Development Team

Home , Chiru people, Memba people, Miji people, Monpa people, Naga people, Noatia

Paper No. : 05 Tribal Culture of India Module : 05 Tribes of India’s North East

Development Team

Principal Investigator Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Paper Coordinator Prof. Anup Kumar Kapoor Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Prof.Anup Kumar Kapoor Content Writer Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi

Content Reviewer Prof. A. Paparao Sri Venkateswar University, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Description of Module

Subject Name Anthropology

Paper Name 05 Tribal Culture of India

Module Name/Title Tribes of India’s North East

Module Id 05

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

1. Introduction to the North Eastern India 1.1 ethinic affinity 2. The concept of the ‘tribe’ 3. Major tribes of India’s north east 4. Social Structure of tribes 5. Political Structure of tribes 6. Tribal festivals 7. Food culture 8. Summary

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

 To know about North East India its division their ethnic affinity  To understand is the concept of tribe  To know the major tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya  To understand the social organization of tribes of the north eastern India  To understand the political life of tribes of the north eastern India  To understand the major tribal festivals  To understand food culture.

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

1. INTRODUCTION:

India’s north east is one of the most culturally diverse regions in the world. North eastern India comprises seven states commonly known as “seven sisters,” namely Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya. North eastern region of India is surrounded by Bhutan, Tibet, China, Myanmar, and Bangladesh and a long narrow passage in the west which connects the region with the West Bengal. North eastern India occupies an area of 255,000 sq km, it comprises above 7 % land mass of the total land mass of the India. North East India is unique in its culture and traditions, different tribes have their own oral literature consisting of songs, and folklores.

Fig 1. Source: http://www.google.co.in/images?imgurl=http://www.mapsofworld.com/india/maps/north-east-india-.jpg

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Arunachal Pradesh is called as the Land of Rising Sun, because it is the state where the sun first rises in India. It is situated on the North Eastern end of India. Geographically, it is the largest state of North East region. It has many rivers and streams. It became India’s 24th state in December 1986 and a union territory in 1972. It is surrounded by the border of Bhutan, China and Myanmar, and also by surrounded by Assam and Nagaland. Itanagar (city of bricks) is the capital of the Arunachal Pradesh, which is named after Ita Fort meaning fort of bricks. This region has their unique culture, history and belief. There tribal people speak more than 40 different languages and dialects, main tribal languages of Arunachal Pradesh are Adi, Bodo/Boro, Mikir, Mishmi, Monpa, Nishi/Dafla, Nocte, Tangsa and Wancho, which mostly belonging to the Sino-Tibetan language family specially the Tibeto-Burmese branch. Religion the main religions are buddisims, Hinduism, chrishtianity donyi polism. Around 35% people are hindus, and around 19% are Christians and almost 40% of populations follows Buddhism. Followers of Donyi Polism worship celestial bodies. Agriculture is the main occupation of the tribal people of the Arunachal Pradesh. The major crops are rice, millets, maize, potatoes, pulses, mustard. Bamboo is the vital forest product. Adi, Aka, Dafla their occupation revolves around the slash and burn cultivation.

Assam: The meaning of the word “Assam” is the not uniform or uneven. The Assam is surrounded by the states Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and Meghalaya. Capital of the Assam is Dispur. Assam got recognition of statehood on 15 August 1947. There are 23 districts in the Assam. Brahmaputra is the major river of the state. The Assamese is the main language, which belongs to the Indo- Aryan group. Hindi and English are also spoken in Assam. Hinduism is the major religion in the Assam. Islam and Christianity are also followed by the people of the Assam. Also there are people who follow Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism in this state. The main occupation of the tribal people of Assam is agriculture. The main crops are rice, tea, sugarcane, potatoes and jute. About one sixth of the tea production of the world comes from the Assam. In India 50% of tea production of tea is comes from Assam alone. Also there are mines of mineral oil, coal and limestone.

Nagaland is surrounded by the Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur and Myanmar. The capital of the state is Kohima. The name Nagaland is comes from the Sanskrit word “nagan” means naked. Some scholars say that this word comes from the mythology, the daughter of the king of the snakes, princess Ulupi, who lived in this region. Some scholar says that this region attain its name due to abundance of Naga (which is one of the species of snake). The Nagaland got the recognition of statehood on 1 December 1963. The state is divided into 23 districts. Tribes of Nagaland have their own language. There are total thirty languages. Language varies from village to village even within one tribal area. They use Nagamese language to communicate between two different tribes. The Christianity is the predominant religion in the Nagaland. They believe in the concept of the afterlife. They also believe in the spirits and consider nature as alive. The major occupation of the tribes of the Nagaland is 5

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

agriculture. Shifting and terrace cultivation both are the basis of their agrarian economy. Rice crops are having special importance in agriculture of Nagaland. Some other important crops are maize, pulses, millets, cardamom, tea and coffee.

Manipur is surrounded by the Nagaland, Myanmar, Mizoram and Assam. The capital of the Manipur is Imphal. The meaning of the word Manipur is “land of jewels”. Geographically the Manipur state can be divided into two regions – plains and the hills. The main rivers found in the Manipur are iril, barak, irang and thoubal. The Manipur got statehood on 21 January 1972. The people of Manipur speak mainly Manipuri, Hindi and English. The Hinduism is followed by the majority of the people. There is small portion of people who follows Christianity and Islam. Also, there is a small number of Buddhism. Most of the people are depends on the agriculture, animal husbandry and fisheries. The major occupation of the people is agriculture. The main crops are rice, sugarcane, tobacco and mustard. The weaving industry of Manipur is famous all over the world. The handloom is present in almost in every house, women are especially engaged in the weaving the traditional designs.

Mizoram is surrounded by the Manipur, Myanmar and Tripura. The capital of the Mizoram is Aizwal. The word Mizoram means the “land of the Mizos”. It is declared as 23rd state of India on 20 February 1987. The whole area is hilly. The state is divided into 30 districts. The most common languages in Mizoram are Mizo and English. Some other languages spoken by the people of the Mizoram are paite, lakher, pawi, hmar, Ralte,Pang and Magh. These languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman sub family of Tibeto-Chinese languages. The Christianity is religion followed by the majority of the people of Mizoram. Small proportion of the state is following the Buddhism. The agriculture is the main occupation of the most of the people. The major crops are maize and paddy which are cultivated in slopes of the hilly region. The other important crops are sugarcane, potato, pulses, ginger, chilly, tobacco, pineapple and banana. The Mizoram lacks any major industry due to lack of mineral resources and its physically isolation from the country. Cottage industry consists of mainly the handloom and handicrafts.

Tripura is surrounded by the Mizoram, Bangladesh and Assam. The capital of the Tripura is Agartala. Geographically the state is can be divided into two main region- northern region and southern region. The state is covered with the hilly terrains. The state got the position of statehood on the 21 January 1972.Almost the 60% of the total land is covered with forests; major types of trees are Sal, Garjan, Bamboo and miscellaneous species. The majority of the people of Tripura speaks the Bengali language. Other languages like karborak and Manipuri is spoken by the people of the Tripura. Hinduism is the predominant religion of the state. They worship nature such as the God of water, the God of forests, the God of earth, the God of fire etc. Sacrifices are considered as an important part of their religion, animals used for the sacrifices are the buffaloes, pigs, goats, and fowls. “Cantais” and 6

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

the “Deodais” are regarded as the superintendent of the Tripuri religion and occupy a very important position in society as the Brahmins in Hindu society. Agriculture is the chief occupation of most of the people. The major crops are rice, jute, cotton, tea, mustard, sugarcane maize and potato. Tripura lacks any major industry. There are recently small cottage industries of handloom, weaving, pottery and basket making are initiated by the government of the India.

Meghalaya is surrounded by Assam, and the Bangladesh. The meaning of the word Meghalaya is ‘Adobe of clouds’. The state attained the statehood on the 21 January 1972. The capital of Meghalaya is Shillong. The Meghalaya is also called as ‘Scotland of the East’ due to its scenic beauty. The whole state is divided into three division- Jaintia (Eastern), Garo (Western) and Khasi (central) hills. The Meghalaya is rich in the flora and the fauna. The major languages of Meghalaya are Garo and Khasi. The Garos language belongs to the Bodo group of the Tibeto-Burman family, the Khasi language belong to the Mon-Khmer family of Austro-Asiatic family. English is the official language of the state. There tribes follow their own religion. They worship of Supreme Being. They believe in the ghosts, spirits (both good and bad), there give special importance to sacrifices in their rituals. Christianity is also found there. The agriculture is chief occupation of the most the people. The major crops are maize and rice. Other important crops are oranges, ginger, pineapple, jack fruit, banana, peach, plums, cotton, jute and mustard. Also crops are cashew nuts, tea and coffee is cultivated in the Meghalaya.

1.1 ETHINIC AFFINITY OF INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

From ethnic point of view the people of the north east India can be divided into two broad groups: the indid and the ‘mongoloid’ (Sengupta, 2003). Indid group mostly comprises the Hindu castes and the Muslims, who considered as the Caucasoid in origin (Sengupta, 2003). It is generally agreed that the mongoloids once occupied practically the whole of the north eastern region (Sengupta, 2003). According to Sengupta, 2003 the Mongoloid are characterized by following features:

1. Yellow or yellow brown skin 2. Eyes are black or dark brown 3. Eye- slit is oblique 4. Presence of the Mongolian fold in their eyes 5. Wavy and coarse head hair 6. Face is broad 7. Zygomatic arches are very prominent 8. Scanty growth of facial and body hairs

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

2. THE CONCEPT OF THE ‘TRIBE’:

In common language the term is linked with the people who are living in isolated surroundings from the rest of the population (Thomas T. Jacob, Indian Tribal Culture: A Rediscovery of Gospel Values). The Shillong consolation of tribals in 1962 defined tribe as "an indigenous, homogeneous unit, speaking a common language, claiming a common ancestry living in a particular geographical area, backward in technology, pre-literate, loyally observing social and political customs based on kinship" (Religion and Society 9:80). In International Circles, by the UNO (United Nation Organization), the “Indigenous people” is replaced the term tribe. But the Government of India has not agreed to the status of the “Indigenous people” to the Indian tribals. (Religion and Society 38:18). Some Indian anthropologists and politicians fear that the term adivasi (indigenous or original people) would raise claims of privilege among some people that would harm harmony and the peace of the races and peoples. (G.S. Ghurye, p.29).

3. MAJOR TRIBES OF THE INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

India’s north east is the land of a large number of tribes; there are more than 150 tribal communities. According to the census 2001 the tribe of the north east region constitutes around 15 percent of the total tribal population of India. In the states of Assam tribal population is of 12.4% to the total population, Manipur tribal population is of 34.2% and Tripura 31.1% tribal population to the total population of the India. Also the percentages of tribal population of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland states are very high. (Ali, A.N.M. Irshad and Indranoshee Das)

Major Tribes of Arunachal Pradesh:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 24 major tribes which are divided into a number of sub tribes and each tribe have a unique geographic distribution. The major tribes are-

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

1. Adi i. Ashing vii. Komkar Pailibo ii. Bogum viii. Karka Pangi iii. Bokar ix. Lodung Pasi iv. Bori x. Milang Ramo v. Botang xi. Minyong Shimong vi. Gallong xii. Padam Tangam 2. Aka 3. Apatani 4. Bangni 5. Khamba 6. Khowa 7. Memba 8. Miji 9. Khampti 10. Hill miri 11. Mishing 12. Monpa 13. Na 14. Tagin 15. Nishi (Dafla) 16. Nocte 17. Sherdukpen 18. Sulung 19. Singpho 20. Tangsa 21. Wancho 22. Yobin 23. Zakhring (Meyor) 24. Mishmi

Major tribes of Assam: According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 14 main tribes of the Assam are:

1. Chakma 2. Dimasa 3. Garo 4. Hajong 5. Hmar 6. Khasi

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

7. Kuki 8. Lakher 9. Man 10. Lusani 11. Pawi 12. Syntheg 13. Naga tribes 14. Mikir

Major Tribes of Nagaland:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 13 major tribes which have sub-tribes also. The following are the major tribes of the Nagaland:

1. Naga Ao I vii) Khiemnungan ii) Angami viii) Lotha iii) Chiru ix) Phom iv) Chang x) Makwari v) Chakhesang xi) Rengma vi) Konyak xii) Sema

2. Adi 3. Aka 4. Dimasa 5. Galong 6. Garo 7. Khasi 8. Mizo 9. Karbi 10. Kuki 11. Khowa 12. Momba 13. Synteng

According to Sengupta, 2003 important tribes of Manipur are as follows:

1) Aimol 2) Monsang 3) Anal 4) Moyon 5) Angami 6) Zou 7) Kachanaga 8) Vaiphai 9) Koiro 10) Thadou 10

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

11) Chiru 12) Sahte 13) Chothe (Puram) 14) Sema 15) Gangte 16) Ralte 17) Hmar 18) Simtea 19) Kabui 20) Paite 21) Koireng. 22) Thangkul 23) Lamgang 24) Vaipai 25) Mao 26) Maram 27) Mizo 28) Maring

Major Tribes of Mizoram:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 13 main tribes which are further divided into sub-tribes. The tribes of Mizoram are as follows:

1) Kuki tribe i) Baite i) Jongbe ii) Changloi iii) Khawchung iv) Doundgel v) Khothalong vi) Gamalhou vii) Khelma viii) Guite ix) Kholhou x) Gangte xi) Kipgen xii) Hanneng xiii) Lenthang xiv) Haokip xv) Lhangum xvi) Haolai xvii) Lhoujem xviii) Hengna xix) Lhovun xx) Rangkhol xxi) Lupheng xxii) Mangjel xxiii) Misao

2) Mizo tribe 3) Chakma 4) Dimasa 5) Garo 6) Hajong 7) Hmar 8) Khasi 9) Lekhar 10) Man

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

11) karbi 12) pawi

Major Tribes of Tripura:

There are majority of Bengali peoples are residing in the state. Tribal people prefers the remote hilly areas. According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 18 major tribes as follows:

1) Tripuri 2) Halam 3) Orang 4) Bhil 5) Jamatia 6) Santhal 7) Bhutia 8) Khasia 9) Garo 10) Chimal 11) Kuki 12) Noatia 13) Chakma 14) Lepcha 15) Lushai 16) Mog 17) Munda 18) Riang

Major Tribes of Meghalaya:

According to Sengupta, 2003 there are 20 important tribes of the Meghalaya:

1) Bhoi 2) Boro 3) Chakma 4) Dimasa 5) Hajong 6) Hmar 7) Jaintia 8) Karbi 9) Khasi 10) Koch 11) Kuki 12) Lakher 13) Lyngngam 14) Man 15) Mizo 16) Naga 17) Pawi 18) Pnar 19) Raba 20) Synteg

4. SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF TRIBES OF THE INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

 Ethnographically, Arunachal Pradesh remained one of the least known areas of the world (Sengupta, 2003). There is lot of confusion in the nomenclature of the tribes of this area. Adi, the Assamese used term of “Abor” (meaning wildmen) for all the hillmen of the siang district this term is replaced by the Adi. The Adis follows the patrilineal descent inheritance and patrilocal residence (Sengupta, 2003). The clans are exogamous in nature and the sub-tribes inter marry.

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Aka, is the major tribe of the Kameg district known to itself as ‘Hruso’ meaning the hunting being (Sengupta, 2003). Linguistically they are more close to the Adi and Dafla whom they can marry. The tribes are divided into the two major divisions; kotsun and kovatsun, each which is further divided into the sub-clans (Sengupta, 2003). These maintain the vertical hierarchy and the marriages are hypergamous. The family is patrilocal in residence. Dafla (nishi), is another major tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. The term has derogatory connotation, meaning a barbarian. The Dafla themselves want to called “Nishi or Nishing” “Ni” means man (Sengupta, 2003). The Dafla are patrilineal in descent and inheritance and patrilocal in residence. The Wanchu and Nocte, the society is organized under great chief, each controlling a number of villages. The society is divided into three hierarchical classes. The chief (wangham ) middle class (Wangsa) and the commoners (Wangpen). They are jhum cultivators. Their religious belief centre around a God, living in the sky who is kind and benevolent (Sengupta, 2003).

 The inhabitants of Assam can be divided into three categories, namely the tribal population, the non tribal population, and the scheduled castes. The tribals consist of different ethno-cultural groups such as the Kacharis (Bodos), the Miris, the Deoris, the Rabhas, the Nagas, the Garos, the Khasis, etc. The non tribal groups include the Ahoms, the Kayasthas, the Kalitas, and the Morans etc. The Scheduled caste includes the Basfors, Baniyas, the Dhobis, the Hiras, the Kaibartas nd Namasudras. The non tribals can be divided on the basis of religion amongst whom the Muslims constitute the second largest group followed by the Christians, Sikhs and the Buddhists. Tribes are divided into the hill tribes and the plains tribes according to geography of their location. Tribal religion is very close to animism but with ingredients of Hinduism. There are tribes like the Bodo Kacharis, Karbis and Lalungs which are purely patriarchal, and the Khasis, Jaintias and Garos which are strictly Matriarchal. A number of tribes such as the Hmars, Rengma Nagas and Garos have a social institution called the youth dormitory in which young males live away from their families and undergo training and education. Child marriage is still prevalent among the Brahmans and Kayasthas, more particularly in the villages. However death rituals of tribes here are quite interesting the burying of the dead is a common custom. Tribes like Akas, the Adis, the Dalfas and most of the Nagas bury the dead.  There are various estimated derivations of the name Nagaland. Some scholars opine that the term NAGA is derived from the word NOK or NOKA which means folks or people. Some say that Naga has evolved from the Kachari word NANGRA which means a warrior. Nagas were never under the British Empire. Basically Nagas are the tribal people with each tribe having its own effective system of self-governance. Nagas belong to the Indo-Mongoloid stock and their ancestors lived of natures’ abundant gifts. Above all, they have a reputation for a warm-hearted hospitability. Naga tribes have their own language. In actual practice, the language, even within one tribal area, varies from village to village, there are about thirty languages. The chief 13

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

occupation of Naga people is Agriculture. The traditional Naga religion is animistic, though conceptions of a supreme character and an afterlife exist. Nature is seen to be alive with invisible forces, minor deities, and spirits. In the nineteenth century, with the advent of British people, Christianity was introduced, and Baptist missionaries became especially active in the region. As a result population now is predominantly Christian. The Angami, Lotha, Rengma and Ao villages have a democratic structure. Among the Angamis, although the chief is chosen for his wealth, physical prowess and skill in diplomacy, the decisions are taken collectively by the villagers. On the other hand, the Semas have a system of hereditary village chief. In case of marriages, the Naga tribes follow the exogamous principle. Persons of same clan do not marry. The only exceptions are the Konyak chiefs who are considered so sacred that their principal wife must be a woman of the same clan. The Chakhesang of the Phek district of Nagaland is formed out of three subgroups of the allied ethinic groups called Chakro, Kheza, Santam although they have separate and distinct moieties like Chuzo and Thevo in addition to number of clans and lineages. But due to some politico-economic pressure from within and outside their own group they were compelled to be merged together, this could enable them to be established as single and powerful political and ethnic force to preserve their identity and culture. With conversion to Christianity, the traditional marriage, the pattern is totally changed. After negotiation of marriage, when the date is fixed foe wedding, both the parties go to the church, adorned in western wedding dresses in most of cases for solemnization.  The Purums of Manipur are old kuki tribes. They believe that Purums are divided intothe five clan Marriam, thaho,makam, Kheyang and Parpa. Each of them are belived to be exogamous. According to the Tarakchand Das (1945: 111) these are no longer exogamous. Among them he finds the many sub-clans Rhimphonchong, Rimkung, Rim-ke-lek in Marriam clan. Thao kung, thao rum, Teyu in Thao clan. Kankung and ingte in Kheyang clan. No sub clan in Parpa clan. Each sub-clan has the Pipa who is regarded as the head of the group. The eldest son of the Pipa Succeed his father. Thus tribal structure is tribe- clan- subclan- family and individual.  There are a number of sub-tribes under the Mizo, it includes Ralte, Paite, Dulien, Poi, Sukte, Pankhup, Jahao, Taute, Lakher Leillul and Tangur. These further divided into the clans like Lushais, Pawis and Lakhers. The clan endogamy is permissible. They are patriarchal descent. The youngest son in the family inherits the property. They believe that the youngest son is the fittest person in the family and can look after their old parents and elder brothers thus he is most eligible for inheriting the property. For the chief the eldest son consider as the most eligible. The tribal structure of the Mizos is tribe- subtribe- clans-family-individual (Vidarthi, 1976).  Eighteen tribes with all their traditions and customs make Tripura a cosmopolitan state. Tripuras dominate all other tribes of the state. Laskars and Notias are the other two groups of tribes. This group belongs to the Bodo race. The Mundas, Oraons, Santhals, Bhils, Lepchas, Bhutis

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

migrated to Tripura in recent past. The Kukis form another group of tribes in the state.. A diverse ethnic element among the people of Tripura is that- there are two major racial elements, namely, the Indo Aryans represented by Bengalese and the Indo-Mongoloids represented by a few communities like the Tripuris, the Reangs, the Jamatis, the Noatias, the Kukis, the Halmas, the Chakma, the Mogh and the Lushai. Besides these major tribes, there are ten more tribes. All the tribes are classified as “scheduled tribes.” They have partrilineal system. The tribal structure of Tripura is tribe-sub-group-clan-family-individual (Vidarthi, 1976).  The three main tribal groups residing in Meghalaya are: Khasis, Jaintias, Mikris and Garos, who are said to have inhabited this area before the reign of Christians. Women play a more important role in the social system than the man. They believe that women are personification of nature and so they believe that where women are honoured, there Gods are pleased. The three major tribes prohibit marriage within same clan. They have matrilineal society. The matrilineal system of the khasis also carries within it the underpinnings of the relationship between nature and mother built into the complex mechanism of their land tenure system, the social customs and laws. The youngest daughter of the family acts as a custodian of its land and property. Property is inherited to female line. It is managed by male Mahari. Household responsibilities are shared between the maternal uncle and the father.

The clan relationship regulates the social behavior. The matrix of the tribal community of the north eastern India based on the distinct factor of endogamous unity of the tribe ( means marriage take place inside the tribe) and exogamous unity of the clan ( means no take place within a clan). (Thomas T. Jacob, Indian Tribal Culture: A Rediscovery of Gospel Values). Most of the tribes having patrilineal system (means lineage is traced through the father side); some exception like Garo of Meghalaya is matrilineal. In Khasis of the Meghalaya the marriage is forbidden in both in mother’s clan as well as in the father’s clan. Breaking the marriage rules is considered a very severe crime and strict punishment is given to the rule breakers of the marriage. Punishment may include the loss of the property rights and even the expulsion from the village. Clan plays the role of the extended family, clan look after the weaker members of the tribes like sick, widows, orphans. Weak members can ask for the food, shelter and work from the other members. Village administration of the tribal people is carried out by the village council which includes all the elders of the families. Village council has the judicial powers. Women generally enjoy the equal status but don’t have any role in the decision making bodies of the village council even in the matrilineal tribes like Khasis. The very popular saying among the Khasis that “the war and politics is for men and the property and children is for the women” (Thomas T. Jacob, Indian Tribal Culture: A Rediscovery of Gospel Values). Tribal democracy is doesn’t depends on the majority or the minority, they believe on the principle that anyone can be superior to anyone else. Tribal people of the north eastern India considers the land and the water is the public property. All members work together on the same land and follow the “slash and burn” method called jhoom 15

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

cultivation. Hunting is also very common among them. The game meat is shared by all the members. Tribal communities generally don’t have class system. Social status is depends on the merits of the individuals. They always give importance to community over individual. They don’t believe in accumulation rather they believe in distribution. The act like organizing the social feast not only enhances their social status and prestige among their tribes but also it ensures the better rewards and peaceful life even after the death. They believe that the lazy people and greedy people the life will be difficult even after the death.

5. POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE TRIBES OF THE INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

Political life is tribal communities is where the monarchy and democracy co-exist. The members of the tribes are united by the kinship and marriage, thus it become difficult to differentiate between the political matters and domestic matters. Lineage segmentation is main principle of the political structure of the tribal communities. The tribal laws are depends on the Agnatic relations like clan and lineage, Moral principles and public opinions are the matter of consideration. Oaths are considered as the important mode of the evidence. They believe that the supernatural power also gives the punishment to offenders. The institutions are mainly of five types (Sengupta, 2003):

i) The council of the elders- where the elders of the clan look after matter. Lushias have their ‘upas’ they deal with their matters and also give advice to tribal chief who can disregard. The Ao clan elders are elected from different clans. The clans elders play crucial role among Nagas. A man’s position in the community is determined by the intelligence, character and by the wealth. The Khasis and Tripuries also have this institution of clan elders. (Sengupta, 2003) ii) The village headman- it is honored and obeyed by the rest of the members. This post is heredity. The Khasis have the ‘tynmen shnong’ as their village head. The tripuris have ‘chandhari’ as village head. Among the Purums ‘khullapka’ (khul means village, lakpa means protector) is the village head. After the British rule, the village head loses his power but the customary law prevails. (Sengupta, 2003). iii) The tribal chief- it is also the heredity post and have the ultimate judicial power. Chieftainship is common features of many tribes like the Nagas, Khasis, Lushais, etc. (Sahay, 1969: 160). The democratic spirit is can be observed in indigenous tribal administrative organizations. The constitutional monarchs were the Khasis Siems . They hardly take any decision independently. It is their ministers take decision for them. But the Lushai chiefs are more powerful, even they could disregard the decision taken by their upas (village elders). Thus we can observe that although the chiefs and the Siems are heredietary principles their administration is thoroughly democratic (Vidhyarthi, 1976). Social disputes are sorted in the court also. In some cases women are allowed during the trials. Since the independence whole administration in the region has changed. In the 16

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Konyak villages the chieftainship is known as the Ang or Wang still present but the chieftainship is losing its importance to the new elected and educated leaders (Vidhyarthi, 1976). iv) The village Panchayat- in this all villagers are the members who are above age of twenty years. They sit together to discuss the problems. There is no formal voting each person gives their opinion. The village headman has no real power than any other villager but pay more attention due to prestige of his position. The punishment to rule breakers is given by village council. The concept of the punishment is compensate the loss, or to purify the guilty, or to readmit the guilty after paying the fine. The Ao of Nagas has the institution of village council. The village council has the two chambers – Unger Menden (clan elders) and Saman Menden (village elders). Saman Menden is concerned with the secular matters. The democratic Konyak villages had village council in which the representatives are from different morung (men’s house). Their position as morung was either hereditary or selection was made for a limited period (Vidhyarthi, 1976). v) The union of the village- Pragan Panchayat - In this the villages (around 200 villages) are grouped in lose unions. Such a union is known as the parha or pargana. This has a court of appeal; in some cases they have power to readmission to the tribe (Sacchidanand, 1968: 123). Among the Nagas Long Phang is the regional head and work with the different village headmen member villagers. The Khasis have Siem Ried (regional head) who works with the Gaon Burhas and other representatives of the village. The tripuri villages have the Thakurs, Kobras and Sardars.

6. FESTIVALS OF INDIA’S NORTH EAST:

a) Tribal Festivals of Arunachal Pradesh:

In Arunachal Pradesh there is the huge importance of the festivals. Their all festivals are related to the mainly to the agriculture. They celebrate the festivals to increase the crop production or to express their thankfulness to the god for providing the blessing of the crops. Some major festivals of the people of the Arunachal Pradesh are:

i) Mol (Tangsa) ii) Mopin and Solung (Adi) iii) Ojhiale (Wancho) iv) Nyokum (Nishing) v) Reh (Mishmi) vi) Lossar (Monpa) vii) Boori-Boot (Hill Miris)

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

b) Tribal festivals of Assam:

Important festivals of the Assam are Magh Bihu (celebrated in January), BohagBihu (celebrated in april), Kati Bihu (celebrated in may). People together celebrate these festivals irrespective of caste, gender and age. The Assamese people also celebrate Diwali, Id, Janamshtami, Muharram, Durgapuja There are other festivals also celebrated by tribal people of the Assam like:

i) Ali-Ai-Ligang (Mishing tribe) ii) Baishagu (Bodo tribe) iii) Baikho (Rabha tribe) iv) HarniGarba (Dimasa tribe) v) Ambubhashi Mela vi) JonbillMela

Figure-4 Bihu dance of Assam; source: http://www.travelmasti.com/images/assam/assam_festival.jpg .

c) Tribal Festivals of Nagaland:

Tribal festivals of the Nagaland are majorly related to the agriculture. Their participation in their festivals considered as sacred and compulsory. Various arts performed here are Music and dance, Pottery , Crafts, wood-carvings, Morung Pillars, Kharu, Wooden log-drum, Black smithy etc. Naga people enjoy playing musical instruments like Trumpets and drums in their festivals.

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Figure Sumi dance of Nagaland; SOURCE: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Sumi_dancer_girls.jpg

The important festivals of Nagaland are:

i) Moastsu (Ao tribe) ii) Ngada (Rengma) iii) Monyu (Phom) iv) Nikanyulum (Chang) v) Sekrenyi (Agami) vi) Sukurnye(Chakhensang)

d) Tribal Festivals of Manipur:

All the festivals of the Manipur have special place for music and dance. The Lai Haraobai is the dance is performed by priests and priestess presenting the Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati, depicting the creation of the life. It celebrated during March- April for almost 15 days. Holi is one of the important festivals in the Manipur. The boys and girls sprinkle colored water on each other. It is celebrated during the Vasant Purnima day. Also they perform the Thabal Chouba dance on the holi. Ras Lila is very famous dance which depicts the eternal love of Lord Krishna and Radha, especially during the vasant purnima, sarat purnima and kartika purnima. The beautiful costumes add more beauty to this dance form.

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Figure 5 Rasleela of Manipur; Source: http://kanglaonline.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/ras-lila-leela-manipur-classical-dance.jpg

e) Tribal Festivals of Mizoram:

In the festivals of Mizoram various art forms practiced by the people like Dance, Music, etc. The main festivals of the Mizoram are:

i) Chapcharkut: It is also known as the spring festival. They celebrate it on the completion of their heavy job of jungle clearing for jhoom cultivation. On this day all people irrespective of ages decorate themselves in traditional colorful costumes, and together they perform folk dance and sing the folk songs. ii) Mimkut: It is also known as the maize festival. It is the festival celebrated on occasion of maize harvest. It is celebrated in month of the August and September. They perform folk dances and together sing folk songs. They drink rice beer on this occasion. Some portion of their harvest is given for their ancestors.

Figure 6 bamboo dance of Mizoram; Source: http://assamportal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Chapchar-Kut-Festival- Mizoram.jpg

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

The major folk dance is Cheraw the Bamboo Dance which is very famous in the Mizoram. In this dance long bamboo stave is used.

f) Tribal Festivals of Tripura:

The major festivals of the Tripura are:

i) Kharchi Puja: it is celebrated in july. On these festivals people worship the 14 deities of head image in the Chaturdaus Deutas temple in Agartala.

Figure 7 Kharchi puja; Source: https://encrypted-tbn2.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQRdumkY5ODwKos2DPrukNh-jB6l- f82OnO5Sgb6mmnFloGZS3uFw

ii) Gariya Puja: it is beileive this festival brings prosperity into their lives. It is celebrated on the 7th day of the month of vaishakh. On this day sacrifices of cock is performed by tribal people. iii) Ker Puja: this festival is celebrated within specific boundaries, for this they take permission from the gazette office. No outsider is allowed in the specific boundaries. iv) Durga Puja: it is celebrated for the goddess Durga, it is believe that she is the protector their family. At the end of the festival the idol of goddess Durga is immersed in the water.

g) Tribal Festivals of Meghalaya:

The following are the major festivals celebrated in the state of the Meghalaya:

i) Wangle festival: it is celebrated during October- November. It is the celebrated to worship the God Sun. It is celebrated by Garo tribe.

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Figure 8 wangle festiv al; Source: https://meghalayatours.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/wangala-festival-meghalaya-tours.jpg

ii) Shad Sukmyseium: It is the festival of Kasis. It is celebrated during the second of the April. iii) Bhehdiengkhlam: It is main festival of the Jaintias. It is celebrated in July. iv) Christmas: it is celebrated by Christian community of the state. It is celebrated in December.

7. FOOD CULTURE OF NORTH EASTERN INDIA:

The food culture of the North east India is different from the rest of the India and it is largely same in these seven states. North India cuisine is highly influenced by Chinese, Burmese, and Mongolian cuisine. North eastern Indians are basically non-vegetarians.

Arunachal Pradesh: People here generally are non vegetarian. Food is highly influenced from the Chinese cuisine. Apong (local drinks made from rice or millets) is also a famous among the tribal people.

Assam: food of Assam is mainly based on rice and fish. Rice is the main diet in Assam. The Assamese eat a huge variety of rice based breakfast cereals with the milk, yogurt or thick cream akhoi (puffed rice), chira (chura), the muri, komal chaul ( a specially processed rice which doesn't require but just an hour's soak in cold water). For dessert there is wide range in "pithas"(cakes). Also various kinds of pitha that is prepared from rice powder. Very little oil is used and practically no spices. Mustard oil is used for cooking and occasionally clarified butter or ghee.

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Figure 2. khar; Source: http://s3.scoopwhoop.com/ach/NE/1.JPG

Nagaland: The food habits of Nagaland are very different from the other region. Both the men and women are fond of drinks. Some of the popular drinks are Zutho, Ruhi, Dzutse where are made up of rice. They are basically non-vegetarian and eat of all kinds of animals like dog, spiders, crabs, beef and even elephants. In general, they don't throw any part of the animal, even intestine and skin considered as dishes.

Manipur: The traditional Manipuri fine dining with the banana-leaf plates. The rice is the major food. Some take rice with meat and some prefer fish. Kabok, traditional dish (fried rice with vegetables) is very famous. Also Iromba, is another famous Manipuri dish.

Figure 2. Iromba Manipuri chutney; Source: http://www.ndtv.com/cooks/images/Iromba_600.jpg

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

Mizoram: The people are basically non-vegetarian. They prefer spicy food but cooked on such a way that the nutritional value is restored. "Zu" (tea) is popular drink. Both men and women are fond of smoking.

Tripura: Food is highly influenced by Bengali cuisine. Fish is their inseparable part of their diet. Many Bengali recipes are also famous here. The traditional dish of Tripura 'Moi buruk' is also very famous.

Meghalaya: The Meghalayan cuisine is famous for meat particularly, pork. “Jadoh”- spicy dish of rice and pork is very famous. Chinese food is also famous here. “Kyat”, the local brew made from rice is famous on special occasion.

8. SUMMARY:

 Thus we can conclude that the India’s north east have great diversity in the term of language, religion, cultures.

 All the seven states have a uniqueness of their own.  Ethnic affinity is of majority have mongoloid elements.  Languages belong to the Sino-Tibetan linguistic family.  Every states have their own distinct festivals.  Tribal economy is majorly depends on agriculture.  Social organization is depends on the clan relationship.  Most of tribes have patrinilineal system.  In general there is Endogamous unity of tribe, Exogamous unity of clan.  The political institutions are mainly of five types: The council of the elders- where the elders of the clan look after matter. Lushias have their ‘upas’ they deal with their matters and also give advice to tribal chief who can disregard. The Ao clan elders are elected from different clans. The clans elders play crucial role among Nagas. The village headman- it is honored and obeyed by the rest of the members. This post is heredity. The Khasis have the ‘tynmen shnong’ as their village head. The tribal chief- it is also the heredity post and have the ultimate judicial power. Chieftainship is common features of many tribes like the Nagas, Khasis, Lushais, etc. The village Panchayat- in this all villagers are the members who are above age of twenty years. They sit together to discuss the problems.Strict punishment given to rule breakers.  Each state has unique festivals of their own.

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East

 The food culture of the North east India is different from the rest of the India and it is largely same in these seven states. North India cuisine is highly influenced by Chinese, Burmese, and Mongolian cuisine.

Tribal Culture of India Anthropology Tribes of India’s North East