Using Roman Sites: a Teacher's Guide. Education on Site. INSTITUTION English Heritage Education Service, London (England)

Home , 280s, Britannia Superior, Camulodunum, Coventina, Durnovaria, Lullingstone Roman Villa

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AUTHOR Watson, lain TITLE Using Roman Sites: A Teacher's Guide. Education on Site. INSTITUTION English Heritage Education Service, London (England). ISBN ISBN-1-85074-334-7 PUB DATE 1997-00-00 NOTE 42p.; For other teacher's guides in the series, see SO 029 517-521. AVAILABLE FROM English Heritage Education Service, 23 Savile Row, London, England W1X lAB, United Kingdom. Tel: 020 7973 3000; Fax: 020 7973 3443; e-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/. PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Teacher (052) EDRS ,PRICE MF01/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Active Learning; Ancient History; *Archaeology; British National Curriculum; Community Characteristics; Cultural Background; Cultural Education; Elementary Secondary Education; Foreign Countries; *Gardens; *Heritage Education; History Instruction; *Local History; Social Studies; World History IDENTIFIERS England; *Roman Civilization

ABSTRACT This book is about finding the evidence to help pupils discover the Romans, especially in Britain. The Romans changed the culture and landscape of Britain and left a wide range of evidence to be investigated today. Pupils need to be presented this range of evidence and the interpretations put on them. The evidence presented is both archaeological evidence and documentary eVidence. The chapter titles include: (1) "Historical Background"; (2) "Roman Sites"; (3) "Documentary Sources"; (4) "Educational Approaches"; and (5)"Roman Sites across the Curriculum." A bibliography and resources section are also part of the text.(EH)

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A A = BEST COPY AVAILABLE Books in the Education on Site series are written especially for teachers to help them make the best use of the historic environment. Series editor: Mike Corbishley

Cover illustrations: Richborough Roman Fort (English Heritage Photo Library) Inset back: At Wroxeter Roman City (Liz Hollinshead).

Edited with additional material by Mike Corbishley Drawings and maps by Peter Connolly, Judith Dobie, Peter Dunn, Ivan Lapper and Sean Whittle. Drawings and maps remain the copyright of English Heritage but may be reproduced without written permission by educational establishments for free distribution for their own educational use. Designed by Alan McPherson Printed by Hythe Offset, Colchester

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First published 1997 by English Heritage C Copyright English Heritage, 1997 ISBN 1-85074-334-7 EDUCATEON ON SETE

USING ROMAN SITES Iain Watson

4 ENGLISH HERITAGE USING ROMAN SETIES CONTENTS

ABOUT THIS BOOK 3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 4 Roman and Native 4 Roman conquest 5 The province of Britain 6 The end of Roman Britain 7 ROMAN SITES 9 Military 10 Town and country 11 Resource sheets: The Roman Army 12 Roman Buildings 14 Case Study: Lullingstone 16 Resource sheet: A Roman Villa 18 Religion and burial 20 Industry 24 Roads, bridges and aqueducts 25 Resource Sheet: Crafts and Industries26 DOCUMENTARY SOURCES 28 Wooden writing tablets 28 Inscriptions 28 Roman literature 28 EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES 30 Searching for Roman sites 30 Activities on site 31 Making comparisons 32 ROMAN SITES ACROSS THE CURRICULUM 33 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES 35 CLOCKWISE FROM TOP LEFT: Gaming board found at Corbridge; coin depicting Hadrian found in the River Tyne; Ermine Street Guard and visitors; class examining the stonework of the Roman lighthouse at Dover; recording column bases at Woxeter Roman City; display of a project on the Romans at a primary school; inside the gymnasium of the baths at Wall; a model of part of the site at Wroxeter; class visiting the site at Wroxeter with the wall of the baths behind; "Spring" with a swallow on her shoulder from a mosaic at Lullingstone Roman Villa.

5 2 USHNG ROMAN SITES ABOUT THIS BOOK

This book is about finding the evidence to help your pupils discover the Romans, especially in Britain. The Romans changed the culture and landscape of Britain and left a wide range of evidence to be investigated today. It is important to present to pupils this range of evidence, and the interpretations which have been put on it. The evidence for the Romans in Britain takes two basic forms: archaeological evidence the actual remains of the Romans, whether landscapes, buildings or objects documentary evidence whether writings by Roman authors about their way of life or Excavating the remains of the baths at Wroxeter Roman city (see page 8 and artist's events in Britain or written evi- impression on pages 14-15 and page 32). dence from modern authors.

It is important for pupils to under- Quae tam seposita est, quae gens tam barbara, Caesar stand that the 'Romans' were a ex qua spectator non sit in urbe tua? whole mix of different peoples60 venit ab Orpheo cultor Rhodopeius Haemo, million people living in a number venit et epoto Sarmata pastus equo, of different provinces which made et qui prima bibit deprehensi flumina Nik up the Roman Empire and joined et quern supremae Tethyos unda ferit; partly by one official language festinavit Arabs, festinavere Sabaei, (Latin). et Cilices nimbis hic maduere suis. crinibus in nodum tortis venere Sugambri, This poem was addressed to the atque aliter tortis crinibus Aethiopes. emperor Titus in AD 80 by vox diversa sonat populorum, tum tamen una est, Marcus Valerius Martialis, known cum verus patriae diceris esse pater. in English as Martial. The poem was to celebrate the opening of the What nation is so remote, Emperor, or so barbarous that world's greatest amphitheatre, the someone hasn't come from it to watch the games in your city? Colosseum. Martial grew up and There are farmers from the Balkans here, natives from south- was educated in one of the 'new ern Russia bred on horse's blood, people who drink the Nile's towns' of the Roman Empire waters and even those from far away Britain*. Arabs, people Bilbilis in Spain.Yet Martial from the shores of the Red Sea, as well as those from southern thought of himself as a Roman not Turkey, have hurried here and German tribesmen and a Spaniard and in fact lived in Ethiopians each with their own peculiar hairstyles. Their Rome for over 30 years. languages all sound different, yet they all hail you with a The poem makes the point about single voice, Emperor, as the true father of our country. the vast range of the Empire and its different peoples but also put Britain into that context.The province of Britain was added in we use today? * The word 'Britain' does not the first century AD and was on Perhaps more significant is the appear in the poem but we know the furthest limits of the Roman fact that the Roman occupation of it refers to Britain because it says world. While it is clarly important Britain changed our landcape. We that the 'wave of far away Tethys' to us, as a significant part of our still drive along, or rather on top of, beats on the shore. Tethys was early history, it was only a very Roman roads. Many of our cities the goddess wife of Oceanus small, and mostly insignificant and towns were of Roman founda- whom the Romans thought of as part, of the Roman Empire. But tion. The very High Streets we now the great ocean which stretched one legacy of the Romans can be shop in may be there because they out to the province of Britain on seen in the words of the poem were the main streets in Roman the furthest edges of their world. itself. How many of the Latin towns. words have given us English words 6 3 USIING ROMAN SITES HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

ROMAN AND NATIVE The tribes of the north and west Roman world/Modern world When the Romans invaded Britain had looser tribal organisations and people probably lived in extended Photocopy the map (below) of it was not an empty country but the Roman world at its greatest inhabited by numerous tribes ruledfamily units, but they were still organised societies. extent in the second century AD. by individual rulers. The different Ask your pupils to use a tribes in Britain had different char- In general the tribes of the south modern atlas to find out: acters and different levels of tribal and east (such as the Atrebates and organisation. the Catuvellauni) were more readi- how many of the Roman The tribes in the south and east ly assimilated into Roman culture names are used today, without had: and settled into a Roman way of any change (for example, life whilst the northern tribes con- Syria) trading and other contacts with tinued to offer resistance to the Romans. It is difficult to estimate how many can still be guessed tribes on the continent and thus at easily (for example, Aegyptus) with the Mediterranean worldthepopulation figures for Britain in the Roman period but best estimates civilisations of Greece and Rome how many have provided the suggest that at its height the popu- basis for words in modern at least some large settlements or lation was approximately 200,000 European languages, perhaps as towns (sites such as St Albans and people living in the vici (civilian adjectives (for example, Gallia) Wheathamp stead are referred to as settlements surrounding forts) and or are used today for regions 'oppida'- meaning a small provin- a rural population of 2 million or rather than whole countries (for cial town) more. A few people lived in villas, example, Alpes) the rest lived an almost unchanged a money economy, minting their life in small rural agricultural settle- whether any boundaries of own coins ments, presumably still speaking Roman provinces are the same their own Celtic languages, the as present-day ones imported Mediterranean wine only difference in their lives being You could also use an atlas or into Britain along with other luxurythat they now paid taxes to the maps from earlier this century goods and in return exported Romans rather than to their tribal and compare the borders of slaves, tin and other goods such as chief. countries then with now. corn.

Germania Inferior Britannia Germania Superior

Belgica Black Sea Lugdunensis Raeti Noricum Dacia ia Constantinople allia Pannonia erior Bithina Aquitania es Poeni Moesia Ipes Cottia Dalmatia uperior onti Cappadocia Thracia Narbonensis ritim Macedonia Galati Syria Rome Tarraconensis Italia Hispania Epirus Lusitania Sardinia

Achaea Baetica c==:2 Sicilia Creta rabia auretania Africa uretania Caesariensis ingitana Cyrenaica Aegyptus

The Roman Empire in the second century AD.

4 7 IHEISTORICALACKGROUND ROMAN CONQUEST Julius Caesar, who had been cam- paigning in Gaul (modern France and parts of neighbouring countries, see map on page 4), led expe- ditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC, won some battles in south east England, made treaty arrange- ments with the tribes and imposed taxes. The conquest of Britain did not begin until AD 43 when an army of 40,000, led by the general Aulus Plautius, defeated the tribes of south east England and established Britain as a province of the Roman Empire, with a permanent Roman presence.:The Emperor Claudius came from Rome and marched at the head of his army to take the capital, Camulodunum (Colchester) and received the sur- render of 11 British kings (see Documentary sources page 29). To the Romans, Britain seemed a long way away and, lying beyond the great 'Oceanus' (the English Channel), was regarded as a place of mystery. The army which invaded Britain, however, was not made up wholly of soldiers from Rome, or even Italy. Many of the soldiers would never have seen Rome. The Roman Empire recruited soldiers from the provinces it conquered and hence soldiers were of many different nationalities. Soldiers did not normally, at this time, serve in the province where they had been born and many of the soldiers of Claudius' army were from Spain and North Africa. The first Roman sites in Britain were built for and by the army. Y.= Wherever it went the Roman army built camps to protect itself against surprise attack. The XXth legion built a fortress for itself at Roman Britain in AD 60 with the tribal names. Camulodunum (Colchester), previously an important centre for the defeated Trinovantes tribe. This was probably one of the first major Roman sites in Britain. Other army units moved north and west and by about AD 60 most of England south and east of a line from the Wash to the Bristol Channel was under Roman control. As well as the military sites, Roman towns had now been estab- fished. These were organised in the same way as a Mediterranean town I and had the same facilities, such as

a water supply, street pattern and '11 public buildings. Roman towns at Camulodunum, Londinium Two coins from the pre-Roman capital at Camulodunum. One has an abbreviation of the (London probably already the cap- word CAM. The other pictures a horse and part of the tribal king's name Cunobelin ital of the province) and (CUN). 8 5 HIISTORECALACKGROUND

Verulamium (St Albans, another important pre-Roman centre) were particular targets for destruc- tion in the rebellion led by Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, in AD 60. In the second half of the first century AD the army established control over Wales, northern England and southern Scotland, and there were campaigns into northern Scotland. By about AD 105 a Antonine Wall northern frontier for Britain had been established roughly along the line that was later to become Hadrian's Wall, and the Wall itself was built about AD 122-137. Hadrian's Wall THE PROVINCE OF BRITAIN Hadrian died in AD 138 and was succeeded as emperor by Antoninus Pius. A new northern frontier was established for Britain along a line from the Forth to the Clyde. A new wallthe Antonine Wall was built and Hadrian's Wall was largely abandoned. It seems that about AD 159 the Antonine Wall was abandoned and Hadrian's Wall about AD 163. Hadrian's Wall was re-established as the frontier and was to survive as such for almost 250 years. The activity on the northern frontier must have been due to unrest amongst the native tribes, and attempts by the army to control them. - Main roads In the third century it was this Main towns northern frontier which gave the province of Britain the most trou- ble. Late in the second century the Maetae, a tribe who lived in the Falkirk/Stirling area, may have Roman Britain c AD 122. invaded the province. Repairs and some rebuilding was carried out on Hadrian's Wall in the first years of the third century and from about AD 208 until his death at York in AD 211 the Emperor Severus cam- paigned into northern Scotland. The campaigns of Severus and his son Caracalla began a period of peace on the northern frontier which lasted almost 100 years. The end of the second century saw major changes in the Roman Empire as the provincial administration became more powerful and the central administration less powerful. About AD 212 the Emperor Caracalla issued an edict that all free born (ie not slave) people living in the Roman Empire should have Roman citizenshipgiving them extra rights under the law and the right to hold certain offices from which they had previously Hadrian's Wall at Walltown Crags.

6 RIESTORECALACKGROUNID

been excluded. About the same time Britain was divided into two provincesBritannia Superior (governed from London) and a northern province, Britannia Inferior. By the late third century Germanic tribes, Saxons and Gauls, were carrying out raids on the shores of Britain and northern Gaul. Along the east and south coasts of Britain a series of forts were built, known as the Saxon Shore forts. In the late AD 280s power in Britain and Northern Gaul was seized by a naval commander, Carausius, and then by his finance minister, Allectus. In AD 297 Constantius Chlorus re-established Roman power and in the early fourth century the British administration was revised and four provinces were created; Prima (capital, Cirencester), Secunda (capital, York), Maxima Caesariensis (capital London) and Falvia Caesariensis (capital, - Limit of provinces Lincoln). 0Provincial capital From the third century the number of troops in Britain was greatly reduced (the soldiers were needed elsewhere), and there were also changes in the organisation Roman Britain in the third century AD. of the army. In the fourth century the power of the Roman Empire was waning and for two significant periods Britain was controlled along with other western provinces by usurpers who had seized power. Britain also increasingly suffered attacks from Scottish and Germanic tribes. There may have been a major invasion of Britain by these tribes about AD 367 and following this much rebuilding of defences at towns, at forts, and on Hadrian's Wall was carried out by Count Theodosius. BRITANNIA THE END OF SECUNDA York ROMAN BRITAIN

In the early years of the fifth centu- Lincoln ry more troops were removed from FLAVIA Britain and from about AD 407 the \ CAESARIENSIS Roman Empire probably ceased to pay the few troops left in Britain. Most of them had probably grown MAXIMA BRITANNIA CAESARIENSIS up near or in the forts where PRIMA0 they now lived and would have London stayed there along with their wives Cirencester and children, perhaps farming or - Limit of pMvinces working as craftspeople. AD 410 is often seen as the end of Roman 0 Provincial capital Britain. In this year the Emperor Honorius, preoccupied with events in Italy (including the sack of Rome), wrote to the British that Roman Britain in the fourth century AD. 10 EIRSTOIECALieACKGROUND they could no longer rely on the Roman Empire for support and that they must look to their own defences. By the early fifth century many -..t towns were already in decline as a B Ill result of the unrest of the preced- ,.,Tr- 4_, ing years. In some places however, f town life continued intoEhe mid fifth century with aqueducts and 1r4'1, fountains continuing to flow. By - T the mid fifth century tribes from F IEI Germany (Angles and Saxons) had invaded and settled parts of south ' east England. -...crOVAt.tir4/41-cr'`t^..-r-

-Al.-A AAA A. .4 I.4 A.

4) "0 70

Wroxeter remains from the air. A - Basilica B - Main baths C - Main streetD - Forum E - Market Hall F - Lavatory G - Street.

Pupils working on a project at Wroxeter Roman City.

Fifth-century Wroxeter The Roman town of Viroconium Cornoviorum (now Wroxeter near Shrewsbury, Shropshire) began life as a series of first century Roman forts, culminating in a legionary fortress in AD 58. The XXth legion who occupied the Wroxeter Roman City. fort abandoned it in about AD 90 and the site became a town for the Cornovii tribe. The town was developed from about AD 90 to AD 120 but the arrival of the Emperor Hadrian to Britain in AD 122 saw a re-shaping of the city centre (in particular, the forum and baths). The town started to decline in the third and fourth centuries, probably because of widespread political unrest which affected the whole country. At the end of the period when Britain ceased to be administered by Rome in the fifth century, the town continued to be lived in. The bath's basilica was dismantled, but the site was later used as a grand residence, possibly for a tribal king. This impressive timber building was surrounded by other, classically- inspired timber houses and a market area. The centre of the The site of the basilica as it may have appeared in the fifth century after the baths had city had been rebuilt along the gone out of use. A large timber-framed winged building was constructed along the north existing streets. wall of the redundant basilica.

8 11 USIING ROMAN STIES ROMAN SITES

The Roman occupation of Britain lasted for a period of almost 350 years. Most of mainland Britain, except the highlands of Scotland, was at some time occupied by the Romans. There are many different kinds of sites dating from the period of Roman Britain. These can be divided into two types: Native sitesbefore the Romans came to Britain the country was inhabited by many different tribes. These different tribes had their own building styles and their own types of site. Most people, however, lived in round buildings, built from stone, wood or other materials depending on what was available locally. In some parts of Britain some people lived in for- tified sites on hilltops, in other 58. parts they lived in large settlements 11 almost like towns or in more scat- 1. tered small settlements.

tf7 Roman sites Roman architec- Pre-Roman houses at Chysauster, Cornwall. tural styles were quite different to the native styles. For example, Roman buildings tended to be rectangular in shape and the more expensively-built ones could have features such as painted wall plaster and elaborately decorated floors. These sites range from simple farmhouses to sites such as forts which were built to a well- established plan, using Roman architectural techniques. At the start of the period the people living in these sorts of site would probably have come to Britain from other parts of the Roman Empire, although they may not have come Artist's impression of part of the village of Chysauster. from Rome itself. Gradually more of the native people adopted Roman architectural and building techniques. This teachers' guide is concerned mainly with Roman sites. These can be divided up, by use, as follows: military sites habitation sites (such as towns and villas) religious and burial sites industrial sites roads, bridges and aqueducts. An artist's impression of the Roman city of Wroxeter, Shropshire.

12 9 ROMAN SIITES

MILITARY forts, milecastles (very small forts was a halt with a raised platform at which could hold perhaps 30 or so one or both ends. The hall was The Roman army soldiers and provided gates used as an assembly hall for At the time of the Roman invasion through the wall) and turrets (for addressing the troops. of Britain, the Roman army con- look out or signalling). All these At the back of the building were sisted of two types of troops. sites were linked, over a distance ofoffices for the regimental clerks Legionaries were very highly trained117 kilometres by a stone wall up and the regimental shrine where and very well paid. All legionaries to 3.5 4m high and up to 3m the standards were kept along with were Roman citizens. This did not thick. Other Roman sites connect- a bust of the reigning emperor. mean that they actually lived in ed with the Wall include bridges, a The layout of the headquarters Rome but that they had a certain military road and a great earthworkcommanding officer's house were status in society. By the time of called the vallum which gave addednormally near to the headquarters. Hadrian, for example, only about defence to the stone wall. Many The granaries were strongly-built half the legionaries actually came forts were similar, although their food stores. The floor was often from Italy. Legionaries were layouts were not identical. Forts raised to allow circulation of air formed into units, about 5-6000 typically had a playing card shape and to discourage mice. The com- strong, called legions. Most of the a rectangle with rounded corners. manding officer's house was a large soldiers in Britain were auxiliaries. There was at least one major gate residence often with luxuries such They were less well trained and lessin each side and main roads ran to as painted wall plaster, hypocaust well paidthey were also sent into the centre of the site from each (underfloor heating), mosaic floors battle first! The auxiliaries were gate. At the centre was the most and a private bath suite. Some forts organised into units of either important buildingthe headquar- also had a hospital in this area, with 500 or 1000 men known as cohorts ters. This was normally entered a series of wards and either a cen- if they were infantry auxiliary (sol- through a courtyard surrounded bytral operating theatre or herb diers who fought on foot) or alae a colonnaded walkway; behind this garden. ('wings') if they were cavalry. Legionaries were stationed in fortresses, such as York or Colchester, and there were never more than four legions in Britain at any one time. There were many more cohorts and alae, which were based in forts, mirroring, on a smaller scale, the buildings and layout of the fortresses. Towards the end of the Roman Empire there were many changes in the Roman army and the earlier rigid organisation was lessened. Forts and defences Military sites were generally built to a regular pattern, particularly in the earlier part of the Roman peri- Roman fort at Chesters, on od. A variety of building materials Hadrian's Wall. The Wall crosses were used including stone, tile, tim- the River Tyne. ber, earth and turf. Evidence from inscriptions often records the actual soldiers who were responsible for building work. There is a wide range of Roman military sites. The most common are fortresses (large camps built for legions) and forts (smaller camps built for auxiliaries). As well as the major forts and fortresses which were built in stone and used over ABOVE: The Lunt Roman Fort, at many years, there are numerous Baginton near Coventry. After excavation, some of the buildings marching camps which are often were reconstructed: part of the tim- only detected by aerial photogra- ber and earth defences and main phy. These are sites where the gate and a circular training ground army camped overnight, or for a for horses, called a gyrus. short period of time when on cam- RIGHT: Plan of The Lunt Roman Fort. paign, but dug ditches and erected A Headquarters building a palisade to protect itself. B Commander's house The best known Roman military C Gyrus D Barracks site is Hadrian's Wall, a chain of E Gates 10 13 ROMAN SITES The front and back of the fort contained barracks, workshops and, in the case of alae, stables. At least until the third century the barracks consisted of long narrow buildings divided into about nine pairs of rooms. Each pair of rooms provided accommodation for a con- tubernium (' tent') for a squad of eight soldiers. There were larger quarters for the officers at the end of the block. Evidence from Housesteads and Wallsend suggests that in the late third and fourth centuries soldiers may have lived in :9 individual chalet-style buildings, perhaps with their families. It was 3 only after about AD 200 serving soldiers were legally allowed to marry. Stables were similar in size to barrack blocks but are Artist's impression of a pair of barrack blocks at Chesters Fort. identified by the lack of internal dividing walls and, often, a central from these platforms. Offices and Many towns also had drain for urine. Workshops are alsomeeting rooms were attached to of similar size. the basilica as was a shrine for stat- public baths ues of the emperor and any local TOWN AND COUNTRYgods. Vitruvius, the Roman author a theatre of a number of books about archi- an amphitheatre where specta- Roman towns tecture, wrote that basilicas cles such as wild animal fights and When the Romans arrived in 'should be placed adjoining the forum gladiatorial combats took place Britain they saw nothing which in as warm a position as possible, so they would have called a town. a number of different temples There were certainly large settle- that in the winter businessmen may ments with an impressive level of meet without being troitbled by the and, in some cases, social organisation. But although weather'. walls to protect the inhabitants. pre-Roman defended settlements such as Danebury in Hampshire Continued on page 16 ,>>> show an organised layout of streets, houses and workshops, Roman towns were identifibale from a number of planned features: organised grid layout of streets

large stone building or other stone architectural features major civil engineering works such as aqueducts. The towns of Roman Britain grew up in different ways. Many of them were established on or around the site of Roman forts or fortresses, others developed as the 'capitals' or tribal centres of individual tribes. At the centre of a Roman town were the forum and basilica. At the centres of the forum was a large open space and on three sides of it A were porticoes, behind which were rows of shops and offices. On the fourth side was the basilica, a long aisled hall usually with raised platforms at both ends. The magis- trates conducted their business The main street of the Roman town of Wroxeter. The forum of the town is to the right. 14 11 '41 Witt* "k , - , kJ V. 414 i- 4,-!=ktvbi.$4..%;v' 0 ,.--="f ga- ft0;44,:titiir.4-""1° Z -- _ Welim ...- \ A; . . 0 ofasa ..-5, -.... hitrst.i--_--irl---, ....-----, --,z--,-.....--,--,------,.,...... ei tI -7L1-; 1_, I w \ - - -7111111 _A \\'N-"\. - .1 I S. 1M, NA kl I;0I 0I 3 IP,' II .11 0 II%Irossusea.slassII11.w...... m.w.....pre f 11114 IV11.1111,-Blase IIor ususwicasolvi la i1111111atult-liwasliOw-olla .I 4 11,01.10/8/1111/W11111- V. amspa .1 OOOOO /Sallibmwaseigmaiasaisaal...112. ist aegagiwa sag qcomow 111 MO X I %awe 111.11180i111 NS 111111111111/XXXIMMIOXISIVIINNsw.01119/Oriata a a *

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CASE STUDY Villas To a Roman the word villa meant a number of different things. It could mean a grand house in the country, sometimes with a farming estate ttli SNOW attached to it. Some villas are basi- cally farmhouses which show Roman influence in the style of architecture and in the fittings. Some simple rectangular wooden buildings were probably lived in by small holders beginning to adopt Roman styles. Large, richly fur- nished villas may have been owned by wealthy Romans or Romano- Britons and been at the centre of large estates. In some cases the owner may not have lived in the An artist's impression of how Lullingstone Villa might have looked in about AD 350. villa, but may have had a farm manager or bailiff who was responsible for the operation of the AD 80-150 farm and estate. Evidence There are about 1000 known Small villa building con- Roman villas in Britain and they West Veranda are mainly concentrated in areas structed of timber and clay where the land was best for farm- on footings of mortared flint (locally available stone). A Audience ing. block of rooms had a veran- Chamber dah in front and two Lullingstone Roman Villa projecting wings, one of Lullingstone Roman Villa lay at the which had a cellar below. heart of a large agricultural estate. Dating from the first century AD, Interpretation it was occupied for nearly 250 The quality of the building's years. In the second century the construction suggests that villa was remodelled and a bath this was a Romano-British suite added. At the end of the third farmer. The plan of the villa century, an underfloor heating sys- 0 IF is typical of many built in METRES tem was installed in three rooms this period of prosperity in and intricate mosaics laid. Towards Roman Britain. The cellar Plan of the villa in phase 1, about AD 80-150. the end of the fourth century the may have been used for villa building was altered to acco- storing food. modate a Christian chapel.

AD 150-200 Evidence The villa is extensively altered. The basic plan has been added to on each end. The cellar now has other stairs built and has elaborate wall paintings. In the second phase of alterations a bath-suite is added. Finds from the excavations of this period include fine quality pottery and glass. Interpretation The wealth shown in both the finds and the alterations to the house suggest a very rich owner. The baths alone indicate great 1p 15 expense, not only in the construc- ME7RES tion but also in the slaves/servants needed to maintain and run it. Plan of the villa in phase 2, about AD 150-200.

16 19 ROMAN §ffES

LEFT: The excavated floor of Lullingstone Roman Villa. All the information in this case study was recovered by archaeologists carefully piecing together the evidence revealed by sucessive excavations of this site.

AD 275-350 Evidence At the end of the third century the villa is remodelled again with a row of heated rooms added. The baths were converted and enlarged. In the mid fourth century a large dining room was added West Veranda in a style found in other villas and town houses throughout the Empire. Mosaic LI Audience floors are also laid including one with a Chamber Latin text. Carved busts from this period were found stored in the cellar after AD 350. A large granary and a temple- East Veranda Cellar mausoleum were built at this time out- Baths side the main villa building. LI MN MI Interpretation The owners were clearly wealthy to rebuild and decorate the villa but the busts, which were carved in the :o Mediterranean style, indicate an impor- METRES tant person coming to the province of Britain from a more central part of the Roman Empire. The size of the granary Plan of the villa in phase 3, about AD 275-350. suggests that the villa was the centre of a large agricultural estate.

AD 360-425 Evidence The heated rooms and rooms over the cellar on the north side of the villa were converted into a chapel and ante room. Wall paintings with Christian sumbols and figures decorated the walls. There was evidence of occupation into the fifth century but the baths were in dis- Heated use. A serious fire gutted much of rooms the house. Interpretation The family had adopted Christianity but were still using the house. Perhaps in the early fifth century the villa became unoccu- pied but the chapel remained in 15 use. IMETRES Plan of the villa in phase 4, about AD 350-425.

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This model of a dog (probably an RELIGION Aberdeen terrier) AND BURIAL was found in a pool beside the temple to For the Romans, religion was very the water goddess much part of everyday life. Every Coventina at Roman house had a small shrine Carrawburgh, on Hadrian's Wall. It within it where the statues of the would have been a lares, the household gods, were gift to the goddess, kept. Offerings of food and drink one of many thou- sands of objects, were made to the lares and requests such as coins, pots for favours and for protection were and brooches. made to them. As well as these gods, Romans were also expected to swear allegiance to the Emperor, and to the dead emperors who were regarded as gods. It was 9 because they refused to accept the k, emperors as gods that Christians t were persecuted in the Roman Empireto the Romans this suggested a dangerous lack of loyalty. Every Roman fort had a 'regimental shrine' where the standards of the regiment were kept and where Maiden Castle Temple there were altars to the emperor Many archaeological sites and, normally, to were occupied for different purposes at different Jupiter who was the most impor- times separated by hun- tant of the three main Roman gods, dreds or sometimes thou- the god of the heavens sands of years. Maiden Castle, Dorset, has Juno, queen of the heavens and impressive banks and ditches built for defence goddess of women in the Iron Age. This hillfort was captured, after a Minerva, goddess of wisdom. bloody battle, by the Roman army in AD 43 or In Britain as in other parts of the 44. Three hundred or so years later a temple was built in the eastern Empire the native people were part of the hillfort. The temple was a small square building with a allowed to go on worshipping their precinct around it. Near to the temple were four burials. own gods although often these The excavator, Mortimer Wheeler, suggested that these could be the gods became associated with graves of priests who had served at the temple. Finds from the temple Roman gods. Many native war included a bronze plaque with a figure of the goddess Minerva, a small gods, for example, became associ- bronze figurine with a three-horned bull god, and a fragment of a mar- ated with Mars, the Roman god of ble statuette (possibly Diana, goddess of hunting). War. The exception to this religious tolerance was the Druids who were persecuted partly because of their practice of human sacrifice. Temples Roman temples were impressive classical-style buildings built by the Roman authorities as a symbol of power. The temple of Claudius at Colchester, for example, was built to impress the local people and show the power of Rome in the years after the Conquest.

Temple of Claudius 20 23 ROMAN SIITIES

Romano-Celtic temples were Other religions For much of the period of Roman more common in Britain and Gaul As well as the traditional Roman Britain Christianity was an out- (modern France and Belgium). religion, the Romans brought with lawed religion and was not legalised These were small square buildings them other religions from the until the Edict of Milan in AD 313. surrounded by open areas or Middle East, notably Christianity Christian worship before AD 313 sacred precincts in which rituals or and Mithraism. Mithraism must therefore have taken place in animal sacrifices could be per- originated in Iran and was based secret. Even after AD 313 there are formed. Sometimes, as at on the legend of Mithras slaying a few remains of what could be Lullingstone, burials took place in bull in a dark caveMithraic tem- called churches although some vil- this type of temple. ples were built to represent this las certainly had rooms with dark cave. The remains of Christian decoration, and these Activities that took place around Mithraeums can be seen at rooms may have been used as temples included: Carrawburgh on Hadrian's Wall chapels. and in Queen Victoria Street, sacrifice of animals London. erection of altars on which offerings of corn or wine could be made and small fires lit ritual meals, using flagons (for wine), paterae (shallow saucepan- like bowls), large platters and spoons writing of requests to the gods asking for favours in return for making offerings to the gods For example, a man called Silvianus wrote a message to the god Nodens at Lydney: 'To the god Nodens, Silvianus has lost a ring, he promises half its value to Nodens. Let him not grant health to anyone called Senicianus [accused of stealing the ring] until he brings it back to the temple of Nodens.' Curses and requests of this type are common The temple to Mithras at Carrawburgh, on Hadrian's Wall. as are altars thanking the gods for fulfilling requests. Often the 'deal' was that the individual promised to erect an altar if the god helped him or her. The altar was then erected with the letters VSLM on the bottom standing for votum solvit libens merito, meaning 'willingly and deservedly fulfilled the vow'. offering of objects, either valu- able objects (such as gold or fine glassware) or symbolic objectsa farmer might deposit a miniature clay or bronze model of a piece of farm equipment to help his crops. The Romans felt they had a very close relationship with the gods and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 161-180) wrote 'So then for the gods, by the daily experience that I have of their power, and providence towards myself and others, I know certainly that they exist and therefore I worship them.' Reconstruction of painted wall plaster from Lullingstone showing the symbols associated with early Christianity - The first two letters of Christ X (CH) P (R) in Greek and alpha and omega.

24 21 ROMAN §I[TIES

When a person died, the body was carried on a bier in a procession to the cemetery which had, by law, to be outside thetown's walls. Trumpeters or flute players led paid mourners and dancers while the relatives walked behind. Burial Evidence for burial is particularly important because gravestones often record information about the Deciphering Roman tombstones deceased which does not survive elsewhere. Some gravestones also Here is a guide to some phrases found on tombstones: have carvings of the deceased on them. Many ordinary people Abbreviation Latin English meaning would be buried without any carved tombstone, although the grave might have been marked with D M Dis Manibus To the spirits of the dead a mound of earth, a pile of stones, or VIX vixit Lived or some wooden marker. Some AN annos or annorum Years people saved money specifically to dies Days be used for their burial and tomb- F C faciendum curavit Had this made stone. There were also 'burial P C poniendum curavitHad this set up clubs' where you paid a regular H S E hic situs est Is buried here subscription and the 'club' would sacrum Sacred pay for your burial. These 'clubs' miles Soldier were popular with soldiers. There are different styles of Roman tombstones but many use To read a Roman tombstone you will also need to know the same series of Latin words and phrases and it is therefore often the Roman numerals possible to work out what the inscription on a tombstone means, 1 even if you are not a Latin expert. II 2 The complication is that because III 3 carving on stone was time-consum- IV or IIII 4 ing (and expensive) words were V 5 very often abbreviated. VI 6 The main pieces of information VII 7 you normally find on a tombstone VIII 8 are: IX 9 X 1 0 some reference to the gods 50 100 the name of the dead person how old the dead person was. For example: You also often find: XLI or XXXXI 41 the name of the person who put up the tombstone XXV 25 the letters H S E (see table).

22 25 ROMAN SITES Burial practice It was forbidden to bury anyone within the limits or walls of a town and therefore the roads leading out of towns were usually lined with burials. People were often buried with food and drink so that they would not go hungry in the next life. They were often buried with money, with favourite objects, or with games or things to do. In the temple mausoleum at Lullingstone a young man in his early twenties was buried in a lead coffin along with two flagons, four glass bottles, two glass bottles, two knives, two spoons, and wooden games board with 30 glass coun- ters.

The remains of Romans buried at one of the cemeteries outside the walls of Roman Colchester. These two people (woman, left and man, right) were buried in coffins in a timber vault.

This is the tombstone of a centurion, Facilis, who died in Colchester. The inscription translates as: 'Marcus Favonius Facilis, son of Marcus, of the Pollian voting tribe, centurion of the Twentieth Legion, lies buried here. Verecundus and Novicius, his freed slaves, set this up.' The figure of Facilis is just over a metre high. He is wearing full centurion's dress (except for his helmet, which is left off because it would mask his face): for protection, a moulded bronze breast plate, overlapping strips of metal like a skirt and leg guards; for warmth, a cloak, a woollen tunic under his armour, and sandals. He carries a dagger on one side and on the other short sword. He is holding in his right hand a stick made from vine-wood. It symbolises the centurion's right to flog men under his command. The tombstone, like most others, was originally painted. This tombstone was found in 1868 in a Roman burial ground on the west side of Colchester and can be dated about AD48. Three clues give us some idea of the date: first there was found nearby a lead container, containing the cremated bones of a man, and a pottery cup (dated about AD50). Second we know from other inscriptions that the Twentieth Legion moved to Gloucester in AD49 when colonia was established. Third, Facilis' face had been damaged, probably when the tombstone was overthrown by Boudica's army in AD60.

26 23 ROMAN SITES

INDUSTRY Roman Britain was the production which had not been fired properly) There were a number of industries of brick, tile and pottery. In eachand the remains of old kilns in Roman Britain to provide for thecase clay was dug from the ground,can still be seen in the undergrowth army and for the -towns and villas. shaped in moulds or on a potter's around the site. They also brought wealth into the wheel, and then heated in a kiln to Glass-making also involved Roman government. Some indus- 'fire' the material. Much of this heating material to high tempera- tries, such as the mining of metal work was carried out by the army tures to fuse it into glass. At ores were probably, at least and tile is often stamped with the Wilderspool in Cheshire a furnace initially, under official control. name of the unit responsible for was excavated which contained Others such as glassmaking or making it. crucibles and the remains of leather working were carried out by molten glass, and there is also evi- individual craftsmen. There are dence of glassmaking from excava- few known dedicated Roman tions at Colchester, Leicester and industrial sites in Britain, although other sites. workshops are well-known both in A variety of other crafts and towns and at forts. industries took place at or around There was Roman gold mining at Roman sites. Some of them were Dolaucothi in Wales, whilst small concentrated in specialist produc- crucibles which had been used for tion centres. Others were carried heating gold indicated the presence out on a small scale where of a goldsmith's workshop at required. The included: spinning Verulamium (St Albans). and weaving, leatherwork, bone At Silchester (Hampshire), work, mosaic making, carpentry. hearths where lead ores were heated to extract the small amount of silver present have been found. When lead is extracted from its ore it is normally cast into metal blocks or pigs which are then trans- ported to where the metal is want- Tile from Aldborough Roman Town stamped by the Ninth Legion. HISP refers ed, where they can be easily to legion's distinguished service in Spain. worked. These pigs weighed 80-90 kg and the moulds in which Some pottery production centres they were cast were inscribed, pro- were very large. For example at viding evidence of the companies Water Newton in Cambridgeshire, working the mines. and at Alice Holt Forest, in Tin was mined in Cornwall and Hampshire, pottery was produced Devon and copper was mined in which was traded all over Britain Cornwall, Shropshire and Wales. and beyond. Huge dumps at Alice The main mining of iron ore took Holt made of kiln wasters (pots place in Sussex, Kent, the Forest of Dean, Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire. Because of the high temperature needed to smelt iron ore into iron ore (around 1300 deg C) the iron smelting furnaces were quite substantial. The remains of a number of Roman iron smelting furnaces have been found in Kent. Stone was used extensively, not only for building but also for purposes such as making querns, or millstones, and for grinding corn into flour. The site known as Quernstone found at Chesters Roman Fort. Bronze jug from Corbridge. Pen Pits, near Mere in Somerset, Cup, bowls and cooking pot from Corbridge. which consists of an extensive series of large pits is thought to have been a quarry for quern- stones. A number of quarry sites are known, particularly on and around Hadrian's Wall. At Coombe Crag, near Birdoswald, graffiti carved by Roman soldiers quarrying stone for the repair or building of the wall can still be seen. Another very large industry in 24 27 ROMAN SETES

ROADS, BRIDGES each side to encourage rain to and of construction with fired AND AQUEDUCTS drain away. The ditches also brick, mortar and concrete were helped drainage. In some cases, as Roman achievements. It was these on Dere Street, the road from York techniques which the Romans Roads to Corbridge, Hadrian's Wall and brought to Britain and used in the It was the impressive network of Scotland, stone drains ran along building of bridges and aqueducts. roads, originally constructed by thethe side of the road. Every major town in Roman highly skilled soldiers, which Britain was supplied with fresh allowed the Roman army to estab- water from an aqueduct. The water lish effective control over areas was distributed by wood, lead, such as Britain. stone or ceramic (pottery) The word mile comes from the pipes. Most of the water was chan- Latin milia passuum, meaning nelled to public baths although '1000 paces'. One Roman pace - there were sometimes drinking was what we would call two steps, basins at street corners. Some pri- left and right and, based on a stan- vate houses had a supply of dard stride, the Roman mile is An artist's impression of the stone bridge piped water, for which they would 1536 metres, slightly less than a at Chesters Roman Fort. pay a water rate. Others had to rely statute mile which is 1680 metres. on wells, or carrying water from Roads were generally laid out by Bridges springs or streams. surveyors working from one hill Most bridges were probably built entirely of timber like the bridge over the River Nene at Aldwinkle in Northamptonshire, the remains of which were discovered during gravel extraction. In the north of Britain masonry abutments and piers were often used with either masonry or wood- 3-E: en superstructures. At Chesters the bridge probably originally had This earth-cut channel brought about stone arches, as voussoirs have 25,000,000 gallons of water daily to the been found, but was later replaced Roman town of Durnovaria (Dorchester). by a bridge with a wooden super- structure. When building piers in No aqueduct in Britain has been the river the builders would have found on the scale of the Pont du constructed a watertight 'box', or Gard. Most aqueducts consisted of coffer dam, out of wood with the carefully constructed open chan- Wading Street, Northamptonshire. This joints sealed with clay. This would nels bringing water, by gravity, was one of the main roads of Roman then have been baled out and the from the nearest, sufficiently high Britain, running from Richborough through London, St Albans (Verulamium) pier built inside it. source of water. One exception and Wroxeter into north Wales. seems to be Lincoln where archaeologists suggest that there was a top to the next. Fires and beacons Aqueducts Whilst many building and engi- pressurised supply to cross valleys would be used to make the hilltops along the route of the aqueduct. clearly visible. Roman roads, how- neering techniques used by the ever, did not always run in Romans were of Greek origin, the absolutely straight lines. Zigzags use of arches, vaults and domes were used to climb steep slopes and when a river was to be crossed the line of the road often deviated from the straight to a point where the river could be fordedbridges were vulnerable to attack and were only built where there was no alter- native. A typical Roman road consists of a hump or 'agger' which was made by digging ditches on either side and piling the material to form the road base. A foundation of large stone was then laid on this and smaller stones or gravel (or what- ever material was available locally) were used to create the final sur- face. The road had a steep camber, Pont du Gard, France carried water to the Roman town of Nimes, in Provence, south of that is it sloped from the centre to France. 28 25 5 A , - _ myr77- ,77 72; 1,,--., *.,. - :AIN , .7'41AV f N'\V 1 ,...,..40 ..1 L' , I , 440 J \ ' ' . 0 _ - 1/1-::$1 Nilr * .* 5. 0 0 II); 44 4'4 I --it '"-f -": t:ns% tt:k IAIkc ; EA 0 5 I 0 '*4o11.41 0 5, II I IV 0 0 0 0 II Vei mi :.,,...... 4*IllasIILrt/O11111181111111110111 *Ilea ...... ,...... 1161111 Ui I& l 114 w0 11111 -aBasAims*Jvis 4agasisSla WO. allow a ilf GM 1-1 mmmmmmmm mmmmmmm maiNgsall... mule, eveAI al flea pis....wei11111111 llIOINAIRIIIIN/01111110111 111111/610NatamI 11 :

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The principal documentary ....I have sent you....pairs of socks sources available for Roman from Sattua two pairs of sandals and Britain are: two pairs of underpants, two pairs of sandals.... Roman texts which have survived in their original form (although possibly damaged over time)for Other writing tablets were more example, elabrately made. One wooden tablet found at the Walbrook, inscriptions (including building London, had originally had a sur- inscriptions, gravestones, mile- face of wax into which writing The centurial stone, Birdoswald Fort, stone, altars, monuments) was scratched with a stylus. All the Hadrian's Wall. wax had disappeared but some of graffiti the text had been scored through ROMAN LITERATURE into the wood: The writings of a number of stamps on pottery Roman authors have survived Rufus, Son of Callisunus, greeting to through being copied out by papyrus from the Near East Epillicus and all his fellows. I believe monks. You can use examples from you know that I am very well. If you Roman literature to illustrate have made the list please send. Do Roman life, for example wax tablets or wooden writing look after everything carefully. See tablets from sites such as that you turn that slave-girl into Vindolanda and Carlisle poems and letters often tell us cash about ordinary peoples' lives writing in mosaic floors or on INSCRIPTIONS wall paintings. histories plot the story of Rome's Inscriptions on stone survive from growth many sites. These include official Roman texts which have survived building inscriptions such as this architectural and building manu- through being copied in the one from the fort of Chesters on medieval period. als explain how buildings were con- Hadrian's Wall which records the structed and used provision of a water supply (AQVA Later writings describing Roman AD DVC TA). remains. recipes and menus tell us the eat- ing habits of the Romans. WOODEN WRITING TABLETS Two examples can ilustrate this Wooden writing tablets are the old- point. est known handwritten documents At the baths from Britain. A large number of I live over the public baths you fragments of tablets have been know what that means. Ugh! It's sick- found at Vindolanda on Hadrian's ening. First there are the 'strongmen' Wall, preserved by the waterlogged doing their exercises and swinging acid soil. The writing tablets heavy lead weights about with grunts date to the late first century AD, This inscription from Chesters records the and groans. Next there are the lazy 20-30 years before Hadrian's Wall provision of a water supply (aqua adducta) by the Second Cohort of Asturians (which ones having a cheap massageI can was built. In most cases the texts had originally been raised in north-west hear someone being slapped on the are written in ink on wafer-thin Spain) under the governor Ulpius Marcellus. shoulders. Then there is the noise of a leaves of wood. Although generally brawler or a thief being arrested and only small fragments have been the man who always likes the sound found and not complete letters, Hadrian's Wall itself contains a they form an important record of number of inscribed stones record- of his own voice in the bath. And life in the fort. They include lettersing the work of particular compa- what about the ones who leap into about ordinary domestic matters nies of soldiers. This one, between the pool making a huge splash as they Harrow's Scar milecastle and hit the water!' such as a soldier receiving a parcel Lucius Seneca, around AD 63. from home: Birdoswald fort, records the building of a section by the century (a unit of 100 men) of Terentius.

28 31 DOCUMEN ARY SOURCES

Home-made sweets and fence in their cattle, but not for 'The army of the Visigoths under 'Stuffed dates: Stone the dates and any great length of time.The weather Adaulphus marched on Gaul, and stuff with nuts, pine kernels or groundtends to rain rather than snow. Mist Constantine was defeated in battle pepper. Roll them in salt and fry in is very common, so that for whole and died with his sons. Nonetheless warmed honey, then serve.' days at a stetch the sun is seen only the Romans were no longer able to for three or four hours around mid- recover Britain, which from that time 'Honeyed bread: Remove the crust day.' continued to be ruled by those who from a wholewheat loaf and break Strabo seized power.' into largish pieces. Soak them in milk, fry in oil, then pour honey over 'Claudius waged war on Britain, In fact it is likely that the area of and serve! where no Roman had set foot since theBritain which had previously been Marcus Apicius' recipe book, first days of Caesar. He also added to the part of the Roman Empire was no century AD. Roman Empire certain islands in the longer controlled by one authority. Ocean beyond Britain, called the Documentary evidence Orchades and gave his son the name Later documentary evidence about Roman Britain Britannicus: There are some reference to The first Roman attempt to con- Eutropius, a civil servant under theRoman sites in documents that quer Britain was described by the Emperor Valens (AD 364-78). have survived from Anglo-Saxon Greek historian Strabo, who died or medieval times. For example, twenty years before Claudius' inva- An important source of documen-the Venerable Bede records that St sion of Britain: tary evidence for part of the historyCuthbert went to Carlisle in the of the Romans in Britain comes late seventh century and that the The deified Caesar crossed over twicefrom the work of the historian Dio aqueduct was still working. to the island, but came back in haste Cassius. He was a Roman senator From the sixteenth century without accomplishing much or pro- from about AD 180. He wrote a onwards there was renewed interest ceeding very far inland... However, hehistory of Rome, in Greek, in 80 in ancient sites and a number of won two or three victories over the volumes, although not all survive. antiquaries undertook tours around Britons, although he took over only This is part of his account of the Britain visiting many of them. two legions, bringing back hostages, uprising of Boudica, William Stukeley visited the slaves and much other booty: Roman site at Corbridge near 'A fearful catastrophe took place in Hadrian's Wall in the 1770s and Other authors described the Britain. Two cities were sacked, wrote: wealth of Britain and the strange 80,000 of their allies persished and habits of the Britons. The fact that the island fell into enemy hands. It 'Corbridge is built out of its ruins, the only descriptions of the British was especially shameful for the which are scattered about there in tribes are those written by their Romans that it was a woman who every house. Before the doors we saw Roman conquerors must be taken brought this on them.' mills [querns for grinding corn], into account when considering the pieces of shafts of pillars, capitals, historical accuracy of the descrip- The end of Roman Britain is bases [of columns], many pieces of tions: described by Zosimus and dated to basso relievo and carvings...I have AD 410. Zosimus was a Greek civilendeavoured to do justice to these ele- 'The nation of the Britons was still at servant who wrote a history of the gant sculptures, whereas they are gen- that time [at Caesar's invasion] Roman empire shortly after AD 500.erally by others so very ill-done, as to uncivilised and used to fighting only be disgraceful both to Romans, and to with the Picts and the Hibernians, 'Honorius [the Emperor] sent letters Britons, and to antiquity in general.' both still half-naked enemies.' to the British cities, telling them to An anonymous orator in AD 297. look after their own defence.'

'Most of the island is low-lying and Procopius, a Greek civil servant wooded but there are many hilly and prefect of Constantinople in BELOW: Engraving of Richborough Fort areas. It produces corn, cattle, gold, AD 562, described the attacks of by Samuel and Nathaniel Buck, made in silver and iron. These things are the Germanic tribes on the Roman 1735. Compare with front cover picture. exported along with hides, slaves and Empire in AD 411 writing, dogs suitable for hunting...They [the British tribes] live much like the Gauls but some of their customs are more primitive and barbarous. Thus, for example, some of them are well- supplied with milk but are ignorant of how to make cheese; they know nothing of planting crops or of farming in general. They are ruled by their ownI kings. For the most part they use chariots in war like some of the - Gauls. Their cities are the forests, forI they fell trees and fence in large circular enclosures in which they build huts

3 9 29 -USING ROMAN =ES EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES

SEARCHING FOR ROMAN SITES Maps, place names and buildings You will find evidence for the Roman occupation of Britain from various sources which pupils can investigate for themselves: Ordnance Survey maps are a good starting point. Search your- self on large scale maps in the local library, for your own area first. If that does not yield evidence of the Romans, try maps around well- known Roman towns such as Colchester, Lincoln and York. The maps will show evidence such as place names (see below)

Roman roads Aerial photography: One of the most important of the archaeologist's techniques is aerial photography. This photograph shows the field system (a), road (b) and the estate some known Roman settlements boundary (c) of a Roman villa at St Osyth, south of Colchester. or villas. Pavement Field is found several Street names in towns and vil- times in Cheshire indicating the lages will sometimes indicate Place names sometimes reveal discovery of Roman mosaic floors. Roman remains. Ancient names Roman origins. For example place may refer back to Roman origins, names ending in -chester, cester or Street Acre, Field or Furlong such as The Pavement in York caster. These may indicate a or to town gates which may have Roman military site since the (from various counties) indicating the presence of a Roman road. been Roman in origin but were re- word -chester comes originally used in the medieval period from the Latin wordcastramean- Headgate (meaning the main gate) ing camp or fort. It passed into A detailed study of Shropshire field names revealed a number of in Colchester. names used today via the Old Buildings from the Roman period English -ceaster. Some examples interesting names - The Romans, Bloody Romans, Romans Croft, still survive as part of other more are Manchester, Cirencester, modern structures. Look out for Colchester, Silchester and, of Romans Tavern, Pavement Croft, for example. typical Roman building materials course, Chester. (such as red tiles) and arch or Another place name example is doorway constructions. the Old Englishstraetorstret. Names beginning Strat-, Stret-, Strad-, Streat-, Street- and Stun- may indicate the existence of a The Roman Roman road or street, for example Builder's Handbook Streatham in south London. This activity is designed to help pupils understand how a Roman Field names can be found on building was constructed. Supply maps (often with accompanying pupils with a plan of a site you documents), such as tithe maps, are visiting. Pupils are asked to estate maps and sale notices. Some investigate the ruins on the examples are ground and are to make an imag- The upstanding end of the Roman theatre inative reconstruction using the Roman Field, Fyfield, at Colchester was re-used as part of the handbook. (opposite). Hampshire is the site of a villa. medieval chapel of St Helen. The building may even have been a Roman chapel.

30 3 3 THE ROMAN BUILDERS' Walls, decorated (rich clients only) HANDBOOK wealthy.coatthemterns.artistWhen of toit Onlywalls colour willshow suggestimpresshave yourwill been haveclient this their plastered, toto samples friends. dorich for clients. the hire ofA walllessplain an Tell pat- SuperiorFloors, typemosaic of floor for main rooms or ft si al.,P Oa_ Olt ( I i littlemosaicdesignbathtesserae) blocks.stone andworkers orconstruct onYou tile site. will willcubes Make probably theseneed (they sureafloors. specialist callcut they theirthemThe grout toown -i 1..._ -.... a immcgig..._,Aerift-40:"..-.wsmprinbeaip-vpos...xv .... ,e,* iiiik___ 4P_.- AI. iiWiliAllt..-fi Arles tAtn, corridors)wanttheproperly floor cheaper beforeand use polish floorscubes you theshow likeof tile.floor this your (perhapssmooth. client. IfWashfor you 6.4AllikNotINIZW.::::-...... "--:11; 4."2.11100"11/4001110 miotaialb ... 'C . 1 ','. . ,-::" andtimberweatherproof.tegulaeInRoofs, coverimbrices normal frame with(those tiled circumstancesis(the They firedstrong are half-round areclaythe enough. veryflat tiles. use tiles heavy,ones Tiles Ask a withstrong to yourareso cover ridges make long timbersupplier over lastingatsure eachroof the foryour andside)frame Walls, for carrying...... ,.,_ weight,....7,w,,,...... ,,,p....:-, ____,,, -- .1111....,-,-."7'4 mei .." ajociimirrb- 110 YdOli Vb ,:r #",3re--Ti e 0 rt° /r.. 4i ,, to ',..,A!...11$1. .... i s. - - I: - ,41e4 vs. , 04 ClientsFloors, who for want central under-floor heating heating withridges). hot air circu- timberstonecarryingUse stone is frames. in the wallsshort weight forsupply, alleither outside use of stone the walls roof for and lowor wallsof foundation the which upstairs havewalls floors. to and take In build areassome the wherepart walls in of thetilesfromorsmalllating edges round, tostone. pillars.from ofcarry tiles.the aYou thefurnaceroof.These If will hotyou are air alsowillwant, usuallythrough needneed you to the madecouldthe order floor walls fromconstruct quantities to and belarge raisedout the square,of through pillars boxup on 8900Og Do00or)Oo needdownsuchWoodenFloors, asto very makeclay floorswooden hard. or a gravel.canstrong If yourbe mortarusedYou client willfor mixed requires storage need with to ora make very littlecellar hardwearingsure pieces areas your butof constructionbroken you and can waterproof tile. also If workers useyou otherfloor,have ram materialsayou specialistthe will floor 00rig0CA1OD 3 CJOUL-SauaCIOCICILAJMndlidHOCIL:alla Qt;1. CEIDOWP.Intl ems. a " 31%tgatFigf3:618:03E121EPAW&1198181oEgEtea eaCEFIBRECE:EfUREISF01988FICERWISCV21989:3C8MIENEEECEEM:HiRSESEeaSiegt9 supplier in your area, ask for opus signinum. 13 5 EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES

MAKING LEISURE CENTRE FUNCTION WROXETER COMPARISONS adaptable space for exercising basilica Military sites exercises and court games such as bad- Visit a military site of a different minton period and compare/contrast changing rooms changing clothes changing rooms A medieval castle.which was built as a defensive refuge unlike a showers getting clean, relaxingfrigidarium, tepidari- Roman fort which was a base from um and caldarium which the soldiers went out to attack. squash courts exercising no equivalent A modern barracks. What fea- swimming pool swimming piscina, though more tures would be common to bar- for cold dip than racks and Roman fort? swimming Protective perimeter viewing areas spectating no equivalent, visitors could chat to people in any of the rooms Sentry on duty sportswear shop selling luxury goods market hall, may have Main road access to allow sol- sold quality goods diers to get to the perimeter and out quickly vending machines selling food market hall, sold food Presence of soldiers at leisure in toilets going to the lavatory latrines surrounding area Development of garrison towns Villas such as Catterick or Aldershot One good approach for investigating Roman villas is to ask pupils before the visit to list all the rooms in their houses or flat and whether Does the NAAFI (Navy, Army they have also got got features such as garages, gardens, yards, bal- and Air Force Institutiona social conies. On the site visit they can see which of the rooms and facilities club and shop for service people) they can find at the villa and comment on any differences. Another parallel the shops and inns of the approach is to give a list of features and ask them to discover what the vicus (the civilian settlement Roman equivalent would have been, for example: which grew up outside most Roman forts)? Modern Roman equivalent Roman baths Bath Bath house One way to de-mystify Roman Tap Fountain/spring/water tank baths is to make comparisons to a Wallpaper Painted wall plaster Carpet Mosaic modern equivalent. Ask your Tiled roof Tiled roof pupils to tell you what rooms or Garden shed Store houses facilities they expect to find in a Central heating boiler Furnace typical leisure centre, and make a Radiators and heating pipes Hypocaust and flue tiles list of them. Then relate the func- Brick walls Stone walls Windows Windows (either glazed or with grilles tions of the rooms to those found and shutters) on site. The example used here is Drains Drains from Wroxeter Roman City. Microwave Oven built into wall

Artist's impression of the public baths at Wroxeter Roman City as it may have looked in the second century AD. An aerial photograph of the same area (although from a different viewpoint) is on page 8.

32 36 USIING ROMAN STIES ROMAN SITES ACROSS THE CURRICULUM

Art Many of the skills in the art curriculum are appropriate to study of a Roman site. In particular pupils are required to have the opportunity to record observations, to observe kekfik:Ma"3"011103115VitielDIVA pattern and texture in natural and ,PENY.1801630.1:0PS man-made forms and to recognise images and artefacts as sources of ideas for their own work. The different textures which can be found on many sites can provide suitable material for taking rubbings (with the Custodian's permission)for example, dressed stone, rough stone and tile will produce different effects. A site such as North Leigh Villa in s Oxfordshire with fine mosaics can be used to study the complex geo- metrical motifs used and pupils can also investigate ways in which thet mosaics reflect the time and place in which they were made. In the Jupiter mosaic, Lullingstone. classroom, pupils can use pre-cut squares of coloured paper to recre- Roman site could provide a setting History ate their own mosaics discovering for reading or telling Roman mythsAs well as the specific historical how difficult it can be, for example, the mosaic at Lullingstone knowledge which can be gained to achieve smooth curves with Roman Villa in Kent, for example, through a visit to a Roman site, the mosaic tiles. provides a starting point for the visit can be used to develop general If you are visiting a site such as myths surrounding Jupiter, the historical skills and broaden histori- Bath or Colchester where there greatest of the Roman gods. cal understanding. A key skill iden- were fine classical buildings, you In written and spoken English the tified in the curriculum is for can help pupils gain a knowledge concept of preparing material for pupils to set their study of the past of the components of classical different audiences is important. in a chronological framework. A architecture, and how they relate toPreparing a site guide for a partic- very appropriate technique for this each other, by photocopying detailsular audience is one way in which is a timeline. of classical architecture from bookspupils can be encouraged to focus on architecture and getting chil- in on the site. dren to cut out details such as steps, columns, pediments and friezes, and 'create' their own Preparing a guide for You will need to point out in your classical buildings using these com- visually-impaired visitors guide: ponents. You may want to: Health and safetyfor example English where there are uneven surfaces or As recording, both in written form Prepare an audio guide, and obstructions which visually and using graphical means, is one record a tape which the visitor canimpaired people might trip over. of the most important parts of play back on a 'Walkman' archaeology, English skills are very What is of interest in each area relevant to a visit to a Roman site. Produce a Braille guide of the site, explaining things that As well as recording descriptions of are difficult to see the buildings and finds on a site, Prepare a 'large print' guide for a Roman site can be used as the visitors who have some vision Where there are things that can basis for imaginative work or litera- be touched safelyfor example ture work. Pupils should experi- marks on a piece of cut stone from ence myths, legends and traditional stories. As part of school work a the chisels of Roman masons.

3 7 33 ROMAN sEms ACROSS THE CURRICULUM

Design and Technology Building an arch The design and technology cur- Round arches are characteristic of Roman architecture. They were used riculum has an emphasis on study- for bridges, doors, windows, ventilation holes, aqueducts. The reason ing and making simple things, eval- for using arches is that in engineering terms they are very strong struc- uating products and identifying tures. A well put-together arch is much stronger than a flat piece of strengths and weaknesses. The stone simply bridging a gap. remains of Roman buildings often You can easily show how an arch works practically in the classroom. provide clues to how they were Make a model of a stone arch with wedge shaped blocks made from built, which are much more diffi- plasticine, clay or cut from wood. A 'former' made from a bent piece of cult to see, or are hidden, in mod- card or half a plastic pipe is used to build the arch on and removed ern buildings. when it is finished. A card template made as shown helps get the right shape for the blocks. Maths A viSit to a Roman site lends itself to the maths curriculum particularly in the areas of measuring and of representing data with graphs and diagrams. For example, choosing appropriate units of length and make suitable estimates with them in everyday situations. The range of scales of things to be mea- sured on a site gives scope for use of a variety of measuring and esti- mating techniques. Roman measurement many useful exercises which can beGeography Roman surveyors used a groma to carried out to follow up work at a It is impossible to understand a site mark out straight lines and right Roman site. These could include: where people have lived or worked or worshipped without understand- angles. It consisted of a pole with Using a package which allows a pivoted right angle extension at ing how the site fits into its land- you to produce a newspaper to scape. the top. Each arm has a plumb record the site visit. One group of bob. children could act as reporters Why was it built where it is? - interviewing the other children about what they find out during Where did people get water their site visit. from? Using a graphic package to pre- Was the site good for defence? sent data, for example, measure- ments of buildings on the site. Was there wood or stone available for building houses. Use of a home design package to reconstruct rooms from a Roman A geographical study of the area site and furnish them as they wouldaround a site might involve the use Libra was the Roman pound have been in Roman times. of Ordnance Survey maps to look weight (327.45 grammes) and at the contours and see the slope of was divided into 12 unciae Science the land, and to look for the nearest (ounces) Within the science curriculum river or stream. Children can be there is scope for investigating a encouraged to prepare their own Sextarius for liquid measure number of areas of Roman life, (but also used for measuring sketch maps of the location of the such as public health and hygiene, site. corn) which was just under a pint the uses of materials such as (0.96 of a pint) glass, wood, wool, and the availableMusic technologies for lighting and heat- Music is a good way in which chil- Pes a Roman foot which mea- ing. dren can be encouraged to express sures 29.46 centimetres (11.6 feelings about a site and to create a inches) which was divided into Measuring stones: Groups of sense of atmosphere. You may be 12 unciae (inches) pupils can examine the stone able to create a piece of music walls of different buildings and inspired by a visit to a site and, Mille passuum the Roman mile measure the lengths of a sample with the permission of the which was short of the English of stone, drawing a graph of the custodian, return to the site to per- mile by 132 yards (1536 metres) distribution of sizes of stone and form it. Although no Roman working out the different sizes of music, as such, has survived, they Information Technology stone in different courses, per- had a range of instruments, includ- Within the area of using IT equip- haps showing how the Roman ing harps, lyres, cymbals, ment and software to communicate builders deliberately selected tambourines, panpipes, and cor- ideas and information there are stones for particular purposes. nets and other brass instruments. 34 38 UEING ROMAN STIFIES BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES Books which have an * are suitable photographs of the full range of Johnson, A, Roman Forts, A & for pupils. Roman sites with detailed descrip- C Black, 1983, ISBN 0-7 136- tions and explanations. 2223-7. Standard reference with Roman Empire Jackson, R, James S & Myers, E, good drawings/plans of forts in Corbishley, M, The Roman The Romans Activity Book, Britain and Germany. World, Kingfisher Books, 1986, British Museum Press, 1986, ISBN Johnson, S, Hadrian's Wall, ISBN 0-86272-218-7.* 0-7141-1282-8.* English HeritagefBatsford, 1989, Corbishley, M, What do we Millett, M, The Romanization ISBN 0-7134-5958-1. know about the Romans? of Britain, Cambridge University Scott, J, Hadrian's Wall, Holmes Simon & Schuster, 1991, Press, 1990, ISBN 0-521-36084-6.McDougall, 1984, ISBN 0-7157- ISBN 0-7500-0852-0.* Millett, M, Roman Britain, 2135-6.* James, S, Ancient Rome, English Heritage/Batsford, 1995, Wilson, R, Roman Forts, Dor ling Kindersley, 1990, ISBN 0-ISBN 0-7134-7793-8. Bergstrom+Boyle, 1980, ISBN 0- 86318-445-6. In the Eyewitness Potter, T W & Johns, C, Roman 903767-25-2.* series in association with the BritishBritain British Museum Press, Museum.* 1992, ISBN 0-7141-2045-6. Towns Shephard, C and Corbishley, M, Salway, P, The Oxford Bedoyere, Guy de la, Roman Discovering the Roman Illustrated History of Roman Towns in Britain, English Empire, John Murray/Schools Britain, Oxford University Heritage/Batsford, 1992, History Project, 1991, ISBN 0- Press, 1993, ISBN 0-19-822984-4.ISBN 0-7134-6894-7. 7195-5179-X.* Thomas, C, Christianity in Buchanan, D, Roman Sport White, R, Roman Period, Roman Britain to AD 500, and Entertainment, Longman, Northern Examinations and Batsford, 1981, ISBN 0-7134- 1975, ISBN 0-582-31415-1.* Assessment Boards, 1993, ISBN 0-1442-1. Corbishley, M, Town Life in 901628-96-4. For A and AS level Roman Britain, Harrap, 1981, students taking Archaeology. Army and forts ISBN 0245-53535-7.* Available from English Heritage. Bidwell, P, Roman Forts in Crummy, P, City of Victory - Britain, English Heritage/ the story of Colchester, Roman Britain Batsford, 1997 forthcoming, ISBN Britain's first Roman Alcock, J, Life in Roman 0-7134-7100-X. town, Colchester Archaeological Britain, English Heritage/ Birley, R, Vindolanda, Thames Trust, 1997, ISBN 1-897719-04-3. Batsford, 1996, ISBN 0-7134- & Hudson, 1977, ISBN 0-500- Well-illustrated introduction to the 6745-2. 27142-9. Romans in Colchester. Althea, Living in Roman Bowman, A K, Life and Letters Hodge, P, Roman Towns, Times, Dinosaur Publications, on the Roman Frontier, British Longman, 1977, ISBN 0-582- 1986, ISBN 0-85122-512-8.* Museum Press, 1994, ISBN 0- 20301-5.* Andrews, I, Boudicca's Revolt, 7141-1389-1. Hodge, P, The Roman House, Cambridge University Press, 1972, Breeze, D J, The Northern Longman. 1971, ISBN 0-582- ISBN 0-521-08031-2.* Frontiers of Roman Britain, 20300-7.* Birley, A, The People of RomanBatsford, 1982, ISBN 0-7134- Macaulay, D, City: A Story of Britain, Batsford, 1979, ISBN 0- 7256-1. Roman Planning and 7134-0580-5. Breeze, D J, Roman Forts in Construction, Collins, 1975, Bédoyère, G de la, The Finds ofBritain, Shire, 1983, ISBN 0- ISBN 0-00-192143-6. Marvellous Roman Britain, Batsford, 1989, 85263-654-7. resource for pupils full of detailed ISBN 0-7134-6082-2. Useful Connolly, P, The Roman Fort, drawings.* drawings and descriptions coveringOxford University Press, 1991, Strickland, T, The Romans at all aspects. ISBN 0-19-917108-4. Excellent Wilderspool - the story of the Bédoyère, G de la, The introduction with reconstruction first industrial development on Buildings of Roman Britain, drawings by the author. the Mersey, Greenalls Group, Batsford, 1991, ISBN 0-7134- Part of series, see below.* 1995, ISBN 0-9507194-1-2. This 6311-2. As above. Connolly, P, The Cavalryman, detailed, but readable, study of one Esmonde Cleary, A S, The Oxford University Press, 1988, settlement contains useful drawings Ending of Roman Britain, ISBN 0-19-917106-8.* and plans of all aspects of life in Batsford, 1989, ISBN 0-7 134- Connolly, P, The Legionary, Roman Britain, including the mili- 5275-7. Oxford University Press, 1988, tary period. Frere, S S & St Joseph, J K S, ISBN 0-19-917105-X.* Roman Britain from the air, Crow, J, Housesteads, English Countryside Cambridge University Press, 1983,Heritage/Batsford, 1995, ISBN 0- Bedoyère, Guy de la, Roman ISBN 0-521-25088-9. 142 aerial 7134-6085-7. Villas and the Countryside, 35 31 e)UOGIRAPHY AND RESOURCES

English Heritage/Batsford, ISBN English Heritage, 1996, ISBN 1- A Roman Villa Fading From 0-7134-7046-1. 85074-448-3. View, available from English Davison, B K, A place in the Lumley, J, Using Historic Heritage, 1995. Full colour poster country: Roman villa, Hamish Colchester, English Heritage, shows the story of a Roman villa Hamilton 1984, 1997, ISBN 1-85074-666-4. built and then in decline. ISBN 0-241-11241-9. Based on Planel, P, Battlefields, defence, Lullingstone villa.* conflict and warfare, English Historical fiction for pupils Johnson, D E, Roman Villas, Heritage, ISBN 1-85074-590-0. Breslin, T, Across the Roman Shire, 1988, ISBN 0-85263-961-9. Pownal, J & Hutson, N, Science Wall, A & C Black, 1997, ISBN 0- Percival, J, The Roman Villa, and the Historic Environment, 7136-4664-0. A story set in the Batsford, 1976, ISBN 0-7134- English Heritage, 1992, ISBN 1- year AD 397 which takes the char- 3238-1. 85074-331-2. acters from Hadrian's Wall to Purkis, S, Using Memorials, Rome and back to Britain. Crafts/Industries/TechnologyEnglish Heritage, 1995, ISBN 1- Plowman, S, To Spare the Green, M, Roman Technology 85074-493-9. Conquered, Methuen or Penguin, and Crafts, Longman, 1979, Wheatley, G, World Heritage 1960. Queen Boudica leads the ISBN 0-582-20162-4.* Sites, English Heritage, 1997, struggle against the Roman occu- Hamey. L A and J A, The ISBN 1-85074-446-7. Section on pation. Roman Engineers, Cambridge Hadrian's Wall. Ray, M, Spring Tide, Faber, University Press, 1981, 1969. At a Roman garrison in ISBN 0-521-22511-6.* Videos for pupils south Wales. Johnson, P, Romano-British Archaeology at Work: Looking Sutcliff, R, Song for a Dark Mosaics, Shire, 1982, ISBN 0- for the Past/Uncovering the Queen, Pelham or Knight, 1978. 85263-616-4. Past, English Heritage, 1994, 58 An exciting story about Boudica. Keppie, L, Understanding min. Shows and explains archaeo- Sutcliff, R, The Eagle of the Roman Inscriptions, Batsford, logical techniques for finding, Ninth, Oxford or Puffin, 1954. 1991, ISBN 0-7134-5693-0. excavating and recording sites and Follows the Ninth Legion in Ling, R, Romano-British Wall monuments. Britain. Painting, Shire, 1985, ISBN 0- Archaeological Detectives, Sutcliff, R, Outcast, Oxford or 85263-715-2. English Heritage, 1990/91, 79 min.Puffin, 1955. With the Roman sur- McWhirr, A, Roman Crafts Four videos in which teams of chil-veyors in Kent. and Industries, 1982, ISBN 0- dren investigate buildings and Treece, H, Legions of the 85263-594-X. objects of the past. Eagle, Bodley Head or Puffin, Lifting the Lid. Verulamium 1954. The Claudian invasion of Religion and burial Museum, 1991, 7 min. Roman Britain. Green, M J, The Gods of Roman'corpse' describes how archaeolo- Britain, Shire, 1983, ISBN 0- gists have pieced together his life from the evidence. OPPOSITE: The Ermine Street Guard are 85263-634-2. a re-enactment group who take pride in Scott Anderson, A, Roman Roman Writing Unravelled, the accuracy of their uniforms, equipment Military Tombstones, Shire, Hellenic Book Services, 1989, 60 and weapons. (Mike Corbishley) 1984, ISBN 0-85263-571-0. min. How to understand Latin on coins, inscriptions etc. Miscellaneous Romans and Celts, Channel 4, Bowman, A K, The Roman 1997, 75 min. Five programmes Our Education Service aims to Writing Tablets from about life in Roman Britain. help teachers at all levels make Vindolanda, British Museum Talkin' Roman, English better use of the resource of the Press, 1983, ISBN 0-7141-1373-5.Heritage, 1996, 20 min. historic environment. Renfrew, J, Food and cooking inInvestigates life in Britain Educational groups can make Roman Britain, English under the Romans using a chat free visits to over 400 historic Heritage, 1985, ISBN show format. Winner of the sites cared for by English 1-85074-080-1. Information and Channel 4/British Archaeological Heritage. The following booklet recipes. Award 1996. is free on request.Visiting Historic Sites and Buildings. Educational approaches Computer programme Our Resources catalogue is also Copeland, T, Maths and the The Roman Conquest of available along with our magazine Historic Environment, English Britain. This software simulation Heritage Learning. Please Heritage, 1992, ISBN package consists of four modules contact: 1-85074-329-0. and a book for teachers. Suitable Copeland, T, Geography and for Key Stage 2. Available in BBC English Heritage the Historic Environment, B and Archimedes 400. English Education Service English Heritage, 1993, Heritage. 429 Oxford Street ISBN 1-85074-332-0. London W1R 2HD Durbin, G, Morris, S & Posters Wilkinson, S, Learning from Archaeological Detectives Tel: 0171 973-3442 Objects, English Heritage, Poster Games, English Heritage, Fax: 0171 973-3443 1990, ISBN 1-85074-259-6. 1990, 4 A-3 posters to help pupils Keen, J, Ancient Technology, understand the nature of evidence.

36 4 0 41 '441 r

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This book shows teachers how to use the evidence left behind by the Roman occupation of Britain. It looks in detail at forts, villas, towns, industrial ,001.1.t. sites, temples and burials, with resource sheets for use in the classroom covering the army, home life, crafts and industries and buildings. It suggests teaching approAches across the curriculum, from understanding aerial photographs and finding evidence in place names, to investigating ruined sites and using a 'Roman builder's handbook'.

Written by lain Watson, Durham Studies Manager in the Arts, Libraries and Museums Department of Durham City Council, who has also written teacher's handbooks for English Heritage on Hadrian's Wall and Lullingstone Roman Villa. This book is one of our Education on Site series, suggesting educational strategies for the use of historic landscapes, sites and buildings.

ISBN 1-85074-334-7

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