1 LHOU58 1 1 0 26 Good general proficiency 3 LHOU59 0 0 0 5 Minimal limited proficiency 1 LHOU60 0 0 0 25 Good basic proficiency 2+

Appendix D: Language Use, Attitude, Vitality and Bilingualism Questionnaires

Interview information

1. Date 2. Name24 3. Sex 4. Age 5. Education 6a. Birthplace 6b. Brought up 6c. Current residence/how long 6d. f moved, how long 7a. Mother tongue 7b. Language now spoken in home 8. Father’s mother tongue 9. Mother’s mother tongue 10. Spouse’s mother tongue 11. Lived or stayed in another place/how long 12. Travelled to another place

Abbreviations

NA Not Applicable KLT Kalaktang E Educated TWG Tawang U Uneducated BICH Bichom Edu Education WGH Wangho MT Mother tongue KSP Kaspi Lg Language SGH Singchung Lgs Languages DIB Dibin DRB Darbu RUG Rurang DRG Dirang NBG Nabolang RUP Rupa BSI Bisai

Language use, attitudes, vitality and bilingualism questionnaire among Monpas and Sherdukpens

Language use:

8. (General question) What language do you use… a. at home with family members? b. in the village? c. with neighbouring villagers… i. if they are MT speakers of your language? ii. if they speak a language different from yours? d. in the market? e. in Puja/worship?

24 Names of subjects have not been included in this report.

156 157

9. When Monpas from Tawang area (Brahmi Monpas) visit you at your home, what language do you use? 10. (Only to Sartang and Sherdukpens) a. (To Sartang and Dirang Monpa) When Sherdukpens or people from Shergaon, Rupa, Jigaon and Thungrao villages of Rupa circle visit you at your home, what language do you use? b. (To Sherdukpens and Dirang Monpa) When Sartang or people from Jerigaon, Sellary, Khoitum, Rahung and Khoina villages of Nafra circle visit you at your home, what language do you use?

Language attitude and vitality:

11. (General question) a. How would you feel if the younger generation stopped speaking your language? b. Why? 12. (General question) Is it good for your children to learn how to read and write in your language? 13. (General question) What language do you want your children to learn first? (If no children, if ever you had children.) 14. (General question) Would you like to read and write in your mother tongue? 15. (General question) Which language do you need to speak in order to get a job?25 16. (General question) Is it good for a person to speak only MT? 17. (General question) Would you be happy if your child spoke only Hindi? 18. (General question) Would you allow your son/daughter to marry a person who did not speak your language? 19. (General question) After fifty years, do you think your MT will be spoken?

Dialects:

20. (General question) a. In which village do you think the purest/sweetest variety is spoken? b. Why do you say this is the purest variety? 21. (This question was not asked to Dirang Monpas) Is there a village where your mother tongue is spoken differently from yours? If yes, where?

Bilingualism:

22. (General question) Where did you learn Hindi? 23. (General question) When do children start speaking Hindi? 24. (General question) On what occasions do you use mainly Hindi? 25. (General question) Is there anyone in your village who doesn’t speak your language at all? 26. (General question) How well do you understand the Hindi programmes broadcasted on radio and TV? 27. (Only to Tawang Monpas, Sherdukpen and Sartang) a. Have you ever talked with Monpas from Dirang and Kalaktang (Tsangla Monpas)? b. If yes, how much did you understand? Everything/half of it/none at all

25 The objective of this question is to prepare a platform for the subject to answer the next question.

158

28. (Only to Kalaktang Monpas) a. Have you ever talked with Monpas from Dirang? b. If yes, how much did you understand? Everything/half of it/none at all 29. (Only to Kalaktang Monpas) a. Have you ever talked with Monpas from Tawang (Brahmi Monpas)? b. If yes, how much did you understand? Everything/half of it/none at all 30. (Only to Dirang Monpas) a. Have you ever talked with Monpas from Kalaktang? b. If yes, how much did you understand? Everything/half of it/none at all. 31. (Only to Dirang Monpas) a. Have you ever talked with Monpas from Tawang (Brahmi Monpas)? b. If yes, how much did you understand? Everything/half of it/none at all

Language use, attitudes, vitality and bilingualism questionnaire among Bugun.

Language use:

1. What language do you use… a. at home with family members? b. with your children? (If no children, then ask: with children in the village.) c. in the village? d. with neighbouring villagers… i. if they are MT speakers of your language? ii. if they speak a language different from yours? e. in the market? f. In Puja/worship?

Bilingualism:

2. What other languages do you… a. speak? b. know best? c. On what occasions do you use this language? 3. Is there any one in your village who doesn’t speak your language at all? 4. How well do you understand the Hindi/Assamese programmes broadcasted on radio and TV?

Language attitude and vitality:

5. a. How would you feel if the younger generation stopped speaking your language? b. (Only asked if answer to 5a is “happy/good”) Why? 6. Is it good for your children to learn how to read and write in your language? 7. What language do you want your children to learn first? (If no children, if ever you had children). 8. Would you like to read and write in your mother tongue? 9. Which language do you need to speak in order to get a job26?

26 The objective of this question is to prepare a platform for the subject to answer the next question.

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10. Is it good for a person to speak only MT? 11. a. Would you be happy if your child spoke only another language? b. (Only asked if answer to 11a is “yes”) Why? 12. After fifty years, do you think MT (Bugun) will be spoken?

Dialects and other languages:

13. a. Is there a village where Bugun is spoken differently from yours? b. If yes, where? c. How different is it? (Very different/some difference/no difference) 14. a. In which village do you think the purest/sweetest variety (Bugun) is spoken? b. (Only asked if answer to 14a is a specific village other than their own) Why do you say this is the purest variety? 15. a. When you meet Sherdukpen people, what language do you use? b. How much do you understand of their language? (Everything/half of it/none at all) 16. a. When you meet Aka people, what language do you use? b. How much do you understand of their language? (Everything/half of it/none at all) 17. a. When you meet Monpa people what language do you use? b. How much do you understand of their language? (Everything/half of it/none at all)

Language use, attitudes, vitality and bilingualism questionnaire among Miji

Language use:

1. What language do you use… a. at home with family members? b. with your children? (If no children, then ask: with children in the village.) c. in the village? d. with neighbouring villagers… i. if they are MT speakers of your language? ii. if they speak a language different from yours? e. in the market? f. in Puja/worship?

Bilingualism:

2. a. What other languages do you speak? b. Which one do you know best? c. On what occasions do you use this language? 3. How well do you understand the Hindi programmes broadcasted on radio and TV?

Language attitude and vitality:

4. a. How would you feel if the younger generation stopped speaking your language? b. (Only asked if answer to 4a is “happy/good”) Why? 5. Is it good for your children to learn how to read and write in your language?

160

6. What language do you want your children to learn first? (If no children, if ever you had children) 7. Would you like to read and write in your mother tongue? 8. Which language do you need to speak in order to get a job27? 9. Is it good for a person to speak only MT? 10. a. Would you be happy if your child spoke only another language? b. (Only asked if answer to 10a is “yes”) Why? 11. After fifty years, do you think Miji will be spoken?

Dialects and other languages:

12. a. Is there a village where Miji is spoken differently from yours? b. If yes, where? c. How different is it? (Very different/some difference) 13. a. In which village do you think the purest/sweetest variety (Miji) is spoken? b. (Only asked if answer to 14a is a specific village other than their own) Why do you say this is the purest variety? 14. Which of the Monpa varieties (Kalaktang or Dirang) do you understand the best? 15. a. When you meet Aka people, what language do you use? b. How much do you understand of their language? (Everything/half of it/none at all)

27 The objective of this question is to prepare a platform for the subject to answer the next question.

161

Language use, attitudes, vitality and bilingualism questionnaire responses

Questionnaires among Monpas

Subjects’ biodata: Darbu (part one)

Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT DRB 01 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 35 M F Sartang DRB 02 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 18 Y M Sartang DRB 03 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 25 Y M Sartang DRB 04 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 60 O M Sartang DRB 05 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 50 M F Sartang DRB 06 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 35 M M Sartang DRB 07 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 40 M M Sartang DRB 08 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 60 O F Sartang DRB 09 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 21 Y M Sartang DRB 10 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 41 M F Sartang DRB 11 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 30 Y F Sartang DRB 12 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 21 Y F Sartang DRB 13 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 32 M F Sartang DRB 14 West Kameng Sartang 05/03/04 Darbu 65 O F Sartang

Subjects’ biodata: Darbu (part two)

Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E DRB 01 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 02 Sartang Sartang NA Darbu Darbu NA 5 E DRB 03 Sartang Sartang NA Darbu Darbu NA 5 E DRB 04 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 05 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 06 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 07 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 08 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 09 Sartang Sartang NA Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 10 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 11 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 5 E DRB 12 Sartang Sartang NA Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 13 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U DRB 14 Sartang Sartang Sartang Darbu Darbu NA 0 U

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Questionnaire responses from Darbu subjects

Sub ID Q 1 a Q 1 b Q 1 c i Q 1 c ii Q 1 d Q 1 e Q 2 Q 3 a Q 3 b DRB 01 MT MT MT MT Hindi MT Tawang Monpa MT NA Hindi and other DRB 02 MT MT MT Hindi MT Tawang Monpa MT NA languages DRB 03 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Tawang Monpa MT NA DRB 04 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT MT Hindi and MT MT NA DRB 05 MT MT MT MT MT MT Dirang Monpa MT NA DRB 06 MT MT MT Hindi MT and others MT Tawang Monpa MT NA DRB 07 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Tawang Monpa MT NA DRB 08 MT MT MT MT MT MT Dirang Monpa MT NA DRB 09 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Tawang Monpa MT NA DRB 10 MT MT MT MT MT MT Dirang Monpa MT NA DRB 11 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi Hindi NA DRB 12 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi MT NA Hindi DRB 13 MT MT MT Hindi and MT MT Hindi MT NA and MT DRB 14 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Tawang Monpa MT NA

Questionnaire responses from Darbu subjects (part two)

Sub ID Q 4 a Q 4 b Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 It depends on the DRB 01 NA Yes MT No children It depends on the DRB 02 NA Yes Hindi and MT Yes children DRB 03 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes Hindi and English Yes DRB 04 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes DRB 05 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes DRB 06 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes DRB 07 Good Because Hindi is good Yes MT Yes DRB 08 Feel bad Don’t know Yes Hindi Yes DRB 09 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes Hindi and English Yes Knowing other language is DRB 10 Good Yes Hindi Yes good DRB 11 Good Because Hindi is good Yes Hindi Yes DRB 12 Feel bad NA Yes Hindi Yes DRB 13 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes DRB 14 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes

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Questionnaire responses from Darbu subjects (part three)

Sub ID Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 Q 11 Q 12 Q 13 a DRB 01 Hindi Yes Yes Yes Yes All It depends on the DRB 02 Hindi Yes No Yes Here children I don’t It depends on the DRB 03 Hindi Yes Yes All know children They will speak DRB 04 Hindi Yes No Yes All both DRB 05 Hindi Yes Yes No Yes All DRB 06 Hindi Yes No No Yes All DRB 07 Hindi Yes Yes No Yes Here DRB 08 Hindi Yes Yes Yes Yes All DRB 09 Hindi and English No Yes Yes Yes All It depends on the DRB 10 Hindi No Yes Yes All children It depends on the DRB 11 Hindi Yes Yes Yes All children DRB 12 Hindi No No Yes No All DRB 13 Hindi and English No No No Yes All DRB 14 Hindi No No No Yes Here

Questionnaire responses from Darbu subjects (part four)

Sub ID Q 13 b Q 14 Q 15 DRB 01 NA Yes. Sherigoan, Rupa By talking with others DRB 02 I don’t know I don’t know Here DRB 03 NA Khoitam School DRB 04 NA No By talking with others DRB 05 NA No NA DRB 06 NA No By talking with others We speak correctly and they DRB 07 No By talking with others change little tune DRB 08 NA All same NA DRB 09 NA Yes. Jerigaon, Sellary, Khoina Here DRB 10 NA No NA DRB 11 NA Yes. Khoitam, Rupa Here DRB 12 Not asked No NA DRB 13 NA Yes. Jerigaon, Khoina By talking with others Nobody speaks the way we DRB 14 Not asked NA speak

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Questionnaire responses from Darbu subjects (part five)

Sub ID Q 16 Q 17 Q 18 Q 19 Q 20 a Q 20 b I don’t When there is DRB 01 No Don’t understand No NA know need to talk In different When people come DRB 02 No All Yes Everything time from outside When there is DRB 03 School No All Yes Everything need to talk When there is DRB 04 School No Little/20%/30% Yes Little need to talk DRB 05 School NA No NA No NA When people come DRB 06 School No All Yes Everything from outside When there is DRB 07 5,6 yrs No All Yes Everything need to talk DRB 08 Not asked NA Not asked Don’t understand Not asked Not asked DRB 09 School Office No Little/20%/30% Yes Everything DRB 10 School NA No NA Yes Everything DRB 11 School Office No All Yes Half of it DRB 12 School NA No Little/20%/30% No None at all DRB 13 2,3 yrs Office, market No All Yes Everything DRB 14 3,4 yrs NA No Don’t understand Yes Everything

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Subjects’ biodata: Dirang (part one)

Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT DRG01 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 25 M F Dirang Monpa DRG02 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 27 Y F Dirang Monpa DRG03 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 60 O M Dirang Monpa DRG04 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 26 Y M Dirang Monpa DRG05 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 27 Y M Dirang Monpa DRG06 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 20 Y M Dirang Monpa DRG07 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 50 M M Dirang Monpa DRG08 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 67 O M Dirang Monpa DRG09 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 17 Y F Dirang Monpa DRG10 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 52 O F Dirang Monpa DRG11 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 37 M M Dirang Monpa DRG12 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 37 M M Dirang Monpa DRG13 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 35 Y M Dirang Monpa DRG14 West Kameng Dirang Monpa 20/03/04 Dirang 40 M M Dirang Monpa

Subjects’ biodata: Dirang (part two)

Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E DRG01 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa NA Dirang Dirang NA 6 E DRG02 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 0 U DRG03 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 5 E DRG04 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 0 U DRG05 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 6 E DRG06 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 10 E DRG07 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 0 U DRG08 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA U DRG09 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 9 E DRG10 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 0 U DRG11 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 9 E DRG12 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 12 E DRG13 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 10 E DRG14 Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Monpa Dirang Dirang NA 0 U

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Questionnaire responses from Dirang

Sub ID Q 1 a Q 1 b Q 1 c i Q 1 c ii Q 1 d Q 1 e Q 2 DRG01 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi DRG02 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT MT Tawang Monpa Hindi and other DRG03 MT MT MT Hindi MT Hindi languages DRG04 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi DRG05 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi Bothi/Tibetan Hindi DRG06 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi Bothi/Tibetan Hindi DRG07 MT MT MT MT MT MT Hindi DRG08 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT MT Hindi and MT DRG09 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi DRG10 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi DRG11 MT MT MT MT Hindi and MT MT and others Hindi and MT DRG12 MT MT MT Hindi and MT Hindi Bothi/Tibetan Hindi DRG13 MT MT MT Hindi and MT Hindi and MT Bothi/Tibetan Hindi DRG14 MT MT MT Hindi MT MT Tawang Monpa

Questionnaire responses from Dirang (part two)

Sub ID Q 3 a Q 3 b Q 4 a Q 4 b Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 DRG01 Hindi Hindi Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Mixed DRG02 Hindi MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi DRG03 Hindi MT Don’t know Don’t know Yes MT Yes Hindi DRG04 Hindi MT Feel bad NA Yes MT Yes Hindi DRG05 Hindi Hindi Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi DRG06 Hindi MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English DRG07 Hindi MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes It depends on the people DRG08 Hindi Hindi Feel bad It’s our MT Yes Hindi Yes Hindi DRG09 Hindi Hindi Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi, MT DRG10 Hindi Hindi and MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi DRG11 Hindi and MT Hindi and MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English DRG12 Hindi Hindi Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English DRG13 Hindi Hindi and MT Feel bad It’s our MT No MT Yes Hindi and English DRG14 Hindi Hindi Don’t know It’s our MT Yes MT No Hindi

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Questionnaire responses from Dirang (part three)

Sub ID Q 9 Q 10 Q 11 Q 12 Q 13 a Q 13 b DRG01 No No It depends on the children Yes Here Because this is original language DRG02 No No No Yes Here Because this is original language DRG03 No No No Yes Here I don’t know DRG04 No No It depends on the children No Here Because this is original language DRG05 No No No Yes Here Because this is original language DRG06 No No No Yes Here Because this is original language DRG07 Yes No No Yes Here Because this is original language DRG08 Yes No It depends on the children Yes All mixed NA DRG09 No No No Yes I don’t know NA DRG10 No No No Yes I don’t know NA DRG11 No No No Yes Here Because this is original language DRG12 No Yes It depends on the children Yes I don’t know NA DRG13 No No It depends on the children Yes Here Because this is original language DRG14 No Yes No No Here Because this is original language

Questionnaire responses from Dirang (part four)

Sub ID Q 15 Q 16 Q 17 Q 18 Q 19 DRG01 Childhood Childhood When there is need to talk No 50% DRG02 Here Childhood When there is need to talk No Don’t understand DRG03 Childhood Childhood NA I don’t know Little/20%/30% DRG04 Childhood Childhood Office Maybe 50% DRG05 School Childhood Community gathering No Little/20%/30% DRG06 School Childhood Office No 50% DRG07 Here School Community gathering Yes Don’t understand DRG08 Here Childhood Community gathering No Don’t understand DRG09 School Childhood Community gathering No Don’t understand DRG10 Here Childhood Community gathering No 50% DRG11 Childhood Childhood Community gathering Maybe 70%/80%/90% DRG12 School Childhood Community gathering Maybe All DRG13 School Childhood When there is need to talk No 70%/80%/90% DRG14 Here Childhood Market, office No Don’t understand

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Questionnaire responses from Dirang (part five)

Sub ID Q 23 a Q 23 b Q 24 a Q 24 b DRG01 Yes 80% understand Yes None at all DRG02 No NA No NA DRG03 Yes 80% understand Yes None at all DRG04 Hindi NA Yes Little DRG05 No NA Yes None at all DRG06 Yes 80% understand Yes Little DRG07 No NA No NA DRG08 Yes All Yes None at all DRG09 No NA No NA DRG10 Yes All Yes None at all DRG11 Yes All Yes Little DRG12 Yes All Yes Little DRG13 Yes 80% understand Yes None at all DRG14 No NA Yes Little

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Subjects’ biodata: Kalaktang (part one)

Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT KLT 01 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 18 Y F Kalaktang Monpa KLT 02 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 30 M M Kalaktang Monpa KLT 03 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 51 O F Kalaktang Monpa KLT 04 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 60 O M Kalaktang Monpa KLT 05 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 23 Y M Kalaktang Monpa KLT 06 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 59 O F Kalaktang Monpa KLT 07 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 30 Y M Kalaktang Monpa KLT 08 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 45 M F Kalaktang Monpa KLT 09 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 30 Y F Kalaktang Monpa KLT 10 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 40 M M Kalaktang Monpa KLT 11 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 36 M M Kalaktang Monpa KLT 12 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 37 M M Kalaktang Monpa KLT 13 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 36 M F Kalaktang Monpa KLT 14 West Kameng Kalaktang Monpa 27/03/04 Kalaktang 36 M F Kalaktang Monpa

Subjects’ biodata: Kalaktang (part two)

Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E KLT 01 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa NA Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 10 E KLT 02 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 9 E KLT 03 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U KLT 04 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U KLT 05 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa NA Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 12 E KLT 06 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U KLT 07 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U KLT 08 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U KLT 09 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U KLT 10 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Tawang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 0 U KLT 11 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 5 E KLT 12 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 12 E KLT 13 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 5 E KLT 14 Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Monpa Kalaktang Kalaktang NA 9 E

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Questionnaire responses from Kalaktang

Sub ID Q 1 a Q 1 b Q 1 c i Q 1 c ii Q 1 d Q 1 e Q 2 KLT 01 MT MT MT Hindi and MT Hindi and MT MT Hindi KLT 02 MT MT MT MT Hindi MT Tawang Monpa KLT 03 MT MT MT MT Hindi and other lgs MT Tawang Monpa KLT 04 MT MT MT MT Hindi and other lgs MT Tawang Monpa Hindi and other KLT 05 MT MT MT Hindi Bothi/Tibetan Hindi and MT languages KLT 06 MT MT MT MT MT MT MT KLT 07 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT MT Hindi KLT 08 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT MT MT KLT 09 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi KLT 10 MT MT MT MT Hindi MT Tawang Monpa KLT 11 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT MT Hindi KLT 12 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi Bothi/Tibetan Hindi KLT 13 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi KLT 14 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Tawang Monpa

Questionnaire responses from Kalaktang (part two)

Sub ID Q 3 a Q 3 b Q 4 a Q 4 b Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 KLT 01 NA NA Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English KLT 02 NA NA Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English KLT 03 NA NA Feel bad NA Yes MT Yes Hindi KLT 04 NA NA Feel bad NA Yes MT Yes Hindi KLT 05 NA NA Feel bad NA Yes MT Yes Hindi and English I will not KLT 06 NA NA Feel bad Yes MT Yes Hindi understand Knowing other Hindi and KLT 07 NA NA Good Yes Yes Hindi and English language is good English KLT 08 NA NA Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi Knowing other KLT 09 NA NA Good Yes MT No Hindi language is good KLT 10 NA NA Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English KLT 11 NA NA Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi KLT 12 NA NA Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes English KLT 13 NA NA Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT No Hindi and English KLT 14 NA NA Feel bad It’s our MT Yes English Yes Hindi

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Questionnaire responses from Kalaktang (part three)

Sub ID Q 9 Q 10 Q 11 Q 12 Q 13 a Q 13 b KLT 01 No No Yes Yes Here Originated from here KLT 02 No No It depends on the children Yes Here Other speak different KLT 03 Yes Yes Yes Yes Here Originated from here KLT 04 No No No Yes Here It is good All will say their KLT 05 No No Yes Yes NA variety KLT 06 Yes No It depends on the children Yes Here Not asked KLT 07 Yes Yes It depends on the children Yes Dirang They speak slow KLT 08 Yes No I don’t know Yes All NA KLT 09 Yes Yes Yes Yes All NA KLT 10 Yes Yes Yes Yes All NA KLT 11 Yes No It depends on the children Yes Here It is our MT KLT 12 No No Yes Yes Here We speak pure KLT 13 No Yes No Yes Here I don’t know KLT 14 No No No Yes Here It is our MT

Questionnaire responses from Kalaktang (part four)

Sub ID Q 14 Q 15 Q 16 KLT 01 Yes, Cinge School 5 yrs KLT 02 Yes, all other villages are different School Childhood KLT 03 Yes, all other villages are different By talking with others Childhood KLT 04 Yes, all other villages are different By talking with others 5,6 yrs KLT 05 Yes, all other villages are different School Depends on parents KLT 06 Yes, all other villages are different NA 6,7 yrs KLT 07 Yes, Rongna and other villages Here 6,7 yrs KLT 08 Yes, all other villages are different From market 6,yrs KLT 09 Yes, all other villages are different Here 4,5 yrs KLT 10 Yes, all other villages are different Here 6,7 yrs KLT 11 Yes, all other villages are different School 6,7 yrs KLT 12 Yes, all other villages are different School 7 yrs KLT 13 Yes, all other villages are different By talking with others 3,4 yrs KLT 14 Yes, all other villages are different Here 3,4 yrs

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Questionnaire responses from Kalaktang (part five)

Sub ID Q 17 Q 18 Q 19 Q 21 a Q 21 b Q 22 a Q 22 b KLT 01 When there is need to talk No All Yes None at all Yes None at all KLT 02 Market No All Yes Half of it Yes None at all KLT 03 Market No Don’t understand Yes All No NA KLT 04 Market, Office No Don’t understand Yes All Yes All KLT 05 Office No 70%/80%/90% Yes All Yes Half of it KLT 06 NA No NA Yes None at all No NA KLT 07 Office No 50% Yes All Yes Half of it KLT 08 Market No Don’t understand Yes Half of it Yes Half of it KLT 09 Market Yes Don’t understand No NA No NA KLT 10 Office No I don’t see TV Yes It is similar No NA KLT 11 Market, Office No All Yes Half of it Yes Half of it KLT 12 Market, Office, School No All Yes All Yes Half of it KLT 13 Market No Don’t understand Yes Half of it No NA KLT 14 Market No 50% Yes It is similar Yes Half of it

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Subjects’ biodata: Tawang (part one)

Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT TWG 01 Tawang Tawang Monpa 27/03/04 Changprong 23 Y F Tawang Monpa TWG 02 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 80 O F Tawang Monpa TWG 03 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 60 O F Tawang Monpa TWG 04 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 65 O M Tawang Monpa TWG 05 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 36 M F Tawang Monpa TWG 06 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 30 Y F Tawang Monpa TWG 07 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 40 M M Tawang Monpa TWG 08 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 38 M F Tawang Monpa TWG 09 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 25 Y F Tawang Monpa TWG 10 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 36 M M Tawang Monpa TWG 11 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 23 Y M Tawang Monpa TWG 12 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 20 Y M Tawang Monpa TWG 13 Tawang Tawang Monpa 04/04/04 Changprong 54 O M Tawang Monpa

Subjects’ biodata: Tawang (part two)

Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E TWG 01 Monpa Monpa Monpa Changprong Changprong NA 9 E TWG 02 Monpa Monpa Monpa Changprong Changprong NA 4 U TWG 03 Monpa Monpa Monpa Kitpe Kitpe NA 0 U TWG 04 Monpa Monpa Monpa Simpleneng Simpleneng 25 yrs 0 U TWG 05 Monpa Monpa Monpa Pamgagarh Pamgagarh 21 yrs 0 U TWG 06 Monpa Monpa Monpa Mokta Mokta 6 yrs 0 U TWG 07 Monpa Monpa Monpa Changprong Changprong NA 0 U TWG 08 Monpa Monpa Monpa Tawang Tawang 20 yrs 0 U TWG 09 Monpa Monpa Monpa Changprong Changprong NA 8 E TWG 10 Monpa Monpa Monpa Mokto Mokto NA 5 E TWG 11 Monpa Monpa NA Changprong Changprong NA 6 E TWG 12 Monpa Monpa NA Changprong Changprong NA 4 U TWG 13 Monpa Monpa Monpa Changprong Changprong NA 13 E

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Questionnaire responses from Tawang

Sub ID Q 1 a Q 1 b Q 1 c i Q 1 c ii Q 1 d Q 1 e Q 2 Q 3 a Q 3 b TWG 01 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT NA NA NA TWG 02 MT MT MT MT MT Bothi/Tibetan NA NA NA Hindi and other TWG 03 MT MT MT Hindi MT NA NA NA languages TWG 04 MT MT MT MT MT Bothi/Tibetan NA NA NA TWG 05 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT NA NA NA TWG 06 MT MT MT Hindi and MT Hindi and MT MT NA NA NA TWG 07 MT MT MT MT Hindi MT NA NA NA TWG 08 MT MT MT MT MT and others MT NA NA NA TWG 09 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT NA NA NA TWG 10 MT MT MT Hindi MT MT NA NA NA TWG 11 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT MT NA NA NA Hindi and other TWG 12 MT MT MT Hindi Bothi/Tibetan NA NA NA languages TWG 13 MT MT MT MT Hindi and MT MT and others NA NA NA

Questionnaire responses from Tawang (part two)

Sub ID Q 4 a Q 4 b Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 Q 9 TWG 01 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes English No Tawang Monpa, TWG 02 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes Tibetan Yes Yes Tibetan TWG 03 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes English No Hindi No TWG 04 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes Hindi Yes MT Yes TWG 05 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi No TWG 06 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi Yes TWG 07 Good Knowing other language is good Yes MT Yes Hindi No Hindi and Hindi and TWG 08 Feel bad I don’t know other language Yes Yes Yes English English Because education Monpa is Hindi and TWG 09 Good Yes English Yes No very far English No TWG 10 NA Yes English Yes English No feeling Hindi and TWG 11 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Yes English Hindi and TWG 12 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes No English Hindi and TWG 13 Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Yes English

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Questionnaire responses from Tawang (part three)

Sub ID Q 10 Q 11 Q 12 Q 13 a Q 14 Q 15 TWG 01 No No Maybe I don’t know Yes, Zimithang School Seru 6km from TWG 02 No No Yes Yes, Mukto NA Tawang By talking with TWG 03 Yes Yes Yes Here Yes, Dumla, Kharteng others TWG 04 No No Yes Here Yes, Lungla NA Yes, Shukti, Lumla, By talking with TWG 05 Yes No Maybe All Pongleng others TWG 06 Yes No Yes Mokta, Seru Yes, Kharka NA Yes, Zela 50km from TWG 07 No No Yes Here Here Tawang By talking with TWG 08 No No Yes Here Yes, Khet mokpa others Yes, all other villages TWG 09 No Yes Yes Here School are different Yes, Lumla, Zimitang, TWG 10 No Yes Yes Mokto School Khetpa TWG 11 No No Yes I don’t know Yes, Zimitang, Mokta Here I don’t Yes, all other villages TWG 12 No No I don’t know School know are different Yes, all other villages By talking with TWG 13 No No Yes Seru, lhou and tshou are different others

Questionnaire responses from Tawang (part four)

Sub ID Q 16 Q 17 Q 18 Q 19 Q 20 a Q 20 b TWG 01 3 yrs School Yes 50% Yes Half of it TWG 02 3,4 yrs NA No NA No NA TWG 03 3 yrs Market, office No 50% Yes None at all TWG 04 4,5 yrs NA No NA No NA TWG 05 School Market No 50% No NA TWG 06 3 yrs NA No NA No NA TWG 07 4,5 yrs Market No All No NA TWG 08 3,4 yrs Market, office No 50% Yes Everything TWG 09 2,3 yrs Market No 50% Yes Half of it TWG 10 5 yrs Market No 70%/80%/90% Yes Half of it TWG 11 4,5 yrs Market Yes 50% No NA TWG 12 12,13 yrs Market No 50% Yes Everything TWG 13 6,7 yrs When people come from outside No Little/20%/30% Yes Half of it

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Questionnaires among Sherdukpen

Subjects’ biodata: Rupa (part one)

Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT RUP 01 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 65 O M Sherdukpen RUP 02 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 18 Y M Sherdukpen RUP 03 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 36 M M Sherdukpen RUP 04 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 69 O M Sherdukpen RUP 05 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 41 M M Sherdukpen RUP 06 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 51 O F Sherdukpen RUP 07 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 24 Y F Sherdukpen RUP 08 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 46 M M Sherdukpen RUP 09 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 28 Y M Sherdukpen RUP 10 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 36 M F Sherdukpen RUP 11 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 50 M F Sherdukpen RUP 12 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 19 Y F Sherdukpen RUP 13 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 20 Y F Sherdukpen RUP 14 West Kameng Sherdukpen 25/03/04 Rupa 41 M M Sherdukpen

Subjects’ biodata Rupa: (part two)

Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E RUP 01 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 02 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen NA Itanagar Rupa NA 12 E RUP 03 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Dirang Monpa Rupa Rupa NA 12 E RUP 04 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 8 E RUP 05 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA B.com E RUP 06 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 07 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 12 E RUP 08 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 09 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 10 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 8 E RUP 11 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 12 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen NA Rupa Rupa NA 8 E RUP 13 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U RUP 14 Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Sherdukpen Rupa Rupa NA 0 U

177

Questionnaires responses from Rupa subjects

Sub ID Q 1 a Q 1 b Q 1 c i Q 1 c ii Q 1 d Q 1 e Q 2 RUP 01 MT MT MT Hindi and other lgs MT and others MT and others Hindi and MT RUP 02 MT MT MT Hindi and other lgs Hindi Hindi Hindi RUP 03 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi Bothi/Tibetan Hindi RUP 04 MT MT MT Hindi and other lgs Hindi and other lgs Bothi/Tibetan Tawang Monpa RUP 05 MT MT MT Hindi and MT Hindi Bothi/Tibetan Hindi RUP 06 MT MT MT Hindi and other lgs Hindi and other lgs MT and others Tawang Monpa RUP 07 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi and MT RUP 08 MT MT MT Hindi and other lgs Hindi MT Tawang Monpa RUP 09 MT MT MT Hindi and MT Hindi MT Tawang Monpa RUP 10 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT Bothi/Tibetan Hindi and MT RUP 11 MT MT MT Hindi and MT Hindi MT Tawang Monpa RUP 12 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi and MT MT Hindi RUP 13 MT MT MT Hindi Hindi MT Hindi and MT RUP 14 MT MT MT Hindi and other lgs Hindi MT and others Hindi and MT

Questionnaire responses from Rupa subjects (part two)

Sub ID Q 3 a Q 3 b Q 4 a Q 4 b Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 RUP 01 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English RUP 02 NA Hindi Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English RUP 03 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes English RUP 04 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi RUP 05 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes English Yes English RUP 06 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Assamese RUP 07 NA Hindi Feel bad It’s our MT Yes English Yes English RUP 08 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English RUP 09 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi RUP 10 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi RUP 11 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi RUP 12 NA Hindi Feel bad It’s our MT Yes English Yes English RUP 13 NA Hindi and MT Feel bad It’s our MT No Hindi Yes Hindi RUP 14 NA MT Feel bad It’s our MT Yes MT Yes Hindi and English

178

Questionnaire responses from Rupa subjects (part three)

Sub ID Q 9 Q 10 Q 11 Q 12 Q 13 a Q 13 b Q 14 Shergaon, RUP 01 No No Yes Yes NA Yes: Shergaon Rupa RUP 02 No No Yes Yes Here Their speech is not clear Yes: Shergaon RUP 03 No No Yes Yes Here NA Yes: Shergaon Shergaon, RUP 04 No No Yes Yes NA Yes: Shergaon Rupa It depends Rupa is the RUP 05 No Yes Yes Here Yes: Mochaksing on them headquarters Depends on Because we are elders to Yes: Mingnachur, Diksi, RUP 06 No Yes Yes Here the children others Mukuting RUP 07 No No Yes Yes Mukuting We speak pure Yes: Shergaon Others they mixed with RUP 08 No No Yes Yes Here Yes: Mimichur, Diksipam Monpa RUP 09 No No No Yes Here Originated from here Yes: Rahung, Sergaon RUP 10 No No No Yes Here Originated from here Yes: Shergaon RUP 11 No No No Yes Here Originated from here No RUP 12 No No No Yes Gorba We speak pure Yes: Shergaon RUP 13 No No No Yes Shergaon I don’t know Yes: Shergaon Depends on RUP 14 No No Yes Here I don’t know Yes: Shergaon the children

Questionnaires responses from Rupa subjects (part four)

Sub ID Q 15 Q 16 Q 17 Q 18 Q 19 Q 20 a Q 20 b RUP 01 NA 3,4 yrs NA No NA Yes Half of it RUP 02 School 3,4 yrs When there is need to talk No All Yes None at all RUP 03 School Childhood Office, market No All Yes Half of it RUP 04 School 6,7 yrs I don’t know No Little (20–30%) Yes Everything RUP 05 School Childhood When there is need to talk No All Yes Half of it RUP 06 NA Childhood NA No NA Yes Half of it RUP 07 School 3,4 yrs Market Maybe All Yes Half of it RUP 08 Here 3,4 yrs When there is need to talk No Little (20–30%) Yes Everything RUP 09 Here 3,4 yrs When there is need to talk No All Yes Half of it RUP 10 Here Childhood Market No 50% Yes Half of it Talking RUP 11 Childhood When there is need to talk No Little (20–30%) Yes Half of it with others RUP 12 School Childhood School No All No NA RUP 13 Here Childhood When there is need to talk No 50% No NA RUP 14 Here 5 yrs When there is need to talk No All Yes Half of it

179

Questionnaires among Bugun

Subjects’ Biodata: Bugun (part one)

Sub ID District Variety Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT BICH01 W. Kameng Bugun 08/07/04 Bichom 55 O M Bugun BICH02 W. Kameng Bugun 08/07/04 Bichom 38 M F Bugun BICH03 W. Kameng Bugun 08/07/04 Bichom 40 M F Bugun BICH04 W. Kameng Bugun 08/07/04 Bichom 32 M M Bugun BICH05 W. Kameng Bugun 08/07/04 Bichom 29 Y M Bugun WGH06 W. Kameng Bugun 11/07/04 Wangho 32 M F Bugun WGH07 W. Kameng Bugun 11/07/04 Wangho 42 M M Bugun WGH08 W. Kameng Bugun 11/07/04 Wangho 37 M M Bugun WGH09 W. Kameng Bugun 11/07/04 Wangho 27 Y F Bugun WGH10 W. Kameng Bugun 11/07/04 Wangho 26 Y M Bugun KSP11 W. Kameng Bugun 12/07/04 Kaspi 45 M F Bugun KSP12 W. Kameng Bugun 12/07/04 Kaspi 25 Y M Bugun KSP13 W. Kameng Bugun 12/07/04 Kaspi 40 M F Bugun KSP14 W. Kameng Bugun 12/07/04 Kaspi 57 O M Bugun KSP15 W. Kameng Bugun 12/07/04 Kaspi 55 O M Bugun SGH16 W. Kameng Bugun 13/07/04 Singchung 74 O M Bugun SGH17 W. Kameng Bugun 13/07/04 Singchung 70 O M Bugun SGH18 W. Kameng Bugun 13/07/04 Singchung 37 M M Bugun SGH19 W. Kameng Bugun 13/07/04 Singchung 46 M F Bugun SGH20 W. Kameng Bugun 13/07/04 Singchung 34 M F Bugun

180

Subjects’ biodata: Bugun (part two)

Sub ID F MT M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Education U-E BICH01 Bugun Bugun Bugun Situ Bichom 20 11 E BICH02 Bugun Bugun Bugun Kaspi Bichom 22 0 U BICH03 Bugun Bugun Bugun Diching Bichom 17 0 U BICH04 Bugun Bugun Bugun Lichini Bichom 20 12 E BICH05 Bugun Bugun Tawang Monpa Mongopom Bichom Recently 12 E WGH06 Bugun Nishi Bugun Wangho Wangho NA 10 E WGH07 Bugun Bugun Bugun Wangho Wangho NA 8 E WGH08 Bugun Bugun Nepali Wangho Wangho NA 5 E WGH09 Bugun Bugun Bugun Singchung Wangho 11 5 E WGH10 Bugun Bugun Bugun Wangho Wangho NA 5 E KSP11 Bugun Bugun Bugun Lichini Kaspi 32 0 U KSP12 Bugun Bugun NA Lichini Kaspi 24 6 E KSP13 Bugun Bugun Bugun Lichini Kaspi 29 0 U KSP14 Bugun Bugun Bugun Kaspi Kaspi NA 10 E KSP15 Bugun Bugun Bugun Kaspi Kaspi NA 5 E SGH16 Bugun Bugun Bugun Singchung Singchung NA 0 U SGH17 Bugun Bugun Bugun Singchung Singchung NA 0 U SGH18 Bugun Bugun Bugun Singchung Singchung NA B.A E SGH19 Bugun Bugun Bugun Wangho Singchung 30 5 E SGH20 Bugun Bugun Bugun Singchung Singchung NA 8 E

181

Questionnaire responses among Bugun

Sub ID Q 1 a Q 1 b Q 1 c Q 1 d i Q 1 d ii Q 1 e Q 1 f BICH01 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi It depends Bugun BICH02 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Depends on the language It depends Bugun BICH03 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Depends on the language It depends Bugun BICH04 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi Bugun Bugun Bugun, BICH05 Hindi Hindi Bugun Bugun Depends on the language Bugun Hindi WGH06 Hindi Hindi, Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi Hindi Bugun WGH07 Hindi Hindi, Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi Hindi Bugun WGH08 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi It depends Bugun WGH09 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi It depends Bugun WGH10 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi Bugun Bugun KSP11 Bugun Bugun Hindi, Bugun Bugun Depends on the language It depends Bugun KSP12 Bugun Bugun Hindi, Bugun Bugun Hindi Hindi Bugun Bugun, KSP13 Hindi, Bugun Bugun Bugun Depends on the language Hindi Monpa Hindi KSP14 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi It depends Bugun KSP15 Bugun Hindi Bugun Bugun Hindi Bugun Bugun SGH16 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi It depends Bugun SGH17 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Depends on the language It depends Bugun SGH18 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Depends on the language Bugun Bugun SGH19 Bugun Hindi, Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi Hindi Bugun SGH20 Bugun Bugun Bugun Bugun Hindi Hindi Bugun

182

Questionnaire responses among Bugun (part two)

Sub ID Q 2 a Q 2 b Q 2 c Q 3 Q 4 Q 5 a Q 5 b Q 6 Q 7 BICH01 Hindi, Nepali, Miji, Aka Miji, Aka When needed No Half Feel bad NA Good Bugun BICH02 Hindi Hindi When needed No Little Feel bad NA Good Bugun BICH03 Hindi, Assamese Hindi When needed No Half Feel bad NA Good Bugun BICH04 Hindi, Assamese, English Hindi When needed No Half Feel bad NA Good Bugun Hindi, Assamese, English, BICH05 Miji, Nepali, Dirang, Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun Kalaktang Monpa WGH06 Hindi, Assamese, English Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun WGH07 Hindi, Assamese, English Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun WGH08 Hindi, Assamese, Nepali Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun WGH09 Hindi, Assamese Hindi When needed No Half Feel bad NA Good Bugun WGH10 Hindi, Assamese, Nepali Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun KSP11 Hindi, Aka Aka When needed No Little Feel bad NA Good Bugun Hindi, English, Monpa, KSP12 Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun Aka, Miji KSP13 Hindi, Aka, Miji Aka When needed No Half Feel bad NA Good Bugun Hindi, Assamese, English, KSP14 Nepali, Monpa, Aka, Miji, Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Hindi Sherdukpen, Bengali KSP15 Hindi, Assamese, Aka Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun Hindi, Assamese, Nepali, SGH16 Aka, Dirang Monpa, Sherdukpen When needed No Little Feel bad NA Good Bugun Sherdukpen Hindi, Assamese, Nepali, SGH17 Aka, Miji, Monpa, Sherdukpen When needed No Half Feel bad NA Good Bugun Sherdukpen Hindi, Assamese, English, SGH18 Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun Nepali SGH19 Hindi, Assamese, Nepali Hindi When needed No Half Feel bad NA Good Bugun SGH20 Hindi Hindi When needed No Full Feel bad NA Good Bugun

183

Questionnaire responses among Bugun (part three)

Sub ID Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 Q 11 a Q 11 b Q 12 Q 13 a Q 13 b Q 13 c Q 14 a It It will Singchung, Some BICH01 Yes No No NA Yes All same depends continue Wangho difference It It will Singchung, Some BICH02 Yes No No NA Yes Here depends continue Wangho difference It will Singchung, Some BICH03 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes Here continue Wangho difference It It will Singchung, Some BICH04 Yes No No NA Yes Here depends continue Wangho difference It It will Singchung, Some BICH05 Yes No No NA Yes All same depends continue Wangho difference It will Some No WGH06 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes All continue difference response It will Some WGH07 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes All All same continue difference It will Singchung, Some WGH08 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes Here continue Bichom difference It will Some WGH09 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes Singchung All Same continue difference It It will Singchung, Some WGH10 Yes No No NA Yes Here depends continue Bichom difference It will Singchung, Some KSP11 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes Here continue Wangho difference It will Singchung, Some KSP12 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes Here continue Wangho difference It will Singchung, Some I don’t KSP13 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes continue Wangho difference know Dialect may die It It will Singchung, Some KSP14 Yes No Yes because no Yes Here depends continue Wangho difference written form It It will Singchung, Some KSP15 Yes No No NA Yes All same depends continue Wangho difference It It will Some SGH16 Yes Yes No NA Yes All All same depends continue difference It will SGH17 Yes Hindi Yes No NA No NA NA All same continue It It will SGH18 Yes No No NA No NA NA All same depends continue It will Some SGH19 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes Bichom Here continue difference It will Some SGH20 Yes Hindi No No NA Yes Bichom Here continue difference

184

Questionnaire responses among Bugun (part four)

Sub ID Q 14 b Q 15 a Q 15 b Q 16 a Q 16 b Q 17 a Q 17 b Hindi, BICH01 NA Half Aka Half Hindi NA Sherdukpen Because we speak BICH02 Sherdukpen Half Aka Half Hindi NA short and clear Because we speak Hindi, Hindi, BICH03 NA NA Hindi NA short and clear Assamese Assamese Because we speak BICH04 Hindi NA Hindi NA Hindi NA short and clear Aka, Hindi Miji 50% understand BICH05 NA Hindi NA Hindi NA and Miji and 25% can speak WGH06 NA Hindi NA Hindi NA Hindi NA WGH07 NA Hindi NA Hindi NA Hindi NA Because it’s our WGH08 Hindi NA Hindi NA Hindi NA village WGH09 NA Hindi NA Hindi NA Hindi NA Because it’s our WGH10 Hindi NA Hindi NA Hindi NA village Because it’s our Aka, Hindi KSP11 Hindi NA Half Hindi NA village and Miji Because it’s our Aka, Hindi Hindi, KSP12 Hindi NA Full Little village and Miji Monpa Aka, Hindi KSP13 NA Hindi NA Full Hindi NA and Miji Because it’s our KSP14 Sherdukpen Half Aka Half Monpa Half village KSP15 NA Hindi NA Aka Half Hindi NA Half of Aka, Hindi Dirang SGH16 NA Sherdukpen Full Half D.Monpa and and Miji Monpa others Hindi Dirang, Because it’s our SGH17 Sherdukpen Full Aka, Miji Half Kalaktang Full village Monpa SGH18 NA Sherdukpen Half Hindi NA Hindi NA SGH19 NA Hindi NA Hindi NA Hindi NA SGH20 NA Hindi NA Hindi NA Hindi NA

185

Questionnaires among Miji

Subjects’ biodata: Miji

Sub ID District Date Place Age Y-M-O Sex MT F MT DIB01 W. Kameng 25/08/04 Dibin 53 O M Dammai Dammai DIB02 W. Kameng 25/08/04 Dibin 61 O M Dammai Dammai DIB03 W. Kameng 25/08/04 Dibin 45 M F Dammai Dammai DIB04 W. Kameng 25/08/04 Dibin 38 M M Dammai Dammai DIB05 W. Kameng 25/08/04 Dibin 18 Y F Dammai Dammai RUG01 W. Kameng 26/08/04 Rurang 25 Y M Dammai Dammai RUG02 W. Kameng 26/08/04 Rurang 27 Y F Dammai Dammai RUG03 W. Kameng 26/08/04 Rurang 23 Y F Dammai Dammai RUG04 W. Kameng 26/08/04 Rurang 21 Y M Dammai Dammai RUG05 W. Kameng 26/08/04 Rurang 80 O M Dammai Dammai NBG01 E. Kameng 28/08/04 Nabolang 41 M M Namrei Namrei NBG02 E. Kameng 28/08/04 Nabolang 70 O M Namrei Namrei NBG03 E. Kameng 28/08/04 Nabolang 45 M F Namrei Namrei NBG04 E. Kameng 28/08/04 Nabolang 35 M M Namrei Namrei NBG05 E. Kameng 28/08/04 Nabolang 44 M M Namrei Namrei BSI01 E. Kameng 28/08/04 Bisai 32 Y M Namrei Namrei BSI02 E. Kameng 28/08/04 Bisai 26 Y M Namrei Namrei BSI03 E. Kameng 28/08/04 Bisai 26 Y M Namrei Namrei

186

Subjects’ biodata: Miji (part two)

Sub ID M MT Sp MT Birthplace Residence How long Edu U-E DIB01 Dammai Dammai Nakhu Dibin 42 0 U DIB02 Dammai Dammai Dibin Dibin NA 0 U DIB03 Dammai Dammai Dichik Dibin 40 0 U DIB04 Dammai Dammai Dibin Dibin NA 0 U DIB05 Dammai Dammai Dichik Dibin 5 2 U RUG01 Dammai Dammai Rurang Rurang NA 8 E RUG02 Dammai Dammai Lada Rurang 10 0 U RUG03 Dammai Dammai Dichik Rurang 8 0 U RUG04 Dammai Dammai Rurang Rurang NA 7 E RUG05 Dammai Dammai Rurang Rurang NA 0 U NBG01 Namrei Namrei Nabolang Seppa 5 month 10 E NBG02 Namrei Namrei Nabolang Nabolang NA 0 U NBG03 Namrei Namrei Nabolang Seppa 5 month 0 U NBG04 Namrei Namrei Nabolang Nabolang NA 1 U NBG05 Namrei Namrei Nabolang Nabolang NA 2 U BSI01 Namrei Namrei Bisai Bisai NA 0 U BSI02 Namrei Namrei Bisai Bisai NA 0 U BSI03 Namrei Namrei Bisai Bisai NA 8 E

187

Questionnaire responses among Miji

Sub ID Q 1 a Q 1 b Q 1 c Q 1 d i Q 1 d ii Q 1 e Q 1 f Q 2 a Q 2 b Q 2 c DIB01 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi, Assamese Hindi Any time DIB02 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time DIB03 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time DIB04 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time DIB05 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time RUG01 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time RUG02 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi, Bangni Hindi Any time RUG03 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time RUG04 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time RUG05 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time NBG01 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi, English, Assamese Hindi Any time NBG02 MT MT MT MT MT MT MT No other language NA NA NBG03 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time NBG04 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time NBG05 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi, English Hindi Any time BSI01 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time BSI02 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi Any time BSI03 MT MT MT MT Hindi It depends MT Hindi Hindi any time

188

Questionnaire responses among Miji (part two)

Sub ID Q 3 Q 4 a Q 4 b Q 5 Q 6 Q 7 Q 8 Q 9 Q 10 a Q 10 b Because our lg is not Because our lg is not DIB01 Half Good Good MT Yes Hindi No Yes developed developed DIB02 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA DIB03 Little Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA DIB04 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA DIB05 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA RUG01 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA RUG02 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA RUG03 Little Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA RUG04 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA RUG05 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA NBG01 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA NBG02 NA Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA NBG03 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA NBG04 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA NBG05 Half Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA BSI01 Little Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA BSI02 Little Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA BSI03 Little Bad NA Good MT Yes Hindi No Bad NA

189

Questionnaire responses among Miji (part three)

Sub ID Q 11 Q 12a Q 12b Q 12 c Q 13 a Q 13 b Q 14 Q 15 a Q 15 b DIB01 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA DIB02 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA DIB03 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA Everyone will DIB04 It will continue No NA NA NA NA Hindi NA say their own DIB05 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA RUG01 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA RUG02 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA RUG03 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA RUG04 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA RUG05 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA NBG01 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA NBG02 It will continue Yes Nafra area Different in tune All same NA NA NA NA NBG03 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA NBG04 It will continue Yes Nafra area Different in tune All same NA NA Hindi NA Clear NBG05 It will continue Yes Dibin Different in tune Lada NA Hindi NA speech BSI01 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA BSI02 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA BSI03 It will continue No NA NA All same NA NA Hindi NA

References

Blair, Frank. 1990. Survey on a shoestring: A manual for small-scale language surveys. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Casad, Eugene H. 1974. Dialect intelligibility testing. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics and Related Fields, 38. Norman, OK: Summer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma. District of Arunachal Pradesh. Tawang, the dream destination. District Administration, Tawang, Government of Arunachal Pradesh. Fasold, Ralph. 1984. The sociolinguistics of society. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. O’Leary, Clare F., ed. 1992. Sociolinguistic survey of northern Pakistan, vol. 2. Languages of northern areas. Horsleys Green, UK: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Radloff, Carla F. 1991. Sentence repetition testing, for studies of community bilingualism. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington. Sen, Sipra. 1986. Arunachal Pradesh and the tribe select bibliography. Delhi: Gian Publishing House. Simons, Gary F., and Charles D. Fennig, eds. 2018. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-first edition. Dallas, TX: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com. Singh, K.S. 1995. People of India Arunachal Pradesh. Vol. XIV. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India. Varenkamp, Bryan. 1991. A report on the development of the Hindi SRT. Ms. Wimbish, John S. 1989. Wordsurv: A Program for Analyzing Language Survey Word Lists. Occasional Publications in Academic Computing. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

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