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Home , Dissolution (politics), Expansionism, Separatism

NBP 2020, 25(2): 39-51

Original scientific paper Submitted: 2020-03-24 doi:10.5937/nabepo25-25836 Published: 2020-09-23

DEFINING AS A SECURITY PHENOMENON

Zoran Malbašić1, Milovan Trbojević Academy of National Security, Belgrade,

Abstract: Irredentism as an inevitable element of expansionistic strategy still remains a fascinating concept and a subject of research in and security intelligence to boot. The subject of this paper is the origin of irreden- tism as a security phenomenon, the analyses of its numerous transformations and the resilience of this phenomenon in all country legal systems. The specific attention has been appointed to typology of irredentism alongside the goal of identifying the irredentist strategies throughout history until today, accompa- nied by an aspiration to identify the current potentially irredentist countries. Expansionistic doctrine cannot be observed as an internal affair of a country, but it is a generator of international crises, potentially growing into regional and further into global conflict. Analysing numerous theoretical views in this field, the authors’ intention has been to verify the structural characteristics of irredentism together with the initial partakers of conflicts alongside irredentist potential. Keywords: irredentism, ethnic conflict, political violence, .

INTRODUCTION

Irredentism is a complex, synchro- fects which it fabricates to the internal nized strategy which is jointly realized structures, as well as to the international by the individuals, groups, political de- community, irredentism is a fascinating cision-makers and institutions from security phenomenon on multiple lev- national and international level with els. For creating such a joint national a goal to unify all the territories where , many experienced an the members of one live into a international community condemna- unique, undivided political entity. Due tion, but even the possibility of an open to its distinctiveness and mobilizing ef- conflict would not stop their intention 1 Corresponding author: [email protected] Malbašić, Z., Trbojević, M. (2020). Defi ning irredentism as a security phenomenon

to fi ght for the ancient ethnic territories it can cause on a wider, regionally-glob- to which the members of their people al plan, irredentism is an unspecifi c oc- claim the right either on a legitimate or currence in the international politics. an assumed historical right. Th erefore, However, this expansionistic strategy the expansionistic politics oft en creates a deserves a scholar attention, bearing in multi-layered, specifi c bond between the mind the fact that staggeringly high per- parent state and the individuals together centage of modern countries, in greater with the groups from both sides of the or lesser percentage of its population, border, and greatly asserts contains one or more national minorities in its radical form, also motivates the which hold a certain amount of confl ict bearers and the followers of irredentist potential inspired by the secessionist and strategies to make the ultimate sacrifi ce expansionistic aspirations. in order to achieve the supreme goal, i.e. How can we defi ne irredentism? Th e to unify all kinsmen into one country. previous studies of the domestic au- Th e primary goal of this paper relates thors have not given much attention to to the analysis of irredentism, identi- this phenomenon, which was mainly fi cation of its causes, nature and mani- observed in the context of the complex festation forms, which helps us to estab- discordant relations between the lish adequate typology of this complex and the in the territory of phenomenon. Taking into account the . On the other hand, the foreign fact that irredentist ideas create strong publications have acknowledged the se- nationalist mobilization, and represent curity signifi cance of this occurrence, a factor that strengthens national unity, and the numerous authors, trying to they potentially produce a serious secu- defi ne irredentism, have delved into the rity threat and generate a multi-level se- fi elds of security intelligence, alongside curity challenge. international relations, but also into the Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, the fi elds of sociology, political science and world has become much more econom- psychology, which gives the irredentism ically, politically and culturally interde- multidisciplinary characteristics. pendent, but economic inequalities have Taking into the account the fact that the intensifi ed globally, which has signifi - research authorities both in domestic cantly infl uenced ideological-identity, and foreign publications have defi ned religious, national and ethnic diff er- diff erently this multi-layered occur- ences producing international security rence, it is important to emphasize that instability. In the past decades, we have the majority of the researchers are unit- witnessed ethnic diff erentiation on nu- ed in the attitude that when it comes to merous grounds, but we have also oft en irredentism there are several key partak- witnessed the interference of other states ers - apart from the ethnic groups with and military coalitions in the internal the irredentist potential, the existence aff airs of sovereign and internationally of the “host state” and the “parent state” recognized states, which is the basis of is essential. Th e “host state” refers to the potentially tragic irredentist . country which is inhabited by the mem- Regardless of the dramatic eff ects which bers of the certain ethnicity with the ir- it causes to the internal aff airs of a coun- redentist potential, i.e. the members of try, the relations of that country with the people who aspire to leave the cur- neighbouring ones, but also the eff ects rent country to unify with the members

NBP • Journal of Criminalistics and Law Vol. 25, No. 2 40 Malbašić, Z., Trbojević, M. (2020). Defi ning irredentism as a security phenomenon of their own people, who are usually the to self-determination, revisionism, an- majority in the neighbouring country. nexation, and especially with occurrence On the other hand, the “parent state” of secessionism, which alongside its represents the subject of the internation- manifestations is the closest to irreden- al law, which expresses the attention to tist strategy. In numerous publications merge the territory inhabited by its kins- the parent state is oft en called “kin-state” men with manifested secessionist poten- or “-state”, and these terms tial and refuses to acknowledge the cur- mostly serve as a more accurate defi ni- rent state’s authority on the questionable tion of the country which tends to have territory. Th erefore, when defi ning irre- the historical and ethnic bonds with the dentism it is essential to bring this phe- separatist-irredentist group in the other, nomenon into a correlation with other most likely neighbouring country. numerous phenomena, such as the right

THE ORIGIN OF IRREDENTISM AND ITS “LONG-LASTING” CHARACTER

Even though an aggressive expansionis- aft er the forming of Italy as a country, tic politics is present ever since humans and he brought the concept of the “unre- have started to unify into the organized deemed” directly together with the terri- political communities, terminological tories which were, at that time, inhabited defi nition of unifi cation of all kinsmen by the members of the Italian people and into a distinctive international legal sub- located in the former Austro-Hungarian jectivity occurred in the second half of . Following its founding princi- the 19th century. Th e origin of irreden- ples “Association for the Unredeemed tism as a movement is connected to the Italy” primarily commended absorption Italian nationalistic thinkers, who con- of the “unredeemed territories” Istra, tinued the heritage of Risorgimento, a Dalmatia, Trentino, together with the culturological and political movement cities Tirol, Trieste, to the newly formed to unify Italy which lasted throughout , previously separating most of the 19th century. Namely, the fi rst these territories from Austro-Hungarian ever to use this term was Matteo Imbri- Empire. Considering that all the nation- ani, the founder of the nationalistic or- alistic leaders of the Kingdom of Italy ganization better known as “Association called the above mentioned regions and for the Unredeemed Italy” (Associazione cities terra irredenta (“unredeemed ter- pro Italia irredenta), which was found- ritories”), the name irredentism denotes ed in 1877 with the goal to unify all the every doctrine envisioned with the goal territories inhabited by into one to unite ethnically, geographically and common country, using the national eu- historically immediate parts of popula- phoria aft er the fi nal Italian unifi cation. tion of the neighbouring countries into In the article “Italian Italy” - L’Italia degli one common political frame (Chazan, Italiani (Janković, 2014: 227), Imbriani 1991: 1). A successful irredentist strate- is particularly focused on “unredeemed gy in Italy introduced the concept of ir- brothers”, i.e. the kinsmen who remained redentism (irredentismo, irredento, Latin beyond the borders of the parent state redimere: redeem, liberate or release)

NBP • Journal of Criminalistics and Law Vol. 25, No. 2 41 Malbašić, Z., Trbojević, M. (2020). Defi ning irredentism as a security phenomenon

to a wider purpose on an international foreign politics until the end of the World level, and even today it is used to defi ne II. Th at is why the several authors the activity of the individuals, groups from the former , like Drago- and countries who have a tendency to van Šepić (Šepić, 1963), warned us on a bring back the ethnic kinsmen who are “tough continuity of irredentist ideas” “stranded on the wrong side of the bor- (Bertoša, 1989: 36) in Italy, which was re- der” (Horowitz, 2003: 10). newed during the fascist , and Regardless the national ethos which was the same author points out the “constants presented through expansionistic activ- and transformations” (Šepić, 1974; Šepić, ities on the individual, but also institu- 1975) of the phenomenon in the Italian tional level, the concept of irredentism expansionistic politics. Th erefore, it is swift ly became declaratively forbidden wrong to observe the Italian irredentism by the offi cial Italy, which was forced to only as a country’s expansion during the do that aft er it joined the military alli- World War II (the territorial expansions ance founded in 1882 under the name in , Dalmatia, Slovenia, etc.), but of the Triple Alliance, which, apart from also the roots and causes for its longevi- Italy, consisted of Austria-Hungary and ty certainly need to be connected to the . According to such external period of the Italian unifi cation, even in political orientation, Italy was offi cially several decades before this occasion, i.e. able to disregard its own expansionistic the beginning of Risorgimento. politics, therefore all the organizations Th e expansionistic politics between the which would appoint to the irredentist two World did not directly exploit strategy in their name were disengaged the concept of irredentism, but according and among them was Associazione pro to all its manifestations it is unambigu- Italia irredenta, which formally ceased ously clear that the matter in question was functioning the same year. However, the the classic irredentist strategy. Th e main new Italian nationalistic organizations of bearers of an aggressive foreign politics diff erent names soon emerged, but they of that era (apart from fascist Italy) were were almost identical when it comes Horthy’s Hungary and the . to of the political orientation, Th e Hungarian nationalists, in the fi rst de- and the role of the Italian expansionis- cades aft er the Great War ended, gathered tic politics bearer befell the organization around the idea of revisionism, blaming Pro Patria – the Homeland Association, the for the unjust bor- founded in Trento in 1885. Th e author- derlines of their country, and the high- ities in Austria-Hungary Empire for- light of this ethnocentric politics were the bade them to act during 1890, and the so called “Vienna Arbitrations” in 1938 very next year the National League was and 1940, by which Hungary mostly came founded (Lega Nazionale), which car- back to its pre-Trianon borders. ried out its irredentist activities through Th e Nazi doctrine of the Th ird Reich the legal forms of manufacturing and was similar to Hungarian revisionism, cultural societies, sports associations, and it was based on the Hitler’s inter- etc. (Cattaruzza, 2017: 32-33). pretation of the “habitat” (), During the fi rst decades upon the uni- the concept which had been used in the fi cation of Italy, the Italian irredentism decades of the imperialistic politics of experienced a range of transformations, the at the end of the but it remained a constant in the national 19th century and the beginning of the

NBP • Journal of Criminalistics and Law Vol. 25, No. 2 42 Malbašić, Z., Trbojević, M. (2020). Defi ning irredentism as a security phenomenon

20th century. Namely, in the fi rst few sions he states that “the foreign politics years aft er the Great War ended, even of a people’s state needs to provide the observed the irredentist ac- existence of a race within a country, on tivities as an inevitable part of a national this planet, in a way that between the survival. Th e letter written by this Ger- number and the exponential growth of man sociologist to Professor Goldstein people on the one hand, and the size and in 1919 stated that “if the Pols should the benefi ts of a soil on the other hand invade Danzig and Th orn, or the Check create healthy, life sustainable, natural move into Reichenberg, the fi rst task is to relation” he adds “only suffi ciently large establish a German irredenta. I cannot do space on this planet guarantees freedom it myself, because I do not have the phys- for people’s fi ghts” (Smiljanić, 2011: 418). ical strength. But every nationalist must Hitler ascended the concept of Lebens- do it, especially the students. Irredenta raum up to the level of the ultimate ide- means: nationalism with revolutionary ological principle of his movement, and instruments of force” (Mommsen & Os- emphasized that the nationalistic party terhammel, 1987: 312). Weber thought “has to, regardless the “traditions” and the post-war German country can evade , fi nd the courage to gather our the loss of the signifi cant part of its ter- people and their strength in order to ad- ritories only if German people and the vance towards that street, which from to- political leadership succumb to the rev- day’s confi nement of the habitat emerges olutionary and irredentist strategies, this people to a new soil and therefore and therefore left for the younger gener- they are forever relieved of the danger to ations to preserve Th e German Empire perish on this land or as a slaved people (so called “the Second Reich”). accommodate others (Ibid: 420). Th e fa- In the Nazi bible “My Struggle” (Mein tal politics of the Th ird Reich, which was Kampf), Hitler used the idea of the “hab- founded by Hitler, led the great German itat” in order to justify the future expan- nation into the largest confl ict in the his- sionistic politics of the Nazi Germany, tory of the mankind, and the epicentre of and therefore, as one of the key conclu- this doctrine defi nitely was the aggres- sive national foreign politics.

THE MODERN USE OF THE TERM IRREDENTISM

Nevertheless the irredentism occurs as a Italian and German expansionistic poli- security phenomenon in the Italian na- tics, and this early phase of the irreden- tionalistic circles in the second half of tist strategies was ended with the World the 19th century, the shaping of the irre- War I. Th e comprehension of irreden- dentist strategies (observed by the aca- tism between the wars and its defi nition demic community of today), appeared was modifi ed under the infl uence of the even in the post-revolutionary France, self-determination doctrine of a nation in other words together with the birth which was introduced by the US presi- of the nation as a concept. Th e national dent Woodrow Wilson at the Paris Peace ethos, which defi ned the European pol- Conference and the expansionistic in- itics of the 19th century, had brought the terpretation of this doctrine in Germany, fi rst wave of irredentism along with the Italy and Hungary led to the new global

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confl ict with devastating consequences. arises as to whether states are entering Th e post-war irredentism was formed as a phase of “post-” (Jovanov, a direct consequence of the colonial sys- 2015: 150), during the last decade of the tem’s downfall, and the confl icts inspired 20th and the fi rst two decades of the 21st by the irredentist legacy were mainly century the current irredentism ques- moved to and , where the tions were reshaped, and the great num- withdrawal of the colonial forces created ber of the new ones emerged regarding numerous problems, especially closely expansionistic politics and analysis of connected to the disputable territory di- irredentism as a security concept. Th e visions, where the borders of the newly broad spectre of doubts regarding this formed countries would not match the phenomenon was related mostly to the ethnic redistribution on the African con- recognition of the cause by which the tinent (Somalia, Kenya, ) and in certain individuals, groups and even Asia (the Kurds expansionistic politics, states participate in conducting political Cashmere, etc.). Th e irredentist period violence on a foreign country’s territory, that occurred at the end of the last cen- then in the motives of the political sub- tury brought this phenomenon back to jects who in the certain situations inter- the European Continent, directly as a vene in foreign confl icts, while in anoth- consequence of the of the er similar situation they do not partake, and the Yugoslav federa- and also there is a tendency to confi rm tion, and the unresolved territorial as- whether the irredentist strategies are in- pirations even today represent the cause fl uenced by the internal political oppor- of the numerous frozen confl icts in the tunities or the climate of an internation- post-USSR and post-Yugoslavia territo- al level? Alongside with that, there are ries. Th e direct military interventions in many questions related to the infl uence the last decade of the were of the foreign interventions to the inten- the most common way of regulating the sity of ethnic confl icts (Paquin & Saide- confl icts in the countries of the so called man, 2008), while the certain research- “Th ird World” (41%, or 368 of 904 in- ers have tried to provide the answers to terventions were armed confl icts), and the following questions: why are certain they were performed by the signifi cant countries more likely to engage in in- partakers of the international scene ac- ternational disputes which possess an companied by the neighbouring coun- irredentist potential; why is the interna- tries with signifi cantly smaller military tional that regulates the third potential; the strategies of the diplomatic party engaging modes being ignored by involvement were realized in 36% of the certain countries, while being respect- cases (323 of 904 interventions), while ed by the other international subjects; the economic power was conducted in what are the essential reasons for spe- almost half less compared to the military cifi c countries to avoid mediation, and interventions (in total 23% cases of for- therefore insist on a belligerent resolve eign interventions – 213 of 904 interven- of ethnic tensions; and fi nally, what are tions) (Khosla, 1999: 1150-1151). immediate causes of the increases in ag- Although, in the current political science gressive foreign aff airs of the states that and security literature, the very concept are directly engaged to the escalation of a state sovereignty is increasingly rel- of the irredentist confl icts (Carment & ativized, therefore question justifi ably James, 2000). Irredentism has defi nitely

NBP • Journal of Criminalistics and Law Vol. 25, No. 2 44 Malbašić, Z., Trbojević, M. (2020). Defi ning irredentism as a security phenomenon been recognized as a concept of “turn- neighbouring country largely inhabited ing jointly group identity into political by its ethnic kinsmen. streams” (Fuzesi, 2006: 67), and on that Along with identifying the primary el- account there rose the need for its mul- ements of irredentism, the researchers ti-layered terminological defi nition. are mainly focused on the set of samples Th ere are countless modern defi nitions which create the climate in which the of irredentism, and most of the research- expansionistic doctrine with all its com- ers of this segmented phenomenon start plex occurring embodiments emerges. by separating the basic elements which Hence Saideman and Paquin postulate are contained by every expansionistic the ethnicity as a primal source to eth- politics. Firstly, as an object of analysis nic confl icts, and therefore conclude that one must take a demeanour of an indi- and expansionistic politics vidual, groups or political movements are the consequences of the strong ethnic gathered around the idea to unify all bonds and ethnic confl icts built inside the members of the same a country, but also the ethnic relations into one complete, inseparable political among cross-border kinsmen (Paquin community. In the same manner, irre- & Saideman, 2008). Saideman defi nes dentism in most of the cases is observed expansionistic doctrine as “seemingly as an anti-state concept which is based irrational foreign policies” (Saideman, on redefi ning the state borders which 1998: 87), and adds that irredentism is were internationally acclaimed, and the biggest threat to safety in Europe af- that shift is usually conducted violently, ter the downfall of the communism. Th is with an extensive implementation of an author signifi es irredentism as a product institutionalized and non-institution- of selfi sh ambitions of political leaders, alized political violence. Furthermore, who, in order to strengthen their own irredentism as an essential segment of internal political positions, reach to irre- the expansionistic doctrine has always dentist rhetoric, therefore neglecting the been a synchronized activity of a group, norms of an international community. which craves unifi cation with its ethnic On the other hand, Th omas Ambrosio kinsmen and the key political elements has joined the internal and the external in the parent state which support unifi - causes trying to comprehend the basis of cation, consequently, the usual subject the confl icts inspired by expansionistic of analysis is a uniformed behaviour of pretences, thus concluded that the polit- the observed subjects from both sides ical leaders in this kind of situations are of the border. Finally, the focus of the faced with both the pressure from the researchers is on the very objective of local nationalist, but also with the warn- irredentism, which represents the essen- ings of the international partakers which tial element to distinguish irredentism can grow into an open international con- from separatism, as it is the most relat- frontation. Ambrosio, therefore, high- ed occurrence. Th at is to say, the primal lights that the rigidity or the fl exibility of intention of irredentist partakers in an the environment is a signifi cant element expansionistic strategy is not to gain its in creating a domestic irredentist cli- own statehood, which is the main inten- mate, so the expansionistic ethnic poli- tion of separatism, but the focus is on in- tics is directly linked to an affi rmative, or corporating of a territory which is sepa- a restrictive attitude of an international rated from the existing country into the

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community, when it comes to this matter. wish to unite to (Brubaker, 1996: 4). He Th is author has pointed out that the irre- names the phenomenon of irredentism dentism has not been given an adequate “homeland nationalism” (Brubejker, research attention in a long time, mostly 2003: 293), in other word nationalizing, because the ethnic confl icts have been expansionistic nationalism which is log- experienced as inner-state, and not as an ically turned on the outside, beyond the international problem, and adds if these borders of the existing country, and the ethnic confl icts were analysed from the parent state in an irredentist confl ict he international system point of view, that observes as an “external national home- was done through secessionism and not lands” (Brubaker, 1996: 4). Th is author through irredentism. Furthermore, he gives irredentism a particular attention, concludes that for a long time irreden- and analyses it as a consequence of rede- tism has been in the interlude between fi ning nationalism, i.e. creating nation- the research that focused on the ethnic alistic discourse behind the former “Iron confl icts and those researches that fo- Curtain” in the years aft er the collapse of cused on the confl icted international the . aff airs. As the main reason for this mis- Observing irredentism as a security phe- leading practice he points out the long nomenon in the last decades of the 20th and dominating realistic approach in the century, the majority of authors were relations between the countries, which linking this concept to Africa and Asia, denied the infl uence of nationalism and i.e. to the post-colonial confl ict lega- ethnicity in general to the international cy in the numerous countries on these relations, and ethnic sentiments were two continents, but at the end of the last observed solely as the means to animate century the irredentist confl ict was defi - and mobilize the domestic population of nitely perceived in the wider region in the nationalistic orientation in order to the , respectively in South-east- strengthen the position of the country at ern Europe (the Albanian and Croa- an international level (Ambrosio, 2001). tian problem in the former Yugoslavia, Unlike Th omas Ambrosio, who ac- the Hungarian expansionistic irreden- knowledges the activities in internation- tism in Romania, etc.) (Horowitz, 2000: al community as a trigger to escalation 281). One of the fi rst authors who tried and de-escalation of irredentist strate- to point out the confl icting potential of gies, Chazan (Chazan, 1991) and Gag- ethnicity in inner-state, but also inter- non (Gagnon, 1994/95) accept the ab- national confl icts was Donald Horowitz. solute importance of internal relations Th is researcher also established the clear and the domestic politics while creating distinction between the two most com- expansionistic strategies. Brubaker ex- mon forms of territorial corrections un- pands the set of causes for the appear- der the infl uence of ethnicity – between ance of irredentism, and advocates the irredentism and secessionism. Accord- thesis that the success of - ing to him, the foundation of secession- ist-irredentist strategies depends on ism lies in the rejection of the members the so called “triple bonds”: activities of the ethnic group on a territory where of the group aiming for separation, ac- they form the majority to acknowledge tivities of the country which the group the of the country they live inhabits (homeland state) and activities in. On the other hand, irredentism is a of a parent state which the separatists synchronized activity of political deci-

NBP • Journal of Criminalistics and Law Vol. 25, No. 2 46 Malbašić, Z., Trbojević, M. (2020). Defi ning irredentism as a security phenomenon sion-makers in a group with secession- complex ethnic relations. Dragan Sim- ist pretences and a parent state which eunović identifi es irredentism as a seg- is inclined to adjoin a disputable terri- ment of national , and points out tory inhabited by its kinsmen (Horow- that the creation of a nation-state is “the itz, 2000b: 182-183). Apart from that, materialization of a national political Horowitz suggests that these two phe- dream” and that “the source of confl ict nomena need to be analysed together is the defi nition of national territory as since, very oft en, they have an alterna- a state territory” (Simeunović, 1995: 47). tive relationship, so he concludes that Th is author directly connects irreden- the ethnic confl icts inspired by seces- tist eff orts with the outbreak of the con- sionist-irredentist legacy are one of the fl ict, and indicates that “the reason for primal reasons for the slow democratic war is greater if it is possible to free the processes in the numerous countries of members of one’s nation who live in an- Africa and Asia, but also on Post-Soviet other nation-state” (Simeunović, 2009: territories and (Horow- 83). He claims that the disintegration of itz, 1993: 35). Particularly, he points out multi-ethnic is a signifi cant that the innumerable irredentist move- cause of confl ict, because the expansion- ments have emerged as a direct conse- ist eff orts of the new nation-states are quence of the certain countries form- mainly based on the attitude that “ours ing, and therefore, the great percentage is where the smallest part of our nation of the similar movements has appeared lives” (Simeunović, 1995: 48). Simeuno- also as a result of the long-term political vić concludes that the nation-state in- tensions and open confrontations in the deed survives nevertheless the globalist multi-national communities. announcements about its end, and de- Domestic literature recognizes the con- spite the fact that it has been phenom- cept of irredentism, but mainly through enologically and usefully written off the limited prism of Serbian-Albanian (Simeunović, 2015: 3).

TYPOLOGY OF IRREDENTISM

Considering that irredentism has estab- group that desires to separate itself from lished itself as a phenomenon which in a host state in order to attach to a coun- its basis contains “the bilateral and si- try which is mainly inhabited by their multaneous pursuit by both parent state kinsmen (homeland), and whose aspi- and its ethnically kindred brethren in rations are supported by a neighbour- a foreign state of ethno-territorial re- ing country which conceives the same trieval across inter-state borders” (Fuz- idea of unity of nation in one country) esi, 2006: 18), the basic classifi cation is and irredentism sui generis (which ap- necessary, together with recognizing its pears in the cases when the members of types and common forms. Taking into one ethnos are scattered around sever- account countless classifi cation crite- al countries, and therefore they do not ria, the most common is the division to have a homeland which could intensify classical, common type of irredentism and synchronize the common idea of (which is manifested within an ethnic unifi cation). Th e typical examples of sui

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generis irredentism are the Kurdish ex- Finally, taking into consideration the pansionist politics in the Middle East time it took for irredentism to appear and and the Basque ethno-nationalist strat- its metamorphosis during the 20th centu- egy in Spain and France. ry, irredentism can be classifi ed into: If we observe irredentism as a conse- 1) early irredentism (refers to those quence of political crisis and confl icts, common forms of an expansionist strat- together with social and political turmoil egy which occurs in numerous European on a national, regional and global scale, it countries, from the moment it formed is possible to divide it into post-confl ict, in independent Italy and the founding post-war, post-revolution, post-colonial, of “Associazione pro Italia irredenta” or- etc. but according to a similar, solely ter- ganization in 1877 until the end of the ritorial criterion, we can distinguish Af- Great War), rican, European (Basque irredentism as 2) interwar period irredentism (prac- a separate subtype), Latin American and ticed in the period between Paris Peace Asian irredentism (with the Kurdish sui Treaty and the beginning of the World generis irredentism). When we observe War II, whose major characteristic is the irredentism as a cause of a specifi c po- synthesis with revisionist strategies of litical behaviour, i.e. when we analyse the European nations that were defeated it based on the types of consequences it in the – Hitler’s Th ird Reich produces, we speak of the irredentism and Horthy’s Hungary), and that generates institutional and of the 3) modern irredentism (and its com- one which induces non-institutional po- mon forms aft er the ending of the World litical violence. War II until today, with a specifi c em- phasis to post-colonial and post- irredentism).

Table 1. Typology of irredentism Classical, common type Irredentism sui generis State criterion of irredentism (Kurds and Basques) Criterion of Post- Post- political and Post-war Post-colonial confl ict revolution social causes European Asian Territorial Latin African (Basque sui generis (Kurdish sui generis criterion American irredentism) irredentism) Criterion of Irredentism that generates Irredentism that generates generated non-institutional political institutional political violence consequences violence Historical Early Interwar period Modern irredentism criterion irredentism irredentism

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CONCLUSION

It is evident that by the expansion of the tions, but undoubtedly important com- scientifi c knowledge of irredentism and ponent of an expansionist strategy is its its identifi cation as an essential element persistence, regardless of the forms of of countless international crises and con- political structure and programme orien- fl icts, there is also the need to develop a tation of political parties and coalitions typology of this complex phenomenon, which were at the head of the countries and its positioning in security-political with irredentist potential. Even though sphere as one of the basic roots of in- the classic bloc division has ended on the stability on a regional and global level. international level, where many assump- Th erefore, this paper’s idea has been to tions about deescalating confl icts on a bring security repercussions of irreden- global level were created about, during tism closer to national academic and se- the last decades we have witnessed the curity community, and to place it where explosions of ethnic confl icts and sepa- it certainly deserves to be, i.e. not to ob- ratist-irredentist aspirations worldwide, serve the expansionist strategy narrowly then unveiling religious, ethnic and na- when it comes to Albanian-Serbian rela- tionalistic diff erences as fundamental tions, which has been the situation so far. genesis for confl icts which cannot be In this paper, we have pointed out that pacifi ed nationally, but only through im- irredentism contributes to complex na- plementing wider international commu- tional and , both in nities and large military coalitions. the countries aff ected by irredentist as- Bearing in mind that irredentism is one pirations and in the countries hoping for of the most direct ways by which an eth- territorial benefi ts aft er the successful nic bond of cross-border kinsmen infl u- completion of the irredentist campaign. ences the occurrence of political violence, It is also noticeable that irredentist con- in this paper, there is a need to com- fl icts carry a signifi cantly greater de- mence a typology of anti-state phenom- structive potential in regard to ideolog- enon, hopefully to identify more easily so ical confl icts, mostly because ethnic rel- called “irredentist state”, i.e. those states atives are idealized and oft en perceived that tend to exploit ethnic tensions in the as family members, and not only as the neighbourhood for its own political, eth- members of a group who share a com- nic, territorial and similar benefi ts. It is mon ethnic cultural heritage. Th is atti- important to mention that irredentism is tude towards cross-border relatives also an exquisite consistent ideological weap- produces a specifi c type of ethnic securi- on, so the idea of a stately-legal unity of all ty dilemma, so that a more intense feel- kinsmen prevailed in numerous states re- ing of closeness generates an increased gardless of the form of their political and existential threat from members of a social structure, global political situation rival ethnic group with whom the same and the infl uence of international insti- living space has been shared for centu- tutional arrangements. By establishing a ries, and imposes political violence as a typology of irredentism, we have tried to justifi ed means of struggle. point out that irredentism is present even For the last century and a half, irreden- in democratic and autocratic societies, tism has experienced many transforma- but also in the and the monar- chies, and the irredentist ideas emerged

NBP • Journal of Criminalistics and Law Vol. 25, No. 2 49 Malbašić, Z., Trbojević, M. (2020). Defi ning irredentism as a security phenomenon

in both unitary states and those with fed- the occurrence, escalation and manifes- erative political structures, so one cannot tation of inner-state and international specify the model of a country which is confl icts. Ethnic polarization as an ele- suitable for the birth and development of ment of an ethnic identity in this case is a violent state expansion. Irredentism is a direct consequence of a high level con- a continuous process, whose duration is nection among cross-border kinsmen, not limited by a mandate of one govern- and not merely psychologically, but on ment or a dynasty in power, but is deeply specifi cally institutional level. Th e sense rooted into the minds of ethnic kinsmen, of nurturing the shared history, but also wherever the members of that people the romanticized assumption of a com- have residence. We have witnessed that mon future has brought numerous con- expansionist politics is a constant in po- fl icts in the last few decades and centu- litical actions of certain states during the ries, and the expansionist doctrine will range of decades or even centuries, and be an inevitable component in aggressive that the expansion and the designation strategies of potentially irredentist coun- of these ideas is particularly visible dur- tries in the years to come. Finally, this ing times of crises, through distinctive type of expansionism from the interna- regional and global confl icts, and radical tional community’s point of view is the changes of social and political structures least desirable manner of territorial bor- internationally. der adjustments, but the frequent occur- Irredentism is one of the potentially most rence of irredentist ideas, certainly point dangerous and the most extreme ways in to the fact that there is no ideal, suffi - which ethnic bonds between kinsmen on ciently righteous border division which the both sides of the border can infl uence could adequately satisfy all the parties involved in an irredentist confl ict.

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