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Home , Aden Emergency, Ballymurphy massacre, Black and Tans, David House, Five techniques, Force Research Unit

HIDDEN HISTORIES THE POISONED LEGACY OF COLONIALISM

divide & rule MI5 burnt crops gangs & counter-gangs sir kenneth newman cruel britannia poisoned wells Waterboarding Lethal Allies In-depth interrogation frank kitson Dhofar THE POISONOUS LEGACY white noise Q patrols pseudo- gangs MRF Amritsar Massacre castration OF COLONIALISM propaganda UDR secret wars BRUNEI SAS DECAPITATION india McGurks Bar imperial policing “The is one of the few countries in the European Gordon Kerr collusion 14th intelligence company ELECTRIC SHOCKS Union that does not need to bury its 20th century history.” Low Intensity Operations partition racism Douglas Duff rape genocide historical amnesia imperialism Liam Fox MP, former Conservative Defence Minister MALAYA house demolitions FOUR SQUARE LAUNDRY John Nicholson black & tans Qissa Khwani “You don’t really teach colonial history in your schools. Massacre General Henry Tudor native people slave trade ECHR There’s no awareness of the atrocities… Children doing ORDE WINGATE British Guyana the nakba CONCENTRATION CAMPS SPECIAL NIGHT SQUADS MAJOR GENERAL CHARLES GWYNN Boxer A-levels don’t learn a line of colonial history.” Rebellion STATES OF EMERGENCY sexual exploitation colonel maurice Indian politician and author Shashi Tharoor. tugwell the history thieves Iraq INTERNMENT PAKISTAN BALLYKELLY ARMY CAMP COUNTER-iNSURGENCY “The violence of the has long been forgotten. We need BATANG KALI MASSACRE BRITAIN’S GULAG RAF CARPET BOMBING to face up to this history and education is crucial if we are to do so.” apartheid firqats BENGAL FAMINE EAST INDIA COMPANY Dr Esme Cleall, lecturer in the history of the inglorious empire A STATE IN DENIAL IMPUNITY Special Branch British Empire, University of Sheffield. Al-Bassa Massacre & Royal Ulster Rifles CHAGOS ISLANDERS general Detention water & food deprivation Cecil Rhodes castlereagh AN GORTA MOR MI6 REPRISALS ‘mad mitch’ Palestine RUC Balfour Declaration DUBLIN & MONAGHAN BOMBINGS DIEGO GARCIA assassination BLACK HOLES information policy unit plastic & rubber bullets

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Justice for the Forgotten INTRODUCTION

Why would a northern that had been tried and tested. The ‘present’ during interrogations at the European Convention on Human infamous Fort Morbat interrogation (MRF) THE ‘FIVE TECHNIQUES’ Irish based human Rights cut little ice in military circles. centre in Aden in the mid-60s. Fort rights NGO produce an Kitson created undercover units (the Morbut had a fearsome reputation The Military Reaction Force (MRF) was a covert counter- The ‘Five Techniques’ of torture were used on the MRF) whose aim was to provoke as a British torture centre during this insurgency unit established in Northern by Sir ‘Hooded Men’ in Ballykelly in 1971 by the RUC under exhibition on the legacy sectarian conflict. Similar units had time. And Fort Morbut was closer to Frank Kitson in 1971. It had two elements – soldiers the tutelage of the ’s Joint Service School been set up in Cyprus (Q Patrols) and Ballykelly and Castlereagh than many seconded from their own regiments and young of Intelligence in Ashford, Kent. The techniques were of colonialism? Oman (firqats). It is striking that every of us knew. republicans whom the British Army had succeeded previously employed by the British Army in various single General Commanding The ten year war in Oman/Dhofar which in ‘turning’. Its activities were at their height in 1972. colonial conflicts: The answer is to be found in the ongoing the British Army in the north in the saw the SAS hired out as mercenaries They killed at least two civilians and injured several • Sleep deprivation impact of British military policies and 1970s had seen military service in the to the Sultan may have been cloaked more. The unit had a short lifespan and was disbanded • White noise practices in the north of Ireland in the ‘colonies’. in exceptional secrecy but the human after the debacle of the Four Square Laundry (a bogus • Hooding early 1970s. Policies and practices that Prior colonial service was not limited rights abuses that occurred elsewhere laundry service) affair in October 1972. It was replaced • Wall-standing/ stress positions were to leave a disastrous legacy, in to the ranks of the military. Two RUC hardly received the attention that by the more disciplined and centralised Special • Deprivation of food and drink particular on working class nationalist/ Chief Constables in the 1970s had they should have back in Britain. To Reconnaissance Unit (SRU). The ‘Hooded Men’ also describe a 6th technique- republican communities. Unarmed served as colonial police. Arthur Young this day there is little mention of the extreme beating! civilians were shot dead by British served in Malaya and Kenya though dark side of the empire in the school troops with impunity. Daily harassment it should be noted that Young was curriculum, in parliament, or in the and repression was the norm and even apparently appalled by the atrocities media. The Imperial War Museum now new evidence is emerging of being carried out in Kenya by British tells a fascinating story but the torture, INTERNMENT horrendous cases of torture including forces and left after less than eight massacres and repression that were WATERBOARDING Internment without trial was introduced in Northern the use of waterboarding and electric months. a hallmark of empire is conspicuous Ireland on 9 August 1971 and ended in December 1975. “Waterboarding” is when a person’s face is tipped back shocks. Kenneth Newman’s stint in Palestine as by its absence from the exhibitions. It had been several months in planning. A decision was and water poured into their mouth and nose, filling their Relatives of those who were killed (and a young officer coincided with a reign of Little wonder that the same violations taken that only Catholics should be interned at the airways and giving them a strong sensation of imminent were then labelled terrorists, gunmen terror led by Major General Henry Tudor have recurred more recently in Iraq outset. It was a complete disaster – it led to a massive drowning. and bombers) continue to seek truth of the Mandate Police Force. Tudor had and Afghanistan. The then Attorney escalation in violence and swelled the ranks of the IRA. PFC has uncovered contemporaneous evidence that and acknowledgement. Many of the form. He had created and commanded General, in evidence to the European Loyalists began to be interned in February 1973 after this technique, although not called ‘waterboarding’ at victims of torture are still with us. the Infamous Black and Tans during Commission of Human Rights on 8 an outcry about a sectarian murder. This, however, was the time, was employed by the British Army in Northern And crucially, the military policies the Irish War of Independence and February 1977, made a solemn promise nothing more than a cosmetic exercise and, by the time Ireland during the 1970s. and practices that defined Operation succeeded in bringing many of his that the Five Techniques would never internment ended, of 1,981 persons detained, only 107 Banner, the military name for former Tan comrades with him to again be permitted. Not long after the (5.4%) were Protestants. deployment in the North from 1969 to Palestine. Between 75% and 95% of Iraq invasion British army units began 2007, did not begin nor did they end on the gendarmerie that he commanded interrogating prisoners using the Five the island of Ireland. were former ‘Tans’. Techniques. Internment, mass screening of In 1971 allegations of torture began civilians, the use of the five torture to emerge from interrogation centres We all pay the price for the collective techniques, waterboarding and in the north. This led to the Irish failure to face up to the poisonous electric shocks, states of emergency, Government taking a case to the legacy of empire. massacres by troops and the use of Human “If South Armagh were a of undercover secret units had long Rights, followed by the European Court For further information about the province in Malaya many of been standard practice in the counter- of Human Rights. The location of the ‘Legacy of Colonialism’ project, insurgency wars fought during the most egregious torture, including the including further reading, sources and its Catholic inhabitants would retreat from empire. use of the ‘Five Techniques’, has only copyright information relating to the have had their homes burned Troops who stepped off boats in recently been revealed. Declassified images used, please visit our website and in 1969 were often fresh documents found by the www.patfinucancecentre.org down and have been either from other brutalising conflicts as the Centre confirmed that a selected group forcibly resettled in heavily sun began to set on the empire. That of men were tortured at Ballykelly units such as the Parachute Regiment army camp near Derry. policed ‘new villages’ or would go on to commit massacres The same documents contain the deported across the border.” (Bloody Sunday, Ballymurphy, name of a senior officer, an expert in Springhill) or use waterboarding on interrogation from the Joint Services John Newsinger, Professor of History, detainees is hardly surprising given Interrogation Wing at Ashford in Bath Spa University and author of ‘ their record in other conflicts. Kent, who was in charge in Ballykelly The Long War’ Senior officers who had free rein in in 1971. According to the 2011 Baha Kenya or Malaya such as Brigadier Mousa Inquiry this same individual, Lt Frank Kitson soon set about Col John Robert Nicholson OBE, had implementing low intensity war tactics admitted to an earlier inquiry to being LEGACY OF COLONIALISM LEGACY OF COLONIALISM LEGACY OF COLONIALISM LEGACY OF COLONIALISM BRUNEI CYPRUS KENYA MALAYA Uprising and ‘Confrontation’ EOKA uprising against British Rule 1952 - 1960 The Malayan ‘Emergency’ 1962 - 1966 1955 - 59 1948 - 1960 In the early 1960s, after Dutch colonists formally withdrew In 1914 Britain annexed Cyprus as a . It was a Britain declared Kenya a ‘protectorate’ in 1895 and a colony British created the Federation of Malaya in 1948, which severely from West Borneo, the Malaysian Federation was established crucial military base on the sea route to India, Britain’s most in 1920. By 1952, tensions had risen again between the restricted the citizenship rights of non-Malays. The country’s with help from its former masters, Britain. important possession. By the end of World War 2, Cyprus had majority of Kikuyu people and a loose coalition of notoriously rubber, tin and iron were of vital economic importance to Britain become its military and intelligence headquarters for the racist white settler/farmers and wealthier, land-owning after WW2. The Malayan prime minister wanted to expand the Federation . members of the Kikuyu tribe. to include Singapore, Sarawak, British North Borneo and With the Trade Union Movement under sustained attack, the Brunei but Sukarno, the Indonesian prime minister, wanted The Greek Cypriot community had long been overwhelmingly Landless Kikuyu called themselves the ‘Kenya Land and Malayan Communist Party prepared for armed struggle. In to unite the island of Borneo under his own rule, believing in favour of enosis ( with Greece).Georgios Grivas, a Freedom Army’ but they were labelled ‘Mau Mau’ by the response the British adopted a divide and rule strategy. A State the Federation was a British bid to boost its own power base. former general in the Greek army, returned to Cyprus in 1954 British who expropriated their land and created a pool of low- of Emergency was declared imposing a virtual police state, and began making plans for a guerrilla insurgency to achieve wage Kikuyu labourers/squatters. with powers of search, arrest, detention, curfew, collective The 1962/63 Brunei Rebellion began on 8 December with a enosis. He collaborated with Archbishop Makarios and punishments and food controls. proclamation of independence. Rebels attacked the police After violence broke out in 1952, the British declared a State established an underground organisation, known as EOKA. station and residence of the chief minister in Brunei town and of Emergency and arrested 180 alleged rebels. They then The so-called ‘strategic hamlet’ scheme was devised. Half a overran the main power station while the Sultan called on the The revolt began in March 1955 with bomb attacks across arrested tens of thousands in the capital, Nairobi, enforced million Chinese were forced into the ‘villages’. Jungle food stores British to help put down the rebellion. the island, which took the British completely by surprise. land reform and began a ‘villagisation’ programme to were booby-trapped, villages burnt and some detainees By November, a had been control over a million rural, landless Kikuyu. shot. The most notorious atrocity was the Batang The total number of rebels killed between declared. Soon, serious allegations against the Within months, 20,000 Mau Mau suspects had Kali Massacre in which 24 men were shot dead December 1962 and May 1963 probably British began to emerge. Hundreds were been ‘screened’ and taken to concentration and their villages burnt by Scots Guards in exceeded 100. Four police officers lost beaten, burned, or water-boarded during camps while 30,000 more were deported December 1948. their lives during the uprising. The interrogations. Finger-nails were to special ‘reserves’. SAS was sent to Brunei to search the Sir Arthur Young, later “It is a bit rich to oppress, removed, testicles crushed, walking- jungle area for remaining rebels. By 1955, a systematic screening, of the RUC, arrived in Malaya in 1952 sticks inserted into rectums. The “…during the Mau Mau war torture, imprison, enslave, torturing, detention and deportation as CO of the Malayan Police Force At least 12 British Army officers infamous five torture techniques, system had been set up that British forces wielded their while Frank Kitson, who was later were involved in interrogating later used in Ireland, were all deport and proscribe a including execution by hanging of stationed in Belfast, was decorated approximately 2,000 prisoners employed. Fourteen died under 1,090 rebels on a touring gallows. authority with a savagery for ‘eliminating’ insurgents. using the ‘Five Techniques’ later people for 200 years, and interrogation, two of them 17-year- used on the ‘Hooded Men’ in olds. Frank Kitson (then a young that betrayed a perverse Also appointed in 1952 as Director Ireland. then take credit for the fact captain) was a military intelligence of Intelligence to the Governor was The British adopted a divide and colonial logic.” officer in Kenya from 1953 to Jack Morton, a senior MI5 officer. The later Konfrontasi that they are democratic at rule strategy between the Greek 1955, organising “counter-gangs” Morton came out of retirement in (Confrontation 1963-1966) was and Turkish-Cypriot communities. Caroline Elkins, academic the end of it.” of former Mau Mau members to 1973 to undertake an advisory mission seen as Indonesia’s challenge The Turkish-Cypriot paramilitary and author of ‘Britain’s Gulag’ become intelligence-gatherers/ for the MoD in . He re- to the establishment of Malaysia, organisation, Volkan/TMT, was openly Shashi Tharoor, agents provocateurs. organised RUC Special Branch and set up particularly the inclusion of the Borneo tolerated, as a counterweight to EOKA. author of ‘Inglorious Empire’ an MI5/Army database on suspects. regions of Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei. Increasingly, use was made of Q-patrols - Another veteran of the Mau Mau campaign who went on to serve in Belfast was Sir Bodies of dead guerrillas were displayed in At its height, the low-intensity war involved counter-gangs comprising Turkish Cypriots; , GOC NI from 1977-79. Creasey public. Decapitation and mutilation was common. In about 30,000 Indonesian troops and 17,000 British ‘turned’ EOKA members and others, to gather also served in Cyprus and Aden. Lt. Gen. Sir April 1952, a Royal Marine was photographed holding the Commonwealth troops from Australia and New Zealand intelligence and kill or capture EOKA members. 3,000 served as GOC in Kenya between 1963 -1964. Freeland was heads of two insurgents, causing a public outcry. including SAS personnel from Britain. were interned. appointed as GOC in Northern Ireland when the first troops The police force virtually collapsed. New recruits were sought Britain was first to employ the use of defoliants to destroy food Interrogation centres were set up on the island of Borneo and were deployed in July 1969. crops and trees, depriving insurgents of cover. At least 10,000 then in West Malaysia. According to declassified documents in Britain and among the Turkish-Cypriot community. The Over 50,000 Mau Mau were killed in combat, 1.5 million were civilians and insurgents suffered from serious exposure to Agent Military Intelligence Officers (MIOs) and Intelligence Corps Governor, however, vetoed recruits from the RUC because of interned (Including US President Barack Obama’s paternal Orange. NCOs from the Army Intelligence Centre in Maresfield, their ‘heavy-handed reputation’. grandfather, Hussein Onyango Obama, who was arrested Sussex were sent to Brunei. The Greek government lodged complaints with both the 650,000 plantation and mine workers and families were moved and tortured). within barbed-wire compounds where they could be controlled The of the 51st Gurka Brigade in Borneo during ECHR and the UN which were later withdrawn as part of the Kikuyu insurgents certainly committed atrocities (including effectively. this period was who would later be promoted independence negotiations. The campaign ended in March killings of fellow Kikuyu) but fewer than 200 British soldiers to Lt. Gen. Sir David House, GOC in the North from 1977-79. 1959 with independence for Cyprus, but not enosis. Britain SAS squadrons from the racist regime in ‘’ served and police and only 32 white settlers were killed. succeeded in retaining two sovereign bases on the island. alongside the British as did Dyak head-hunters from Borneo. The previous commander of the Gurkas in Borneo with Harvard historian, Caroline Elkins, says the British held British SB conducted secretive drug experiments on prisoners. responsibility for Brunei was General Harry Tuzo who The Turkish invasion of 1974 resulted in the partition of bonfires of official papers as they left in an attempt to cover Interrogation of captured troops, including women, was so severe became GOC in Belfast from 1971-73. Tuzo, whose period as Cyprus. The Turkish occupation is illegal under International their tracks, however, a group of Kenyans won £20 million in that some committed suicide, or possibly died under torture. commander in Belfast was marked by the killings of civilians law. a 2013 court action. and the widespread use of torture, had earlier been honoured By the end of the conflict, nearly 34,000 had been detained and by the Sultan of Brunei for his contribution to putting down Forty thousand more Kenyans are claiming further 226 hanged. Britain achieved its main aims: the insurgents were the rebellion. compensation in a related London court action for rape and defeated and, with independence in 1957, British interests were torture (1,500 have died since the claim was launched). preserved. LEGACY OF COLONIALISM LEGACY OF COLONIALISM LEGACY OF COLONIALISM LEGACY OF COLONIALISM / ADEN OMAN/DHOFAR PALESTINE THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT 1963 - 1967 The Secret War 1917 - 1948 1858 - 1947 1966 - 1976 The British seized Aden in 1839 (claiming its inhabitants threatened The strategically vital Sultanate of Oman, situated alongside The Balfour Declaration, 2 November 1917, publicly The British takeover of India began in 1662 when Bombay was trade routes to India) while after the opening of the in the Straits of Hormuz, was the location of probably the articulated the British government’s support of a Jewish gifted to the English king Charles II as a wedding present. 1869, it became strategically and commercially important. most secretive war fought by British forces in the post WW2 homeland in Palestine. It stated “His Majesty’s Government Through the East India Company, Britain extended its control period. From 1966 to 1976 British led forces fought a counter- view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a After WW1, the British enforced control by dropping warning over the whole of India by treaties with local princes, or by insurgency war against rebel adoo Popular Front fighters in national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best leaflets from the air and bombing towns or villages deemed to annexation and military conquest. The Company had a private the southern province of Dhofar. endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object..” be “misbehaving”. Families moved into the countryside as their army which grew to include eventually 260,000 men. homes were flattened. The Sultanate was run along feudal lines where slavery was The Declaration led to the enacting of Article 22 of the 1857 saw the first major uprising against British rule which legal until 1970. The Sultan of Oman, who personally ‘owned’ Covenant of the League of Nations, entrusting Palestine to The “” started on 14 when one of shook the whole of the Indian subcontinent. Many hundreds 500 slaves, was surrounded by British officials including his “His Britannic Majesty” in 1922. two rival insurgent groups threw a grenade at a group of British of thousands, possibly millions, of Indians, Muslim and defence secretary and chief of intelligence (British army officials. The Mandate Police Force was established shortly after and Hindu, were killed by the British in retaliation. Delhi was all officers). It was a de facto British colony with one hospital, was modelled on the Royal Irish Constabulary (precursor but razed to the ground. In a subsequent security operation dozens were arrested and soaring infant mortality rates, only three primary schools, no of RUC) and led by Major General Henry Tudor, founder of allegations of torture surfaced in the Arab and British media. Some secondary school and a colonial administration that took its From 1858 to 1947 India was firmly at the heart of the British the Black and Tans. Tudor commanded the British army in of the allegations focussed on an interrogation centre orders from London and showed an appalling toleration Empire and was governed directly from Britain. Palestine, and ‘Gendarmerie’, an exclusively British set up at Fort Morbat which was staffed by British for routine torture and mutilation of citizens by auxiliary force (75- 95% former Black & Tans.) British policy now encouraged divisions officers and NCOs. The British official who had the Sultan’s British controlled army. Even the between Muslims and Hindus and was built headed Special Branch operations in Kenya The ‘Gendarmerie” disbanded in 1926 prison warders were British. on a structure which was hierarchical and Cyprus, John Prendergast, was and many former Black and Tans joined Uprisings against the brutal rule of the and racist and which opposed drafted in and interrogations increased the British section of the Palestinian “Can it be right that our Sultan in the 1950s led to over 1600 demands for self-rule. in number and severity. Police Force including Douglas bombing raids by the RAF against school children are far “I have spent the greater Duff. Duff became Chief of Police Following the First World War, According to the Baha Mousa Inquiry ‘rebel’ villages and infrastructure in Jerusalem. His brutal tactics despite assurances to the one of those present in Aden during part of my life watching and deployment of the SAS who more likely to learn about led to the phrase “duffing-up.” contrary, draconian war-time the torture of detainees was Lt. were secretly ‘on loan’ to the British troops being pulled Duff boasted about the use of the Americans in Vietnam, security laws were made Col. John Robert Nicholson OBE regime. suspension, waterboarding - permanent. Protests against this who went on to become Principal or the Russian revolution, out of places they were The outbreak of a new rebellion in including the use of coffee instead led directly to the 1919 Amritsar Instructor at the Joint Services 1966 in Dhofar province led to a 10 of water to simulate drowning, and massacre where hundreds of Interrogation Wing at Ashford, never going to leave.” than they are the history of year intervention by British forces- beating the soles of prisoners’ feet unarmed civilians were killed by Kent. Nicholson was also present at an intervention of which the British as part of his repertoire. the British Empire? ” British soldiers. Ballykelly Army base in 1971 when Journalist James Cameron, public, press and parliament was the ‘Hooded Men’ were tortured. , June 2nd 1975 The Arab revolt against the British From this point on the people largely unaware. No journalists were David Anderson, Declassified British government administration in 1936 to 1939 saw 10% of India, under the leadership of allowed to enter Oman. Professor of African History, documents reveal that Nicholson played a of the adult Arab male population killed, University of Warwick. Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, central role in the training of RUC interrogators British-led forces poisoned wells, burnt wounded, imprisoned, or exiled. British demanded complete independence. and in overseeing the actual interrogations. villages and destroyed crops. Torture of reprisals for the revolt included an official policy Over 100,000 people were interned without trial. suspects, led by British officers, was routine. In of house demolitions leaving 6,000 Palestinians In Yemen allegations of electric shocks, anal rape using Another massacre took place in Peshawar in 1930 a 1970 MI6 coup the Sultan was deposed by his Sandhurst homeless, ‘punitive village occupations’, forced labour and objects and sleep, food and water deprivation leaked into the public when hundreds of Muslim nonviolent demonstrators were educated son . (The ousted dictator lived out summary executions. domain. A subsequent investigation by was killed by British soldiers at Qissa Khawani bazaar. his final years in a luxury suite at the Dorchester Hotel in rejected by the then Labour Government of . The Al-Bassa massacre in 1938 saw 50 Arab men forced London.) Later, during 1943, up to three million died in the Bengal on to a bus and made to drive over a landmine by soldiers In 1964, the 24th Infantry Brigade was deployed to conduct land Famine - a direct result of Churchill’s decision to divert food SAS intervention in the 70s was marked by classical counter- of the Royal Ulster Regiment. This was in retaliation for the operations. The British Army remained in Aden until November from India to Europe. insurgency tactics of carrot and stick. A scorched earth murder of four soldiers. Villagers were then forced to bury 1967, while Defence Secretary spoke of the military policy with free-fire zones was followed by the the mutilated bodies, others were whipped and tortured. This Other Indians joined the Indian National Army and fought the need to initiate “deniable action ... to sabotage … and kill personnel deployment of ‘civil aid teams’ whose aim was to win over the was not an isolated incident. ‘Special Nights Squads’ were British alongside the Japanese. engaged in anti-British activities”. bruised and battered civilian population. used to terrorise, kidnap and murder both Jews and Arabs. After the war over 10,000 Indian soldiers mutinied demanding By 1965, MI6 had a secret agreement with to use its territory Locally recruited ‘firqats’ were used as ‘counter-gangs’ ‘Nakba’ meaning ‘Day of Catastrophe’, commemorated freedom. for logistical reasons. During street rioting in January 1967, British In 1976, as the situation in S. Armagh was spinning out of on 15 May, marks the day after the end of the Mandate in troops crushed protests but in June, after the Six Day War, the police A year later the British withdrew, partitioning the country, control, the SAS was deployed directly from Oman to S. 1948. During the Palestinian war that year, 400 Palestinian rebelled killing 22 British soldiers and shooting down a helicopter. a process which led directly to up to two million people Armagh. In Oman it was ‘mission accomplished’. The oilfields villages were destroyed and 750,000 Palestinians expelled. massacred. Problems The “Battle of ” ensued with the /Argyll and along with the strategic Strait of Hormuz were secured as Palestinians lost their homeland and the seeds of future Sutherland Highlanders under Lt. Col. Colin Campbell (“Mad”) were the RAF bases in the Sultanate. Over 8,000 Omanis had conflict were sown. Mitchell occupying the entire district overnight in July 1967. lost their lives in the “war that never was”. Another officer serving in Palestine in 1947 was Robert Ford Repeated guerrilla attacks resumed, however, and the British left who would later emerge as the most senior British officer in Aden in . Over 2,000 people had died, some as a Derry on Bloody Sunday in 1972. Weeks before the massacre direct result of torture. Ford had advocated a shoot-to-kill policy against rioters.