62 | The Secret Doctrine and the Gigantomachia: Interpreting Plato’s Theaetetus-Sophist PAUL DIRADO | 63 Though Cephalus first introduces the topic Cephalus, the Myth of justice in the Republic, he departs from the of Er, and Remaining conversation before he can hear the fruits of his initial conversation with Socrates.1 His absence Virtuous in Unvirtuous raises the question of the value of philosophical Times study for those who are virtuous by convention without philosophy. Let us assume that Plato holds that Cephalus’ departure from the con- versation is an error, and that he would have benefited from taking part in a philosophical analysis of justice. Depending on how the rea- der interprets Plato’s presentation of Cephalus, he is either a habitually just person who has a Paul DiRado good character or a civically just person who University of Kentucky at least acts externally in accordance with [email protected] conventional standards. It is not immediately obvious how a philosophical consideration of the nature of justice would benefit a person virtuous in either of these two ways. The di- fficulty reemerges in the context of the Myth of Er. In that mythic context, Socrates argues that those who live in accordance with virtue ABSTRACT unsupported by philosophy are in the grea- test danger with respect to choosing their next Through a reading of the Myth of Er and Soc- life, and that careful attention to philosophi- rates’ conversation with Cephalus, I will argue cal study is a helpful way of avoiding the dark that merely conventional virtue is highly unstable fate of choosing an unjust future life. In this and unreliable. Virtue acquired by convention context, it again fails to become immediately proves foundationless outside the confines obvious why a soul will be benefited from the of the political regime that establishes those study of philosophy, particularly outside of the conventions, and a tendency toward an unre- immediate mythic context of the story. The flective moral complacency on the part of the puzzle becomes even more perplexing in refe- conventionally virtuous leaves them in particular rence to other comments that Socrates makes danger of committing unjust actions. Socrates throughout the dialogue about the difficulty recommends the study of philosophy because it and danger of philosophical study outside of can ground conventionally acquired virtue and, the kallipolis. even more importantly, because it is capable of In this paper, I will argue that Plato pro- shaking the moral complacency that afflicts the poses that undergoing the Socratic elenchus is conventionally virtuous. beneficial for all citizens, even for those who are already conventionally virtuous and des- Keywords: Republic, conventional virtue, Ceph- pite its many dangers. After a careful study of alus, Myth of Er, ancient political philosophy, Socrates’ conversation with Cephalus and his relation between convention and philosophy http://dx.doi.org/10.14195/2183-4105_14_5 64 | Cephalus, the Myth of Er, and Remaining Virtuous in Unvirtuous Times PAUL DIRADO | 65 presentation of the Myth of Er, it will beco- interpretations of Cephalus’ virtuousness—it is me clear that Plato holds that virtue acquired apparent that philosophy plays little to no role without the practice of philosophy is highly in the acquisition of virtue for Cephalus. Con- unstable and unreliable. Rooted fundamentally vention—including both the laws of the city in nomos (custom or law), both habitual and and religious authority—tells human beings civic virtue remain at the mercy of the regime which actions are virtuous, and which actions in which individuals find themselves. Outside are not. Insofar as Cephalus’ primary concern the confines of that regime and the nomos that is to act justly, he seems to see effectively no governs it, such as in the afterlife in the Myth use for a philosophical discussion of what the of Er or in the very concrete circumstance of virtues themselves are, or of what the justice political upheaval and tyranny like the reign is. Nowhere is this orientation more evident of the Thirty, conventional virtue will prove than at the end of his appearance in Republic, foundationless, and the individual will have where Cephalus returns to his conventionally no framework to orient decision making. Even mandated sacrifices to the gods rather than stay worse, a tendency toward a certain sort of mo- to hear an extended discussion of what justice ral complacency or laziness on the part of the is. In this section, I will discuss two ways of conventionally virtuous actually leave them interpreting Cephalus’ character on the basis worse off with respect to these extra-conven- of his speech, and show how on either inter- tional situations than others within the regi- pretation Cephalus fundamentally relies upon me. In the myth, Plato ultimately advocates a conventional understanding of the virtues the study of philosophy because it can grou- that is resistant to elenchic questioning. In the nd conventionally rooted virtue in something next section, I will then discuss the specifics of more secure than convention and, even more Cephalus’ speech in greater detail. importantly, because it is capable of shaking Cephalus’ speech has three main stages. the moral complacency that afflicts the merely First, he argues that old age is, in itself, a bles- conventionally virtuous. sing insofar as it lessens the tyrannical desires of youth. Those who find it odious, he contends, do so because they possess poorly formed and 1: CEPHALUS’ RELATIONSHIP disorderly characters and so are unwilling to TO PHILOSOPHY AND TO let go of desires that a virtuous person would be CONVENTION happy to be abandon. Second, Cephalus argues against the thesis that it is his wealth, and not I will begin by considering the conversation his virtuous character, that allows him to wi- between Socrates and Cephalus concerning the thstand the loss of his youthful desires as well nature of old age and the importance of vir- as he has. Finally, Cephalus argues that wealth tue—particularly justice—for withstanding is still valuable to the virtuous person insofar as old age well. In this conversation, Cephalus it promotes justice by allowing the virtuous to shows himself to possess a kind of conventional pay off old debts and to avoid unintentionally virtue that is rooted in obeying various sorts lying or cheating anyone on account of poverty. of conventional norms. However this virtue In this way, he argues, the virtuous person who should be understood—and as I will argue possesses some means can avoid going to the below, the text admits of at least two plausible afterlife in fear. Socrates then attempts to con- 64 | Cephalus, the Myth of Er, and Remaining Virtuous in Unvirtuous Times PAUL DIRADO | 65 sider the nature of justice with Cephalus—in of the afterlife—and who is only concerned particular, he wants to know whether or not with the appearance of justice. Many—perhaps justice fundamentally consists in paying off even most—commentators read Cephalus in debts—at which point Cephalus departs from this more dismissive light. Such commentators the conversation. tend to read Plato’s portrayal of Cephalus as Though there are a number of different indicating someone who is generally shallow ways Cephalus’ speech gets interpreted by and someone who is far less concerned with commentators, most take one of two general virtue than he presents himself as being to approaches. Some hold that Cephalus is what I Socrates. Variations of this sort of interpreta- will call habitually virtuous—that he is a per- tion are found, for example, in Schleiermacher, son who has habitually internalized the norms White, and Annas.5 of his society concerning what is just and unjust I will not here attempt to decide between and so generally behaves in accordance with these two interpretation of Cephalus. Both rea- those norms because of the way this interna- dings can appeal to textual support, as I will lization of the norms has shaped his desires. discuss in the following, and Socrates himself On this interpretation, Cephalus’ self-presen- raises and leaves open the question of whether tation is basically correct: he is a man of good or not Cephalus’ self-assessment is accurate. character who withstands his old age relatively Indeed, it is possible that Plato intended whe- easily on account of his virtue. Examples of this ther Cephalus is describing his own character reading are found, for instance, in Beversluis honestly to be ambiguous so that he could in- and McKee, who both argue that Cephalus is troduce both habitual and civic virtue into the unfairly treated by the roughness of Socrates’ dialogue with one character. My focus will be questioning.2 Though neither read Cephalus on how either interpretation of Cephalus’ spee- as positively as McKee, weaker versions of this ch and character reveals a tension between con- general approach are also found in Taylor and ventionally acquired virtue and philosophical Reeve.3 virtue. Both habitual and civic virtue remain Others hold that Cephalus is a person who unphilosophical and are instances of what I will is at best a latecomer to virtuous behavior. call conventional virtue. In either case, what is Cephalus is newly attempting to reform his responsible for the virtuous behaviors demons- life on account of newfound fears about what trated by the individual is the nomos of the re- awaits him in the afterlife as a result of a life- gime and society in which the individual finds time of wrongdoing.4 On this interpretation, him or herself. The habitually virtuous person Cephalus would only display what I will call internalizes this nomos, and does not want to civic or external virtue—he acts justly not by violate it, whereas the civically virtuous person desire but on the basis of external compulsion, only outwardly manifests virtuous behavior as and his publically virtuous deeds and spee- established by nomos while secretly desiring ches are only an appearance that hides a cor- to be unjust.