XTbe **fjtt*rltmtl- Urrarfc.

VOL VI. OCTOBER-DECEMBER, 1896. NO. 2.

HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS.

that unbroken chain which con- The literal fact of furniture being arP nects the soul of man with the extension of the IN body is easily enough surface of the furniture shown. The earth, human body of to-day is which touches the house on one side so constituted as to be able to receive and the on the other is an such body impor- and such sensations, perform such tant link. 7"he word is here used in the and such labors,. sustain such and such all the household larger sense, covering stress. It is an instrument varying all from the bed- from appliances, movables, greatly the body of the early sav- stead to the teaspoon. They are all age, or of a lower animal. In some of the of the house all it is part furnishing ; ways in others inferior superior, ; serve for the extension of human such as it it is, is conditioned upon the power and activity, and all are evolved furniture which allows its varied ac- by the same great law which gives us tivities. feet to stand on and teeth to chew If the human hand had to do all the with. Let us follow a for moment the work itself, as the monkey's paw does, lines of development which have filled it would not be the human hand. If our moving wagons with household we dug with it, we should lose the impedimenta. finer susceptibilities of touch at once, It is in this field that we find most and grow heavy claws. If we used it fully exemplified that marvelous advan- for spoon and fork, with teeth our only of the knives if tage human creature who makes ; we were forced to do a tenth to himself innumerable ulterior con- part of the day's work "with our bare veniences in passive and active furni- hands," we should soon have no hands ture the for to do it with. would ; writing desk, instance, They lose the being passive and the pen active, and distinctive characteristics which make thereby multiplies and develops his them hands. The infinite subtlety of de~ power a thousandfold. All furniture velopment shown in -the special is based on bodily needs, and its value of some trades, needles for instance, is to be measured by its right meeting brushes and the exquisite sub- of those needs.. divisions of a dentist's tiny instru- so rest these with them the hand A chair is meant to sit on, and ments ; carry the body without lowering it to the of delicate and varied use. And were 1 earth so the exertion it not for such tools we should not entirely ; saving of getting up again. It is safer, easier, have that hand as it is. The elephant's cleaner than lying on the floor. Origi- trunk and its one finger is a wonderful a the flea has a outfit of nally mere stool, the back was added organ ; good in its mouth but to further rest the trunk muscles and vivisecting tools ; the arms. there is nothing else in nature that ap-

All reserved. Copyright, 1896, by THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD COMPANY. rights Vol.-6.-l. 98 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

preaches the human hand with its de- to be under glass for protection, is not That which makes it a hand beautiful in common use nor is the rivatives. ; instead of a paw is the capacity for china whose easy use would be its sure varied use, and the capacity for varied destruction. The spider-legged table, its tools. are and the insect of chairs the use depends upon They family ; that parts of the body, like patent detach- things creak when you sit down able finger nails, transposable teeth and tip over when you get up, these are and the like. not beautiful. It is plain then, this being so, that If a thing is of a light arid frail ap- the laws of construction, their use and pearance, as a bamboo chair, it should beauty, must be considered in continu- be also so simple in construction as not ous regard to the human body. They to suggest waste labor. And if a have, of course, their own absolute thing is rich in inlaid work or carving, beside matters of it should be solid to endure condition ; durability enough have to be considered as well as adapt- time and /strain, else its beauty car- ries a ability, and the relative value of differ- constant element of distress and ent materials. so ceases to be beauty. To the household economist the Beauty, be it observed, is not by any " chair represents so much physical rest, means a mere matter of opinion." of so has its laws and dies the modified, course, by personality ; Beauty upon of its own so much re- thereof. It is much beauty ; infringement quite possi- lation to other articles associated with ble, of course, to believe an ugly thing the to be association of it, and so much durability. To beautiful, through a chair is not false low average purchaser j udged, ideas, education, perceptive the first of these con- faculties and the like but because a surely, even by ; siderations, and the others are lost thing seems to a person to be beautiful sight of altogether. it does not by any means follow that it Our forefathers, who made things so is so. Take, for instance, the African fat strictly for use, and that in most cases admiration for extremely women, governed as strictly by economy, the Chinese admiration for deformed missed but one factor of beauty, and feet, our own admiration for deformed of usa- waists that a that is ease. The beauty any ; given object conveys able thing, from a leg to a ladle, is pleasure to the eye by no means proves based on three conditions : use, ease it beautiful. We Americans, as a whole, " and economy. You must have some- have a low national taste, and need thing to stand on, must you ?" says much honest study before we can " here's a true And even after Nature. Very well, leg ; recognize beauty. doesn't work easily ? I'll fix it." And we have learned a good deal about it, forthwith she adds joints and - there remains the endlessly varied ap- pans and all manner of ropes and pul- plication according to our personal and leys- to make it go. Then when it is industrial and social and economical strong to stand on and easy to use, she limits. When it comes to house furni- shears off all and "behold ture, that, like home architecture, is superfluities " how beautiful the limb is ! modified by so many necessities as to The maker of the ladle is governed make any clear high beauty impossible. by the same considerations. It must Suppose we begin to plan for parlor

a ladle to with it furniture : be perfect begin ; carpet, tables, chairs, sofas, must conform in every curve and line curtains, etc. Everything has to be to the comfortable use of its holder, modified by many considerations. If and it must have no needless weight or it is a family room, it must riot offend substance. Here is where certain the personal taste of any member of fail of the The varied use of ostentatious teaspoons beauty ; family. every there is too much material for either article by many people modifies its our ease of use or their necessary dura- possibilities immensely. If there are fol- bility. The pitcher that does not pour boys, a certain grade of furnishing if cats and cannot be if another ; well beautiful, though of lows ; babies, It gold. The glass so frail that it need s dogs, another. Furnishing depends. HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS. 99

depends on so many things that we or professional use of the dentist's cannot hope tor high beauty in the chair, barber's chair, invalid's chair household but still in ordinary ; cer- household Jor use certain low-toned tain rooms in some houses there might harmonies are best; things restful be noble i furnishing ; n others much useful, quietly beautiful, not too that is and in all a pro- pretty ; and nounced. harmony A Bengal tiger on a hearth sweet reasonableness, now almost un- for rug, instance, one of the favorite known. It is quite possible also for designs of rug in many middle-class each of us to learn to know fur- good English houses, can never be con- niture when we see it, as well as good sidered as soothing, and it is happily architecture, and if our household ex- being replaced by something less sug- igencies require cast-iron and tow- gestive of barbarism. cloth things, to see to it that they The background for all be furnishing harmoniously constructed. comes under the head of decoration, Let us consider in detail one article, and is a study in itself. For the fur- say a chair. Being meant to niture support itself there are always three the weight of the human body, the principal considerations: (i) the size chair's that of personal beauty requires the apartment in which it is to be it shall show power to do this, and not the placed ; (2) purpose of the room, more. If a chair looks greatly strong and (3) the object or use of the to enough support a weary elephant, it is articles themselves. To these con- not beautiful nor if it looks as ; though siderations others must be made sub- a cat's weight would strain it. Sup- servient. is the first of a port requisite chair. There follow then certain practical After that the relative comfort of the considerations the nature of the ma- enters into the support beauty of the terials employed, mineral, vegetable chair. It must in all conform to ways and animal; their relative durability its use. These demands complied and destructibility. The nursery, for with, it has minor considerations of its instance, or other room which children own. Not being always occupied, it are to occupy with some sense of space should not be built so as to suggest and comfort, demands absolutely too painfully the absent sitter, for a self- different treatment from that of the respecting chair has some character of drawing-room given chiefly to the re- its own. Grace and power in its lines, ception of guests. Until within a " " fine material, true decoration these generation a set of furniture has may make the chair a thing of beauty been regarded as a necessity for a well- in itself even when empty. But none furnished parlor, and the average of these things must ever interfere housekeeper, notably in New England, with the comfort of the user, the having little money to spend, invested chair's reason for being. it in hair-cloth, the most hideous as This reasoning holds good for every well as the most durable of all fabrics article of furniture. First, its use to the mind of man has ever evolved. In man its of its natural colors a of ; second, own laws con- species iron-gray, struction and it was a trifle less but decoration ; third, and objectionable, here only the individual can dictate, inscrutable desires on the part of the its relation to the thousand needs of buyer brought the dyer to the front household life. One generalization may and gave inky and glossy blackness as be permitted on this line. Knowing the result. Repulsive in color, slippery that household needs are various any in finish, to that degree that no mortal conflicting, and so require a low, could do aught but slide uneasily on common denominator, no article in a the cold ungracious surface, the New room should be of any marked England mind seized upon this as the and for held to it eccentricity. ideal, generations" followed- The private room may show more with fervor. The "rep set or red and this of this;, but high specialization in fur- usually dark green niture calls for the same specialization was a great step forward. Gradually, of a faint use, such as the peculiarly personal with the slow development 100 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. sense of beauty, cretonne and other cisely like our modern folding chair, fabrics have come into use, while the but much more securely. They chose growing familiarity with Japanese and heads of animals for ornamentation as other Eastern fabrics is teaching us did the Assyrians, and their couches, the value of an admixture of mineral tables and cupboards were all heavy, materials, as gold, silver or copper solid and finely carved, the seats being thread. upholstered or embroidered with the The cottage requires a lighter order richest materials. Both the Greeks but the of furniture than the mansion ; and Romans used folding chairs, this does not mean flimsiness of con- carrying them in the chariot for use in struction or poor material for covering. the Forum lecture-halls and baths. Wool invites moths, and in our furnace- Form and construction remained much heated houses where life is made easy the same, the Greek predominating, for them, wool is always liable to their and perfection of finish being regarded attacks. But there are beautiful com- as the first essential, being in each binations very durable in quality, in case according to the material em- silk or cotton or linen, as well as in ployed. silk and wool. At this point one is The renaissance in art made great tempted to take up room by room with changes in architecture, and all this the best type of furniture for each, but transition was exemplified in the furni- limitations of space make this impossi- ture. The princes and nobles of Rome, ble since each type of house must have Florence, Venice and Milan ordered its own standard. But there are good and often designed the most sumptuous and helpful authorities all certain to chairs and tables, cabinets, beds and develop taste and power of judgment chests, and as an almost uniform train- in the buyer. Sir Charles Eastlake's ing was given the artists who resorted " Hints on Household Taste," though from , the work done by them in one of the oldest, remains one of the Spain, Flanders and Germany, espe- best and most suggestive. Litchneld's cially under the reign of Charles the " History of Furniture," a superbly- Fifth, can hardly be distinguished from printed and illustrated volume, gives that of Italian artists in the same us the finest models from the Greek period. The beauty of this sixteenth and Egyptian down, is much in the century work, however, declined in the same lines as that of Jacquenart, while seventeenth century nor has it had " the recent volume on Colonial Fur- serious attempt at reproduction until niture," will enable even the unwary the present day, when fixed and often buyer to distinguish between Chippen- most unlovely forms are giving place " dale and its imitation. The Maga- to genuine artistic designs. zine of Art," "The Art Journal," and The construction of a perfect chair a few other art periodicals often give means many things. Each part should elaborate descriptions of artistic furni- be as perfectly united to the next as if sometimes with it had in its and this ture with illustrations, grown place ; schemes of furnishing adapted to vary- means well-seasoned , exactly cut ing purses. tenons and mortices, very hot glue of Probably nothing can more thor- the best quality, and the proper press- oughly train the eye than a study of ure in putting it together. Lightness ancient models never excelled in either for ease in moving is another requisite. beauty or finish. The British Museum If carving is used, it should be abso- contains six chairs, the earliest exam- lutely subordinate to the outline and ples of the ancient Egyptian theories, comfort of the sitter, never interfering and all about the same height as our with the dress, nor being liable to present chairs. A beautiful one is of breakage from having salient points, , turned in the lathe, and inlaid masses or ornaments exposed. The with collars and discs of ivory, the seat same general laws apply to couches and being heavy cane slightly hollowed. beds, and the ancients worked them Another of turned and polished rose- out at once, held to them rigorously, wood, has a seat of skin and folds pre- and would look with consternation at HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS. 101

our veneered, warped, mis-shapen pro- ture to life and ; therefore the orderly made to and ducts, sell, utterly cheap arrangement of our rooms, and the and mean in expression. carefulness of our dusting, does not The ensative touch of the human give truth or peace to discordant col- hand must be in that holds lections of anything upholstered articles, having artistic and the high quality, factory neither intrinsic nor relative beauty. can never us distinctive work. As At this give point we find, as usual, that learn we once more this law known the higher specialization of man's work thousands of of us years ago, each will has given him more perfect furniture. want at least one of furniture de- A piece finely appointed office or study, with an artist ourselves if its signed by by we desk breathing embodied business, have artistic and in its perception time we chair of complex possibilities and shall all return to the earlier ideals, learn perfect comfort, and its revolving the place of ornament, and gain once bookcase that seems so glad to serve more a distinct conception of a bed, a the wish of its master; this shows a a a chair, couch, table. The evolution more advanced degree of furnishing of each is as clearly traced as that of than is possible in the home. To study the chair, and in the beautiful volume such an office, or turn her attention " by Kuhl and Koner, on The Home with equal care to the kitchen of a Life of the Greeks and Romans," one buffet car or a steamship, the arrange- may find the history of all they regarded ment of a laboratory, a store, or any as furniture. room devoted to special uses, would The most perfect adaption to the use compel an intelligent woman to required of it, and the utmost beauty thought on the immense deviations of line and finish, characterized even found in the home, and whether such the simplest and humblest piece of deviation is in the lines of progress or orbit to it. furniture of pottery ; and gain against again the beauty of these two essen- Why does a man prefer a leather- tial points, in our modern work, we covered, stuffed easy-chair to a rattan must study the creations of the past rocker with a blue ribbon woven into and learn the thought of the beauty- its orificial decoration, and a tidy loving Greek, and of the nation that pinned to its back ? It is not a matter followed in his train. of personal opinion merely, nor is it a the In its intimate relation to human life, question of sex, necessarily, for furniture forms a direct expression of woman of business does not admire the class, "age, sex and condition of the cobwebby rocking chair, above the " servitude of the user. Each class, smooth comfort of the other one. varying in its needs, varies commen- The leather chair rests the body, does in its another evi- not stick to the clothes, does not in surately furnishing ; dence of its place as an extension of any way obtrude upon the notice, does human power and activity. As the not fasten to the back when you get human creature varies and develops, up, does not tip over when it is his furniture varies and develops in touched. The leather chair is a piece absolute relation to himself. of true evolution, rightly modified by It is not so Poverty, luxury, intelligence, all are modern needs. nobly Greek or the Roman shown in the furniture, the upward beautiful as the growth manifesting itself quickly in chair, but it is beautiful in its right service of man, and so, luxuriant outburst of new things ; and existing after all. the downward in the slow processes of legitimately beautiful that other unrepaired decay. How came to pass thing in It is our misfortune the misfortune with the tidy on it? What process us the of those of us who have approximately evolution has bestowed upon what furniture that our museum of tip-overables in these we want ; " " which should breathe evolution into heterogeniety is rooms of ours neither "definite" nor "coherent;" only of rest and pleasure ? is after this that we do not grasp the principles The process something the woman which relate the development of furni- order. The life of average IO2 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. is so spent in conflicting interests and closely fitted for a special task, but industries that she cannot develop any expresses humanity in the abstract, so true taste for large truths of relation. our household furniture which does not She is accustomed to unrelated activi- speak of work, but of rest : not of con- but of diffusion not of ties and their unrelated utensils ; used centration, ; to going from stove to dish, from dish where we are going to, but of where we to duster, from duster to sewing come from breathe calmness and machine, with one hand it may be, beauty and peace. rocking the cradle all the time. It Two things most needed in our con- does not therefore distress her to see ception of right house furnishing are a ribbon on the parlor coal-hod, a these : i. The elimination of all that gilded milking-stool painted with spealcs of toil. Home is peculiarly a or a with of rest the daisies, rolling-pin .covered place ; though birthplace fur- velvet. Relation not being in her life, of all industries. All the special why should she feel the need of it in niture that speaks of special task her furniture ? She herself must should be as far- as possible banished answer a multitude of needs or at least concealed. 2. A of ; why, thing then, should not the table carry what- vital importance of which we seldom ever one may choose to put upon it? think. While our home is from the " Were women sensitive to the discord beginning and essentially the place " about them they would die sooner of children yet we do not, either than they do, which is needless. More- in building or in furnishing, allow for over, our women in their sheltered their needs and pleasures. It is a lives develop more of personality, peculiar oversight, and one which will whim, caprice, passing and changeful be remedied when the household econ- preference, just as children do, a thing omist has voice in the choice and build- that more general life modifies in ing of the home and its furniture. man. On most of these points our minds Save to the occasional artist, it is are chiefly a blank, we who were rarely that it occurs to a man to ex- brought up in homes where childhood press his personality in his furniture. was unplanned for, and who, going to " " He does not like it this way and the new nest, think more of Cupid and that and the other and and of Mrs. way, way ; Hymen, possibly Grundy, change it about for variety's .sake, as than we do of the family the home is she does. He got it for a purpose, meant to shelter, make no provision in placed it for a purpose and used it for our purchasing for the larger half ot a purpose; "liking" it only as it the occupants. At any one time there serves his purpose. Therefore he does are more children than there are grown not tire of it, and it does not tire the up people, and they are more impor- " beholder. tant. They are always with us." Is the home then, because of these Children as a permanent class have facts, to be turned into a howling wilder- yet to be considered, but such they un- ness of leather and ? Heaven doubtedly are. Should not then the forbid ! Within the limits of easily furnishing of the child's home allthe learned artistic laws, this very per- home the child ever has be planned with sonality and variability, the modifica- some consideration of his needs and tion to multiple use and occupancy, the pleasures? As it is, the most he can teeming suggestion of youth and age, hope for is a "high chair" to bring and all sweet natural living all these him to the adult table, and possibly a are precisely what gives household little "rocker" to hug and fall down furniture its charm. Just as woman stairs with. herself, comparatively unspecialized The children must "get up off that and so still all serv- of for it is the promising things ; floor," course, though ing as the artist's model and the child's natural resting-place, it Is not sculptors' type of great thoughts arranged for his health and comfort. standing for the figure of Liberty, So they sit in people's laps for a while, Justice, Truth because she is not too or struggle about uneasily in big chairs HOUSEHOLD FURNISHINGS. 103

and sofas, and disport themselves on as the by way, in a modern hcuse it is stools pretty and hassocks under be- certain not to I protest; be, admit that a small carpet ing hurried meantime with constant which can be bundled out of the room in two minutes will be directions as to how to sit, and reiter- useful, and we must also take care that it is beautiful or it ated commands to "keep quiet," until will annoy us they can go out of or go to terribly." bed even ; when out, being cau- usually This last is a trifle extreme, but for tioned not to sit on the ground, vainly, the rest I think we admit that however thank Heaven! may both children and their elders would Shall the human home, be fur- then, be far more at ease if every item were nished like a kindergarten ? but No, carried out literally. there should be, so to a kinder- speak, I have been in houses where, from garten in every home or near one. The top to bottom, there was absolutely not child should have his furniture as well one spot where one could really live, as we. And furthermore, that knowing since beds were -too fine to lie upon, our homes are the hojnes of children, chairs too, frail to sit upon, tables too we should not fill them with articles of shaky and uncertain for comfortable constant temptation to the normal writing or drawing, and all things over- activities of childhood. A human home ornamented, and generally calculated is not a it is a to live museum; place to spoil temper and shorten life. Can in and peaceably, young old more es- one imagine that the children with the pecially young. their sensitive organization are not tor- this need is in Fortunately being mented and hampered in the same a and furniture of degree recognized, way ? For them, if for no other reason, is made for chil- good quality being we need to study the laws of furnishing dren's from the little enameled use, and give them models that will form iron and brass the most rational bed, taste and make cheap vulgarity forever of to the small type bedstead, bureaux, impossible. chairs and other that tables, fittings The factor of nobility, not only in belong with them. the evolution of furniture but also in The room in which much is living our relation to it, is an important one done living with its innumerable mod- to the student. Remembering the ern demands substantial as requires principle that the value of human pro- well as beautiful furniture. And no duction is m proportion to its dura- one has better the essentials than to the number of given bility and usability ; William Morris, who, in an essay on who can use a thing and the " " people The in Beauty of Life," his Lectures length of the time for which they can on Art," describes what he regards as use it we see that the value of a essential to the ordinary sitting-room special article of furniture is greatly of a : healthy person limited by personality. If one is pe- " culiarly shaped, and one's chair is First, a book-case with a great many to it is less valua- books in it table will peculiarly shaped fit, ; next, a that keep steady would sell for less when write or at it then several ble as a chair, and you work ; chairs that you can move, and a bench that at an auction. On the other hand, it you can sit or lie upon. Next, a cupboard would cost more to have it made, and with drawers unless the be be- ; next, cupboard it is of far more value to the owner beautiful with or very painting carving, you cause of this peculiarity. will want pictures or engravings such as you Here is a line to be drawn in can afford only not stop gaps but real works sharp reference to If we do one of art on the wall ; or else the wall itself must personality. be ornamented with some beautiful or restful kind of work and are accustomed to a pattern. We shall want also a vase or two one kind of only, there grows up to put flowers in, which latter YOU must have certain intimate relationship between if in a town. sometimes, especially you live that tool and us which adds greatly to its Then, there will be the of course, fireplace usefulness. But if it be lost and we are which in our is the chief climate bound to be tool forced to use a slightly different object in the room. That is alj we shall want, detracts from our useful- if the floor be if it be not, the change especially good ; 104 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. ness. To have comfort or power de- are better understood we shall find life pends on one's one special furniture is a nobler, sweeter, easier process. The a limitation of use in the line of racial child surrounded by beauty and order retrogression."^*" $ will grow up smoother and rounder in To be localized then, and stationary, character, less irritated, less rubbed to be fixed to one's own implements is away. The adult living among beauti- a subhuman condition, and one to be ful and orderly forms, all peacefully guarded against. A free and easily ad- serving their uses, will find a clear at- justed relation to both furniture and mosphere, either for work or rest, and tools is to be sought, else one is held the improved grade of humanity so down by material limitations. These are fostered will manifest itself in kindred in outline the laws and principles of fur- improvement in every other branch of nishing and furniture, and when they sociologic progress. Helen Campbell. ELECTRIC LIGHTING OF MODERN OFFICE BUILDINGS.

of electric arrangement lights wire," multiple-arc which is frequently in an office and of the met THE building, with in office building practice, wiring for them, is generally the and is known as the Edison "three- last thing in connection with the de- wire" system. This was devised by the to receive sign attention from the great inventor as a means of reducing .architect, and it is frequently the case the size of the mains required, where that no thought is given to the dispo- the current was to be carried any sition of the wires until after the con- considerable distance. There is no tract is let and the construction of the particular economy in using the three- building well under way. The result wire system in an office building which of such a proceeding is that the wiring installs its own dynamos and plant, is only accomplished by a reckless cut- but in most of the large cities the Edi- ting of plaster and tiling, and even of son system is installed under public the flanges of iron beams, at no little franchise to furnish light from central expense. stations, so that in buildings which The principles which govern the take electric light from the public running of electric wires in office mains the wiring has to be adapted "buildings are by no means difficult or to the three-wire system. complicated, but it is invariably advis- The general principle of the three- able to give them due consideration, wire system as distinguished from the and to make proper allowance for this two-wire will be readily understood important branch of the building con- by reference to the diagram of Fig. struction. 2, and also to Figs. 3 and 4. In it Of the two great systems of incan- the dynamos are set in pairs, the posi- descent lighting, the "direct-current" tive terminal of one dynamo being of and the "alternating," the latter is but connected to the negative terminal rarely encountered in office-building the other. The positive and negative to practice. Its advantage is found in mains of the system are connected transmitting current for long dis- the free terminals of the two dynamos tances, and even where it is used the and a "neutral" wire is run from the "converter," which transforms from a connection between. The lamps are all connected between the neutral wire high to a low electrical potential, is the outside and placed outside the building, and the and one of wires, should be divided as as low potential wiring inside practically equally possi- ble the two "sides" of the conforms to the principles of direct- between sys- tem. It will be understood current wiring on the "two-wire" sys- readily that if are divided tem. Incandescent lights are more- they absolutely when all are there over invariably, for electrical reasons, equally, burning, in the neu- wired in some form of what is known will be no current flowing tral wire at the and the econ- as "multiple-arc," as distinguished dynamo, of this arises from the from "series" wiring, which is gen- omy system fact that the neutral wire need be erally used for direct-current arc-light- only of size sufficient to the current ing. In "multiple-arc" the lamp ter- carry the difference in minals are all connected together necessary to make up the two while into two wires, which con- load between sides, electrically and nect direct to the dynamo terminals, between the positive jiegative of electrical instead of being connected one after mains the difference po- tential is twice that in the two-wire another as in series. (Fig. i.) with the same difference at the There is, however, an important system, much smaller mains to modification of the ordinary "two- lamps, enabling Multiple X\rc

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H t HH t

tt t H t

Two WVe System Three Wire

05 2, re Ftg.3.- Diagram of wiring \or Office Buildings ( TWO M - Fiq.4. -Diagram o\ Wiring ELECTRIC LIGHTING OF OFFICE BUILDINGS. 109

be used with the same percentage loss of potential. In office buildings it is almost inva- riably found most convenient to run the "mains" vertically through the building, and "distribute" the connec- tions to the lamps from these at each floor. The mains are run from the basement to the attic as straight as possible, and are generally located in a ventilating or pipe shaft. "Sub- mains" are taken off at each floor, and are run to a "center of distribution," at which point all circuits are taken off for the individual lamps. No circuit should supply more than eight lamps, and each is invariably connected to the submains through a safety fuse "cut-out," which melts and breaks the connection should any accident occur to "short circuit" the lamps or wires. It is of course possible to run sub- mains to more than one center of dis- tribution on each floor, although if the floor area is large it is generally better to have two or more sets of mains running vertically, as it is gen- erally the case that the arrangement of rooms and corridors brings the cen- ters of distribution for the various floors directly above one another. The feeders which run from the mains to the dynamo switchboard are con- nected to them at about the middle of their electrical load, for, were they connected at the lower end, as might seem more natural, there would be a much greater loss of potential at the lamps on the upper floor than at those on the lower. For the same reason, in a very high building, much over ten stories, the mains are divided into two sections, and a separate set of feeders run from the switchboard to each sec- tion, as indicated in Fig. 5. This ar- rangement affects a still more uniform distribution of current. These general principles of the wir- ing system will be more easily under- stood by reference to the diagrams of figures 3 and 4. The "sub-mains" should be provided with fusible cut- Fig. 5. QogronrSft outs, at the connection to the mains, and feeders in very high and similar ones should be placed on each set of feeders at the switchboard.

co 8 c o I

o o 'o.x ELECTRIC LIGHTING OF OFFICE BUILDINGS. Ill

Where the current is taken from a The cut-outs commercial are best set on the wall in system the "buss-bars" of cabinets made the switch board are preferably with slate or of course con- marble backs and nected direct to sides, and with iron the street mains, and doors. If made of wood or even with in such cases an independent system wood doors, the wood work should be of mains and feeders is run usually up lined with asbestos the to heavy paper. If building supply only the lights meters are used on the circuits it is in the corridors, toilet rooms and jani- much better to place them directlv in tors' closets, so that these may be the cut-out cabinets. kept entirely independent from the As before stated, not more than lights used by the tenants. eight i6-candle-power lamps are It will now be seen that the shaft placed on one circuit, otherwise with a in which the vertical wires are run number of varying lamps lit, there will must contain from four to nine be wires, too great a variation in their brill- the of depending upon height the iancy. Of if all the and course, lamps are building, whether or not the in a cluster and are turned on three wire together system is used; and these by one switch number numbers only, any can might be doubled if a separate system be installed for the corridor These lights. wires are always large and and heavy should be run perfectly straight and supported on a firm wall means of iron brackets rrrrr by and glass insulators, and should be set at least three inches apart so that joints may be readily made and inspected. They should, moreover, be kept free from contact with gas and water pipes, and should be easily accessible for inspec- tion throughout their entire length. They are sometimes of necessity run in CORRlQOf? special small shafts built against a wall or column, and in such cases if they cannot be hung on brackets and insulators they should be run in con- duits, and cabinets should be built Fig. 7. around the joints where the sub-mains are taken off. be put on one circuit In practice, In regard to the wiring for the however, all the lights of each room lamps on each floor, there is much are almost invariably put on separate that may be said. The "center of dis- circuits, so that each room is inde- tribution" for the circuits should be pendent of the others, and where the located as near as possible to the cen- rooms are small there are generally ter of the floor area to be covered so but four or six lights per room. If as to reduce the average length of cir- rooms are divided as shown at "A," in cuits. It is of course desirable to have Fig. 7, those which have no direct cor- this point near the mains so that the ridor connection and open only into sub-mains will be short and in most one room, may safely be put on the arrangements of rooms a "janitor's same circuit with the corridor room. closet" is placed adjacent to the main After the offices in the building are pipe shaft so that unless the shaft is a rented it is always found advantage- long way from the center of floor area, ous to have the wiring of each room the circuit cut-outs are best placed in distinct, and if light is furnished such a closet, which also avoids locat- through meters, it is absolutely neces- ing them in a more conspicuous place. sary, as it is never possible to know 112 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

exactly in what arrangements the cated as essential by many engineers, rooms will ultimately be rented. and although the ordinary insulation In the matter of meters, it is, in the on a good rubber covered and braided opinion of the writer, always desirable wire is sufficient when new, it is con- to put them in on every room. This is sidered to be liable to deterioration almost invariably done where current when imbedded in plaster or in the is supplied from a public station, but cinder covering of a tile floor, and the even where the building installs its own conduit might therefore serve as a dynamo plant, there is much less dis- valuable protection against this dan- satisfaction among the tenants when ger as well as against the danger of they pay for the amount of light actu- mechanical injury during the con- ally used, rather than a flat rate per struction of the building, and during light per month. alterations and repairs afterward. If In regard to the various methods of mechanical protection is especially de- running the circuit wires, there is op- sired, nothing is better than an iron portunity for much discussion, and al- pipe, but unless it is itself lined with a though the conditions in a large num- vulcanized insulation the iron is not ber of buildings might seem very simi- an insulator, and it is claimed by some lar, yet no set of rules can be laid down that the action of the iron and iron rust which would cover the detail of more will, in a comparatively short time, than one building. The primary es- deteriorate the insulation, and a sential in any wiring system is perfec- can be driven through a brass covered tion of insulation, but just what is paper conduit almost as easily as necessary to perfect insulation under through the ordinary paper ones. The a given set of conditions is invariably electric conduit is unquestionably de- open to dispute. In the earlier days sirable in certain places, and under of office building wiring, it was con- certain conditions, but the advantages sidered quite sufficient to cleat the of the different conduits should be rubber insulated wire on the tiling of carefully weighed by an expert to walls or ceiling and imbed it rigidly in meet the conditions of each separate the plaster, and the wiring in many building. The only real test of a con- buildings done in this way several duit, or of an insulated wire for that years ago is to-day giving practically matter, is the test of time under practi- perfect satisfaction. In recent years, in cal conditions, and few, if any, of the order to protect the wires more abso- conduits have been in use long lutely, a number of varieties of "elec- enough to have thoroughly met that tric conduits" have been put upon the test. market, and are urged as essential to There is^ moreover, another import- a good system of wiring. These con- ant consideration in this connection. duits are tubes made of vulcanized It is a matter of practical experience paper or hose, and sometimes covered that in any office building or store with a thin sheathing of brass, or even building a large percentage of the iron pipe is used. The idea of a conduit lights are never put in as originally was primarily to form a raceway from laid out, and after the building is oc- which a wire could be withdrawn and cupied changes are continually being renewed without injury to walls or made in the arrangement of partitions plastering. It is, however, difficult to and furniture to suit tenants, which in- put up conduits so that this can be ac- variably involves changes in location complished, but to that end, when of lights and wiring. The conduit may they are used it should be insisted that permit the renewal of a wire, but it they be put up complete with long will not permit a change in the loca- radius bends and joints as few as pos- tion of lights without greater disturb- sible, and carefully made, and that the ance of walls and plastering than wires be drawn in after the completion would probably be necessary were no of the work. Conduits are now advo- conduit used. It may be put down that ELECTRIC LIGHTING OF OFFICE BUILDINGS. on an average the location of all small lights rooms, except those occupied by of an office and the doctors building wiring and similar professions, ceil- are at corresponding changed least ing outlets are not as useful as wall once in six or and in eight years, many brackets. In rooms of considerable cases much and within oftener, the floor space which are used for stores rooms a circuit can often be success- or the salesrooms, most ideal light is run in a fully principally moulding. one which is diffused from small clus- But this is within the rooms. The ters of only two or three lights each, dis- corridor are more tributed partitions generally uniformly on the ceiling. If and the wires , running down this is carried to an extreme, however, the corridors between the centres of where the ceilings are low, it will give distribution and the rooms are conse- one the feeling of not being able to more A quently permanent. very large get away from the glare of light. This number of wires radiate down the cor- is often experienced in basement res- ridors in all directions from the cut- taurants. Also, where a large space is outs, and adequate provision should broken up by columns, the effect be made for them. They are generally which their shadows will produce run on the ceiling, though frequently must be considered, and a very good the floor. If on they are put on the illumination is often obtained by rings floor there is much more danger of of lights arranged about the columns mechanical injury during' construc- and carefully worked into the orna- tion, and there are generally various mentation. pipes crossing the floors which have In a large open space with not very to be passed. In any case these wires high ceilings, one sixteen-candle- should be well protected, as well from power lamp to seventy feet of each other as from external injury, floor space is fairly good lighting, but and it is therefore desirable to run they are often put in one to thirty or them in conduits or in channels built thirty-five square feet, while fifty to into the walls, though even if this is sixty feet per light may be considered done the wires must be carefully se- an average. For small offices, the ne- cured and protected, and kept well cessity of having two or three lights separated. In any case whatever, the to every room generally makes the circuits should be carefully laid out so average lighting about one to forty or that the wires will not cross one forty-five square feet of floor. another. Each building, however, involves In the matter of distribution of special features, both in construction lights in an office building there is but of wiring and distribution of lights, little to be said. Where the floor area and only a careful study of the exist- in each is divided up into small offices, the ing conditions and necessities of lights should be placed with due ref- case can attain a system lighting erence to the probable location of which will be thoroughly satisfactory desks and other office furniture. In both to the owner and tenants. Wm. S. Monroe, M.E. THE SMALLER HOUSES OF THE ENGLISH SUBURBS AND PROVINCES.

PART II. CONSTRUCTION.

SECTION I. FOUNDATIONS.

is apparent to everyone that the higher level, keeping the higher por- IT foundation of a building is one ot tion of each length the same distance the most important parts of its below ground as in Fig. I. In rising construction, and it behooves us to or stepping the footings care must be taken go somewhat carefully into this sub- that the projecting footings of I the lower are ject. In dealing with the subject portion taken sufficient- propose dividing it into two heads, ly under the upper to prevent a viz.: straight joint and to transmit the ORDINARY AND ARTIFICIAL. weight. CLAY Afc artificial foundations come more within the province of the engineer in various degrees of consistency is I do not propose to describe them found in most places, and when sound here. and tolerably dry and protected from the ORDINARY FOUNDATIONS action of the atmosphere (which latter must be done) by mak- into two classes: In may be divided ing the foundations deep and covering the first class, those of rock, clay, the bottom of the trenches with con- gravel, chalk and sand; in the second crete is a good soil to build on. soft and class, those on ground ground One element of danger with clay is of varying qualities, defective in parts, the continual change caused by at- or but not such as to require piling mospheric influences, which are very timber rafts. liable in hot weather to cause cracks ROCK. and to form deep fissures by which water is led below the surface. This Solid when uniform in char- rock, causes the footings to become de- acter and with an bed either upper fective unless they are placed deep horizontal or perpendicular to the enough to be out of the reach of such pressure upon it and of a thickness channels or fissures and are well drained. GRAVEL

when sound, makes the best possi- ble foundation, for, being pervious to water, the surface drainage is ena-

sufficient to bear the weight safely, is a foundation of the first class. If, however, the rock is (like some clay slates) liable to disintegrate when ex- posed to the weather, it should be covered with a bed of concrete. In the case of foundations in rock on a slope it is advisable, to save cost of excava- tion, to 'step the footings, that is to carry only a small portion of the foot- bled to run away and so to leave the ings level, say 8 or 10 feet, and to have footings free from moisture, while in the next length of 8 or 10 feet at a a clay foundation the water is penned THE SMALLER HOUSES OF THE ENGLISH SUBURBS. in on the site and where there is a TRIAL PITS. basement or cellar it becomes neces- Before work these to either line the walls with as- commencing sary should be dug or made on the outside or to build borings at phalt "dry- different on the site in points order (i) areas" round the basement walls (Fig. to ascertain the nature of the ground, 2). (2) the thickness or inclination of the If the gravel should be found loose strata, (3) to find out if water exists and coarse it is then requisite to form and at what level, and (4) if there are a bed of concrete on which to rest the any springs. If the latter are foundations. If found found, very unsound, their sources should be ascertained it is then to the soil necessary prevent and arrangements made to divert the current of water. Having decided the depth and char- acter of the proposed footings, the bottoms of the trenches should then be carefully examined and sounded to ascertain any local defects and then leveled throughout in one , if convenient, or in successive levels of the several lengths where stepped. DRAINAGE. from shifting by treating it with sheet piling (Fig. 3). The ground should be well drained CHALK before digging to increase the firm- ness of the soil. All bad portions like varies in its value clay immensely should be cut out and made good as a good foundation, but with care with concrete and loose portions and treatment can be proper made rammed solid or removed. Care should reliable. It is found at times as be taken that, where filling up deep hard as a while it is also found rock, holes, the concrete is allowed to settle as soft as paste. Chalk at all times, before the ordinary foundation is whether found in a hard or soft state, added thereon, so that there may be should be and in cases where drained, no unequal settlement throughout the are found to exist should springs they varying depths of concrete. be most carefully diverted but not FROST. dammed out, as if so treated they are in apt rain or wet weather to burst All foundations (especially those on through and so damage the founda- clay) should be of such a depth as to tion. be free from all effects of frost. In SAND England this should be not less than 3 feet for ordinary soil and 4 feet for forms a foundation when good pre- clay. vented from escaping laterally by PERMANENT DRAINAGE sheet piling or other means. Care should be taken to exclude water is necessary to keep foundations dry more particularly from a sand founda- so as to prevent dampness, damage by tion as it is likely to wash away the frost, or subsidence through the action sand and so cause a settlement. of water. Having now described the qualities Now let us turn our attention to of the several strata referred to in foundations in those classes of soil Class I., their treatment for founda- which we have placed in the second tions and the several defects to which class, viz.: they are liable, attention must be COMPRESSIBLE SOILS. called to a few rules in daily use which are applicable to all founda- Foundations in these soils require tions. great care, more especially when the THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

to be buildings erected are of varying shrinkage, and defects of all kinds heights. It is advisable in this case to would show. In such a case one must spread the weight carefully and be guided by the nature of the build- over as equally wide an area as possi- ing to be erected, by the distance ble, carefully ramming the bottom of apart of the firm portion of the foun- the trenches as solid as possible and dations and the depth of the unsound. before the is com- levelling building It may be best to build piers upon menced and in the thoroughly tying the solid margins of the unsound por- whole structure throughout so as to tions, with connecting arch over on settlement. guard against unequal which the building is erected, the base of the piers being connected with . SOFT TOP SOIL. arches called "invert," which transmit When the surface of a site to be the weight equally towards the bases built on is of a soft soil over- of both composed piers (Fig. 4). In forming if the lying a firm one, upon testing such invert arches it is necessary that depth it is found not to be too expen- they should have an efficient abut- sive, it will be best to take the whole down to the solid; or else a number of holes may be sunk and piers built up from the solid, on which arches should be turned to support the walls above. This is open to objection as it is throwing all the weight on to cer- tain small areas, which is quite at variance with the purpose we look for, namely that a foundation should ment on both sides so as not to over- it balance transmit the several weights which the resistance of the end piers. has to carry over the whole area of Arches have been used at times on ground by means of footings so as to a foundation of clay to keep out water reduce the pressure by giving them from a cellar, in which case they as extended an area as possible. Con- should be laid after the building is up sequently such piers must have an and of sufficient weight to counterbal- ample area of base in order to over- ance the thrust of water, otherwise the come this objection. pressure is apt to throw the side walls In the case of a stratum of good out. Such an instance came under our ground overlying a soft one, if after notice on the South coast a few years examination the stratum is found to be ago. strong enough to bear the weight pro- Having pointed out the various posed to be put upon it (which would soils to be dealt with, we need only best be found by testing on either side note in conclusion that the following of the proposed footings), then spread are the qualities that a good founda- the weight as evenly as possible there- tion should possess: on, taking care that the soft sub- (1) It must be perpendicular to the stratum has no chance of escaping, by pressure put upon it. piling, if necessary,at the side. Should (2) It must be solid, or if yielding, the soft substratum have an outlet on it must be equally so over the whole the side of a hill or river it will prob- site. ably ooze out and cause a settlement, (3) It must be unaffected by atmos- moreover if the soft stratum should be phere or other influence. peat it will be advisable to drain it be- (4) It should be of sufficient area fore commencing operations. to bear the pressure put upon it. Next, as to a foundation of uneven We may also call the attention of quality, part firm and part soft, it is the reader to the definition of a proper evident that such a foundation can- foundation under the Metropolitan not be built over without some special Building Act, wherein it states that: treatment or there would be unequal "No house, building or other erec-

i THE SMALLER HOUSES OF THE ENGLISH SUBURBS. 117

tion shall be erected upon any site or matter of building and one in which portion of a site which shall have been too much care cannot be taken. filled up or cpvered with any material impregnated or mixed with any faecal, SECTION II. WALLS. animal, or vegetable matter, or which shall have been filled up or covered BRICKWORK. with dust or slop or other refuse or On the rebuilding of London, after in or upon which such matter or the any great fire of 1666, brick was the refuse shall have been deposited un- material universally adopted, and an less and until such matter or refuse act then passed for the erection of the shall have been removed properly by new buildings described the thickness excavation or otherwise from such of the walls according to the number site. holes caused such ex- Any by of bricks. In the brickwork of the cavation if not used for a base- must, buildings erected in London at the ment or cellar be filled in with hard end of the I7th century (during the brick and rubbish." dry reign of William and Mary), and the The same act requires that "the site beginning of the i8th (during the of house or shall be every building reign of Queen Anne), the brickwork covered with a of layer good concrete was in many cases enriched by orna- at least 6 inches thick and smoothed ments carved with the , a on the upper surface, unless the site method of ornamentation, which with thereof be gravel, sand or virgin soil/' the revival of Queen Anne work has dealt with the removal Now, having been of late years much in vogue. of surface soil, the act goes on to that (There is no doubt that we owe a quality of a foundation with which we great deal of the brickwork of the have yet to deal, viz., the area re- 1 7th century to William of Orange, quired for the pressure, and states who brought it over from Holland, thus : "The foundation of the walls of where it was extensively employed, as every house or building shall be mentioned above.) formed of a bed of good concrete, not It is not our intention here to go less than 9 inches thick and project- into the question of the manufacture ing at least 4 inches on each side of of bricks, but to point out a few of the the lowest course of footings of such characteristics of good bricks and walls. If the site be on a natural bed then to mention a few of the kinds of gravel, concrete will not be re- in common use and to follow this with quired." Thus again stating that some remarks of a general character. gravel in its natural state is the cheap- est and best foundation. ADVANTAGES. Although 4 inches is mentioned A good brick can easily be told,as,in above as sufficient for the bed of con- addition to being (i) free from cracks crete to project beyond the footings, and flaws and (2) from lumps of lime yet in practice it is always provided which are liable to be slaked by damp that the least width of concrete be- and thus expand and "blow," it yond the lowest course of footings should give (3) a good, clear metallic shall be 6 inches. In the constructions ring when struck with another or with of these the trowel the surface of its sides and footings a sparing use of mor- ; hollow tar in spots loaded with the greatest face should be (4) level and not pressure is advisable. and (5) not too smooth or the mortar We need not here go into the ques- will not adhere thereto. Insufficiently tion of weight that may be put onto burnt bricks absorb a large proportion foundations which would never be of water and so are liable to decay. overloaded in the case of an ordinary It is very generally stated that a good house. ordinary building brick should not This brings us to a close of this sub- absorb more than one-sixth of its bricks ject, one of the most important in the weight, of course vitrified (such THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. as what are known as blue bricks) somewhat objectionable, as they get would not absorb more than one-fif- grimy and have little warmth of color teenth of its weight. and do not give the homelike appear- Great care should be taken that un- ance which is so necessary to the derburnt bricks (which are generally houses which we are discussing. called grizzle or place bricks) are not allowed to be used, even for the in- THE TIPTON BLUE BRICK terior of walls. I is used as a material with red Bricks in the neighborhood of Lon- facing bricks, in which it is don average inches in length by occasionally 8| to form as in the 4j inches in width and 2j inches in placed patterns 1 6th but it does not har- thickness and weigh about 7 Ibs. each. century, monize so well as in these old The actual dimensions have varied exam- the difference that somewhat, as in general they were ples, being they were burnt with wood fires instead made longer and thinner than the of coal. present day; in fact, more after the Roman of brick. This long, type GLAZED BRICK. flat brick has many advantages in ap- pearance and can be obtained nowa- These are especially treated with a days by special order. thin coating of white or colored en- It is a matter of taste, but, speaking amel. They would not of course be personally, I am inclined to think the used, in a general way, externally, but light red varieties are more pleasing for areas and courts they are espe- than the dull red kind, especially in the cially applicable as they can be kept neighborhood of London where ev- bright and clean by being occasionally erything tends to get grimy after a washed down, besides which they re- short time. flect light; for this reason a cream The color in red bricks is pro- color is better than a pure white, duced by the presence of iron, which which will be found too glaring. in varying quantities produces the Salted bricks or salt-glazed bricks different light and dark tints. have a thin glaze over their surfaces which is produced by throwing salt YELLOW BRICKS. in the fire while the burning process These are what are known as the is in progress. These are also useful ordinary London stocks which are in the same way as glazed bricks and made around London and district. they have been used as a facing to Some kinds have been used for fac- buildings in London, being of a pleas- color. ings, especially what are known as ing brown picked stocks with washed stocks for ORNAMENTAL BRICKS AND MOULDED arches, but are used they principally BRICKS. for backing to walls and internal work to be plastered on. They are a rough The manufacture of these have kind of but of brick, being composed much improved of late years, which burnt with are clay, coke-breeze, they taken conjointly with the so-called sound and useful for the purposes in- Queen Anne movement has led to the dicated above. There are several va- use of moulded and ornamental bricks such as rieties, cutters, facings, pav- to a large degree in our smaller iors and hard stocks, each being used houses. Moulded bricks, that is for its special purpose. those turned out of a mould, are better than those which are rubbed after WHITE BRICKS. burning, as the surface of the latter Those known as Suffolk are among kind is liable to disintegration. the best and are suited for face work Rubbers, namely the class of bricks in the districts for which they are which are used for gauged arches and found. Used in London, they are for carving, have considerably more THE SMALLER HOUSES OF THE ENGLISH SUBURBS. u9

sand to facilitate their cutting and brickwork without the need of and are any shaping, consequently more at all. This wall may be 9 porous. inches thick or 12 inches if desired The moulding and red bricks facing (the bricks being on edge), and the made the Rowlands Castle by Co., wall will therefore be four bricks thick Hants, hold, a in deservedly, high place, a stretching course of a 1 2-inch and have been used as a for the facing wall (Fig. 5). Hotel Metropole, Brighton, by A. Ornamental tiles may be used R. Waterhouse, A., and numerous either in bands, or for the whole wall other ; important buildings; they are of and we are inclined to think that when a rich red color. Moulded bricks of every conceiv- able section are made by the above- mentioned and other firms, and are used to make up cornices, plinths, string-courses, diaper panels, etc. It is a matter of taste whether col- ored mortars are admissible, but personally I do not think they ever look so well as a good white mortar the joint. Blue and black mortars are, roof is plain-tiled (Fig. 6) it however, occasionally used, especially makes an agreeable variation to have with red brickwork. Struck weath- some part of the surface of orna- ered mental it Joints are better than "tuck" tiling, as is called, that is to 1 which is with tiles a cut pointing , never allowed by say hung having or any architect worthy of the name. circular end; but this, of course, is a matter of taste. Anyway, if you WEATHER TILING TO WALLS. have bands of ornamental tiling, have them in broad and do not A few words as to the methods of masses, fritter the surface away in small strips. employing weather tiling. The great point to be considered HALF-TIMBER. is the method of fixing the tiles to the The popular demand for pictur- wall. This can be done by nailing esque buildings has led architects to battens to the walls at a distance revive the ancient and almost obso- apart, but this is not a good plan and, lete style of timber-framed houses, in my opinion, should not be adopted. filled in with plastered panels, and, in It leaves an air space which is liable spite of the many discomforts of this to be overrun with vermin of all construction in our climate, numerous sorts, and, besides this, the battens examples are constantly being erect-

ed (as in Fig. 7). Many, however, of these are only scene painting, so to speak, the owner being protected from the consequences of his fad by are fixed are liable to rot with age, and there a hidden brick wall. On this is the expense of fixing them. deal boards, duly stained and provided The best method is to build the with the indispensable, but now pur- walls with bricks on edge, then the poseless, wood pins, correctly project- to nails which hold the tiles to the walls ing. Some architects endeavor more de- can be driven into the joints of the make their constructions 120 THE ARCHITEC! URAL RECORD. fensible by attaching these boards to troublesome to work on this account. the studs of the usual type of internal It carves in a coarse way, lending it- partition , employing some self well to the reproduction of the means, such as packings of slag wool, vagaries of the Flemish or German fillings of concrete, plaster, etc., to Renaissance, and when well em- rectify its serious defects as an ex- ployed, as with well-colored red ternal protection. In no case, how- ever, is the old construction adhered to, which is not surprising when we remember that in old examples beams 12 inches wide are set apart only their own width, the quantity of timber, often , in such nouses being hardly credible. The gable ends of roofs seem to be the most legitimate places to employ such half-timber work, as damp and cold are not so much to be bricks, has a very quaint and charm- effect. Bath stone and feared, and some scope is afforded for ing Portland are the other two the picturesque fashion' which seems main freestones em- in The former is to require a country -house to be, or ployed dressing. but has a life of about appear to be, built of as many differ- cheap, only in . while ent materials and methods as possible. twenty-five years London, The overhanging stories of the old Portland, though hard and durable, weathers black and white in a special fashion, the color effect of which lends itself to a somewhat severer type of work than the class of home we are discussing. For this latter work a loose, irregular stone, often to be found upon a country site, is employed for rubble walling, requiring either 8 brick or freestone quoins and dress- ings, and of course a brick internal the walls not less than houses are of great value and could lining, being 20 inches thick This rubble be easily and safely done nowadays (Fig. 8). with iron and concrete floors and work is left rough, though usually walls, but we should not like to see more or less regularly coursed, and such constructions cased in the tim- is extremely suitable, more especially for the first the ber forms of departed epochs. story, upper part often weather-tiled and the STONE. being chimneys built in brick. In certain We do not propose to occupy the southern districts, flints found in the space that this material requires for chalk are admirably adapted for its full treatment, because with us the small house is not wholly of stone un- less it happens to be in one of the stone-producing districts. Generally the stone-work consists only of free- stone dressings to brickwork, or of special features, such as a stone - way, or a bow window in a construc- tion or design of other materials. For such features a fine colored yel- low stone, called Ham Hill, is often building, either used as concrete with employed. The stone is liable to have brick bands, quoins and dressings, the holes full of clay in it, and is very flints being somewhat arranged on the THE SMALLER HOUSES OF THE ENGLISH SUBURBS. 121

face, or, better still, squared and set issued by the Ecclesiastical Commis- like an ashlar walling in miniature, sioners, which be taken as a which latter method may re- combines well liable of example everyday practice also with freestone dressings instead of brick. When flints are used un- the squared, brick bands are highly necessary for the construction. They must be carefully studied for effect, everything depending upon their in- tervals, the number of courses, the and the thickness of the bricks. When the bearing exceeds 8 feet the joists should be strutted SECTION III. FLOORS. by one ORDINARY. and row, when it exceeds 12 feet by The two rows of struts. simplest form consists of joists These may be (for sizes see below) placed side by either slips placed herring-bone wise or side, on the upper side of which the pieces of boarding nailed between the joists from one end of the room to the other to keep the joists firm in position (Fig. n). In the class of houses we are considering such wooden floors are the usual practice, though attempts are being made to bring iron and concrete and other forms of fire-resisting floors into greater use by endeavoring to bring down their cost to that of their rivals, and in the process the of these loor boarding is nailed rigidity Fig. 9). floors is in of sacrificed To the under side are nailed the laths danger being by undue economies in the to which the is secured. scantling plastering of the ironwork. Double floors are sometimes used in which "binders" are introduced and IRON GIRDERS AND COKE-BREEZE FLOORS. separate joists are used to support the A method now in ceilings, which is a much better con- being adopted and which is considered struction, as it prevents the sound large flats, very little if any more expensive than passing above and below (Fig. 10). wooden is as fol- These different kinds of more or ordinary flooring, lows: Rolled iron less complicated timber constructions joists, 6x3 (vary- ( ing to span), are placed are 'rapidly going out of date, since according feet centre to between the introduction of iron and its 3 apart centre, which and flush with the face of general adaptation in the construction upper the joists is placed the concrete 6 or of buildings. Single flooring is inches thick. The underside of this, therefore mostly used and when it has 6J to be strengthened an iron girder is made use of. For houses where a firenroof con- struction is not desired the ordinary floor is still used, and when properly plugged with slag wool on expanded metal lathing between the joists it makes a fairly sound-proof floor, but it is always open to the objection that which is left purposely rough, is plas- but of these spaces harbor dirt (Fig. n). tered in the usual way, without, We may here add the table of course, the intervention of laths (Fig. scantling of timber joists for floors, as 12). 122 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

The concrete is composed of 4 or 5 tem with great facility and dispatch, parts coke breeze to i of Portland ce- and are said to be more sound- ment, and the flooring is of selected proof, lighter, and as strong as solid wood blocks \\ inches thick, laid di- concrete. rect onto concrete; in other cases or- Fig. 13 represents a fire-resisting dinary flooring boards are nailed di- floor, somewhat similar to Fawcett's, rect onto the coke breeze concrete, the difference being Fawcett's .tubes are laid diagonally on plan.

SECTION IV. ROOFS AND ROOFING MATE- RIALS.

It is not our intention here to go into the question of the construction of various forms of roof, because in the houses we are treating of they of ne- cessity are of a simple character. which takes nails care tak- well, being The simplest form, namely, what is en that the concrete is perfectly dry. known as the "couple roof (Fig. 14), This is a construction, abol- sanitary consists of two rafters resting on their ishing the hollow objectionable spaces lower ends on a , and abut- of the wooden floors which ordinary ting at their upper ends onto a ridge- are liable to become for receptacles piece, to both of which they are spiked. dirt and vermin and favor the spread If a horizontal beam, called a "collar," of fire. is fixed to each pair of rafters, to con- MARK FAWCETT'S FLOORING lately introduced with great success, and said to possess the following advantages: The fire-resisting mate- rial, a tubular lintol, is not the load- carrying material, but is a permanent centring protecting both the iron and concrete. There is a continuous cold air current always passing between the fire-resisting material and the load- carrying material. The cold air cur- rent is utilized for supplying fresh air without draught to Tobin tubes or in- teract the tendency of the rafters to ternal walls, stoves, etc. push out the wall, the roof is then roof In buildings of the warehouse class, called a collar-beam (Fig. 15). the tubular lintols or permanent cen- This form of roof may be used up to i5-feet span. But, in general, it is hardly safe to use it for roofs of more than 15 feet span, unless, as is gener- ally the case, the partition walls go up, on which can be laid what are called "purlins," which are placed from wall to wall horizontally so as to support the under side of the rafters and pre- vent any tendency to push out the walls. Above 20 feet span it is desirable, tring save the cost of plastering, the unless use can be made of the partition appearance of the ceiling being suffi- walls, to adopt a "truss," and such a ciently pleasing. one, called a '"king-post" truss, Fig. Floors are constructed on this sys- 1 6, and consisting of a tie-beam, prin- THE SMALLER HOUSES OF THE ENGLISH SUBURBS. 123

cipal rafters, king-post, struts and or be may moulded to various pat- be used from 20 to purlins, may 30 terns. They are generally about lo^x feet above span; which the queen- 6x inches thick. Thev are now post truss must be used (Fig. 17). When an open timber roof is adopt- ed, as in large halls or billiard rooms, the roof is often, as it were, brought more into the room by means of a strong collar-beam of a curved form, or in other cases a hammer-beam roof may be adopted (Fig. 18). We give below a table, which may usually formed with nibs on their up- be useful, of the least inclinations per end, which rest on the tile which are necessary for the different and every third course only is nailed. roofing materials which we are about Either copper nails, 2f inches long, to discuss. It must be understood that should be used, or galvanized iron for the purposes of getting rooms in nails. The tiles should be laid so that the the roof, or for appearance sake, these is not less than 4 inches, to insure sound work. Broseley tiles have acquired a repu- tation for being hard and impervious to moisture, and are made by sever- al firms in the Broseley district in which the seam of clay is found from which they are manufactured. They arc made in various colors, such as red, strawberry, brown, brindled and blue. Broomhall tiles are also much used, may be varied, but it should be under- and the makers say that they do not stood that no less pitch should be require heavier timbers than those for given. slates, and this is pointed out as an ad- ANGLE OF INCLINATION. vantage. It is also pointed out as an over slates that are Inclina- advantage they 14 tion to the Height degrees cooler than a slate roof in hot Kind of covering. horizon, of roof in degrees, parts of span. weather, and make a warmer covering Copper 3.50 l-30th in winter. Also snow is not so Lead 3.50 l-30th likely Zinc 4.0 l-29th to slide off these tiles, and the cost is Slates (large) 22.0 l-5th Slates (ordinary) 26.33 l-4th about equal to ordinary slating. Asphalted felt 3.50 l-30th Very good tiles are also to be had Thin slabs of stone or flags. 29.41 2-7ths Pantiles 24.0 2-9ths from other districts, as in Berkshire

- Thatches of straw, etc 45.0 1-2 Plain tiles 45.0 1-2 and Kent.

The materials used for middle-class houses, and which are most appropri- ate, are tiles, slates, stone slates, and occasionally lead and copper, for small roofs over turrets and the like. TILES.

These are of various manufacture. Pantiles are only used for outhouses which do not require to be made abso- Tiles are warmer in lutely watertight, and are not used in Advantages. this the best class of work. winter and cooler in summer, and is a consideration in a house and Plain tiles are rectangular in shape great 124 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

r one which ought to weigh w ell with an ly preferable to any other form of slate architect in designing a house. for the modern dwelling house. In general appearance they are much Stone slates, or tile-stones as they

to be preferred to slates, and give, it . are sometimes called, are very much seems to us, a warm and comfortable thicker than ordinary slates and may appearance to a house, which is much be rather described as sandstones than to be desired. slate. They were formerly largely used The weathering properties of tiles for roofing purposes in Devonshire, are one -of their greatest charms, and Somersetshire, Gloucestershire, at add to the picturesque appearance of Oxford, and around Horsham in Sus- a house. Who of us has not admired sex, and make a picturesque and dur- those lichen-covered tiled roofs which able roofing material, and although cover the old-fashioned cottages stud- heavy compared with ordinary slating ded all over England? have the advantage which tiles have Disadvantages. These are, we over slates in that they are non-con- should be inclined to say, none, but ductors of heat and keep the house our practical readers might object. In cooler in summer and warmer in a general way they are heavier and re- winter. quire stronger roof timbers, and of Advantages. The advantages course they absorb moisture more which slates possess are principally than slates, and are therefore more lia- their non-absorbing qualities and their ble to communicate it to the rafters, natural lightness as compared with but these tendencies can be overcome tiles, which enables slighter timbers to by going to a good maker and insur- be used in the construction of the roofs ing that the tiles are thoroughly with which they are covered. burned. Disadvantages. - - In appearance they are inferior to tiles, and the pur- SLATE.

Slate is a species of argillaceous stone which, in consequence of the in- tense lateral pressure to which it was once subject, splits easily and in very 1 thin sheets along its plane of cleavage. Slates are, of course, used largely and are of various sizes. A good slate should give a sharp metallic ring when ple colored or dark blue kind from struck, should not absorb water to Wales are especially offensive to the any appreciable extent. There are eye. They have no weathering quali- several varieties which are found in ties, being of a cold, hard and un- various parts of England and Wales. pleasing appearance, which in a cli- Wales especially is renowned for its mate like England is very depressing. slate quarries, Bangor and Penrhyn (These remarks do not apply to the being especially famous. green variety of Westmoreland, etc., Irish slates are, as a rule, somewhat or to the stone slates described above.) thicker and of a coarser grain. Those Another objection to slates is that they from Kilkenny and Killaloe are are conductors of heat which makes amongst the best known; these are the houses roofed with them cold in also thicker and coarser, and are ex- winter and hot in summer, which is a ceedingly hard and tough. Slates are serious drawback when,as is generally also found in the north and south of the case in a country house, we have England, in Westmoreland and Corn- bedrooms in the roof. wall. Those from Ambleside and LEAD. Langdale, in Westmoreland, are of a beautiful green color, and are infinite- Lead is not much used for the class THE SMALLER HOUSES OF THE ENGLISH SUBURBS. 125 of houses about which we are writing, Messrs. Braby have done a great but is for occasionally required flats, deal towards popularizing the use of etc. On reference to the table above zinc, and by only manufacturing the it will be seen that it should be laid at best material have done much to cause a low pitch; when it is placed other- the reintroduction of the material in wise, it is liable to "creep" or "crawl" place of lead. down the slope of the roof by the action of the sun. Lead is heavy and COPPER. the timbers must accordingly be made is another material sufficiently strong. It is laid in widths Copper princi- used for small ornamental with the edges between the two sheets pally roofs, such dressed over semi-circular wooden as turrets, bay-windows and the like, for which it is effective. rolls, about 2 feet 3 inches apart, cen- very Cop- per oxides the action of the tre to centre. The "drips," i. e. the by air, and what is called "ver- sinking where the overlapping of the commonly digris" is formed on the surface; it is, sheets take -place, are placed about as its name of a every 8 feet down the slope of the roof imports, bright green color, and forms a to the so as to coincide with the length of protection copper, itself preventing further oxi- the sheet of lead (Fig. 19). The lead dation. should be left perfectly free to expand, and for this reason should only be SHINGLES. nailed on one side, leaving the other free so that the whole sheet is able to Shingles are made of hard wood, such as etc. In order to expand. The nailing should be done oak, , be care should be taken that with copper nails to prevent any gal- durable, or vanic action. they are split torn and not sawn or planed. They are usually 12 inches ZINC. long and 6 inches wide and about J- Zinc is laid much the same way, but inch thick, and laid with 4 or 5 inch as it expands more than any other gauge. metal great care should be taken that They are principally used for roofs no solder, screws or nails should be of a small description, such as turrets used, but the zinc should be held in to roofs, bay-windows, summer and are ef- position by zinc clips, and should not houses, boathouses, etc., be less than 14 gauge. fective in these positions. Banister F. Fletcher, A. R. I. B. A. np w ^ ^Ut i P

Near Lisieux. CHATEAU MESNIL GUILLAUME.

THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE.

seems strange at first sight that of the great cathedrals of the country, ITFrance, which had been the nur- was natural, and almost to be antici- sery of Gothic art and the home of pated. Methods of planning, however, one of its two great schools, should also, which had grown with the people and and at a very slightly later date, have had been found suitable for their become the seat of the most pictur- needs were not to be so easily cast esque and graceful form of the Classic aside as systems of decoration, and Renaissance; and yet such was the the result was that which is the delight fact. By the commencement of the of the modern seeker after the archi- 1 6th century the Renaissance had tecturally beautiful the French cha- become thoroughly established, not teaux of the time of Franqois I. and only in its birthplace, Florence, but subsequently, built upon Gothic plans throughout the Italian peninsular, with Renaissance ornaments of the and had shown that it was a style in most refined and delicate order. which not only great and formal But yet there was a little ecclesias- works were possible, but that it was tical work done, and it may be well capable of treatment in a light and to consider it before turning to the tasteful way, open to the display of secular. ^Two churches, St. Eustache both delicacy and originality. Thus it and St. Etienne du Mont, were erected was suitable to an imaginative, wealthy in Paris at this time, the former a cu- and progressive people, as the French rious, lofty and inartistic pile, with at- were at that time. tenuated shafts and pilasters designed Building, too, was passing out of in a manner suitable for small wood the hands of the ecclesiastics into those and executed in stone carving largely ; of the rich nobility, and a period of the latter an incongruous mixture, pic- comparative peace and ease was tend- turesque by moonlight but utterly ing to the erection of comparatively confused when viewed in daytime unfortified chateaux, more suitable for externally, while internally evin- the entertainment of large numbers cing Gothic unity of composition of guests than for purposes of defense; combined with Renaissance forms and a departure from the Gothic meth- though the pointed arch occurs round ods of building, so closely associated the channel. Its principal architectu- in previous centuries with the erection ral feature, however, is the unique THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE. I27

St. Etienne du Mont, Paris. DETAIL OF PARAPET ROOD LOFT.

rood screen, with its flat ellipti- at Guingamp in Brittany, where the cal arch of 27 feet span between two native granite, necessarily used, has circular staircases, a portion of the de- called for more solid, if decidedly tail of which is illustrated, and which quaint treatment, the effect in the bears the date of 1600 upon the under- western doorway being somewhat side of the keystone. It is a marvel of similar to that of Spanish work. constructive masonry and full of in- Somewhat more of the character of structive detail instructive as showing- St. Pierre at Caen are the little Re- buttress in- how pliable are classic forms of orna- naissance door, niche and the south ment capable of original and artistic troduced at the west end of treatment such as is adapted to modern aisle of that little church of many needs the needs of the late iQth as dates, St. Alpin,at Chalons-sur-Marne ; the slender of the late i8th century. only in that example serves Outside of- Paris, however, no new ornament is not overdone, and and to enrich the churches of the early Renaissance are but to accentuate the flat found, but here and there additions plainer work around, while refined deli- have been made and repairs executed mouldings and general of the Renaissance contrast in the new style, the best-known ex- cacy early with the forcible rolls ample being St. Pierre at Caen, with most markedly and hollows of the Gothic central its flimsy, wedding-cake like orna- early ment. Much better is the southern door. side of the nave of the little cathedral Of church furniture, altars, screens, 128 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

WEST DOOR GUINGAMP CATHEDRAL.

doors and other movable fixtures, known buildings, large, imposing, of- there are naturally many more exam- ten rambling edifices according to ples, almost invariably extremely rich whether they were early or late, and beautiful. altar in of or of several and Of these, the one only periods ; but, the north transept at Dol Cathedral, passing by those whose names are and the oak doors of the cathedral at household words, and whose photo- Beauvais, and of the Church of St. everyone has seen, such as Maclou at Rouen,are sufficient to give fraphslois, Chambord and Chenonceau, as examples, the former almost mis- three typical examples only can be takeable for early Florentine, and the mentioned here. doors more wealthy in deep art ^en- The Maison Fontaine Henri, near richment and more characteristically Caen, the seat of the Marquis de Cor- French; but all good. The doors of nulier is, if small, one of the most St.Maclou, however, are later than the beautiful little erections on the conti- others, and so less made up of the nent, its charm being considerably elaborate canopy work of the early and enhanced by its lovely situation middle i6th century, while more upon a wooded bank, reminding and for the were one of its square solid; canopies x Heidelberg; massing relics of the previous Gothic style. being so picturesque and thor- But in spite of numberless similar oughly in keeping with the sylvan examples, it is in civil buildings main- scenery. It is a jumble of high-pitched, ly, as has been already said, that the almost perpendicular roofs, and tall influence of the Renaissance is seen, dormers and chimneys rising above a and to them it was apparently best wall of irregular plan, itself encrusted suited. The chateaux are the best with rich ornament. Most of this, like THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE. 129

Chalons-sur-Marne. WEST DOOR S. ALPIN. the general arrangement, is late Goth- ultaneously, apparently, with those of ic, rich traceried and strings the Gothic school; while superim- of crisp cut foliage, with transomed posed orders rise up one side of the and mullioned windows, square headed building, and the little well-head is or with the upper angles rounded off, purely Classic freely treated Doric, and having interpenetrating mould- beautifully proportiond, even though ings, the ribs of which are each car- the rules laid down by the great Ital- ried on a separate base; while imita- ian masters were considerably de- tion buttresses and -curved hood- parted from. moulds, as well as traceried parapets In the time of Franqois I. the Re- go to complete the tale of Gothic feat- naissance became thoroughly estab- ures. Yet combined with these are lished, and it is to that monarch and slightly projecting pilasters, and pan- his nobles that we owe the foundation els and friezes carved in low relief with of all the most important chateaux. acanthus and anthemion scrolls, in He, himself, loved best that built for which grotesque animals and birds are him in the midst of the forest at Villers worked, and framing sculptured me- Cotterets, in the north of France, but dallion portraits, the production of unfortunately there is not much of it Renaissance workmen employed sim- left now to attest its former grandeur. Vol VI.-2. 3. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

SOUTH DOOR BEAUVAIS CATHEDRAL

it having suffered greatly from the the exquisite proportioning and mod- British army after the battle of Water- elling of the parts, being characteris- loo, and during subsequent events. tic of the entire period. Xow, a "Maison de retraite," or spe- A little later and the chateaux, par- cies of government almshouse for old ticularly the small ones, like that of people, has been erected upon its site, Mesnil Guillaume, near Lisieux, re- the old front, throne room and two verted to the square "keep" plan of the staircases, or so much as remained of Gothic castle or, perhaps we may the original building, being incorpo- say more correctly, were built on the rated in it, carefully repaired and re- lines of the square courtyard and pal- stored where necessary by the super- aces of Italy, with the addition of an vising architect. external moat. Heavy cornices now be- The little sketch accompanying this came the fashion, under the heavily pro- gives a fair idea of the decoration, the jecting eaves, and the ornament dete- shell ornament over the niche, the riorated, following the usual course Salamander (the emblem of Francois of the Renaissance alike in Italy and I.) in the pediment, and the small nude France and England; but yet the large figures on the pediment, together with and square low building, once more of THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE.

Near Caen. WELL-HEAD MAISON FONTAINE HENRI. semi-military .character, still possesses north and south Italy and the Low unity and picturesqueness, and the Countries were rising into great lack of good detail in stone or wood is commercial importance. Everywhere frequently compensated for by charm- trade was flourishing, and, as a natural ing- bits of ironwork. sequence, everywhere there was much Of less importance than the cha- building of a sumptuous kind. In teaux, but yet quite as characteristic Rouen alone, most mediaeval of of the times, are the buildings pertain- French cities, there are two well- ing to the municipalities, which in known examples of the Francois I. France, as in their neighbors on period the Grosse Horloge 'and the Rouen HOTEL KOURGTHEROULDE.

Reims. HOTEL DK VILLE. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE. '33 Hotel Bourgtheroulde. The former of these balancing in perfect consists of an arch over a nar- harmony. The row latter the Hotel street, supporting the great clock Bourgtheroulde, is literally encrusted with from which it takes its sculptured or- name, and. nament executed with its in the softf limestone flanking walls, forms but an o the district which is adjunct to a yet older of decaying rap- building idly. A famous series of panels repre- sents the of meeting Francois I. with Henry VIII. on the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and contain a great number ot contemporary portraits of the per- sons who took part in that event; but the architecture, though exceedingly elaborate, can scarcely be considered to be true, as the design is more suit- able for execution in wood than or stone, turned, apparently turned, balusters being introduced in the win- dow jambs to serve the purposes of attached columns. It is a trick which of late has found much favor in Eng- land, especially with workers in terra- cotta or, possibly, an error of judg- ment rather than a trick, due to want of consideration of the treatment de- manded by the material being dealt with more than any deliberate inten- tion to use ornament only truly appli- cable to a material which could, in actuality, be turned in a lathe, and so to deceive the unwary into the idea that stone and terra cotta were capable ot such usage. By the time the Hotel de Ville at Reims was built in the reign of Henri IV. the builders had gone fur- ther, and were even using twisted col- umns with natural ivy and other creep- ers twining round them; but the gen- eral designs had become more formal, with an attempt to use orders in a stiff manner and in conformity with rule, the eye, and the native French per- ception of proportion, being no longer trusted, with the result, of course, of the production of liteless forms in place of the imaginative and the beau- Niche in Main Recess Over Entrance Chateau de Villers Cotterets. tiful of the previous century. The country abounds with similai which the tower yet remains. It was examples to those here mentioned, erected in 1527 A. D., and is full of which are scarcely even the great ex- rich carved detail, some in low and amples but only such as occur in pro- some in high relief, and is so varied in fusion almost everywhere. To see design that no two capitals, and not them all would occupv a lifetime to even the two halves of the same capi- describe them properly, many a large tal, ever exactly correspond, though folio volume. G. A. T. Middleton. SCULPTURE AS APPLIED TO THE EXTERNAL DECORA- TION OF PARIS HOUSES.

years ago the external of this century indicate no attempt TWENTYornamentation of French houses at art and no creative power. The was, in general, of a very sober architects just followed the instruc- character. Sculpture had little or no tions of their clients, who, fonder of part in it. With the exception of cer- their shekels than of art, and only anx- tain districts inhabited by the nobility ious about being comfortably housed, the house fronts were all alike. It was had no sense of beauty or yearning an unbroken dullness, an uninterrupted after elegance, and recognized but two poverty of decoration. A few mould- qualities in a dwelling in the ings on the cornice, or some rosework foodrst place cheapness, and secondly, or some pellets on the frieze, or a little convenience. The state of things at vermiculated work on the basement, the present day is no longer the same were considered marks of great lux- as it was then. Although our upper ury. To go beyond this for a cor- middle class have preserved a touch- nice to be supported by caryatides, for ing regard for economy what we instance was an extraordinary pro- call I' amour du bas de laine there ceeding. Even to think of it was re- seems to have sprung up, in these clos- garded as a sign of extravagance and ing years of the century certain wants want of sense. We will cite the case and desires of a more refined and ele- that occurred about ten years ago of vated character. No doubt their ar- a scrivener's son, who, having inher- tistic education is far from being com- ited a million dollars or so from his plete; no doubt they still lack a sound progenitor, narrowly escaped seeing conception of the beautiful, and can his fortune placed under the care of a be induced to believe that Will-o'-the- legal guardian on the simple ground Wisps are lanterns. ^Yet it is evident that he had spent 50,000 francs that the trivialities amid which they on the sculptural decoration of the take their ease no longer satisfy facade of his house. His mother them, or, to put it in other words, they pressed urgently for this measure, and are no longer at their ease amid those it was only by a miracle that he man- trivialities. Things graceful, genteel aged to avoid losing the free disposal and sumptuous have ceased to be the of his property. appanage of a select few. During the Those were good times for incapable last few years a comprehension of ar- and indolent architects. Their plans tistic things has manifested itself in were simple, and, we may add, always everybody to a greater or lesser ex- the same. They had not to worry tent. Moliere said: "Le mauvais gout about giving variety, brightness or du siecle en cela me fait peur." Were majesty to the lines and displaying such an opinion expressed now, it the riches of their science or the fer- would be uncharitable, if not unjust. tility of their imagination. We can- Our contemporaries may not possess not blame them if the majority of the an exquisitely fine sense of the defects houses erected in the first two-thirds and the beauties of works of art, but SCULPTURE AS APPLIED TO PARK HOUSES '35 they at least show a genuine desire to the profession of the owner, who is a it. However and acquire downy soft- druggist. The frontals of the dormer- lined a of ly piece furniture may be, it windows of this house are ornamented is not thought much of a Parisian with by garlands of mallows and poppies. of the if its year 1896 style is not The frieze is composed of Renaissance harmonious or if its curves have not motives in the ornamentation of which at least a pretension to and other majesty medicinal plants figure. Fi- elegance. Even in the lower middle nally, on the first story there is an classes we find that have the dwellings escutcheon that recalls the origin of of little museums. aspect Every day the fortune of the owner, who is the these apartments are more and more disseminator of some kind of ointment crowded with beautiful objects; arti- or elixir. Not far from this house a cles of virtu made to fact expressly please which tends to prove that this style the and it seems natural eye ; very that of speaking sculpture is spreading in this for growing craving luxury Paris there is another dwelling, be- should overflow the halls and draw- longing to the Abeille Insurance Com- ing-rooms and display itself on the pany, all the decoration on which house fronts. consists of bees, hives and honey- It almost be laid might down as a combs. In an adjoining street a large law that the outside of an edifice re- export house has pilasters ornamented veals the nature, aspect and purpose with Mercury's wands and a frieze of the interior. of Some our young representing exotic fruits and plants, architects are inclined to extend this while the caryatides of the two large law as far as possible. They are par- doors at the entrance stand for Eu- tisans of what may be termed speak- rope, Asia, Africa and America. Xo ing architecture. According to them, doubt this sort of decoration may ap- the ornamentation of an edifice ought pear somewhat specious; but however not only to make known its purpose, specious it may be, it is sufficiently but should, besides, proclaim the own- interesting, and already sufficiently er's profession, or even some episode common, to justify our mentioning; in his life; further, still, it should re- it here. late any historical scene that may A hankering after novelty, a desire have been enacted on the spot where to have something that has not been the edifice is erected. Thus, M. Paul seen before, is beginning to get pos- Heneux, having been entrusted with session of us. Quite the opposite of the erection of the new Town Hall at our fathers, who, with few rare excep- Les Lilas, a charming little place near tions, took fright at the slightest at- Paris, conceived the idea of treating tempt at originality, we all try more or all the sculpture of the building with less to do something that is out of the in so lilac. The capitals, the balcony, the common. It may be that do- im- frieze, and the flowerwork placed ing we follow the example and the above the dormer windows, represent pulse which have reached us from the nothing but sprays, bunches, leaves New World. It is well to note, also, and petals of lilac. The brackets of that in consequence of the teachings the windows are also formed of flow- of Gustave Flaubert and Paul Ver- Ro- ers of the same spring shrub. As to laine, of Carpeaux and Auguste has taken the baluster -of the grand staircase, it din, a triple revolution place represents a trellis with branches of in France a revolution in literature, in Our lilac climbing over it. Yet the archi- in painting, and sculpture. tect has avoided monotony, and has minds and our eyes have become and at a time produced the most graceful variations weary of stale styles, are upon the single theme adopted by him. when all the arts being rejuven- has felt the We will also mention a house designed ated our architecture also life it realizes the neces- by M. Paul Heneux. In thte case need of new ; at a moment all the sculpture has been inspired by sity of going forward THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

is far more eloquent than a descrip- tion, however minute and precise it might be, and especially so in regard to our present subject, we should have liked this article to be illustrated by a very large number of photographs. Unfortunately, some of the most ar- tistic Paris edifices are located on avenues and boulevards, and the trees that line these boulevards and avenues have in some cases prevented our photographer from taking certain negatives that we desired to have. Still, we are convinced that the series of photographs here reproduced will give a sufficiently clear and synthetic idea of the sculptural ornamentation of the exterior of the houses now be- ing constructed in Paris. Our first illustration represents a private house in the Gothic style, it attracts and charms the eye by its graceful and harmonious aspect. The architecture is at once picturesque and logical. The details of the ornamen- tation are in accord with the whole FIG. I. work. The of the door with its sober and archivolt, when the Unknown is retreating step elegant by step before the advancing sciences. We do not know whether our archi- tects have yet attained any great re- sults, at least in their general plans. A sort of fatality causes them to stum- ble incessantly against the solemn five orders, and, notwithstanding all their efforts they fail to free themselves from the ancient styles. Let us, how- ever, congratulate them upon having discerned amid those old styles the pur- est and most harmonious of them, and upon having preferred above all oth- ers the admirable influences of the Gothic and the Renaissance. After all, even if our architects are most fre- quently inspired and sometimes hap- pily inspired by these two styles, they take rare not txxcopy them servilely. "If we always: do the same thing," said one of them to us wittingly, "we don't always do it the same way." Hence result constant attention to motives of detail and an endeavor to vary the ornamentation of new houses failing variation in their structure. Persuaded that the view of a thing FIG. 2. SCULPTURE AS APPLIED TO PARIS HOUSES. '37

original idea and contribute to the synthetic aspect Everybody seems to admit this principle, which is not a merely principle of architecture, but of art also; and yet, in practice, we of- ten see this undeniable principle ig- nored. Thus, a number of Paris houses are so wanting in unity that one would imagine them to be the re- sult of two distinct operations: first, the building, and afterwards the orna- mentation. This error arises, no from doubt, an excess of ingenuity on the of part some of our architects, who unwittingly allow themselves to be dazzled by the fascination of the de- tail and do not sufficiently take into account the essential point, namely, the general form. Our second illus- tration affords an example of this kind of mistake. It represents the house that was formerly inhabited by Mad- ame Sarah Bernharclt. This abode of the eminent tragedienne was in the Louis XIII. style, brick and stone. A too FIG. 3. very picturesque part pic- turesque even has been added as an and the of the windows, afterthought. That is evident. All are quite in the style from which the architect has drawn- his inspiration. The frieze is very handsome, and is skilfully broken by the balcony, which is supported by a console resting on a small column similar to that of the door arch. The architect might have increased the number of the fig- ures, but he has had the good taste to leave this display of luxury for ca- thedrals, contenting himself with a cat, a gargoyle and a watch-dog. We even regret that the last named, who emerges symbolically from his niche, should have been placed on the first story. From a decorative, as well as from a symbolical point of view, he would have been more effective be- tween the door and window of the ground floor. There is, perhaps, no art that re- quires more delicacy and finesse than the art of ornamentation. Everybody appears to admit the principle that the ornamentation should arise out of the general form itself; that all the special details must be in harmony with the FIG. 4. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

specimen of a kind of edifice that is held in some favor in this city. Leav- ing our readers to make their own commentaries, we will single out the Gothic crown of the left-hand window, the large window with its iron lintel,, and the two salamanders, also in iron, that decorate the bressummers. Let us also draw attention to the four stone brackets dressed like rockwork, the two on the lower story support- ing two athletes, and those on the up- per story, two dogs sitting with a non- chalant air. The Louis XV. house, the char- acteristic part of which is depicted in our fourth photograph, is treated simply and in perfect taste. While drawing inspiration from Blois Castle, the architect has displayed a delicate and circumspect art of his own. The balcony is really remarkable. It is charming in every detail. The three little monks that support it and behind which fabulous small animals are in- termingled, are sculptured with great FIG. 5. care, as are also the gargoyles and the the sculptural and ornamental portion graceful moulding which extends over has been treated by a man who was undoubtedly clever and imaginative, but who attached no importance to the original conception, and has conse- quently disfigured, or at least debased it. Certainly, this house may please at first sight by its very strangeness, and some of the details of its decora- tion, taking them apart from the rest of the edifice, are worthy of attention. Yet it is none the less true that the work is lacking in homogeneity and connection. The numerous affected little motives, the turret, and the in- accessible balcony all this is vaguely inspired by the house of Jacques Coeur, at Bourges: it is illusory and clashes with walls so different in style. Nor can we approve of the mixture of luxury and rustic simplicity shown in the house pictured in our third il- lustration. But the purpose of this article is to give as exact an idea as possible of the external ornamentation of Paris houses, and not to confine ourselves to a few preferred examples. Hence, it was useful to include here a FIG. 6. SCULPTURE AS APPLIED TO PARIS aoUSES . the voussoirs of the door. We would W thout point out, too, that the window transitio"' grat- i ,! ing is a delicious of Therc - piece ironwork fore the rtk ^"'^ Such a t rePeatln ur- dwelling might well take the se[ve, J MI S of ' ' VC fancy one of our transatlantic read- g aWOrd of tTS. T QO anrl if /~viif *-n.^A*~. _1 it find

ilar to that on the right. The house would thus be increased by more than all efforts a anybody that are really new third, and would lose there- and nothing original. It is, it however, neces- by; would, perhaps, even gain in el- that this sary, originality should con- egance and harmony. sist in The something besides haphazard facade shown in our fifth illus- of amalgamations dissimilar styles. If tration appears to us a equally pleasing. man appeared in dressed It is in a public very agreeable and very from neck to knees like a form page with graceful of the gothico-renais- a high hat and sance The Wellington boots, style. proportions between would that be sufficient to the the full and the justify open parts are exceed- assertion that a new kind of costume ingly The happy. sculptures on the had been invented? Would such a frieze, on the pendentive of the left- even be person considered original? hand window, and on the In the same consoles, are way, before thinking of elegant and full of The nobility. archi- any ornamentation whatever, it is tect has disdained ornament for the necessary to create the form, and mere sake of ornament. Although he then, when the form is found, it has has attention to be paid great to the window ornamented in a logical fashion frames of the ground floor, it is not at in such a fashion that form and or- the expense of the general appear- namentation shall be in absolute har- and if we ance; detect a certain excess mony, and even appear inseparable of and refinement in the fabulous animal inevitable. Artists in general, and that bears the escutcheon and in the particularly architects, who are not volutes flanking it, we must admit it sufficiently impregnated with this is not very loud or affected. truth, expose themselves to serious Our next photograph shows two mishaps. We greatly fear that this is ground floor windows, the orna- the case with the architect who is mentation of which recalls in certain responsible for the construction of points the ornamentation of the two the house the astonishing facade of windows which is shown in belonging to the preceding our seventh illus- illustration. This enables us to draw tration. Verily, this architecture is a curious parallel. Evidently the quite modern modern at all .events architects of these two houses have in the sense that it does not resemble both bestowed great attention upon anything done previously. But if by the modern architecture is meant archi- sculptural decoration ; but it is not difficult to gather that their efforts tecture appropriate to our present have not been equally successful. The needs and tastes and taking account dragon and the little imps which, in of recent inventions telephones, lifts, our sixth illustration, bear the plat- etc. then the example in question is band and the balcony, are certainly as little modern as could be. Those very delicately worked; but they are four consoles in imitation of the but- somewhat out of place beneath a bal- tresses of a church do not serve any cony and a plain moulding in the Re- purpose whatever; neither, for that naissance style and above two win- matter, does the escutcheon of doubt- dows of . One is ful heraldry supporting a column also astonished to see those balcony which goes with the balcony above consoles, which are modern, thus about as gracefully as a stove pipe 140 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

which they tie and untie around beau- tifully chiselled medallions. The gar- ret window, comprising two stories, is very elegant with its Corinthian pilas- ters and capitals, its frieze and its fronton, in the center of which ap- pears a head bent inquisitively to- wards the street. This garret window finishes off the house in a very suc- cessful manner. It will be remarked that only the windows and their frames are decorated, the walls re- maining plain in order to heighten the effect of the said windows and frames. Of course, such architecture could not be resorted to generally; but a building of this kind is eminent- ly suitable for a collector for an ar- tist who desires to devote the best part of his house either as a splendid gal- lery for his collections or as a studio for himself, where his tastes and his work as an artist impel him to pass the greater portion of his time. Our ninth photograph shows an abode that is evidently more practical, the FIG. 7. generally speaking, than preced- ing one. The style is rather mongrel, would do. Those ornaments near the capitals are without motive or use, and the rest of the decoration is not much better. One may well ask what aim the architect of this building had in view. It is difficult to believe that he wished to produce something ar- tistic. Perhaps he desired to revive the art of decoration. If so, we can only hope that he will be better in- spired in his future efforts. The house shown in the next pho- tograph (No. 8) seemes to us not less original. But, at least, this one is the work of an artist and it responds, also, to a special taste. All the pri- vate apartments are together; the dining-room and smoking-room on the ground floor, and the bedrooms at the top of the house. The immense window, which lights a large hall, is treated in the Renaissance style, and the harmony of all its details is per- fect. We would specially point out the pleasing proportions of the mull- ions and their pilasters. The deli- cately sculptured frieze represents cupids who are waving streamers, SCULPTURE AS APPLIED TO PARIS HOUSES. 141

some appearance. The niches and the pilasters are quite in harmony. The motive above the attic and which is surmounted by the arms of the owner, is not without charm, while the choice of the three statues, their attitudes and their execution bear witness to a genuine sense of the beautiful. Why is all that marred by the remainder of the building? Why is the or- namentation entirely confined to the upper part of the edifice? Above all, why is this upper part, which is in the Renaissance style, placed over a basement and a first floor in a Louis the Eighteenth style? One would say that the work- was conceived at two different times, by two different architects, and that, for some inexplicable reason, the two parts were joined together. In acting thus, it is true that a certain amount of talent can be displayed, but it is not architecture. We have said that houses sur- FIG. 9. mounted by an attic story afford scope for considerable elegance. They have but the architect has at all events had the skill to combine out of dissimilar motives a sufficiently harmonious whole. Apart from those unsightly chimneys that disfigure it, the house is, in the main, pretty and pleasing. The projecting Renaissance turret resting on consoles has an exquisite effect, and we see no reason to re- proach the architect for having sought inspiration, for the treatment of the upper part, in the skylight of the staircase of the Ecoville mansion at Caen. It is a pity that he did not also copy the fine decorative chim- neys of former times and spare us the sight of those horrid modern stove-pipes ! In our tenth illustration is seen a specimen of- a kind of construction which, treated with discernment, may be made very elegant. In the present case the architect does not seem to have succeeded in giving his work the air of distinction at which he certainly aimed. He has fallen into the usual error, namely, the dangerous confu- sion of styles. Taken by itself, that FIG. IO. Renaissance attic storv has a hand- FIG. II,

FIG. 12. SCULPTURE AS APPLIED TO PARIS HOUSES. besides, one incontestable advantage; with all the new resources of modern to hide those they help wretched life, will no young architect of talent modern of which we have come forth chimneys and endow us with a style just spoken. And it is really neces- that shall be in accord with our tastes sary to disguise them, seeing that we and requirements? The houses of to- to have the art of ren- seem forgotten day are provided with lifts, tele dering them attractive by decorations phones, electric bells, and the electric a few ad hoc. With very exceptions, light; and if, on the one hand, it is de- the roofs of Paris houses have now a pressing to give them the appearance of deplorable aspect. An idea this can of a factory, it is, on the other hand, be formed from the photograph (No. an outrageous anachronism to sur- n), which we put before our readers. mount them with an Ionic entabla- It has seemed to us that it would be ture, for instance, or a Byzantine rather amusing to place alongside of dome. this view another one representing Upon the whole, modern architects some roofs ornamented with the sort seem to us to be remarkably well-in- of chimneys that used formerly to be formed in regard to the ancient styles. put on first-class houses. This simple They are past masters in the art of ap- parallel speaks for itself and will suf- propriating. They also know, when fice to show what talent our prede- required, how to erect works and cessors were able to bring to bear manufactories arranged in accordance upon even the most ordinary things. with the most practical ideas of our think that the (Fig. 12.) day. This being so, we Cannot contemporary architects do time has come to take into account as well as those of former genera- beauty as well as utility in a word, tions? In view of the new needs, and to proceed synthetically. Fernand Mazade.

S. TROPHIME, ARLES, NORTH GALLERY OF CLOISTER.

FRENCH CATHEDRALS.

Part VIII.

THE CATHEDRALS OF PROVENCE. IV.

I.

Cathedral of S. Trophime at longer occupies its episcopal throne, THEAries is at once the most fa- but its great church still fascinates the mous and the most important of student and the traveller, delights the the cathedrals of Provence. Few cities artist and the seeker after the rare and of France have had so varied a history the beautiful. Its western portal is as Aries. It reached its utmost splen- one of the most sublime products of dor under Constantine, when its popu- the sculptor's art in the south of lation exceeded 100,000, though to- France; its cloister is scarcely less re- day it does not equal a quarter of that nowned and beautiful; its nave is a number. In 879 it became the capital most interesting type of Provengal of the kingdom of Aries, and in 1150 Romanesque, but its late Gothic choir a republic, and its people to-day still destroys the symmetry of the ancient retain many peculiarities of appear- fabric and introduces an unpleasant ance and of disposition that attest their note of discord into its stately interior. ancient lineage. Always the centre of Called S. Etienne prior to 1152, active life, it was natural that the ca- when the remains of S. Trophime, the thedral church should be a structure Apostle of Aries, were transferred in of unusual interest. An archbishop no solemn state from the church of S. Vol. VI. 2 4 CATHEDRAL OF S. TROPHIME, ARLES WEST FRONT. FRENCH CATHEDRALS. 147

Honorat to the cathedral, which then the new choir. It was thus assumed its the almost present name, history identical with the of the Cathedral of S. Paul church goes back to the time irois Chateaux, with which it of Constantine. At least has it is known many features in that a church common. of St. Etienne existed in The nave consists of five bays with Aries as early as the first of a quarter pointed tunnel vault, and with nar- the fifth century, and it is not unrea- row whose aisles, vaults have a quar- sonable to infer that it had been in ex- ter-circle section. A transverse section istence for some time before. Al- shows a striking similarity with the though its form has been early utterly cathedral of Vaison, but the lost to the propor- us, primitive church must tions are different. All have parts are lof- been an edifice of considerable :ier and narrower, the nave vault ris- importance. Three councils of the above a ing sort of clearstory over the early Church were held within its but the aisle, structure is the same, walls, in and 314, 442 451, which and its position in the chain of Pro- brought together prelates and clergy from many parts of the Christian world, testimony alike to the import- ance of the city and to its religious ac- tivity. The most important of these councils was the first, at which the Donatists were condemned. In this church, also, S. Augustine, the Apos- tle to England, was consecrated bish- op, and its early history is filled with the names of holy saints, many of whom have left their mark upon the church at large, as well as upon the city of Aries.

II.

Of the date of the building of the older parts of the present cathedral nothing definite is known. M. Re- voil does not hesitate to attribute it to the ninth century, and other writers have dated part of the walls of the fa- gade and of the aisles to an earlier period, with a general reconstruction in the eleventh century. The earliest authentic date we have is 1152, when the name was changed to S. Trophime. The entire rebuilding of the choir, by the Plan Cardinal Louis Allemand, begun of the Cathedral XII. Century. in 1430, totally modified this portion of the edifice, but the nave and aisles, and vengal churches not less apparent, parts of the transepts still retain their though its proportions give it a loftier Romanesque character. In plan the aspect and a more impressive interior church closely resembles the cathe- than any other church in Provence. dral of Vaison, differing in its larger The piers, as in other aisled churches dimensions, and in having shallow of its epoch, are formed of an assem- transepts, to which were applied semi- blage of rectangles, a broad pier with circular apses that, with the central a projecting centre carrying the apse, completed the east end, and all double arches of the nave vaults,which of which disappeared in the building of like the piers, are without ornament. 14$ THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD,

There is the suppression of ornament small moulded capitals and without usual in the churches of the eleventh bases, as the main piers, divide the and twelfth centuries, the only relief bays. Chapels, that, at various times, being a band of acanthus leaves at the have been added to the aisles, destroy base of the vault and around the piers, the original character of this part of the church, which has no longitudinal or wall arches usual in this type. Be- yond the fifth bay of the nave is the crossing with a dome of the Provencal form, encased in the tower, which is one of the most striking central feat- ures of any Provencal church. The pointed double arches that en- close the crossing are much lower than those of the nave, but as seen from the western end the nave appears to be closed by a low arch with a wall above it. The nave vault ends against this wall on a single arch, supported by a pier as before, but whose upper part is cut in half with a small outer col- umn, completing the resemblance to the double piers. This construction has suggested the idea that the cross- ing bay is a survival of an earlier church, which could not be removed on account of the weight of the tower. But there is no reason to date the tower earlier than the nave, and so lofty a structure on the crossing is without precedent in earlier buildings Transverse Section. in Provence. On the contrary, this lowering of the crossing arches is where it serves as a capital. The aisle characteristic of many Provencal piers, which form part of the main churches, and may be seen in the ca- piers, have small plain moulded bands thedrals of Vaison, Sisteron and S. for capitals, stopped by the piers of the Paul Trois Chateaux, though in none nave arches. The outer piers of these of these is it so marked as in S. Tro- nave arches are cut away for small col- phime. It should be remembered, fur- umns, as in the cathedral of Avignon, ther, that the nave of this cathedral with capitals surmounted by square has the highest Romanesque vault in blocks, the fragment of an entablature. the south, and its builders may well The arches between the nave and have hesitated, when they determined aisles are pointed, except in the fifth upon a tower, to carry its weight on bay, where they are round. A small arches as lofty as those of the nave. round-topped window of the eigh- Within, the crossing has the usual teenth centurv in each bay forms a small pendentives, the wall between clearstory and lights this solemn and them and on them inclining forward majestic interior, whose fine propor- to form a circle, which is merged into tions and beautiful effect does not need a very flat dome without the inter- enriching ornament to give it grace vention of a string course. The west, and interest. north and south walls of the transepts The aisles are narrow, with a lofti- belong to the Romanesque cathedral, ness that adds to the apparent restric- but they have been so much modified tion of their width. Double round internally that scarcely more than their arches resting on plain piers, with pointed tunnel vaults, at right angles FRENCH CATHEDRALS. I49 to the nave, remain to show their arches orig- save in the geometric elevation. inal form. Nothing now is left of the .ne under surface is decorated ancient eastern of with part the cathedral. a double row of angels the upper part of the body only representing the III. heavenly host in the scheme of the Last Judgment, which is the theme of The centre of the west front the is filled sculptures. Outwardly the arch is the famous of extended in a by portal, one the most series of finely moulded rolls splendid monuments in the south of and hollows, with an outer and one of decorated France, the finest portals on its inner surface by a of the . This superb struc- band of foliage. This series of arches ture is applied to a wall otherwise bar- is carried on a rich substructure,whose ren of inner wall is ornament, and offering a strik- treated with pilasters with ing contrast to its rich and elegant statues between them, while detail. The outline of the faqade tells without, and extended beyond the arch the story of its internal structure. In to the ends of the porch, is a short the colonnade of centre is the nave wall, utterly three columns on each whose plain, with a low gable having a nar- side, bases stand on richly row cornice of dentiles, whose inter- carved pedestals, which, in their turn, vening spaces are filled with carved stand on a high plain base with designs. This cornice has a short hori- mouldings and decorated bands. Be- zontal member returned at each side. low are the steps stretching across the whole front. The clearstory end of the wall is Above the arch is a flat with a flanked with shallow buttresses, con- gable, cornice resting on large carved tinuous with it, and in the centre is a corbels, among which we see modern round arched window, with a symbols of the Evangelists, the Lion, the the rectangular one beneath it.* Below, Ox, Eagle, and the An- while other animal on each side, is the sloping roof of the gel, heads and acanthus leaves aisles, with similar cornices. The upper large complete the series. part of the facade wall is built of larger The structure of the is su- stones than the lower, and is partly portal in its and direct covered with plaster. perb simple design, but its rich make it incom- In the lower part of this simple wall sculptures The theme is the is the porch, which is slightly wider parably splendid. Last a favorite for than the nave. On each side is a small Judgment, subject the of the and and ugly doorway built in the seven- doorways Romanesque Gothic and the most south- teenth century, and above, lighting the cathedrals, one in France. In its aisle, a round headed window. All erly completed latest in the this terrific this plainness helps to bring out the form, north, scene was confined to the ; splendor of the central portal, which tympanum here it is over the whole is so grand and beautiful as to have spread portal, and is on a scale of the effect of being placed against the presented unparal- leled In the centre of church, rather than an integral part magnificence. the is a majestic figure of of it. But we need not quarrel with tympanum Our seated on a throne in a such a detail in the majestic effect of Lord, mandorla. His arm is raised in this gigantic work. right benediction, while the left grasps the The portal is formed of a broad Volumn or book. Around Him are arch, pointed, yet so near the half cir- the of the Evangelists, the cle as scarcely to be visible in the outer symbols Lion and Ox below, the Angel and the shows *Chapuy's drawing, made in 1829, only above. All hold books, save the the round head of the upper window. The apex Eagle of the gable is surmounted by a high, slender, Eagle, below which hangs a scroll. arch with a The west end of the pointed gable. are not confined to the south aisle wall is pieced out straight to the ad- These figures joining houses, from which rise a small flying actual area of the but pro- buttress behind the end wall buttress. All these tympanum, into the unimportant additions were removed in the res- ject beyond it, partly cutting toration who of the cathedral by M. Revoil, gave of the surrounding arch, it, as far as possible, its primitive form. mouldings THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

'ROPHIME, ARLES, NORTHWEST ANGLE PIER WEST GALLERY OF CLOISTER. which is decorated with a very rich Taking now the events represented series of Roman detail, the outermost in the frieze in their regular order, be- being a Greek fret. ginning at the extreme left of the Below is a frieze, carried wholly spectator, as he stands facing it, we around the porch from one end of the have, first of all, on the return end at nave wall to the other. In the centre, the beginning, the Temptation of under the tympanum, are the Twelve Adam and Eve. Then, immediately Apostles, seated on a bench, and not- on the outer face, begins the proces- their sion of the first withstanding somewhat formal Just ; women standing attitudes, characterized by considera- facing the spectator, then a body of ble individuality and movement. Each men, clothed in identical and some- holds a volume of the scriptures, but what formal garments, and looking to- the formality of their arrangement is wards the centre of the porch. They relieved by the different gestures and are continued around the return at inclinations of the heads, which is in- the centre, where they are headed by tensified by the fact that while most two crowned personages. Beyond, and of them are conversing with each on the inward return, is an angel other in groups of two, an odd figure, handing a soul, represented, as usual, occasioned by making the two cen- by a small child, to the first of three tral ones face each other, forms part seated figures, Abraham, Isaac, a.nd f of a group of three on each side/which, Jacob. Each holds wo souls in his moreover, are not placed symmetric- lap, and below their feet are small fig- ally. The sculptor had, therefore, ad- ures rising from the grave. Then vanced considerably beyond that for- come the Apostles, with a seated and mal arrangement which is to be seen majestic figure gazing earnestly to- in many early sculptures. wards them at their right. FRENCH CATHEDRALS.

On the inner return at our is a right noteworthy is the fact that the figures with in standing angel (S. Raphael?) a the frieze all slightly exceed the sword, guarding the gates of Paradise, space allowed by the architectural out the souls in and shutting purga- lines, the heads rising against the low- tory beyond it, among which are a er mouldings of the cornice, which is couple of bishops. Then come the con- surmounted by a band of acanthus. demned in hell, naked and bound with The sculptures of the lower portions of fire at a cord, with flames their feet. of the porch are not directly con- They move towards* the right and fill cerned with the subject of the Last the position corresponding to that of Judgment, but each group and statue, the procession of the Just on the oppo- each image and almost every bit of site side. On the further return is hell decoration has a meaning that raises it itself, crowded with souls in torment, above mere decoration, and makes it already partly consumed by huge an integral part of a highly developed flames. The theme, to complete the scheme of sacred symbolism. The conception of the artists of the Mid- carved pedestals of the columns illus- dle Ages, is finished by two panels on trate in picture and in symbol human- the lower faces of the ends of the ity under the law of Moses. A man, porch. On the left, at the beginning, half-clothed with the skin of a beast is a gigantic angel weighing the souls and holding a crook, represents the of the departed, and on the right a first industry of mankind. His lost huge demon, grasping two souls, with immortality is indicated by an ox's another before him, with a band of fire skull. Scarcely has he entered into below. Save for these two panels, life than he meets with vices, figured which are detached from the upper in the adjoining base by a group of part of the scene, though doubtless hideous fantastic monsters. A lion's to be dec- with the intention of emphasizing their head on the next base seems importance, and impressing the terror orative only, and introduced for sym- man's of the one and the horror of the other, metry between the parable of of his this is one of the most detailed, as it is vices and the representation in the of one of the most elaborate representa- feebleness portrayed story on the last base. tions of the Last Judgment produced Samson and Dalila the the in the Middle Ages. It is thoroughly On the other side of doorway the lion's symmetrical and architectural in ful- first base shows Daniel in his succor the Ha- filling its role as a sculptured decora- den and by prophet a contrast with the tion, yet it is distributed over a broad bakuk, suggesting of Samson that could not have surface that might at first glance seem story than evident to the unsusceptible to such organized and been otherwise of these sculptures. A harmonious treatment. Every part contemporaries ^ head comes next, and the third of the terrible story is illustrated with lion's has a of animals in utmost distinctness, and the spectator column group the disorders of has but to look upon it to understand combat, expressing before the coming of the its meaning and realize its teachings. humanity Redeemer. On the return at the right The sculptures throughout exhibit are two of the Zodiac, the Archer very considerable variety and indi- signs and the Lion, the latter doubtless be- viduality; every part is sufficiently chosen because the lion is the sym- varied to give relief and change, yet ing both indicative of the the whole is natural and un- bol of Aries, entirely The modern traveller forced. The freedom with which the march of time. see in these bases only grotesque sculptor has handled his work is well may now injured by illustrated in the liberties he has taken decorations, greatly than t us, time. But they were more with the space at his disposal. We ex- for even the fighting animals have already seen an instance of this in an abstract idea, and the of the of the pressed disposition symbols of the is not not less value in the scheme portal Evangelists in the tympanum ; THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

S. TROPHIME, ARLES, THE CLOISTER. less notable because of their small sons. Each Apostle, save S. Paul, who size and relatively unimportant posi- carries a phylactery, holds a book tion. inscribed with his name and a short in- The columns which stand on these scription. The innermost pair of bases are short graceful shafts with statues on each side are within the charming capitals. The outer of each arch, and stand facing each other. group are Corinthian-like in form, and Below them, as pedestals, are huge of two types, while the central ones animals typifying the heresies they have enwreathed foliage. Behind have trodden under foot. It has been them, on the walls, is a series of pan- suggested that these statues, which els, separated by richly carved bands, are distinguished by remarkable feel- enclosing a large statue. The two end ing of life and action, and which are panels, we have already seen, form a carved with scrupulous attention to portion of the scheme of the Last detail, are later than the other part of Judgment. The others contain, count- the portal, since they are slightly too ing from the left, S. Peter, S. John, S. large for the spaces they occupy. But Trophime, S. James Minor, and S. this is a characteristic of every part, Bartholomew or S. Thomas; on the the sculptures of the tympanum and right of the door are S. Paul, S. An- of the friezes extending beyond their drew, the Stoning of S. Stephen, S. architectural limits also. There would James Major and S. Philio. The appear, therefore, no room for such church having been originally dedi- an opinion on such grounds. cated to S. Stephen, his martyrdom Above the statues, and below the has a proper place on its portal, and upper frieze in which the details of the the statue of S. Trophime is given a Last Judgment are shown, is a smaller conspicuous position for obvious rea- frieze, the height of the capitals of the FRENCH CATHEDRALS. 153 columns. A variety of subjects are izes its numberless statues, though in it, in a mediocre man- represented within rather narrow limits. Perfect ner and with that to chro- freedom in disregard handling the chisel is not, nology the mediaeval artist was fre- to be indeed, found here, but great of. The scenes chosen strides quently guilty are made towards it. The de- are the Dream of more tail of Jacob likely the architectural mouldings, the Dream of the Annuncia- Joseph too, is rich, symmetrically patterned, tion, the Nativity, the Angels an- and varied. the news to the nouncing good Shep- Not the least important problem herds, the Presentation in the Temple, suggested by this portal is its origin. the the of the Purification, story Magi, The combination of sculpture and of the Massacre of the and detail is Innocents, almost without parallel. The the into with a Flight Egypt, ending detail is extremely rich and very Ro- collection of animals on the strange man in character; the sculpture, in right. theme and application, suggests the The capitals of the piers at each side usage of northern France, rather than of the doorway and the capital and the sparsely decorated churches of base of the delicate slender shaft that the south. Aries is rich in Roman divides it in are also two decorated monuments, and the sculptor of the with symbolic sculpture that should portal need not have gone beyond the not be overlooked in considering the city for his models for architectural or- full effect of this majestic portal. nament. But nowhere in Provence are This great work of art fascinates the Roman models so richly used or and delights one by the splendor of more abundantly employed. Obvious- its composition, the varied imagina- ly,only an artist who was familiar with tion of the artist, the subtlety of its other forms of decoration than those allegory, its superb plastic qualities, its of Provence could have carried out decorative value, and the refinement such a work. Further than this it is of its execution. It is the work of no not possible to go without indulging ordinary artist, but of a master of the in pure speculation. M. Viollet-le-Duc first rank, who here made the work has attributed the detail to Romano- both architectural and sculptural, Greek-Syriac origin, and the sculp- combining the two arts in the happiest ture to northern France; but he does manner. The effect is astonishingly not explain how these influences came rich and splendid, yet there is no over- to be joined in this one work. loading and no crowding. The great There is but one other portal in statues of the Apostles have ample France that directly approaches that of of room for their dignified personalities; S. Trophime, and that is the portal the processions of the Elect and the the neighboring church of S. Gilles Condemned move in stately symmet- in Languedoc. It is larger, having but rical lines. A great lesson in Christian three doorways instead of one, idea does doctrine is taught in this portal; its neither in execution nor in at stones, its statues, its animals, even, it equal the splendid composition are alive with meaning and with Aries. The arches are round, but the as in truth. Yet the lesson it teaches, the general idea is much the same illus- truth it emphasizes, the structural S. Trophime. The sculptures life of and are thus work it accomplishes, is done in so or- trate the Christ, those of the other derly and sober a manner that one more varied than are concerned scarcely realizes how varied are its church which chiefly The of S. parts until it has been carefully and with a single subject. portal the the minutely studied. And if the theme Gilles is probably earlier; great in the main wall are more ar- and scheme are great, so also is the statues in their attitudes and costume, plastic skill with which it has been chaic motif in carried out. The utmost variety in and the Corinthian appears At S. expression and in attitude character- most of the capitals. Trophime S. TROPHIME, ARLES, DETAIL OF WEST DOORWAY. FRENCH CATHEDRALS. *55 the detail, though more Roman, is regular rectangle, whose north and worked with greater care, and the east walls date from the twelfth cen- sculptures show an advance in every tury; the west was transformed in particular. At most, however, only a 1389, and the south was given its pres- short period of time can separate these ent aspect^ in the sixteenth century. two works, both of which evidently The older parts justly rank among the belong to the twelfth century. most interesting monuments of their kind in France. The arcades consist IV. of three wide bays, separated by piers, and each containing four small round Quite as splendid, and as well arches on coupled columns, both piers known as its portal, is the cloister of S. and columns standing on a broad con- Trophime, which is reached by a flight tinuous base. The walks are covered of steps in a narrow passage beyond with a rounded tunnel vault, that is the south transept. It is a slightly ir- stopped on the enclosing walls at a

ARL SECTION AND ELEVATION OF CLOISTER, S. TROPHIME, Drawn by Arthur Needham Wilson. S. TROPH1ME, ARLES. THE CLOISTERS FROM THE QUADRANGLE (From The Builder.) ICONOGRAPHY OF THE CLOISTER OF S. TROPHIME, ARLES. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

higher level than its origin over the The capitals are large, superbly carved arcades,giving an elliptical or segmen- with an almost bewildering power of tal section. The arches which sustain imagination, and each pair, as is us- this vault rise, on the arcade side, from ual with work of this date, is cut from a projection applied to the piers be- a single block, with an abacus, which, tween the bays, while on the enclosing in most instances, is also splendidly walls they rest on large corbels, gro- decorated with foliage or with wreaths. tesques and animals, with small cor- The capitals are foliated or decorated nices of acanthus leaves that are a with scenes and figures. The former continuation of a plain string at the show the Corinthian motif, and are origin of the vault. A single rib runs beautiful and rich examples of a con- diagonally across the junction of the siderably altered type that still dis- vaults at the corners. tinctly recalls the original. The pic- The sculptured decorations of these torial capitals illustrate an immense two galleries are amazingly rich, and variety of themes, by both figures and rank with those of the portal in their groups. A good many of them are in iconographic value. In the north a greatly defaced condition, but in all walk the arcade arches are plain and of them the scenes represented are unornamented; in the east walk they graphically shown with directness of are wider, higher and lighter, with expression and very considerable dra- their inner matic skill. simple mouldings on edges ; obviously of a slightly later date. Of the enclosing walls of these two The angle piers are complicated walks that of the eastern scarcely calls pieces of masonry elaborately deco- for mention. It is entirely featureless rated with sculpture and with detail. save for several unimportant openings, The main portion of each face towards and a Renaissance door onoosite the the walks is decorated with sculptured end of the north walk. The corbels panels, containing one or more reliefs, of the vault arches are similar to those while large statues on the three inner in the north walk, but with decorated corners emphasize these important abaci. The north wall contains, next points. The piers between the bays of to the featureless archway from the the arcades in the north and east gal- cathedral, three of the original bays leries are somewhat similar to the cor- of the enclosing wall, consisting of ner piers, but less monumental in de- arches on columns with chanelled sign. The central part, which carries piers between them. They are a good the vault arch, has a statue on a high deal restored. pedestal, while the pilaster which The rebuilding of the remaining should support the adjoining arch of galleries was begun in the south walk the arcade is cut away for a statue in 1389, by Archbishop Franqois de standing on a low base. In the east Conzie. The main piers have pedes- walls the piers are similar, but the tals and niches for statues, all now central statues have disappeared. Over disappeared, the statues having been one of the piers is a relief of a man in cut from separate blocks, instead of, armor battling with a gigantic beast; as in the older walks, forming part of over the other is the the the structure the Lamb and ; space between these Cross of the Baptist inscribed in a cir- piers is divided by a thinner pier, mak- cle; in the tympanum of the arches is ing six bays in all. Each contains two a series of greatly defaced figures, pointed arches, with coupled columns representing the Wise and Foolish in the centre, and their outer edges Virgins. continued as a columnette on the face Interesting and varied as are the of the pier, where it forms part of the sculptured figures the greatest beauty bundle of columnettes which carry the of these galleries is in the capitals cross vaults of the passage. The small of the columns. The shafts are short foliated capitals of the columnettes of and delicate, and round or octagonal. the vaults belong to the style of the i6o THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. walk; those of the intervening col- fine strong ; on the angle pier umns, however, recall those of the pre- just above it is a holy-water font. vious walks, though distinctly later in The western gallery closely resem- style. The inner series of capitals are bles the south. It contains seven bays, pictorial, the subjects being taken from each with a pair of pointed arches, the ecclesiastical history of the first but the piers are all of the same size,

CHAPITEAUX DES ARCADES DE LA GALBRIE SEPTENTRIONALE. Cloitre de St. Trophime D' Aries. century, instead of representing scenes and similar to the smaller piers of the from the bible as in the earlier walks. south walk, though the columnettes The capitals of the outer columns are are more slender. The arrangement foliated or consist of a symbol of an of the capitals is the same, but the Evangelist. The columns are all round subjects of the pictorial ones are con- and more slender than before, and the siderably varied, including both le- arches have mouldings on both edges. gendary and scriptural themes. The enclosing wall is decorated with The rich sculptured decoration of arches like those of the arcade, with the walks is not reproduced in the or- bundles of applied columnettes, whose namentation of the quadrangle; the capitals are foliated towards the east, walks were in constant use, and there and have small groups towards the the storied capitals and suggestive west. At the southeast angle of this sculpture had natural and necessary gallery is a large well-head, with a place. The exterior capitals of the ar-

ELEVATION DE LA FACADE MERIDIONALS SUR LE PREAU. Cloitre de St. Trophime D' Aries. FRENCH CATHEDRALS. 161 cades are less in their scarcely rich, verity and uniformity. The first is di- superbly varied foliage, than the inner vided in the centre by a flat pilaster, but it is pictorial ones, interesting to connected by a cornice of four small note, as an evidence of the arches apprecia- with a similar pilaster at each tion of the situation the by designers end, each bay haying a small round of the that with but cloister, one or arched window close to the central two all the outer, or more exceptions division. The second stage is similar, distant are foliated. On the but capitals, without the dividing pilaster in the north, between the are piers bays middle. In the third stage the middle strengthened externally by square pilaster reappears, all three with Cor- channelled with Corinthian- pilasters, inthian-like capitals, and a round like capitals. The original piers on arched window in the centre of each the east have and in their disappeared, bay. The attic story has seven small are fine Gothic with the place piers, rectangular openings in each face, central face treated as three applied and is surmounted by a low four- with a orna- sided columnettes, dog-tooth pyramid, dating from the early ment on the behind. On the south pier part of the nineteenth century. Ap- the larger piers have small plain pilas- parently the builder of the tower of ters towards the quadrangle, without the cathedral of Avignon, when he re- The west walk is capitals. supported built it in the fifteenth century, found whose are by buttresses, edges treated his inspiration in this structure, using as small columnettes. None of these the double division of each face and piers, buttresses or pilasters support placing his windows close to the cen- and it is doubtful if the older anything, tral pilaster as in the first stage of S. ones, at least on the north side, ever Trophime. carried an architectural member. A short distance above the pilasters and V. running around the quadrangle, is a small hollowed ledge; it is the gutter The historians of the cathedral of built at the period of the older walks. Aries have generally been content to In the thirteenth century the slope of rest their labors with the parts of the the roof, which then descended over church we have now seen, dismissing the vaults at a rather sharp angle to the new choir and other later parts, this gutter, was raised and supported with a few short sentences. The on a high piece of wall above it. The method is not wholly unjustifiable, new roof is only slightly inclined, and since the additions in the fifteenth forms an open walk above the lower century enlarged the church at the ex- arcade. A bench and coping were pense of its beauty and harmony,while built at the outer edge, and under the further changes in the seventeenth seats a series of narrow slits were cut century helped to emphasize the differ- that permitted the water to fall down ence between the old and the new into the original gutter. without adding beauty or grandeur. From the cloister is obtained the From the point of view of the art his- little more to best view of the great central tower. torian there is, therefore, of the cathe- Though one of the highest structures be said, but an historian thus in Aries 138 feet its considerable drals of France cannot lightly when he reaches size is dwarfed by the immensity of dismiss his building him. the church, and its location over the a part that does not interest He cathedrals as thev have crossing deprives it of the value it must take the the centuries would have had as a dominating feat- come down through ^anct therefore, to ure in the fagade. It is square, rising it is necessary, briefly the later additions to our in three stages, and surmounted by a glance at low upper story or attic. Each stage is church. choir of S. is really a slightly recessed behind the other, and The Trophime fifteenth all are treated with considerable se- Gothic church of the century

Vol. VT-2.-5. 162 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. applied to the nave of the .twelfth. It north aisle. In the south aisle is a is considerably wider, both in the sanc- large chapel entered from the fourth tuary and its aisles, than the preceding bay, and extending two bays to the parts, though but three bays deep. eastward. The piers are semicircular towards the The additions of the seventeenth choir with corbels supporting the up- century are chiefly apparent in the per parts of the transverse arches of transepts, and thus, though doubtless the vaults and the diagonal and longi- by accident only, the various epochs tudinal ribs. Deeply moulded arches of the interior are well separated from continued in a band without capitals each other. The operations carried on to the floor open between the piers at this time did, indeed, extend much into the ambulatory. There is no tri- further, and included many "restora- forium, and the clearstory is formed of tions" and defacements in the nave, all a large two-light window,now blocked of which have been happily removed up. The three bays at the east are sim- by M. Revoil in his restoration. ilar.but the ribs and arches of the vault Each transept has in its outer wall are applied to the piers without cor- a large monumental doorway, with bels. Ionic pilasters, an entablature and a The ambulatory of the choir is very pediment with a cartouche in the cen- irregular. It was apparently intended tre. Above is an elliptical tribune sup- to erect a polygon of seven sides, but ported by an elliptical vault over the if we count by the vaults it has thir- doorway, and a large segmental- teen bays, two of which are half bays topped window with an ornamented caused by the irregularity of the plan, frame. On the south side the door and if we count by chapels ,we have leads to the sacristy, on the north to eight bays, the first on the north con- a large square chapel with a pointed taining two small chapels. In no sense cross vault. is this a chevet the are of va- In the corner of the west wall of the ; chapels rious shapes and sizes; their vaults north transept, close to the aisle of the are different; the piers between them, nave, is a small door, by which we their entrance arches, and even the may, if we choose, leave the cathedral. vaults of the ambulatory exhibit varia- It leads to a narrow passage, with a tions and differences in size, direction flight of steps, opening onto a small and in form it would be tedious to court, surrounded by houses. Under enumerate. The difference in date one of these is an archway to the which this irregular construction im- street. Here we may end our visit, plies is not sufficiently marked, nor of but it is better and pleasanter to return -enough importance to warrant extend- to the south transept, pass once more ed study. Even the nave did not es- into the wonderful cloister, and thence cape the petty improvements of which to the street, not forgetting, in end- the choir is such a distressing example. ing our visit, to look again upon the Two small late Gothic chapels, each great west portal, whose majestic stat- different in design, are opened out ues have looked down upon seven from the third and fourth bays of the centuries of peoples. Barr Ferree.

~ '

',' ;,_. .

I'ANKL FROM THE CLOISTER. S. TROPHIMK, ARI.ES. FIG 4. INTERIOR OF SAN STEFANO (OUTSIDE THE WALLS) AT PISA. to Photographed discount the perspective illusion. Compare Fig. 5 Brooklyn Institute Survey.

PERSPECTIVE ILLUSIONS IN MEDIEVAL ITALIAN CHURCHES.

is now twenty-six years ago since nounce. This dubious condition of my I made (in first own IT 1870) my knowledge on the subject pre- observations of a hitherto neg- vailed down to last year, when I was lected class of phenomena in the me- enabled by the co-operation of the dieval churches of Italy. These ob- Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sci- servations were limited in ex- ences to make an examination of a tent, but were revolutionary in very systematic character for the scope and in suggestion, or sugges- whole of Italy, lasting over five tiveness. Although they were almost months, and assisted by an able archi- wholly confined to the' Cathedral of tectural expert and surveyor.* Most Pisa, and other churches in the same of the photographs used in illustration city, the implied results were very far- were made by him with all the precau- reaching in their antagonism to' cur- tions to insure accuracy which are rent views of medieval building. It known to photographic science and the was impossible to assume that certain surveys shown are also his work. phenomena had developed and disap- Before the present year I had made peared in this single town. It was only one publication on the subject, certain that they had historic origin which was confined to Pisa, and which before the time of the given buildings appear in Scribners Magazine for and historic continuation subsequent August, 1874, under the title of "A to their period, and certain that there Lost Art." must be affiliated phenomena in other In the arrangement of illustrative localities. On the other hand it was matter I shall combine the observa- clear that the phenomena were not tions of 1870 with those of 1895, mak- universal and it appeared doubtful that ing a pivot of the buildings in Pisa for they could be widespread. Otherwise various classes of phenomena, diverg- it seemed to me that their discovery ing to the corroborations and similar could not have been left to me to an- "John W. McKecknie. Esq. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

FIG. I. CATHEDRAL, LEANING TOWER, AND BAPTISTERY AT PISA. facts now found in various other parts sides of the cathedral.* On both sides of Italy for the given set of phenomena the string-course of the transepts and then returning to Pisa for the in- slopes downward from their outer ex- dication of a new series of phenomena. tremities to meet the downward slope I shall therefore beg my read- on the side walls. Fig. 2, showing the ers to enter with me the public oblique string-course, is a photograph square in Pisa, which contains its made for me by Mr. C. F. Cox, of world-famed architectural monuments, New York, in 1894. It is the first just as I first entered it in the month picture ever made for the purpose of The of February, 1870. Leaning showing the obliquity, which is slight- Tower fronts us first. What I have to ly exaggerated by a turning of the say in later Papers points to a solu- camera. (The exact deflection from tion of its as far as inten- mystery, the horizontal is shown by Fig. 12 in is and also throws tion concerned, the preceding issue of the Architec- some on the and evolu- light purposes tural Record.) tion of this construction. As we all On the given occasion I took a walk the between accident know, question outside the walls of the city in order and intentional construction is one to study this obliquity from a distance, which has been debated and long and as I came round to the neighbor- never so far. settled, hood of the Lucca Gate and was still As I entered this Piazza del Duomo outside of the city, I stumbled on the near the from which this point picture little village church here shown in Fig. was taken i) I was struck an (Fig. by 3, the eleventh, or twelfth cen- in the lines of the cathedral obliquity tury Romanesque church of San Ste- which seemed to me to call for an ex- ' fano. Humble and ugly as it is, it has to be related to planation, and perhaps one feature which allies it to the Lean- the inclination of the tower. The ing Tower, and one which allies it to central of the side walls string-course the sloping cornice. If we consider the is of horizontal two feet. It out slopes Leaning Tower as a freak or eccen- downward to that extent between fa- tricity, rather than an accident, it has and at gade transept; being highest a counterpart here in a round arch cor- the faqade and lowest at the transept. *Photograph in parallel perspective in the pre- This obliquity is found on both long ceding No. of the Magazine, Fig. 12. PERSPECTIVE ILLUSIONS IN ITALIAN CHURCHES, i65

i

FIG. 2 OBLIQUE STRING-COURSE OF THE PISA CATHEDRAL.

for the Photographed Author by Mr. C. F. Cox, of New York in 1804 Thne first ever picture taken for the purpose of showing an obliquity of constrmct rii^finn *

nice with its built in parts diminishing is certainly the original facade of the dimensions, so that it disappears in a church. short series of small at projections one The optical effect of a trick in end. If we inside this little build- go modern stage setting which corre- (as I was led to do this curious ing by spond to that seen in San Stefano is exterior we shall discover the trait) represented by the diagram here secret of the sloping cornice of the shown (Fig. 6). cathedral. Here is the built interior, I carried with me in 1870 most of to a sham the represent perspective,on the important German compendiums principle theatrical practiced by every on the history of art and architecture, scene painter of the nineteenth cen- and was thus aware that the Middle and The measures tury (Figs. 4 5). Ages are not at present credited with of our show that the survey pier spac- having practiced these perspective il- ings diminish about ten feet in the lusions. Aside from a reference by direction toward the choir. The Fergusson to the Cathedral of Poitiers arches about five feet in the drop same as having an illusive scheme of per- direction. (The capitals also drop, spective, I have not been able in a but I omitted to furnish the data to course of reading which has lasted for Mr. McKecknie. The section is in- twenty-six years to find any references correct in representing the capitals as in modern authors to the subject. (The horizontal.) The pavement slopes up notice in Baedeker appears to be taken towar-d the choir six inches. In the from Fergusson.) The cases in Italy eighteenth century the church was are, however, fairly numerous, as entered at the end which now forms shown by my surveys of 1895. In the choir, and the widest bay was used my ultimate publication of details, I for the choir, but this arrangement shall furnish surveys from over thirty- undoubtedly reversed an earlier one, five Italian churches, showing related to which the modern restoration has phenomena of this class. returned. This appears from an ex- We will now return to the oblique with amination of the present facade, which string-courses of the cathedral, [66 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

AT 1'ISA. Fit;. 3. SAN STEFANO (OUTSIDE THE WALLS) From a Photogiaph bv the Brooklyn Institute Survey.

kind intervention and as- the suggestion obtained from the little through the church of San Stefano, that they were sistance of Prof. Wm. R. Ware, but were known, till those of also intended to produce an optical ef- no levels fect. What this effect is from certain 1895, taken by Mr. McKecknie. It is a which is points of view is shown by Fig. 7- phenomenon generally The conclusion that the sloping overlooked by visitors to Pisa; as it is effect. The string-courses of this cathedral were discounted into an optical this ha- intended to build in persoective effect most remarkable instance of is reached in the following way: As a bitual oversight is furnished by Mr. matter of fact they do have this result. Ruskin in his "Seven Lamps" (see the As a matter of fact we can show sim- ''Lamp of Life"). It there appears ilar devices inside the cathedral and that in looking directly at this string- inside a great many other churches. course he could not decide whether or The optical effects of direct increase no it was out of horizontal. of dimsion are, of course, only ob- Before calling attention to an ar- tainable from certain points of view. rangement of arches in the Pisa ca- What these effects may be from other thedral interior, which corresponds points of view I shall consider later. to that of San Stefano, but which has a The theory that the cathedral string- much more subtle character, I should courses were sloped without a purpose like to call attention to related facts, as is to me inconceivable. An ex- developed by my surveys of 1895, for planation, based on the height of the a number of other Italian cathedrals first story of the facade, may be sug- and churches. gested, but will probably not be insist- We shall first take note that the ed on when related facts in other build- choir of the medieval church is gen- ings have been considered. The erally the objective point of these illu- measures taken for this slope by our sive arrangements of interiors, as be- surveys are the first ever made for the ing that part of the building to which given obliquity. The first measures the worshipper is turned, and the one for this phenomenon were taken for which he faces when entering by the me by Mr. C. F. Newton in 1887, main door. FIG. 5. SECTION OF SAN STEFANO (OUTSIDE THE WALLS) AT PISA.

The bay assigned to the choir is on the left. Pier spacings diminish TO ft. and arches drop 5 ft. in the direction toward

the choir. Pavement slopes up six inches in the same direction. Compare Fig. 4. Hrooklyn Institute Survey.

" '

j." 4^

i 1

FIG. 6. DIAGRAM FROM THIERSCH.

t/er Architectnr. Optische Tduschungen auf ifein Gebictc (Optical size ob- Deceptions in Architecture.) Showing the increase of apparent tained by a modern stage sett ng.

FIG. 7. PISA CATHEDRAL. the string-courses (Fig. 2) From a point of view which discounts sloping into perspective effect. THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

FIG. 8. SIENA CATHEDRAL. Showing the arches spanning the nave at the transept and supporting the dome. The further arch drops five feet lower than the near one. Compare Fig. a. Photographed for the Brooklyn Institute Survey.

In the cathedral at Siena there is a Now what might be considered for- very ingenious device to exaggerate tuitous or accidental in one case can- the length of the church, and the dis- not be so considered when the same tance of the choir. Of the two large facts are found to occur in the same arches which the in a series of but in the span nave under the way buildings ; dome, the second is five feet lower confusion and variety of impressions than the first. The device is only de- which overwhelm one in a vast cathe- tected by comparing the two arches dral, a trait like the one specified es- in question, when one is under the capes the attention of the most exact dome, and this can only be done with and careful observer. It may be no- some difficulty, as suggested by our ticed accidentally, but in such a case, photograph looking up into the dome. unless there is a pre-existing suspicion It is impossible to evade the illusion of a wide diffusion of similar arrange- from any standpoint taken in the nave. ments and of a controlling purpose in (Figs. 8 and 9.) all of them, the isolated fact is ignored PERSPECTIVE ILLUSIONS IN ITALIAN CHURCHES, i69

FIG. Q. THE DOME OF SIENA CATHEDRAL. to show the in the of Photographed disparity height arches spanning the nave. Compare Fig. 8. Brooklyn Institute Suivey. and forgotten. What has been lacking certain that I should have regarded it to the study of medieval architecture as an isolated eccentricity, and have so far has been, first, the suspicion that paid no further attention to it. So it the phenomena existed, and, second, might possibly be in the case of some a systematic search for them. It was other student with the instance of the my good fortune, at the outset of my arches at Siena; but in my own experi- own studies, to stumble on a building ence Pisa happened, for some curious of such conspicuous and palpable personal reasons, to be the first Ital- trickery, that the suggestion of the ian town which I had ever visited as a prevalence of a system of such devices student of medieval architecture. San was natural. If I had made the rounds Stefano happened to be the first of the Italian cathedrals in 1870, as church in Italy that I ever entered for they are made under ordinary circum- purposes of study; for the sloping stances, by other students, and if I had, string-course of the cathedral had so at the close of such a tour or during its taken possession of my curiosity that I extended progress, entered the church had not yet seen its interior when I of San Stefano in Pisa, I am quite entered that little church. San Ste- 170 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

FIG. IO. PISA CATHEDRAL.

Showing tl.e arches spanning the nave at the transept. The nearer arch is pointed, the farther < ne is round and drops three feet lower. This view discounts drops in the nave aiches of 1.64 (left) ai d 1.08 (right) (,tt and deci-- ma!?); see gallery levels and sections in the next issue. Photographed for the Brooklyn Institute- Survey.

fano gave me a clue. The Pisan predecessor. A moment's observation churches, and especially the cathedral, will show the peculiar lowness of the turned out to be saturated with simi- apse, but the effect on the eye remains lar devices. the same, as regards the impression of Hence, the Brooklyn Institute Sur- distance. vey of 1895, which entered every well- There are four other Italian church- es to in this known church in Italy and hundreds known me which same of minor churches, with one definite particular illusion obtains in the use of object in view, which was to observe transverse arches S. Nicolo at Bari, and collect all the facts bearing on one the cathedral of Piacenza, S. Maria certain question. These facts must be Novella at Florence, and the cathedral viewed as a whole, and I hope that they of Pisa. The last three cases corre- may be considered as a whole, after spond to that just shown at Siena. the individual and sequent mention is Murray's guide-book speaks, of two terminated. pointed arches as spanning the Pisa At Siena the perspective illusion is nave at the transept, but only one is assisted by the treatment of the a^>se, pointed. The second is round and which is placed wholly below the drops at least three feet below its fel- string-course which elsewhere defines low. (Fig. TO.) At Piacenza the drop the base of the clerestory. We have is four feet. In S. Maria Novella it thus a line of arches crossing the is about two feet. The arrangement of church, each dropping far below its S. Nicolo at Bari is shown bv the sec- ^CZT.;:^\\ k- 0UV-V--I 172 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

v

FIG. 12. SECTION OF S. MARIA NOVELLA AT FLORENCE. Showing a maximum diminution of pier spacings of 13 ft. in the direction of the choir. Brooklyn Institute Survey.

tion from our survey (Fig. n). The cathedral at Arezzo there is a transverse arches of this church were difference between the first and built in at a later date than its erection, last bay of twenty-one feet (Fig. and during the Gothic period. They 13). The only parallel cases known develop a perspective scheme other- to our Survey for such extra- wise apparent in the arrangement of ordinary discrepancies in measure- the arches and the capitals of the nave. ments, are the converging walls (nar- As for the arcades of the clerestory rowing toward the choir) of S. Giorgio their curving line builds in perspective in Velabro at Rome, and of S. Stefano from all points of view. That this ar- at Venice. In the former case the rangement of the arcades is not due church is seventeen and a half feet to accident is proven by the fact that narrower at the choir end (Fig. 21). it holds on both sides of the church. The latter church is twenty-three feet The same argument as to purpose narrower at the choir end.* holds for the arches and capitals of the It is remarkable that a new theory, nave, viz., that the same general ar- or a new point of view, for medieval rangement is found on both sides. churches, should obtain corroboration The measures in detail are en- from such a well-known church as S. tered on the section and a summary Maria Novella. Its peculiar arrange- of results is given beneath. The max- ment has been so generally overlooked imum drop of the nave arches is three that there is even a published of this church which feet and of capitals 1.65. (The dis- ground-plan crepancies of intercolumnar spacing represents the piers as spaced at are connected with an obliquity of the regular intervals (in Reynaud's ground-plan, for which the survey "Traite d'Architecture"). This church will been mentioned in be published in a later issue.) has, however, pub- These correspondences in devices to lication for the given phenomenon; the increase the effect of dimension are only case of such mention known to me all the to be cited. certainly not fortuitous, and as regards among buildings The in measurements of results they may fairly be called sub- discrepancy tle. It is much more difficult to detect spacings is mentioned by Burck- hardt's Cicerone and Baedeker's them than it is to see them after they by are pointed out. guide-book, whose art references gen- An astounding illustration of the erally follow Burckhardt, but the illu- popular oversight of discrepancies in sive, perspective purpose has escaped dimension which are naturally dis- the perception of these authorities. counted into effects of perspective is This is clearly due to the lack of col- afforded by the church of S. Maria lated facts regarding similar phenom- Novella at Florence, where there is a ena in other churches, such as those diminution of pier spacings toward the just mentioned, and others which I choir of so pronounced a character will now proceed to mention. One of that there is a difference of thirteen these cases is the cathedral of Fiesole, feet between the widest and the narrowest *The plan is published in the preceding Number bay (Fig. 12). In the of the Magazine. PERSPECTIVE ILLUSIONS IN ITALIAN CHURCHES. 173 where the maximum diminution ot the record against myself that toward the choir is pier spacing eight this fact either escaped my no- feet, as between the widest and nar- tice in 1870, or made such slight im- pression on me as regards its real magnitude, that it was immediately forgotten. In 1895, Fiesole was a new revelation (Fig. 14). In face of a photograph* fixing the facts from a defined point of view, it seems impossible that any one should overlook them. But it is one thing to be in a large building with the eye wandering from one point to an- other; and another thing to have the eye directly fixed on a photograph made for a special purpose and from a special point of view, all of whose feat- ures are seized at once. There is no dis- counting of effects when we look at a photograph. In the building it is im- possible not to discount the effect to a certain extent, even when one is aware of the facts. As regards the instantaneous detec- tion of the facts as stated by the survey of a church section or by a photo- graph made for the purpose, it should be remembered that in a section draw- ing like that of Fig. 14, the cutting off of the upper wall directly over the arches offers the contrast of a straight line which does not appear in the church. As regards the photograph from Fiesole (published in the preced- ing Number of the Magazine, Fig. 6), the cutting off of the wall over the large arch again assists the instantane- ous detection of a fact which is by no means so clearly apparent in the church. That the discrepancy in size of arches at Fiesole is generally over- looked cannot be doubted. There are too many tourists who have been in Florence (and all such visit Fiesole), who will testify to their own oversight to leave this point in any doubt. That the fact of an irregularity FIG. THE CATHEDRAL 13. GROUND-PLAN OK perhaps not wholly appreciated as to OF AREZZO. amount is occasionally noticed at Fie- At the third the decreases ft.: at the last bay spacing 4 sole and then ignored, as having no bay it decreases 17 total diminution 21 ft. Brooklyn ft., or is doubtless Institute Survey. pertinence meaning, also true. That is because the given rowest bay; the maximum drop in the observer has not happened to notice line of arches three feet nine being *See preceding Number of this Magazine. (Fig. inches. I have here to make 6.) FI<;. 14. SECTION OF THE CATHEDRAL OF FIESOLE.

The choir is adjacent to the last bay on the right. The bays narrow toward the choir (maximum about 8 ft.) and the arches drop in this direction (maximum, 3 ft. 9 in.). Brooklyn Institute Survey.

FIG. 15. SECTION OF SAN PIEXRO SOMALDI AT LUCCA.

The choir is the last bay on the right The measures show a maximum drop in the arches of 3.30 (feet and decimals) and a maximum diminution in pier spacings of 3 ft. Brooklyn Institute Survey.

FIG. 16. SECTION OF SAN STEFANO AT BOLOGNA.

The choir is on the left. Spacings narrow toward the choir 4 ft. Arches drop toward the choir 1.30 Capitals drop toward the choir 1.35. Biooklyn Institute Survey

FIG. 17. SECTION OF SANTA MARIA BIANCA AT LUCCA.

Beyond the last bay on the right are the transept and choir. The maximum drop of the arches toward the choir is 1.40 (feet and decimals). Brooklyn Institute Survey. PERSPECTIVE ILLUSIONS IN ITALIAN CHURCHES. 175

that the same or similar facts hold at As regards the beginning of a Cremona, and in San Ambrogio at scheme at the second, third, or fourth Milan, at Prato and Arezzo, and Pa- bay and as far as a line of arches via, at Borgo San Donnino, and Bo- is concerned, a line which rises first logna, at Bari, Troja, Fiesole, Narni and falls afterward is more effective and Toscanella, at Pisa, Lucca, and for perspective illusion for all points Palermo, and in the Roman church of of view in which both ends are visible San Saba. At Lucca there are three than one with an even descent. This churches of this type and at Pisa there will be understood by experts in optics are four. Detailed surveys have without explanation and I will not been made for all buildings which are offer the reasons here. Examples of mentioned.* The proof of construc- such an arrangement are seen in the tive intention is obtained partly from clerestory arcades of S. Xicolo at Bari the schematic arrangement of meas- (Fig. n) and in the arches and capi- urements, partly from a compari- tals of S. Saba at Rome (Fig. 23). In son of the measures on the two the given class of churches minor and sides of the church, partly irregularities are frequently found from the frequent repetition of an in the schemes of arrangement of in one direction. At in arrangement piers and arches, but we have Bari and Cremona allowance has to most cases an immediate check on the remarkable vari- be made for some theory of carelessness. For example, ations analagous to the phenomena in at Fiesole the sixth arch from the fa- * S. Maria della Pieve, at Arezzo. cade is considerably higher than its fel- Both S. Maria Novella and the Fie- lows and breaks the scheme (Fig. sole cathedral will illustrate a both sides subtlety 14). But this holds on generally found where this given de- of the church at the same bay, or vice is used of narrowed spacings therefore, the discrepancy is not dropping arches, viz., of giving accidental. There are side doors dimensions either this the maximum opposite this bay: possibly or fourth I to the second, third, is the explanation,' but shall show bay, according to the length of later that in many cases schemes were detec- the church, in preference to giving intentionally broken to avoid obvi- the greatest dimension to the first bay, tion, or the appearance of a too or to in- as was done in S. Stefano at Pisa. On ously deceptive arrangement, for entering a church, we do not generally troduce an element of irregularity the sake of look directly either to left or right, and its own sake; that is, for If we com- we most naturally begin to make our variety or the picturesque. experimental estimate of dimension a pare the heights of arches at Fiesole, little farther down the nave. In such we shall find that none are commensu- able to cases, the standard of size for the rate, and yet we shall be prove cal- whole church is taken for granted as that the heights were all purposely Both being that of the adjacent large arches. culated, approximately as built. are A mathematically perfect perspective arches of the second' bay higher of the third scheme was not attempted. Perspect- than the first, both arches both ive tricks like that of Bernini, in the bay are lower than the second, are Scala Regia of the Vatican, were gen- arches of the fourth bay higher the both arches of the fifth erally foreign to the Middle Age. All than third, than the both that was sought was a physiological bay are lower fourth, sixth are than illusion based on the habits of the eye, arches of the bay higher arches of the seventh which is accustomed to argue from the the fifth, both Th ; s nearest dimension to others which are bay are lower than the sixth. more remote. cannot be accidental; the law of facts chances is against it. When such *An exhibit of these was made in surveys are in a multitude of cases, as Brooklyn in June, which will be repeated this repeated of details in October, November and December. regards correspondence *Plan in the preceding Number of the Magazine. two broken schemes, certainty be- Sec Fig. 0. '76 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. comes absolute that the builders knew to struggle for a proof of this, what they were doing, and this cer- but such is the prejudice of the tainty reacts on the cases where ir- nineteenth century in favor of its own ideals of mathematical and exact sym- metry, that up to date the astonishing impression rules the civilized world that the Middle Ages produced the most remarkable works of art without knowing how they did it. The subject of intentional irregu- larities due to a sentiment for the pic- turesque, deals with another class of medieval phenomena and the proofs for intention are obtained in various ways, to be subsequently explained. I only wish to say here that irregulari- ties in the employment of a perspective scheme can generally be proven inten- tional off-hand, as I have just shown at Fiesole. The limit of irreg- ularity due to indifference to reg- ularity or to the natural limitations of building material or building methods varies in different buildings. It can generally be estimated by a compari- son of various measurements. There is an underestimate of the technical capacities of the best medieval build- ers in some professional quarters, ow- ing to the medieval frank disregard for the conventional accuracy of the modern architect. This underesti- mate is also partly due to the hasty assumption that some carelessly constructed buildings represent uni- versal practice. In fact, up to date there has been no effort to distinguish between intentional and accidental ir- regularity in medieval building. In basilicas, which have no transept, and showing a perspective scheme, the last span of arches at the choir gen- erally widens, for practical reasons, and to give the extra space desired for the chancel. (See S. Pietro Somaldi, Lucca; Fig. 15, and S. Stefano, Bo- logna, Fig. 1 6.) There are also many in- FIG. 1 8. GROUND-PLAN OF THE CATHEDRAL cases of an arrangement of arches NAVE OF PRATO. tended to obviate abrupt contrasts of or breaks in the line Showing a maximum diminution in pierspacingsof 3 ft. dimension, abrupt in the direction of the choir. The last bay widens toward of arches. Where the church has the transept which is omitted from the plan. Brooklyn Institute Survey. a transept the span next adja- cent is frequently increased in regularity appears without the evi- size to effect a transition of lines dence furnished by duplication. It and dimensions. This occurs both in is too bad that we should have churches without the previous drop in PERSPECTIVE IL L USIONS IN ITALIAN CHURCHES. 777

FIG. ig. SECTION OF S. FREDIANO AT PISA. The last bay on the right is the choir. The heights of the bays between entrance and choir show a drop of 1.62 (left) and .79 (right) in the direction of the choir. Brooklyn Institute Survey. arches, like S. Paolo Ripa d'Arno at the measures, which show a drop of Pisa, and in others which have the arches on both sides of the nave, as drop, like S. Maria Bianca at Lucca shown by the section. A similar ex- (Fig. 17), or the diminution of spac- perience was made in Milan, where my ings, like the cathedral of Prato (Fig. time was limited. I hesitated a full 18). Such an abrupt contrast as we hour in San Ambrogio before risking find in the sixth bay at Fiesole the time required by a survey without was clearly intended, but it is quite un- certainty of results. The survey usual. The Florentine Romanesque is showed a maximum diminution in pier not as subtle as that of Byzantine Pisa spacing of three and a half feet and, a and the Florentine churches are gen- maximum drop in the arches of one erally lacking in "refinements." foot. A like experience was made in My experience in the Pisan church the Siena cathedral, where our party of S. Frediano will show the difficulty spent two days' time before noting of detecting these deceptive arrange- that the first pair of arches in the nave ments, even when they are anticipated, are three feet higher than the follow- or careful examination is made for ing arches. I did notice a diminution them. During three weeks spent in a of spacings at Prato of three feet until first visit to Pisa our party examined the measures had been taken. I S. Frediano three times without de- shall be able to show in the next issue tecting a scheme here shown by sur- of this Magazine that the limit of error vey (Fig. 19). On this occasion there due to carelessness or the coarseness were three pair of eyes at fault, for my of materials, in medieval buildings of survey of 1895 was assisted in many the class quoted, is not greater than parts of Italy by my nephew, a young three inches. I ought to add that the architectural student,* as well as by a case of the nave arches at Siena is regularly employed surveyor. On a quoted only as an instance of the way second visit to Pisa, when I was at- in which important discrepancies of tended by Mr. McKecknie, S. Fred- dimension may be overlooked in the visited with- them. iano was again and again very act of making a search for out discovery of the facts. Mr. Mc- There are no indications of a scheme Kecknie's final departure for home in the measures of the other bays at was made at this time, after the expi- Siena. ration of the five months which he had There are three published ground- contracted to with the exoedi- which have spend plans of Italian churches tion, and I was left alone in Pisa. I walls converging in the direction of vis- of subsequently made three separate the choir; although the implication a has its to S. Frediano, having suspicion purpose contained in these plans that there was something to do in this been overlooked by the given publica- to take related facts church and finally undertook tions; clearly because the been collated. These *Mr. Nelson Goodyear. have not Vol. VI-2 6 RECORD. I78 THE ARCHITECTURAL churches are the Roman basilicas S. wide. Clearly Mr. Street must have that this nave is Bartolommeo, S. Giorgio in Velabro, overlooked the fact the choir end* and and S. Maria in Cosmedin. As to the 35 feet wide at that the whole church narrows in, 23 perspective results of such converging to a feet. I took the measures in San An- lines, we shall first draw attention diagram of the Piazza of San Marco tonino, at Piacenza, showing that its S. walls have a toward the at Venice (Fig. 20). The case of convergence in Velabro, at Rome, repre- choir of 9 feet; but this church has Giorgio "Bauwerke sents a similar plan and involves a been published by Osten, in der as an similar optical result (Fig. 21). A Lombardei," absolutely I mention small plan published by Hubsch, with- regular parallelogram. out measures, seems to show these these discrepancies between the real facts and the because facts with approximate exactitude, but published plans show that the whole or Hubsch has published another Roman they subject medieval irregularities has been neg- lected up to date. The most remarkable oversight of modern times in the study of Italian churches regards those with pave- ments sloping upward toward the choir. The perspective effect of this arrangement is suggested by the dia- of gram (Fig. 6). In 1870, I knew one case, the church of San Pierino at Pisa. Our survey of 1895 discov- ered over eighty-five churches having this peculiarity. It occurs in churches as well-known as the cathedrals of , Siena and Orvieto, the Capella Palatina at Palermo, the church of S. Francis at Assisi, S. Mark at Venice, and the well-known church of S. Ma- ria Ara Coeli at Rome (Fig. 22). See also sections of S. Saba at Rome (Fig. 23), and of S. Giovanni in Zoccoli at Viterbo (Fig. 24). Another illustra- FIG. 20. PLAN OF THE PIAZZA OF S. MARCO is S. Pietro at AT VKNICK. tion that of Assisi, pub- lished in the number of Showing the apparent increase of dimension produced preceding by the converging sides of the piazza.. From Thiersch, this Magazine (Fig. 7). This phenom- dem Gebiete tier Archi- Optische Tduschtingen atif survived in the tectur. (Optical deceptions in Architecture.) enon has even Renaissance period In some ap- church (S. Maria in Cosmedin), which parently Renaissance cases we may shows a convergence of five feet, as assume an older pavement as hav- having exactly parallel walls. Knapp ing been relaid on the slope of publishes a large plan of the same an older church, which has been church, with exactly parallel sides. S. made over or rebuilt. This may Maria in Cosmedin is also given an hold of some Renaissance churches in absolutely rectangular and mathemati- Genoa, but the slope in the cloister at cally parallel plan by Gailhabaud, who Calci, near Pisa, is sixteenth century. also publishes S. Giorgio in Velabro The slope also occurs in the Renais- incorrectly. I have no knowledge of sance churches S. Annunziata and S. any plan of S. Stefano at Venice, ex- Gaetano at Florence. The Renais- cepting the one made by our survey. sance cases are, however, wholly ex- This church is mentioned by Street, ceptional, outside of South Italy, where "Brick and Marble Architecture in *Published in the preceding Number of tlv North Italy," as having a nave 48 feet Magazine. FIG. 21. GROUND-PLAN OF S. GIORGIO IN VELA1SRO AT ROME.

i ft. in a of Si ft. Institute Survey The walls converge toward the choir to die amonnt of 7 j length Brooklyn -'

FIG. 22. SECTION OF MARIA ARA COELI AT ROME.

'Showing a rising slope of the pavement toward the choir of 2 ft. g ins. The columns are so arranged in dimini- shing heights as to bring the arch line down to the horizontal within 3 inches. On the opposite side the arches are is last Institute brought 9 inches below the horizontal. The choir beyond the bay on the right. Brooklyn Survey.

FIG. 23. SECTION OF S. SABA AT ROME.

Showing a rising slope of the pavement toward the choir of i ft. in a length of 50 feet. The lines of capitals rise from the entrance and then drop toward the choir (same arrangement on both sides). Compare Fig. 25. Brooklyn Ins itute Survey.

FIG 24. SECTION OF S. GIOVANNI IN ZOCCOLI, AT VITERBO.

The pavement rises 2.15 in 50 ft. Brooklyn Institute Survey. PERSPECTIVE ILL USIONS IN 1 TALIAN CHURCHES. 181

other survivals of medieval arrange- tional reason for the general oversight ments are much more than of general this phenomenon. The optical are elsewhere. In the they whole of transfer minimizes a part of the lower I have been Italy only able to collect slope and both convergences are set six cases of a downward slope towards down to perspective. In my own ex- the and all of these choir, appear to perience I have found it impossible to have been due to building to the sur- correct the impression that the arches face. drop towards the rise of the pavement, There is no phenomenon so wide- when looking across the nave of a spread in Italy as that of the rising church, and actual measurements have pavement. It can be dated to the fifth been necessary in many cases to cor- in S. Sabina at century Rome, and is rect this impression, which is naturally probably related to the already known assisted by the knowledge that in cases in Egyptian temples, in which many churches the arches actually do cases it has been ascribed to a purpose drop in such a manner towards the of perspective illusion by Maspero, by choir. As regards oversight of this Poole and by Rawlinson. Rawlinson phenomenon, I have not yet happened says, in his "History of Egypt," p. 258: to meet a single individual who knows "The contrivance xor augmenting the of its existence in a single Italian apparent size of buildings of which we church. A rise of one foot in four bays have to speak in conclusion, is the fol- was overlooked by both my compan- lowing: Egyptian buildings, of large ions in the first Genoa church which extent, for the most part rise as we we examined. Some fellow travellers penetrate into them. When we pass did not notice a rise of a foot and ten from one limb to another, we gener- inches in the Genoa cathedral. I spent ally ascend a few steps. Sometimes, the best part of a day in S. Francis at however, the ascent is more gradual. Assisi without noting a slope of one foot At the Ramesseum and again at Ed- and did not discover it until a second fou, the level of the ground rises from visit to Assisi. A rise of three feet in 8r column to column, each column being feet was overlooked by an artist friend placed on a low step a little above at Ravello. The astonishing fact about the preceding one. The effect is this rise is the frequency of its appear- similar to that produced in a ance in all degrees of pitch between modern theatre by the slope of the three inches and over three feet for the of the diffusion floor to the back of the stage. It is length church. The wide aided by the general arrangement of forbids any local explanation, and the doors and pylons which diminish in uniformity of direction as regards the one size as we advance. An illusive per- choir can have only meaning. is that individual in- spective is thus obtained, the vistas of There no doubt stances of the must have been pillars seem twice the length that they slope noticed really are and the entire building ap- casually by many persons. it is the absence of collated pears to be of a length almost inter- Here again minable." Some of the facts above facts or the indifference of the ob- the draw- quoted have been noticed by me at server which have prevented Denderah. I believe that Maspero is ing of conclusions. All who visit Rome are fa- the original authority for suggestions people miliar with the church of S. Maria Ara on this subject. I have interviewed a In the Italian churches the eye tends Coeli (Fig. 22). number of who know this- to translate a part of the rising slope experts church and who are not aware that into a downward slope of the arches, the has a of over according to a well-known law of opti- pavement rising slope feet. I must to cal illusion, by which the eye tends tc three plead guilty myself in average between any two lines or sur- having overlooked this fact 1870 that faces, a deviation from the actual nor- and in 1895 I overlooked the fact the columns near mal, which reallv holds only for one the circumference of of them. This illusion offers an addi- the transept is three feet less on both IS2 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

FI<;. 25. THK SLOPING PAVKMKNT OF S. SABA AT ROME. (Compare Fig. 23). Photographed for the Brooklyn Institute Survey.

sides of the church than it is at the en- that here, the arches drop on both trance,which was observed by Mr.Mc- sides of the church to meet the rise of Kecknie. This diminution in size of the the pavement, thus accenting still far- columns shows the care taken to avoid ther an effect of illusive perspective. such an actual upward slope of the (Fig. 22.) In general, it holds of all arch line as would result from placing these churches with rising pavements a line of columns of equal height on an that the arch line is brought down to upward sloping foundation. These the horizontal and the effect is (as ex- columns being taken, as usual in the plained) to make the arch line ap- old basilicas, from earlier Pagan ruins, pear to drop still lower. This again in- it was possible to select them of gradu- volves an illusive effect as to one's po- ally decreasing height and size in such sition in the church. In looking a way that the circumference of a col- straight across the nave the point of umn near the transept varies as stated, view appears to slant toward the choir. from that of one at the entrance, by The following churches, which have three feet. Thus the gallery line above, the rising pavement, also have the which corresponds closely to that of drop in arches : S. Maria della Vittoria the arches, rises but three inches on one at Palermo (the vaulting drops side and drops nine inches on the other, three feet), S. Saba at Rome, S. Pietro while the rise of the pavement is two at Assisi,* S. Frediano and S. Stefano feet nine inches, in the same distance. at Pisa. A complete catalogue of the The church of S.Sabaat Rome illus- eighty-five churches, with the meas- trates a similar choice and arrange- *Illustrated in the preceding Number of the ment of columns, with the distinction Magazine. PERSPECTIVE ILLUSIONS IN ITALIAN CHURCHES. 183

for will urements each case, be soon mitted, we have a foot-hold for the published. consideration and explanation of more So far, we are only at the threshold curious phenomena. of a curious topic. The phenomena so We will close the list of palpably far noted are of four descriptions, all intended perspective devices by quot- of which will come inside the experi- ing measurements from the gallery ence and of a modern theatri- practice levels and sections of the Pisa cathe- cal scene the illusive effects of painter; dral to be published in the next issue an floor, of a down- upward sloping of the Magazine. The arrangements ward sloping- arcade, of converging here are the most interesting, because or other variations of walls, dimension, the most subtle, which have been as in spacings, transverse arches, pier found by the survey. The drop of the etc., the in one direc- tricking eye nave arches in this cathedral begins at tion. But in so far as these devices the fourth bay and amounts in feet and tend to an opposite effect in a contrary to decimals, 1.64 (left) and 1.98 (right). direction, they are not generally avail- We will also measurements able for exteriors. It would also seem quote for some of the churches not illustrat- to hold for interiors that in so far as ed and so far too noticed. In the devices are subtle and inconspicu- briefly all these cases the choir is to be un- ous, in so far they would be compara- derstood as the objective of tively ineffective, and that in so far point the In as they are bold and strongly defined, deceptive arrangements. S. Michele at Pavia the combined in so far they are open to detection. measurements for nave and The general oversight by travellers gallery arches show a of inches and Italians of the very palpable per- drop 19^ (left) and inches At San spective trick which was played by 15 (right.) Borgo Donnino the narrow 20 Bernini in the Scala Regia of the Vat- pier spacings inches and 21 inches ican, and the general oversight of the (left) (right). The arches 10 inches and 12 eight feet discrepancy in pier spacings drop (left) at Fiesole, or of the thirteen feet dis- inches (right). At Cremona the bays narrow from the second to the crepancy in S. Maria Novella at Flor- bay choir inches and inches ence (which I found to be unknown to 74 (left) 67 with a in some very distinguished Italians (right), corresponding drop the arches. At Piacenza at Florence) show that boldness (cathedral) the narrow between the second in the use of such devices may escape bays and 26 inches and general detection and yet these are bay transept (left) inches In S. Michele ai tricks which are palpably open to de- 15 (right). the from tection. There are, at all events, other Scalzi, Pisa, capitals drop, optical refinements in medieval build- second to last, 2.70 (left) and 2.64 Pie- ing of a far more subtle character. (right) (feet and decimals). In S. 2.60. In I have placed these more definitely tro, Assisi, the arches drop obvious devices in the front of my S. Maria in Pensola, at Narni, the cap- At demonstration, because they establish itals drop .75 (left) and .80 (right). one conclusion, which has so far never Troja the capitals drop .57 (left) and been admitted or asserted for medieval 35 (right)- Surveys have been made for these for other builders, viz., that they did contem- and churches, giv- which will plate and consider optical effects. ing measurements in detail, When this important point is once ad- be published shortly. Wm. H. Goodvear.

(The continuation of this Paper will appear in the next issue.) THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON.

HENDERSON ROB- This meagre outline of Mr. ROBERTERTSON was born in Philadel- Robertson's professional career shows phia, April 29, 1849, and his in the first place that his train- general education was obtained at ing and his practice have been ex- Rutgers College. After gradua- clusively American, and, in the second tion he first entered the office of place, that he has taken part in every Henry Sims, of Philadelphia, whose one of the successive "movements" ecclesiastical work in academic that have agitated American architect- Gothic is that by which he is best re- ure in his time. He began his work, membered. After leaving Mr. Sims. as nearly every sensitive designer Mr. Robertson continued his studies in trained in the same way and at the the office of Mr. George B. Post, in same time began it, in Victorian New York, and began practice on his Gothic. I ought to have inserted in own account in that city in 1871. With- its proper chronological place that he in the two or three years succeeding toyed awhile even with Queen Anne, he had made himself remarked among the "free classic" with which Mr. Nor- persons interested in architecture by man Shaw startled the British islands his published designs for seaside cot- twenty years ago, and of which Mr. tages and country churches, by a com- Hudson Holly made himself the liter- petitive design for the New York hos- ary apostle on this side, the voice of pital, and by an executed work the one crying in a wilderness of Victo- Phillips Presbyterian Church, in upper rian Gothic. Mr. Robertson's ten- Madison avenue in a free and rather dency in the direction of Queen Anne individual version of Victorian Gothic. never amounted to much more than a In 1875, uPn the appointment of Mr. "velleity," and as to the works in which William A. Potter to be Supervising it was embodied it may be said of Architect of the Treasury, in place of them, as Johnson said about Warbur- Mr. Mullett, he and Mr. Robertson ton's notes on Shakespeare: "I sup- formed a partnership under the style pose, now that the ardor of composi- of Potter & Robertson, which lasted tion is remitted, he no longer numbers until 1878. The results of this partner- them among his happy effusions." That ship were a number of college build- the robust Romanesque of Richard- ings and the local hotel at Princeton, son made an end of Queen Anne and some country churches, in the de- was distinctly to its credit. In each of sign which both partners took part. of the modes in which he has really Soon after the dissolution of the part- worked it may fairly be said of Mr. nership Mr. Robertson, like most other Robertson that, without any care at sensitive practitioners at that time, was all for academical correctness, he has greatly impressed with the work of managed to attain an individual and Mr. Richardson, and with the capabil- an interesting version of the style. ities of , and The very first example of Mr. Rob- for the succeeding decade, most of his ertson's work known to me, the Phil- own work, which rapidly increased lips Presbyterian Church (1871), indi- these during years in extent and im- cate his talent and prefigures his sub- portance, was based upon the Roman- sequent successes. It is Victorian esque, whether domestic, commercial, Gothic, there is no doubt about that, ecclesiastical or "institutional." Still and it exhibits the indifference to aca- later he underwent the influence of demical correctness which was espe- the classic revival, and since 1890 cially the characteristic of Victorian much of his city work has borne testi- Gothic, as it was practised on this mony to that influence. side of the Atlantic, but it shows THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON. 185

the which in individuality some some of the shore cottages on the Jer- cases was a for compensation this sey coast are distinctly more appro- indifference and in others an ag- priate to their purpose of "villegia- gravation of it. The general scheme tura" than the palaces which it is now is very successful. There is an the fashion to rear in like situations. effective balance, without any at- Perhaps the best known results of tempt at formal symmetry, between the the partnership of Potter and Robert- two sides and they are effectively rec- son are the buildings at Princeton, onciled and dominated by the central where the individual works of the sen- feature, the big angle-tower of which ior partner are, however, still more in the central third is a square and solid evidence. The works of the firm shaft. The tall and narrow openings there comprise Witherspoon Hall and en each side of the gable on the ave- the hotel. These are both in Victorian nue front serve their purpose of de- Gothic, and the hotel very much in taching the gable, while keeping the Victorian Gothic, its red brick walls whole front in one plane, and the open- being emphatically belted with light ings are so placed and treated as to stone, of which the alternate voussoirs relieve the expanse of wall without and the lintels of the lintelled open- weakening it. The tower with its ings of the arched openings are also saddle-backed roof is very good in- composed, and additionally variegated deed. The color-treatment is more by the parti-colored slate of the roofs violent in its contrast than its author, and of the tower that animate the hotel is or any other designer, would adopt skyline. To say that the good to-day, and the detail generally more as country hotels go would be to damn for insistent in scale. But the motive is it with praise altogether too faint, In valuable enough to be worth develop- we all know how badly they go. and ing by the author's later lights, and as fact it is a very animated pictur- a first work the church is full of prom- esque building, and I do not recall ise. any of the later exceptions to the rule The other works of the architect's of badness, exceptions in which pic- novitiate were for the most part coun- turesqueness is attained by shingles the result is try houses. In the early seventies it and creosote, in which the was very unusual for an architect to more satisfactory or more strictly of faithful and artistic be invoked to design a city house, the consequence animation is speculative builder applying his Pro- design, or in which of crustean recipe with equal hand alike gained at less sacrifice repose. of a to the huts of the poor and the man- Witherspoon Hall is properly a cliff of sions of the millionaires, which were much more sober aspect, as solid as the mere expansions of the brownstone rough, gray stone, kept would allow, fronts of the ordinary householder. exigencies of the lighting solid for the best The country houses, and especially the but yet not enough a base of a darker shore cottages, were by no means the effect, set upon also the wall is sumptuous erections of a later day, stone with which crowned with a steep roof, but the simplest possible constructions banded, and in monochrome. It is in the of clapboards and shingles, in which this time need of win- the architectural effect of the whole gabled end that the many the archi- depended mainly upon the pictur- dows entails damage upon The entrance front, how- esqueness of the outline, and of the de- tecture. massive and is tail upon the most straightforward and ever, is gratifyingly well vernacular treatment of the humble moreover exceedingly composed, in which the material. Some of our architect's with its recessed centre, than is rather emphasized earliest essays in this kind were such solidity the staircase and as he need not be ashamed of to-day. weakened by lights, balance of the two pro- Indeed, such a cottage as that of Com- the effective modore Baldwin, at Newport, or as jecting and unequal wings. i86 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD,

Clifton Springs, New York. CHURCH (1876). Potter & Robertson, Aichitects.

A still more successful composition lean years that followed after the panic is that of a church at Clifton Springs, of 1873 had done its perfect work. But in which the lateral porches are carried during these years Richardson found up into a narrow gabled transept, cut enough work to keep him busy, and at the centre by the main gable, while the architects of the whole country in- the whole pyramid culminates in an terested, and when the revival of build- open wooden belfry steeply roofed. ing came, early in the eighties, there This is really a brilliant performance, was scarcely one of the younger and Mr. Robertson employed the same more open-minded designers whose motive many years afterwards, in the work did not show some trace of his church at Madison avenue and Six- influences. Mr. Robertson's work tieth street, but not, it seems to me, so for the decade shows that he felt this successfully in the complete subordi- influence strongly, and the most con- nation and convergence of the whole spicuous and important of his build- mass to the central feature. ings between 1880 and 1890 may be As all architects know, those were classified as Romanesque. A glance THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON 1*7

MADISON AVKNUE M. E. CHURCH (1884). >5oth Street and Madison Avenue. K. H. Robertson, Archiiect. at the illustrations will show that he sor Kerr, who, in his continuation of has never been a purist, nor aspired Fergusson, gives this church and St. to the praise of academical correct- James', further up the same avenue, as ness, and he took up the Romanesque typical illustrations of American free- in his own way and arrived at his own dom in church architecture, denies expression in it. Perhaps the first that it is Romanesque at all, and calls of his works in this kind to attract it "round arched Gothic." We need general attention was the Methodist not quarrel about names, and we may church, at Madison avenue and Six- own that the style of this is designated tieth street, to which I have just re- rather by the subordinate parish build- ferred as showing the same motive ing at the left, which is pretty unmis- employed in the church at Clifton takably Romanesque, than by the Springs. This, as will be seen, was church itself, of which the main en- rather loosely Romanesque, and not trance, for example, and the clerestory at all Richardsonian. Indeed, Profes- are quite distinctly Gothic. When I i8S THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

ST. JAMES' CHURCH (1887). Madison Avenue and jist Street, New York City. R. H. Robertson, Architect.

say that the motive is not so consist- ing member with the rounded angles- ently worked out here as in the earlier developed into capitals, and with a example I mean mainly that the tower cornice which indicates rather a sep- is too important to serve merely as the aration than a transition is less fortu- apex of the pyramid. The broad nate. The belfry stage is evidently not masses at the angles supply an ample a belfry stage, but rather a watch- base, but the transverse mass, here tower, the angle openings in each hipped instead of gabled, seems to face being quite open to the foretell a mere finial rather than the sky and furnished at the base stark tower, without a separate sub- with a projecting balcony. The re- structure, but at its base in the plane levancy of such a crowning feature of the main wall, which rises through to a church tower is not obvious, but it the it, and the predominance of which the picturesqueness of is, and tends even to confuse what would tower is very effective,although a plain otherwise be the main motive of the hood of roof would have crowned fagade. The main entrance, with its it more appropriately than the compli- deep and modelled arch, and with the cated roofing which has been devised smaller arches flanking it, is very suc- for it. The plainness and amplitude cessfully managed. The shaft of the of the rough-faced wall forms a good tower, after it has disengaged itself foil for the more elaborated features, from the wall at a point marked by a and for the carved ornament which is band of flowing leafage, rather classi- sparingly introduced, and its brown cal than even Byzantine in treatment, contrasts well with the red tiles of the is appropriately stark and solid, the roofs. Undoubtedly this is one of our strong vertical lines of its narrow noteworthy churches. openings enhancing its apparent Its successors in the same kind are height. The treatment of its crown- even more noteworthy, St. James' at THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON. 180

Madison avenue and Seventy-first clerestory is terminated at the east end street, the other chosen example by by a transept balancing the tower and Professor Kerr of American freedom completing the composition. It is an in church architecture, is scarcely Ro- illustration of the freedom of eclec- at all in manesque detail, being, so far ticism which has been employed in the as it need be in an in- classified, early, design that the gable of the pictur- deed the earliest, phase of French esque porch which forms the entrance Gothic. the reliance it Still, shows to this transept is filled with Perpen- the of the upon disposition masses as dicular tracery. The side of the church, the source of its effect,and the simplic- with the balance of the terminal of the architectural ity detail, including masses the tower and the transept the paucity of mouldings, pretty evi- is as effective in its way as the front. dently ally it with the Romanesque re- In spite of the incompleteness of the vival begun by Richardson, and it tower, which is an integral part of the could scarcely antedate that revival. composition, the building is architec- the The peculiarity of church is that turally one of the most interesting the apse occupies the centre of the churches of New York. front between the tower and the parish The Rutgers Riverside Presbyterian building, from which it is separated by Church, although as free as St. James', a turret. One would suppose from the and showing no more care for the illustration that this arrangement had praise of "correctness," is distinctly in view to preserve the orientation of Romanesque, and is pne of the note- the altar. In fact the orientation is re- worthy works of its author in that kind. versed, for the apse is at the west end. The plan turns to architectural ac- The unusual disposition has in view count the peculiarities of the site, and, only a picturesque composition, and as often happens where the facts are this it decidedly attains. The doorway faithfully followed, converts appar- at the base of the tower is very well ently unpromising requirements into and purely detailed in early Gothic, sources of effectiveness and individu- while the shaft of the tower derives a ality. The street corner upon which pretty distinctly Romanesque expres- the church stands is an obtuse angle, sion from the powerful roll-mouldings and the church is nevertheless set upon at the angles and from the displayed it rectangularly, the front being per- symbols of the Evangelists which dec- pendicular to the line of the side street. orate the merging of these into the This leaves a considerable space be- wall at the base. The other Ro- tween the avenue (the Broadway Bou- of the manesque detail is the "lisene" or flat levard) and the inner angle the buttress, which marks the division of church, and this space is utilized by here of the thus well the bays along the side, and which, erection tower, and detached from the like the angle-rolls, is a reminiscence projected to its considerable of Lombardic building. Only the first church, advantage. This detachment is stage of the tower, as will be seen, is nearly complete, for the behind the as far completed. The next, the shaft proper, space tower, is also reserved so as shows two very tall openings in each as the transept, secure the ample of the in- face, and, above an open and rather to lighting no matter what disposition may rich belfry stage, a crowning lantern. terior, be made of the lot. What The tower is evidently necessary to the adjoining " has been built of the tower is in general completion of the composition, but much like the base of the tower of St. even in its incomplete condition, this that the is West end will be admitted to be a very James', excepting doorway detailed in instead of successfully studied performance. Romanesque while the heavy Romanesque The apse which is its central feature is Gothic, Gothic are well framed the wall above angle-rolls of the building by gable church of the omitted. In the photograph the it, and between the plain mass ^ almost in monochrome. tower and the subordinate building. seems to be and In fact three tints of sandstone are em- The plain flank of aisle-wall THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

RUTGERS RIVERSIDE CHURCH (1889). Boulevard and ysd Street, New York City. R. H. Robertson, Architect. ployed in it. The field of the walls is the shafts is much exaggerated. The in the reddish Potsdam sandstone, proportions and the modelling of the while the wrought work is for the most arch are excellent, and its effect is part in the purplish New Jersey stone, heightened by the mouldings and in alternation with which, in the vous- ornaments, here in pure Roman- soirs of the arches, is used the darker esque, well designed and well execu- brown of the Longmeadow stone. Al- ted, as is also the carving which fills though, if an architect's range of choice the tympana of all the door-heads. in tints were as wide in stone as it is in The triplet of arches above is bounded pigments this combination is scarcely and separated by the Lombardie that which he would select, its con- lisenes, here developed into complete trasts are effective. The Potsdam pilasters with capitals, and supporting stone, an excellent material for use the carved symbols of the Evangel- in rough masses, is too intractable ists. Inasmuch as the pilasters serve for carved work, and the employment no purpose but to carry the symbols of the two brown-stones in the vous- of an "evangelical" denomination, it soirs forcibly expresses the structure seems that they would have been of the arch, and to some extent supplies more effective for being detached the place of more elaborate and more as independent features from the wall costly modelling. The front is an ef- in which they are engaged, and fective composition effectively de- this, as we shall see, seems to have tailed. The canopied and pillared been the view of the architect himself porch at the centre, with its flanking in a subsequent work in which a pair of openings, makes an impres- similar feature is carried much sive entrance, although the entasis of further. In the present instance, the THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON.

are neither constructive nor pilasters group we are considering, although and the front like all frankly decorative, the rest but the first, it suffers would probably be better without from the absence of the tower de- with or them, although, without them, signed for it, and the tower is here it is an of architec- interesting piece perhaps more important as a part of ture. Upon the whole, however, the the design than in the others. This new flank is even more interesting, building, like the last, makes a de- being in fact one of the most success- mand upon the ingenuity of the de- ful we have in its kind. It is things signer by one of those unusual dispo- effectively framed between the turret sitions which the architect ought to at one end and the transept that con- hail as opportunities, but which the stitutes the Sunday school at the commonplace architect is apt to be- other, and the expanse of the rough moan as intractabilities. In this in- reddish wall, which would be impres- stance the peculiarity is the sudden sive of itself, becomes much more im- and sharp decline of the ground from pressive through the treatment by the front, until at the rear it is lower, the which it is relieved. This treatment is by height of a very tall story, than in a tolerably consistent Romanesque. at the sidewalk line. The rear view is The bays, both in the aisle-wall and quite as important as the front, and it in the clerestory, are divided by pilas- behooved the designer to make it ter strips, in the former case starting worthy of its conspicuousness,as it will from the sill course and in the plane of be agreed that he has done. The base- the wall below, so that each triple ment wall is returned at a right angle opening pierces a recessed panel in a square and solid mass of masonry framed by the projecting wall below, adequate to its architectural purpose of by the pilaster strips and by a plain serving to spike the structure firmly but sufficient dentilled cornice. The to the ground and establish it in its jambs are unmoulded and the only place, a purpose which is still further relief to the absolute plainness is the fulfilled by the wing of perfectly plain carved blind arch of the central wall that encloses the staircase. The run of opening. In the clerestory, this arch upper this staircase and its land- is opened, and a darker stone is in- ing give occasion for a very happy troduced at the impost and in the feature of porch and arcade, a remin- voussoirs. The difference suffices to iscence, I suppose, of the famous stair- case of other features give variety without impairing the Canterbury. The homogeneousness of the treatment. that fill the space of the choir-aisle, the if it be a ves- The gabled transept at the west end gabled vestry-room, and the attached turret, with is another successful piece of design. try-room, the at its form a The projected porch below is one of doorway base, pic- huddle from which the stark- the picturesque features which Mr. turesque is effec- Robertson seldom fails to give us, mass of the plain round apse detached and which it is even in buildings to which the feature tively by The church does not seem to "belong." Here the effectively relieved. is severe in treat- feature is entirely appropriate, indeed throughout notably ment and owes much of its an integral part of the composition impres- siveness to its There is no- and gains correspondingly. It is a austerity. elaborate nor as triolet of arches in the lower story, where any moulding Doubtless with a central arcade of four openings yet any elaborate carving. the of the arcaded of above, flanked by gablets, each capitals porch the at mere blocks, are pierced with two arches. It is a suc- front, present meant to be elaborated some day, and cessful piece of design, and an appro- the arcade of five in the gable priate termination to a very satisfac- openings to be enriched. But even so the archi- tory church. character will be that of aus- St. Luke's, Convent avenue, is also tectural a relying for its effect distinctly a Romanesque church, and terity,of building the and of perhaps the most successful of the upon disposition proportion

THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON.

This its masses alone. has been so suc- pendencies are nearly a monochrome studied that the result is in cessfully one red nearly, but not quite, for com- churches. of our most noteworthy The mon brick of a good color is used difference in tint of the two stones em- in the walls, pressed brick in the jambs ployed serves everywhere to carry out and arches, red tile in the roof and red the design and to emphasize the struc- terra cotta in the ornament, and the ture. The tower, as designed, is of the slight variations of tint that result add same austere character as the body of life and charm to the design. There is the church, a plain, almost solid shaft, scarcely any building more featureless buttressed only with strips after the than a railway station reduced to its Lombardic manner, and crowned with simplest expression. It is a low shed a belfry-stage, which is still of a mo- with a sheltered platform. But then it nastic severity. By reason in part of may without incongruity have a porch, the situation of the church and in part a clock-tower is especially appropriate as has to of the design, the tower is, been it, and the baggage yard may be said, more necessary than in the other allowed its own gate. With no other churches we have been considering, sources of variety than these an artistic and it is to be hoped the parish may architect may make a charming build- soon see its way to the architectural ing, as we see here, or rather as we completion of the work. here, for the recent changes in the I have already had occasion to refer, tracks, involving the removal of the and shall have occasion again to refer, station, have been carried out with a to Mr. Robertson's felicity in "feat- quite ruthless disregard of or insensi- ures." An example of this felicity is his bility to the merits of the work, and addition to the Church of the Messiah have destroyed or mutilated the de- in Brooklyn of a tower, or rather of a pendencies that were integral parts of lantern,which consists of a circular' col- the composition. Perhaps the most onnade, roofed with a steep hood, and successful point in the general compo- set, by means of a transition wnich sition is the skill with which the whole shows much cleverness and ingenuity, low substructure, by means of the upon the old and square substructure. separate treatment of its separate roofs, There is no patent incongruity be- is grouped about the central tower and tween the new work and the old, and made to converge to it. But the treat- of the is yet by means of the slender elegance ment several features equally of this crowning feature, and of the happy in their general form and in rich porch which he also added, the de- their proportion, and the detail is very signer has contrived to impart a posi- carefully and successfully studied in scale as well as in tive and grateful architectural charac- design. There are ter to that which before was absolutely some happy innovations, such as the characterless and commonplace. rounded soffits of the free-standing but is done In these churches it is plain that Mr. arches, evidently nothing Robertson has attained an individual for the sake of novelty. Upon the whole this seems to me the most and an interesting version of Roman- perfect, the most and esque. This is equally plain in the uniformly consistently secular works that are more or less excellent, of the work the designer has these I done. If it as it have loosely in the same style. Of yet happened, may that he had at the time of am compelled to put first in merit the happened, his hands beautiful station at Mott Haven. In its design more leisure on than has fallen to his lot since this there are not only the elaborated usually to he became a architect, the work single features which we rarely fail busy benefit of that fact. find even in those of his works in certainly got the need not successful archi- which we fail to find a composition to One grudge the tects their incomes in order to recog- the total effect of which all parts nize that the artistic and the mercantile Contribute. We find also unity, unity in of a standards are different, and that "the variety, and the features are parts hand of little whether or physiognomy. The building and its de- employment," Vol. VI 2 7 19* THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

NEW YORK CENTRAL STATION AT CANANDAIGUA (l888). R. H. Robertson, Architect.

not it "hath the daintier sense," which Fifteenth street, an interesting appli- Shakespeare attributes to it, has neces- cation of the style to a modern street sarily the more careful touch. front. One of the things to be There is another station, at Canan- kept mainly in view in a situation in daigua, which is noteworthy as show- which the architect cannot command ing in a much simpler and less elabor- his surroundings, is the desirableness ated form, the essential merit in com- of conformity, and in the shiftings of position of that at Mott Haven, that is New York this involves conformity to say, the harmonious subordination not only to what exists,but to what may of the rest to the dominant feature. probably come to pass. This is a duty This seems to me to have been the es- of what may be called artistic civism, sential merit of Richardson's design, and Mr. Robertson seems to me to be which the present work recalls. This noteworthy and laudable for the extent recalls it more obviously in the choice to which he keeps it in mind. In some of the Richardsoniari combination of European cities it is enforced by pub- material, though it does not show the lic authority, but in American cities tremendous exaggeration by which there is no compulsion to it except Richardson so emphasized the point of what the designer voluntarily imposes his design that the wayfaring man on himself. The present front "will could not miss it. Apart from all that, go" with anything that a civilized de- the wayfaring man of a cultivated mind signer is likely to adjoin to it. It is a cannot come upon such a piece of symmetrical, decorous and well-be- work as this at a country station with- haved composition, with a massive out feeling gratitude to its designer. basement, a well lighted superstruc- An earlier work than the Mott ture, of which the lightness does not Haven station, and perhaps a more threaten the stability, and an effective conscious and deliberate essay in his- colonnade by way of attic under a visi- torical Romanesque, is the Young ble roof. The massiveness of the base- Women's Christian Association in ment seems to be obtained at some YOUNG . . WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION Fifteenthv f (1883). Street, New York City. ix. rl. Robertson, Architect, MARIA LOUISA HOME. R H. Robertson Architect. East i6th Street, New York City. THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON.

sacrifice either of expression or of pract- right place, in the right quantities, and icality where does the floor line of notably good design. Mr. Robert- come? but in the superstructure there son has done better is no nothing in its suggested sacrifice in either di- kind than the rection. The central canopied doorway with feature is an effec- its rich reeded and tual pier decoration in safeguard against monotony,with- terra cotta, and the equally rich and out being excessive, and upon the spirited carving of the stone buttresses whole the is an building exemplary of the "stoop." street-front. Much the same may be Undoubtedly the same said of the by hand is counterparting front on the Ine Holland," at street Broadway and in the rear, which is very prop- Forty-fifth street, a three-story build- erly, less institutional and more do- ing which, by its modest de- mestic of altitude, aspect. The front, notes that it is a however, provisional structure, has an emphatic the triple division, meant to last only until a more defini- construction is expounded throughout tive disposition is made of the in the and the ground design whole is relieved on which it stands. This is not sug- from commonplace and receives a gested by the architecture, which touch of picturesqueness through the seems substantial enough. The com- colonnade at the and the top well-de- bination of color is the same as in the tailed porches. previous building, and the building That is, a distinct however, infelicity derives picturesqueness from the em- in the design by which the piers that phatic projection of the varnisned run through four stories are aligned in roofs over the walls and from the belts whole in of or part over the openings of shadow thus secured. The "feature" the is the basement. Plainly either they entrance to the upper floors at should the have had visible means of sup- centre of the front, a rich and ba- in port still more massive piers below, roque construction of a round pedi- or else ment in the whole basement should terra cotta upon a pair of plain have of that been such massiveness as to piers, suggests a Batavian origin. count, with reference to the super- Although the building seems out of structure, as a virtually solid wall. place where it stands, one would be The to meet Railroad Men's Building, at very glad it, barring the pain- Forty-fifth street and Madison avenue, ful attenuation of the angle pier to an is an iron interesting and picturesque post, in a suburb or an inland structure, in the nature of a club town to the permanent conditions of house. The nearly square corner which it conformed. Of course the building is the centre of a composi- tenuity of the angle is not to be im- tion which has now been completed by puted to the designer, being the result an extension on the street, corre- of a commercial demand. sponding to and more or less balanc- Another unusual type is what is now ing the extension on the avenue front known as the Studio Building in West shown in the illustration. The general Fifty-fifth street, but was originally treatment of the building is plain. It erected for the Mendelssohn Glee owes its effect, which is very good, Club, to which the rent-paying studios first to its general disposition and pic- were merely a preface. But the preface turesque outline, next to the success- prevented the signalization in the ar- ful adjustment of its voids and solids, chitecture of the primary puroose of and then to its effective combination the building, which was in fact indi- of color. A "superstructure of tawny cated only by a sign over one of the brick for the field of the wall, with red two equal entrances. Externally the brick and red terra cotta for the em- building, as it was designed and built, phatic fronts of structure, surmounts was a studio building only. The front a basement of red Scotch sandstone is of only fifty feet, though it looks and is surmounted by roofs of var- very much longer, thanks to the em- nished brown tiles. Ornament is spar- phasis put upon the horizontal lines, ingly introduced, but always at the even though it is divided at the centre R - H - Architect West 5 5th Street, New York City. STUDIO BUILDING (1885). Robertson, MENDELSSOHN GLEE CLUB (1892). R. H. Robertson, Architect. West' 4oth Street. ' H

ACADEMY OF MEDICINE (1880). R- H. Robertson. Architect. West 43d Street, New York City. THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON. 201

ENTRANCE, ACADEMY OF MEDICINE (1889). R. H. Robertson, Architect.

a vertical by strong line, apparently was of stone, and the middle story in the of a wall. emergence party The baked clay and the roof in slate or tile, wall is but of two stories, the remain- with features and ornaments in terra two in the roof. ing being The unusual cotta. The perfect naturalness of the disposition gives building great the treatment gives much of its charm quaintness, though it is evidently not to this unpretentiously picturesque sought for that purpose,and indeed ex- street-front. plains itself to every passer. The treat- A very much more important work ment is perfectly straightforward and is the Academy of Medicine in Forty- logical, a stone basement, a middle third street. It must be owned that the term in brick and terra cotta, and a interest here is in the parts rather tall roof in red tiles and glass, nearly as than in the whole, that the features, tall as the whole substructure, in two interesting as they are in themselves, pitches to accommodate two tiers of do not make up a physiognomy. In studios, and with a band between the first place the front, but that it has them enriched with ornament in terra only a single entrance, would indicate cotta. The triple division is very two buildings rather than one. This strongly emphasized by the change of separateness seems to be sought and is material and the radical change of certainly emphasized. The three pairs . treatment, which, moreover, is evi- of arches under the gable,for example, dently not arbitrary but the result of a are not only not repeated along the straightforward and idiomatic follow- adjoining wall, where they are suc- ing out of the nature and capacity of ceeded by two lintelled and mullioned each material. In a line drawing it windows, but a change of material en- would be as plain as in the photo- forces the change of treatment, a field graph or the fact that the basement of rough brownstone succeeding the 202 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

field of red brick, and the dormer that cession of the wall behind it, is a very crowns the lateral wall having no telling feature. Such carving as it counterpart in the wider front. Hide bears is excellent, though a greater the front below the cornice over the quantity would have protected the great arcade, and you will say unhesi- porch from the criticism that its mas- tatingly that it is the front not of one siveness degenerates to rudeness. building but of two,designed it is true, The single pillar is powerful, though so as to help each other, and in con- the entasis is much exaggerated, as is junction,but by no means parts of one the case with the attached columns whole. The one continuous feature is throughout, and entails an unfortu- the big arcade, of which the three nate effect. Another feature is the openings to the left are quite congru- treatment of the narrower front above the ous with the front in which they stand, the arcade, that formed by pair and the but the two to the right are plainly ex- of mullioned windows heavy cessive in scale and exaggerated in dormer. Another is the main gable, in the three treatment for the front to which they which indeed the relation of to the belong. Indeed this exaggeration is pairs of arched openings quad- the chief fault in the design of the ruple colonnade leaves something to narrower front considered, as one be desired, but which has spirit and and in execution de- must consider it, by itself. Moreover, picturesqueness, the con- the arcade loses much of the impres- rives a singular charm from siveness to which its scale and design trast with the stone of the mellow entitle it, by the lack of abutment. In and velvety brickwork. of the order to give it assurance of stability I have used up so much space it should be framed between massive to which I am limited in talking about flanks of wall rather than these termi- Mr. Robertson's work in Romanesque nal piers, which, quite adequate for an that, while that phase of his work is ordinary front, are quite inadequate by no means exhausted and interest- as the ultimate abutments of an ar- ing examples of it have been passed cade that exerts so powerful a thrust. over altogether, there is very little Mr. Richardson's instinct for struc- room left in which to speak of the other for tural expression frequently failed him phases. But I am the less sorry at this point, and made him indifferent this because the Romanesque, or at to the visible abutment of his tremen- least the Romantic, ohase of his de- dous arches, although it is not only sign seems to be so much the more demonstrable but obvious that the characteristic and important as to con- more powerful an arch with insuffi- stitute artistically the bulk of his work. cient abutment the weaker is the con- Of course it is idle to quarrel with any struction. The effect of the arcade here individual architect for "keeping up is still further weakened through the with the procession" and changing his of the of cutting bases two of its open- style when it is clear that the fashion ings by the balustrade of the porch. has changed. Fatal to architectural The main defect of the design is a de- progress as these capricious changes fect of unity. The front is neither sin- may be and are the individual architect gle nor twofold, and the architect who merely submits to them is to be must, we think, be convinced by the commiserated. He has always ready for contemplation of the completed front his critic the trite plea of the French that the impulse which led him to criminal, and the critic cannot fairly divide it in was a design mere caprice. repeat the retort of the French judge. The successes are successes of detail, Certainly the present critic does see rather of features, and how good the the desirableness of his subjects sur- features are. The porch is of a more vival and continued practice of archi- thanRomanesque,of an Egyptian mas- tecture, in whatever mode may be the siveness, and, with the background of mode. But then Mr. Robertson's Ro- solid shade secured to it by its own manticism is so inveterate, and the projection and still more by the re- characteristic of his best work is so . i-

I si , jilF*&m u SiwIiB IIL.M 204- THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

DR. WARNER'S HOUSE (1896). Irvington, N. Y. R. H. Robertson, Architect. evidently picturesqueness, even when at Irvington is less extensive and elab- it becomes a rather random pictur- orate, but not less successful, although esqueness, he is so much more at home the ample music room seems to have in free architecture that it is a distinct been appended as an afterthought, and loss that he should have felt con- does not properly form part of the de- strained to "follow a multitude to do" sign. This is one of the characteristic classic. The loss is the greater because American successes in which a work his free and eclectic version of the me- that is of no style yet has style. diaeval styles shows, upon the whole This is the merit of a number of so steady an advance in the sobriety town houses that Mr. Robertson has and restraint which it is the more nec- done, of which some that it is not essary that an architect should im- feasible to illustrate here are as sig- pose upon himself when it is not im- nificant and successful as those that posed by his style. Take for ex- are shown. A house-front in a row is ample the Romanesque house at a difficult problem,because in this also Springfield, Ohio, and the large the architect must conform not only to country house at Irvington, which is his actual surroundings,but to what his distinctly comoosed in late English surroundings are likely to be. A "purple Gothic, and of which the main merit patch" of picturesqueness that seems is the unity of the composition and to hold up its neighbors to public odi- the subordination to the total effect of um is a piece of incivism from which the picturesque features for which one one gladly turns to an example of dull very seldom looks in vain in Mr. Rob- decorum. The twenty-foot front in ertson's work. Another country house Fifth avenue, herewith shown, is a Irvington, N. V. COUNTRY HOUSE. R. H. Robertson, Architect.

Irvington, N. Y. FARM BARNS. R H. Robertson, Architect MR. H. WALTER WEBB'S HOUSE N. Y. Scarborough, R. H. Robertson, Architect.

MR. H. WALTER WEBB'S HOUSE. N. Scarborough, Y. R. H. Robertson, Architect. THE WORKS OF R. B. ROBERTSON. 207

Fifth Avenue, New York City. PRIVATE RESIDENCE R. H. Robertson, Architect.

case in point. The decorum of this air of peacefulness and good neighbor- indeed does not become dullness. It hood which is the first essential of a is a well-composed, harmonious front town house, all the better, but he in- that is none the less worth looking at curs a certain risk in the attempt. Mr. because it does not force you to look at Robertson has several times ran the it. What makes it especially pertinent risk and escaped with impunity, nota- and exemplary is that it replaces an bly in the design of two dwellings in aggressively picturesque front by the West Fifty-fourth street, of which one late Wrey Mould in particolored in particular, No. 50, is especially ex- Victorian Gothic, which many New emplary as showing how a piece of do- Yorkers will recall. Of course this mestic architecture, which is only a was not without interest in itself, but street-front, may respect all the condi- it was so evidently "unneighborly" tions and relations of its place and that it is no wonder the owner found it yet be an individual and charming a social duty to replace it with some- work. thing less importunate. The same As might be inferred from his work praise of conformity and decorum be- in the romantic styles, Mr.Robertson's longs to the dwelling in Fifth avenue, work in classic is extremely free and near Sixty-eighth street, and to other does not solicit the praise of purists. dwellings by the same architect in The only academic piece of classic he upper Fifth and upper Madison ave- has essayed, I think, is a tomb at Irv- nues. If one can add a touch of pict- ington, which is as studiously and con- uresqueness without disturbing the sciously "correct" as if in designing it 208 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

MR. JOHN H. INMAN S HOUSE. Fifth Avenue, New York City. R. H. Robertson, Architect. the author had had a professor in his transeptual arrangement. It is pretty mind, and which is a very successful evidently either too important or not in its successful that is to essay kind, important enough. say in the adjustment and the scale of Of course in these things the man- forms and details all settled for the de- ifestation of individuality is not to be signer beforehand. Another work as looked for. Where he has permitted consciously classic, the Savings Bank himself more freedom, however. Mr. in Ninth avenue, is not quite so suc- Robertson has succeeded in imparting cessful, because here the consecrated a distinctly individual character to his forms had to be adapted to_practical re- classic designs. This is eminently the quirements. The portico, taken by case with the building of the United itself, is an "example," but the longer Charities in Fourth avenue, and the side lacks not only formal symmetry, building of the Mendelssohn Glee but artistic balance, and the skylighted Club in West Fortieth street. Though dome does not so dominate the build- there are few specific resemblances in x ing as o account for and justify the the detail of the two, nobody who had THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON. 209

CHAS. T. YERKES' HOUSE (lSo6). Sixty-eighth Street and Fifth New York Avenue, City. R. H. Robertson, Architect.

seen both could doubt that they were highly irregular. The United Char- the work of the same architect. In ities is unmistakably an office build- each case the building seems to have ing, in which there is no sacrifice of been planned according to its require- the practical requirements, but which ments, and the classic detail employed nevertheless has an architectural in- to the garnish disposition arrived at terest, by reason of such features as the by this manner of design. This was ample entrance, the order that em- the method of the free classic building braces the upper stories, and the in Germany, France, England, every- spreading dormer gables of the roof. where, indeed, out of Italy. It en- The Mendelssohn Glee Club, on the tails, indeed, .a complete sacrifice of other hand, suffers from the fact that purity, and this in a wider than the the front of two stories, corresponding scholastic sense, but it offers in com- to and indicating the floor and gallery pensation a homely picturesqueness of an ample auditorium, is surmounted and an unsought quaintness that are by three stories of rentable apartments, not without their charms. This at- which are much too important to be traction these buildings have and it is regarded as a mere appendage of the perhaps enhanced by the fact that their principal apartment,and which are not, composition, while it is coherent, is and perhaps could not be, architectur-

Vol. VI 2. 8. 210 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

RESIDENCE, THOS. A. MCINTYRE. West'ysth Street, New York City. R. H. Robertson. Architect. ally incorporated with it. It will be a harmonious, dignified and expressive agreed that the music-hall, taken by composition. itself, is a very successful performance, An extreme example of free classic and that, if it had been commercially in ecclesiastical work is St. Paul's practicable to omit the two interpolated (Methodist) Church, not yet complet- and architecturally irrelevant stories, ed, in West End avenue, built in buff and set the roof duly modified, above brick and terra cotta of a fortunate ir- the second story, the result would have regularity of tint. The architecture of been an extremely attractive and in- this bears something the same rela- dividual front. It is such a front, tion to the more common classicality though its merits are somewhat ob- of classic churches as the "Jesuit style'' scured by the superincumbent offices, to the more formal Renaissance. It Irvington, N. Y. WARNER TOMB (1895).

THE NEW YORK SAVINGS BANK. Fourteenth Street and Eighth Avenue. (Now Building.) R. H. Robertson, Architect. ST. PAUL M. E. CHURCH (1896). R. H. Robertson, Architect. 86th Street and West End Avenue, New York City.

RUTGERS RIVERSIDE CHURCH (1889). R. H. Robertson, Architect Yonkers, N. Y. PARK ROW BUILDING. R. Architect. New York City. (Now Building.) H. Robertson, 214 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

LINCOLN BUILDING (1885). Fourteenth Streec and Broadway, New York City* R. H. Robertson, Architect. is, if I may so say, unscrupulously pict- kind, which gives the front a rich, fes- uresque, and not unsuccessfully so, al- tal, even "jolly" aspect. Whether that though in fact the plain and powerful aspect is appropriate is quite another flying buttresses of the clerestory give question. a much greater sense of structure and Mr. Robertson has done quite his stability than in the illustration, a sense share of "skyscrapers," from the com- which is by no means increased by the paratively modest altitude of eight treatment of the outer buttresses, not stories to the unquestionably immod- as lateral supports, but as upright pil- est altitude of twenty, and even, in a asterys. The porch shows the same project now in course of execution, to motive of four crowned pilasters as the "record" of twenty-seven. Of this the front of the Rutgers Riverside latter, the Park Row building, it doth church, but here it is successfully de- not yet appear what it shall be, and veloped as it was there only intimated. the drawing of one face of what will The result is an imposing feature of its be a very conspicuous solid does not CORN EXCHANGE BANK BUILDING (1892). Corner Beaver and William Streets New York City R. H. Robertson, Architect. 216 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

ENTRANCE CORN EXCHANGE BANK (1892). New York City. R, H. Robertson, Architect. afford a basis for criticism. But every ion of the stories. Mr. Robertson de- New Yorker knows by sight the Lin- clines to recognize even this conven- coln, the Mohawk, the Mclntyre, the tion. In the Lincoln building, the Corn Exchange Bank and the build- subordinate division is carried so far ing of the Tract Society. Upon all as to confuse the principal division. these it seems to me a fair general In the Mclntyre, the primary division criticism that Mr. Robertson does not, is maintained, but the base seems ex- artistically speaking, take his sky- cessive, though the main drawback to scrapers seriously enough. That he the effect of this is that the basement is takes them seriously, practically the lightest and most open division and speaking, may safely be inferred from that the corner of the building has no the fact that he has had so many of visible means of support. Of course them to do. Of course the skyscraper this is the architect's misfortune and is still ferae naturae, but a good many not his fault, but its effect is none the earnest designers have devoted them- less disastrous. The Corn Exchange selves to bringing it within the reign Bank has an extremely satisfactory of law. One of the things that they basement,an adequate substructure for seem to have established is that the the pile, and the colonnade that forms universal maxim that a work of art must the capital is effective. But here the have a beginning, a middle and an end, shaft is divided into two nearly equal is in this case best observed by divid- parts by a horizontal member as im- ing the skyscraper into base, shaft and portant as any in the building, except capital, confining the conspicuous or- the crowning cornice. The architect nament to the terminal member, and must I think agree, in view of the leaving the shaft unadorned, and un- completed work, that the omission of divided except by the necessary divis- this member and an identical treat- THE WORKS OF R. H, ROBERTSON. 217

AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY BUILDING (1894). Nassau York Street, New City. R. H. Robertson, Architect.

ment of the seven stories between base- siveness. But the triple division of the ment and attic would have resulted in shaft here seems to be as arbitrary as a more harmonious and effective build- that of the twofold division of the base, ing. In the Tract Society the base- and not to correspond to any actual ment is itself divided into two parts, requirement, mechanical or aesthetic, and the superstructure under the cor- although it is no doubt both more rea- nice into three, consisting each of three sonable and more rhythmical than the stories, of which the openings are re- division of the shaft in the Corn Ex- cessed, while the walls of the single change Bank. stories that mark the divisions and Upon the whole, none of these tall belt the building are brought for- buildings contributes very distinctly to ward to the plane of the piers. The the solution of the specific problem of steel-frame construction has, indeed, a the tall building, and none can be unit greater than a single story. If called successful in its entirety. The the architectural division corresponded architect's power of design is shown to this and in expressed it, the masonry in the parts, rather than the whole, might be arranged in the successive in the picturesque features in which his layers, dependent on the framing, of other work abounds. The basement which the construction is composed, of the Corn Exchange Bank, with the and so treated as to explain their de- decorative treatment of the angle and pendence. Such a treatment would the main entrance; the top of the Mc- undoubtedly be an advance in expres- Intyre building, with the long colon- inipii

TOP OF AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY BUILDING (1896). R. H. Robertson, Architect. THE WORKS OF R. H. ROBERTSON. 219 naded attic and the picturesque corner is emphatically detached by the with- tower; these are among the effective drawal of the building behind it. It is bits in our street architecture. A much confessedly an extraneous and pictur- more effective feature, indeed the most esque crowning member. It has been effective feature in the sky line of the so carefully designed in scale that it is lower city, as seen from either river is effective and telling as far as it can be the crown of the Tract Society build- seen, and it would be rather petty to to ing. This does not pretend "be- insist upon the illogicality of a feat- long" to the building, or to answer ure which so completely justifies itself any utilitarian requirement. In fact, it to the sensitive beholder. Montgomery Schuyler. " By John La Farge. MUSIC." Photo. Copyright, In residence of Hon. Whitclaw Reid, Curtis & Cameron, Boston. New York City.

CONSIDERATIONS ON PAINTING/

fascinating book has re- when they are reading the conclu- THISceived some part of the success sions reached by the author, to retain that it deserves. Our review in mind the exact character of the of it comes so late that the second premises. The style is singularly edition is out, and that the review- varied, personal, forcible; it is chro- er has the great and somewhat un- matic in a sense, as being brilliant and usual of sure in pleasure feeling yet warm and sympathetic, just as we advance of the public sympathy call Macaulay's style brilliant, but hard when he tries to the book praise and cold. And yet this poetical style as it to be The occa- ought praised. is so loaded with significance and mat- sions are so rare when an artist very ter that while we think we are reading of real force and who has originality poetry, we find we are reading a phil- also so much of the gained popular osophy a little too deep for us. Robert favor that he has had work important Browning has tried a life-long expe- to do has allowed himself to riment of loading verse with complex his full mind to the speak thought; and the verse staggers and public as to his art, its conditions, its limps and goes with jerks and starts nature, its and the in peculiarities, way until one who is a lover of Milton, let which different masters of that art us say, or Shelley, finds that he cannot have understood that even a much it, read Robert Browning, as he is not less book than this would delightful prepared to face such ungainly and to us and make a de- appeal strongly discordant verse for the sake of any mand, not to be on our at- ignored, philosophical profundity which he can tention. The book, is of however, expect to find there. La Farge's phil- absorbing interest once the reader has osophy is, on the other hand, con- attuned his mind to the process of tained in a prose so poetical that the This is not so a mat- thought. easy mind is apt to be taken away from ter as at first Most sight might appear. pursuit of the meaning by the charm persons who have tried to read this of the verbal composition: at least book will have found themselves baf- it is so that we try to explain the un- fled at first in the to the attempt carry questioned difficulty there is in keep- full sense of one over page leaf, and, ing the mind fully informed as to just Considerations on Painting. Lectures given what the author is trying to tell us. in the year 3893, at the Metropolitan Museum La is an artist in a self- of New York, by John La Farge. New York: John Farge Macmillan and Company, and London. 1895. conscious way, and he is is also an ar- CONSIDERATIONS ON PAINTING. 221

tist in an extremely childlike and un- when the man who expresses conscious way, and the two artists co- his, perhaps, excessive is exist and form in admiration, him- one a very tt so inexplic- easily our master in executive able and puzzling manner. Those who and in art, its analysis and know the man, as his associates in then we criticism, have the satisfaction of know- America and in France know him, are that even ing this prejudice in favor of aware of the profound learning he has Kembrandt is as near to final and in the im- gained history, properly so mutable truth as any human opin- called, of painting. He has not seen ion is likely to be. So La Farge said so many of the great works of the past once in the hearinsr of many persons, as many of his contemporaries, but that in his belief, the opinion of a very those that he has seen, he knows as sreat artist as to a point in fine art a reading man knows his favorite bits could not be wrong could not be er- of prose or verse, and learning is not roneous, and those inclined to dispute so much a knowledge of separate that startling dictum began to ask, facts, as the of what a cer- How knowledge about such an opinion of such tain number of facts mean, or such especially an artist? The answer to this when they are taken together. On was, that readily, those were not very modern art, he has, let us say, his great or pe- artists, else that those opin- culiar opinions, which would amount ions were true although they might to prejudice in a mind of a less not seem so. In philo- other words it may sophical or of a less artistic but man, easily appear that here La Farge was even what be called a might prejudice, able to maintain the truth of his dic- when it arises in such a is wor- tum or mind, by denying ascribing great- of one's careful ness as he thy any consideration, pleased and by denying or and, in fact, commands the deferen- ascribing truthfulness as he pleased. tial acceptance of every student, as be- And yet, here again was an instance ing a proposition which is true just so of an exactness of statement as near far as any human truth is true. What- to perfect truthfulness as we shall ever ever is called true is true for It only a get. is probably true that, as we es- certain person in certain circum- timate human knowledge of fine art stances. No scientific, philosophical, in a theoretical way, the highest attain- or poetical truth is immutably true, ment, the deliberately framed, deliber- and in like manner La Farge's opin- ately expressed opinion of a great ions are open to the question as to painter as to a painting is final. Even whether they will be binding upon his if another deliberately framed and de- successors of another generation: but liberately expressed opinion of another for us for the men who have grown painter or even of the same painter up during the years of La Farge's own should appear to us to be contradic- life they may be taken as true with- tory to the first, it is still quite within out any such attempts to explain them our duty to accept both, and to wait away. He admires Rembrandt as the awhile in the firm belief that that executive master and as the artistic which now appears to us contradictory creator, with what seems to some peo- will seem to us perfectly harmonious, ple an excess of comparative admira- and that both statements are true, and, tion. One of us would rather be taken in fact, may readily be found to consist to Michelangelo's frescoes, perhaps, of the same statement differently ex- and another to Paul Veronese's mighty pressed. paintings on stretched canvas. It is, Now, the art produced by a man as indeed, easy to feel that we should like subtile and as well informed as La more explanation from La Farge as Farge would hardly seem to any one to just why he admires Rembrandt so unconscious, and yet there are as- profoundly. When, however, the work pects of it concerning which uncon- admired is in itself so admirable by the sciousness may be predicated. For in- universal consent of art lovers, and stance, though he is not a landscape 1*1 WO 52 i* Q w -a CONSIDERA TIONS ON PAINTING. 223

in his and al- painter general practice, and on leaves of a sketch book, are he is a French though taught artist, so like Turner's work in their reverent far as he is not entirely self-taught love of mist and cloud, and of brilliant he has at yet produced long intervals colored lighting of mist and cloud. certain landscape pictures which are They are like Rembrandt's work for as different from which the their anything unity and intensity. They are vast modern French school recognizes as in appearance and take the mind over normal art as it is possible to imagine. imaginary miles of mist-filled or sun- the well-known "Paradise Val- Thus, lighted valley, and yet they are small, the ley" broad, green landscape brilliantly colored, highly decorative at painted twenty years ago Newport, panels about sixteen inches long. owned in Boston, and turning up now Now, that may be said to be uncon- and then at an is exhibition, an at- scious art. No reasoning up from the which no modern tempt Frenchman traditional doctrines of any school would be apt to make. A broad would have led in that direction. No stretch of meadow between flat, green modification of the doctrine of any rocky hills is viewed from a consider- school, even in a mind as varied and able height. The green uniformity fills forceful as we think our artist's mind the greater part of the canvas and to be, would have given the material stretches away toward the horizon, for the compositions. These are instinc- of is in the tive which, course, high picture, work if there ever was any or if and between the green expanse and the reader would rather take a similar the horizon is the of and dim, misty gray more obviously simple design, the summer sea. There is no foliage, let him take one of those little four- nor of distant trees there inch any massing ; studies such as the Japanese boat is no very serious effort to paint a with blue effects of sea and sky around varied and expressive firmament of it and setting it off like a curious lit- clouds there is really nothing in the tle Delia Robbia bas-relief. There are picture but the expression of the ar- scores of small water-color drawings tist's delight in a great stretch of sum- of flowers, and of these, the drawings mer green. The idea of painting so representing roses and camellias are, large a stretch of landscape may al- perhaps, our readers' favorit-js. It was most be called English; it is certainly of one of these drawings that La not French. The idea of painting the. Farge was asked why there was noth- summer green so frankly, and of try- ing- in his roses of the translucency ing to do what few colorists dare un- of petal and the delicate, thin, mem- dertake, namely, to make a piece of branous quality which he enjoys who color out of summer green, may also blows into a rose and gradually pulls be called rather English than French. it to pieces by his caresses. "Why," The picture seems to the loving stu- said the painter, "is that what you see dent who knows it well, as simple a in a rose? What I see is its solidity, its piece of unconscious creation as any massiveness, like that of a little tur- picture of the fourteenth century nip." There is the expression of the Florentine. During his visit to Japan, unconscious artist doing his work in a five years ago, La Farge made four way in which it seems to him natural drawings of wr hat he saw in and around to do his work. The thought "cam- the valley of Nikko, on four separate ellia" is as different to him from the occasions at dawn, at sunset, and at thought "rose" as it is to the non-ar- noon, with cloudy and with brilliant tistic young woman who goes no fur- skies. These small studies were made ther than to see that one is fragrant of what the artist saw, but, let us has- and the other not, and that their ten to say, of what another person surfaces are more or less shiney; but standing beside him would not have the differences are different, if an awk- seen altogether. These four pictures, ward expression may be used. People such for pictures they are, though small have been heard to ask whether " By John La Farge. GUITAR- PLAYER." Photo. Copyright, (Lower Figure in the McKim Memorial Window, Curtis & Cameron, Boston. Trinity Church, Boston, Mass.) By John La Farge. THE WOLF CHARMER. Photo. Copyright, (Water color painting.) Curtis & Cameron, Boston.

l. VI -2 9 226 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

and such a flower in a La Farge draw- ing was a rose or a camellia. And why did they ask? Because what the artist had to express about the rose or cam- ellia was not the characteristic which was uppermost in the beholder's mind. What the artist wished to express was something which he intimately saw, but which, perhaps, the non-artistic lover of flowers might be excused for not seeing. The same intimate relation between the artist and the subject to which he devotes himself, is characteristic of all of La Farge's work. In his very recent studies, made in the Pacific Islands, there are the visible evidences of what we all know of his life there of the intimate wT ay in which he entered into the life of the natives, became ac- cepted as one of themselves, became a member of a great Polynesian fam- ilv, and took the shark as his peculiar totem. He set himself to find out what it was that the natives were about, and how they were living. It need hardly be said that it is not in his art that the reasons why are to be found graphic art has nothing to do with reasons why, but the facts as to what is being done are extremelv intelligible. The leisurely labor, the serious and semi- religious dances, the more stately cer- emonies, the semi-aquatic existence between sun and sea and palm-grove, the costume of every day, the cere- monial costume, even the chosen or- naments themselves, have been themes of the ar.f ist's close and minute obser- vation. La Farge tells a story against himself, which is worth recording, of how one of his most characteristic drawings, which represents girls car- rying a canoe, was objected to by the relatives of one of the girls in question on the ground that she would never be seen carrying a canoe with ''those other girls." "But," said the artist, "I have seen her engaged in ball play, or what not, with the other girls in ques- tion." The answer was not less final and conclusive than the first state- MADONNA. ment was positive, namely, that the Part of a triptych, owned by Wm, C. Whitney, Esq By John La Far.ue. Photo. Copyright, Curtis & Cameron, young lady might, perhaps, play ball, Boston. or go fishing with the other girls un- CONS1DERATJONS ON PAINTING. 227 der consideration, but as for carrying a canoe with them, that would never be allowed to one of her caste. The artist had made a mistake that time, but that only shows that he was not concerned with recording an incident which he had happened to see. What he had tried to represent was the gen- eral daily business of carrying canoes and he had overlooked the necessary ceremonial distinction as to who should work in company with whom. This character of intimacy, of per- sonality, is, we say, characteristic of La Farge's work. It is seen in the re- alistic treatment of even his sacred themes. In his very last important work in glass, the action of the Savior as he talks to the disciples on the way to Emmaus as "he expounded unto them in all the Scriptures the things con- cerning himself" is conceived as in ev- ery day life. He turns away from one disciple and with both hands raised, with a friendly and natural gesture, impresses the argument upon him to whom he directly appeals. In like manner in the great Ascension in the Church of the Ascension, in New York, each one of the angels taken up separately, is human and real in ges- ture and pose. The figure of an apos- tle as an individual conception is re- cognizable as the man that he would have been in life as distinguished from other men. By which it is not meant that these figures are in any sense por- traits of models. That is surely just what they are not. It would be absurd to maintain that La Farge copies his models; nowhere in his work can we pick out the models, even when well known, and say that this or that figure is a portrait of this or that living per- son. Indeed, La Farge's work, so far as it can be known, is never done by- drawing from a model. He draws the figure abstractly and without refer- ence to other than his already attained and he uses the model af- knowledge ; terwards to correct, to organize, to make supple and living the figure S. which he have made too academic JOHN. may Part of a triptych owned by Wm. C. Whitney, Esq. By Curtis & Cameron, in the first place. All his figure draw- John La Farge. Photo. Copyright. Boston. ing is personal and peculiar to him- By John La Farge. VATEA IN A SEATED DANCE, SAMOA." (Pencil drawing.) By John La Farge. SIVA IN A SEATED DANCE, SAMOA. (Pencil drawing.) 230 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

HIS TEMPLE. By John La Fargr . CHRIST MEETING MOTHER AT THE in (Stained Glass Memorial Window ; executed 1896.) self: it is his own: it is design and not better than steady promise and ear- copying. His few book illustrations nest effort. show this, indeed, but they are few, Character and color are the two se- relatively unimportant and belong to crets of La Farge's work. We have an earlier period in his artistic life than said a word or two, very inadequately, it is now worth while to take up. about the former of these two motives, Like most men who devote them- and of the other, every person who selves with singleness of purpose and knows La Farge's work at all is ready steadiness of well considered aim to a to speak. It glows in his studies of great pursuit, he has improved in it travel; it expands over the great wall steadily, and the work of his sixtieth paintings, too few in number, which year is as much better than the work mark the later stages of his career: it of his thirtieth year as great art is invests his large landscapes as well as CONSIDERATIONS ON PAINTING. 231

his studies, and his small water-colors ist that his achievements in stained as well as his wall Even paintings. glass are so very notable. To have an his studies in monochrome are the excellent claim to the credit of having studies of a colorist. That beautiful invented, or at least introduced our of the river bed in drawing dry Japan, American way in glass, with its care- which has been in a engraved monthly ful consideration of the leads as a val- is in and the draw- magazine, sepia, uable basis of the design, and with of the avenue of is in the ing cryptomerias free use of lining or "plating" with chalk, but it is impossible to conceive to glass replace enamel painting, is in that either of these was made by any itself not an artistic achievement; but man who was not a colorist in the when this was done in the service of essence of his To be able to very being. superb color design, it does tend to compose greatly in color is to reach make a man immortal. Translucent the achievement of highest graphic color is a different thing from opaque art, and we have no colorist perhaps; color, and it is from La Farge chiefly in this second half of the nineteenth that the modern world has learned century who is, on the whole, superior the truth that is conveyed in that axio- to La Farge. It is, therefore, of little matic utterance, but the colorist is the that moment his monumental wall man who shows that more plainly painting should lack something of the than another can, and who designs in ultimate dignity of great draughtsman- translucent color not at all as he would ship, as it was understood by the Flor- design in fresco or in painting upon entine of the cinque-cento, or, if you canvas. There is no room here to dvVell please, by Ingres. It is quite easy to upon the great works of the artist in see that he looks at a wall which is to glass, although they are be invested with religious or historical known than thev should be as be- subject from a different point of view comes inevitable from their relegation from that which Elihu Vedder as- to churches widely separated each sumes. The wall is to glow with color from the other, and many of them in and the color is to be so associated remote towns. These windows taken with graceful and subtile form that it together, constitute probably the most shall appeal to that human sense of as- important piece of purelv decorative sociation which makes us all, even the work which the nineteenth century most devoted art student among us, has seen, and go far to to long for human subject amid the most us the possibilities of the decorative splendid triumphs of pure artistical art of the future an art which must conception. It may be the conviction be, however, in the hands of the highly of the well instructed beholder that trained artist; the day of the inventive the nude figures in some one of his and intelligent minor workman having in- greatest paintings, if drawn in upon gone, as it appears, except as such the drapery, would show that some- ferior artistic intelligence can work in with a thing was wrong with the pose, which subordination and harmonv is only the same as saying that his great designer and executant. to the book, work sometimes falls short of perfec- And so we come back tion in the same way that Delacroix's whose title heads this paper, with the the is as natural, work falls short of perfection, but not conviction that man so badlv. Andrea Del Sarto and not unconscious, and executive an artist thinker about Correggio was the painter without as he is a philosophical fine art. If then, fault (Andrea senza errore),andyetitis questions concerning the true Correggio's domes and vaults at Par- we could gather thought of this mature ma which are the high seventh heaven the whole thought of mural decoration with which noth- mind, we should have as much as any to assimilate ing of Andrea's can for a moment one student can hope and we should compare. during his lifetime, teachers. This not It is because he is so great a color- need no other may 23* THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. be: even careful reading and re-read- So that it is not to be hoped that any ing- of the book before us will fail to one will begin it all over again in Ja- get out of it all that the artist put into pan." Or on page 225-6, read this, and "* * * it. Is it possible to express in words all consider it: Why do we use all your meaning about fine art? Prob- these things haphazard to-day? One ably not, if you have much meaning, man likes this, another that, as if he and yet, by the comparison of one were some little lady anxious about statement with another, and by read- being in the fashion, and willing to go ing in connection with each statement even against her complexion, provided the portion which has led up to it, she do nothing that others do not do. and the inferences which are drawn And at length architecture, the means from it, by disregarding the division of largest importance that we can use, into lectures, and by marking your takes on a dress of triviality; like the margin with cross-references, by slow- madonnas of southern countries, ly meditating the meanings of some dressed in paper and satin, with real * * * such phrases as we shall quote in a costly diamonds, perhaps. I was * * moment, more of the true essence can thinking *of the extreme dignity be got than can be extracted from any of architecture as illustrated by a say- other book of our time. Read this, be- ing of Delacroix tliat a great archi- "* * * ginning on page 201 : do not tect was rarer than rare, and conse- think I mean (by touch) only the ac- quently held the very highest rank as tual contact of a fraction of a second. an artist; because he had to find The long processes of a Dutch painter beauty in what is most irrelevant "* * * (or a Venetian) are all one thing: the usefulness." Or on page 227; firm foundation of drawing; the grad- the pyramidal composition of the uated underneaths, as painters call books and of the schoolboy in art. But them; the vailings of their washes, or Raphael did it and so did Homer, half-opaque coverings of paint; the write in hexameters. Which is the im- the the hexameter or the glazings; retouchings; the scumb- portant thing, lings; the draggings of colored sub- Homer? It is just Raphael's beautiful * * stances are all one thing, *if you way of escaping the suggestion of think that the Japanese manner of grammar which is his charm." But running a brush full of ink, on paper this statement leads on into pages of * * * or silk, is a short way, try it. So- delicate ratiocination into which we and-So of a couple of hundred years cannot follow our illustrious author, ago can no more be copied. The last and the real profundity of the thought man is dead who had the secret on page 229-30 is beyond any attempt transmitted to him through all this that we can make here to analyze the time, and cultivated by him all his life. meaning. Russell Sturgis.

By John La Far^e. DANCE. Photo. Copyright, In residence of Hon. Whitelaw Reid, Curtis & Cameron, Boston New York City. NEW BOOKS.

THE HISTORY OP MODERN PAINTING. By the author has tried to describe will be un- Richard Muther, Professor of Art History derstood, and his reasons for the choice of at the University of Breslau, late Keeper of the Prints at the Munich Pinakothek. this or that order of sequence will be appre- In three volumes. Vol. I.; pp. XL; 604. ciated. The five books, indeed, are entitled, Vol. Vol. II.; pp. XL, 836; III.; pp. XII., respectively, "The Legacy of the Eighteenth 871. Macmillan New Company, York, The 1896. Century;" Escape into the Past;" "The Victory of the Moderns;" "The Painters of It from a brief note on the back of appears Life;" "The New Idealists." It is plain, how- the title page that the first volume of this ever, that if each painter Is to be treated at work was translated Mr. Ernest by Dowson, length in one place only, it must often be Mr. Arthur Mr. George Greene, and Arthur hard to fix upon that place. Nearly every art- Cecil Hillier, and the second and the third, ist is to be looked at and his life work judged, by Mr. Arthur Cecil Hillier alone. The Eng- from several different standpoints, and noth- lish text is smooth and but rarely gives any ing but an elaborate system of cross-reference suggestion of having been an offset from the can make the continuous and interesting nar- German. It might even be said that the text rative fully available as a work of reference. is fluent and somewhat and this diffuse, yet Book II., "The Escape into the Past," is, of is clearly not the result of an attempt to give course, intended to explain the way in which in one language and in too many words that the early years of the nineteenth century were which is more brief and compact in the origi- marked by a study of the classics and an at- nal, but is, to all appearance, at least, char- tempt to get classical severity into painting. acteristic of the original composition. It is This tendency is not confined to the first few only now and then that a complete mistake years of the century; it comes up again at a in the use of a noun or adjective suggests later time, as is shown in Chapter XI., "The that the German original has not been per- Generation of 1830," where the Classical Re- fectly rendered. It seems better -to take the action is especially set down In the contents book as if it had been written originally in as one of the important parts of the dis-

English. The question is, whether this work, cussion in this chapter. The fact of the as it now stands, is worthy of careful study, existence side by side of tendencies as dif- and how far it contains the essential, the ferent as are those whlcn we call clas- most important facts concerning the painting sicism and the romanticism of the years fol- of the last one hundred years. lowing 1830, is, of course, a central fact, It is extremely difficult to state in a few and one which the text of our author explains words the system upon which the book is fully and dwells upon with patient and even built up. One would hesitate, after reading with delighted attention to detail. It is, how- the titles of the five books and of the fifty ever, as nearly as anything can be, impossible chapters, to decide just where he had better to carry on the history of art in at least three look for any given artist. Is such or such a great nations and during an epoch of con- painter to be considered as a German colorist stant change and constantly arising contrary or a German romanticist? Shall we look for and hostile tendencies and yet keep the narra- Gericault under "The Generation of 1830" or tive logical and consistent in its arrange- under "Juste-Milieu?" Shall we inquire for ment. As has been said above, nothing but a J. M. W. Turner in the chapter headed "Eng- very elaborate system of reference and cross- lish Painting in 1850" or under "Landscape reference would enable the author to maintain from 1830?" An index of the names of paint- the organization of his unrolling narrative In ers at the end of each volume may keep one any way complete. Indeed, these absent cross- from falling into error in this matter and, references an attentive reader finds himself no doubt, after a time, the evolution which longing for. To take a copy of this book with 234 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD. its broad margins, and annotate it with in- in connection with that extraordinary tragical numerable memoranda of where this or that designer, Rethel, that our author is as much particular subject is considered farther in interested in a cheap little wood-cut as he is these volumes, or where a painter, briefly in a wall painting forty feet long, provided mentioned, is discussed more at length, always it has style in it and looks large, as is to double the value of the work for refer- good designs are apt to look. It is necessary ence. Its value as a book to be read con- to state here that the illustrations of the pages secutively will be considered in the course of we are now considering have been taken from this paper. engravings, and the reader will hardly need a The first page of the Introduction states hint as to the extremely lifeless and formal truly that "no book, hitherto, has embraced character of very many German engravings the history of European painting in the nine- of important works. Here, in the pages de- teenth century," and also that "modern art, voted to Rethel, are two reproductions of his like modern culture, is to be considered as own wood-cuts, that is, of wood-cuts for which a whole." This is the key-note of the work. he made drawings especially, and which were The first book, which occupies 150 pages of probably carried out under his eye, and two Vol. I., deals with Hogarth, Gainsborough, others from large engravings by Brendamour, and Richard Wilson; with Watteau, Greuze, which assuredly caricature the important Gesner, and Hubert Robert; with the reac- frescoes which they pretend to represent. The tionists of the latest years, and with the in- remarkable frescoes at Aix-la-Chapelle have evitable tendency toward the romantic and been engraved in this way, ana a photograph realistic in art, which, though it was not plain- of one of the originals, compared with one of ly seen in the nineteenth century, was there these reproductions, casts discredit upon all and ready to express itself in the new era. the illustration of this book which has en- From page 209 of Vol. I. to the close of Vol. gravings for its basis. But, indeed, the il- III., the whole field of European painting is lustration of these volumes generally is not kept in view together, and a semi-historical of first-rate quality; the half-tones are not sequence is maintained, while at the same clear and are too small to do justice to the time, the tendencies of schools to express originals, and one longs for, what would un- themselves strongly, contemporaneously with fortunately be a great and costly book, an the vigorous action of other and, perhaps, edition of this treatise with adequate illus- hostile schools, prevents a strictly chronologi- tration. cal order. Chapter VI., which is the first chap- It is impossible to go on citing here the ter of Book II., deals with the "Nazarenes," chief subjects of each successive chapter. In- or the painters like Overbeck, Fuehrich, stead of doing so, let us asK tne reader to Schnorr of Carolsfeld, their piety and their consider the account of Gustave Courbet, to ecclesiology; Chapter VII. deals with the Mu- whom are devoted thirty-seven pages in Vol. nich art under Ludwig I., Cornelius and Kaul- II., which pages are illustrated by sixteen bach, "their importance and their limitations." figures not fine, of course, but intelligible And here we begin to see that fearless and and also by 'the remarkable verses written in large-hearted criticism which marks this book dispraise of the realists, those verses from from beginning to end, and makes it an im- which we take the well-known words: portant document for the art history of the "Or, monsieur, s'il vous plait, century. The analysis of Kaulbach's art is Tout ce quo je dessine esc horriblement la?.d!" so thorough and satisfactory, and the bold- This biography and critical examination in ness of disapproval is so surprising in a one, is really a most valuable treatise. The German professor and museum employee, that ardent friend or the strenuous antagonist of it must startle the reader who expects to find realism in painting may find it inadequate or that most valueless art of Kaulbach's ranked unfair, but it is hard to see how one who is high in the way of modern achievement. writing on the whole subject of the painting of Chapter VIII. is devoted to the "Dusseldorf- the nineteenth century in Europe, could pre- ers" and to the interesting question "why sent the man and his work in its relation to that their pictures, despite technical merits, have great art more fairly or more intelligently. become antiquated;" a question which old New In like manner, one is struck by the extra- Yorkers who know what was exhibited in this ordinary insight, the simple thoroughness and town before 1860 may, perhaps, be able to the level-headedness, to use a very modern answer, at least, in part: while disputing the expression, of nearly all that is written about too bold ascription to the Dusseldorfers in a painting in England. Continental writers body of any remarkable "technical merits," seldom see English art except through false Chapter IX. deals with Alfred Rethel and spectacles, rose-colored or of pessimistic gray. Moritz Schwind; and here we have to note To understand the force and the failure of NEW BOOKS.

pre-Raphaelite pictures, the effect of that duction in Europe, and, therefore, it is, one strange art upon the realists who were to supposes, that there is no mention in the in- follow the pre-Raphaelites, the inherent value dex of any of the volumes, of Homer Martin, of such work as Madox Brown's, and such Elihu Vedder, or John La Farge. These may work as the relation to the Rossetti's, whole be mentioned as three of the older men who school of the caricaturists English like Row- are not recognized; three men whose work has landson, Gillray, and Cruikshank and of the been before the public for thirty years. A illustrators of "Punch," to have the sense good for the painters of a somewhat younger gen- to cut down to ten to see in Mulready lines, eration, it is with them as it is with their Albert Moore "the solitary 'painter' in the seniors, that some are mentioned and some his to group" of contemporaries and explain are left unnamed. It is clear that a volume art as it is his beautiful and perfect explained on American painting has to be made which see the value of Mason and here, to George will make up for the shortcomings of the Fred Walker without in any way seeing it three volumes before us in this matter of the is critic indeed. too strongly, to be an art art which was trans-Atlantic to Richard said that the whole book suffers It may be Muther, and will complete and make a final somewhat from a tone of laudation a little authority of one of the most valuable books too warm. That is to say, the praise which of our time. is given with a little too free a hand; and yet, with what enjoyment could one read EGYPTIAN DECORATIVE ART. A Course of a history of painting in which every artist Lectures delivered at The Royal Institu- tion W. M. Flinders D. should be compared, each in his turn, with by Petrie, C. L., Edwards Professor of Egyptology, Univer- standard of excellence? No the very highest sity College, London. New York: G. P. such book could be read for a long time to- Putnam's Sons. London: Methuen & gether because the necessity of fair treat- Co. 1895. ment combined with severe criticism would In No. 21 of this periodical there was occa- involve too elaborate a system of hair-split- sion to speak of the attempt to write the his- ting refinements. Everything that was said tory of primeval decorative art. Reason was would have to be qualified and explained found to conclude that one of the difficulties in away, every assertion would have to be made the way of such history-writing was this, with painful effort to be accurate and that at namely, that the scientific-minded man seldom the risk of much involved ratiocination. The knows anything about the artist's way of work. author is right, we think, in raising the stand- There is an assumption, which may almost be ard of his praise a little above what he would, called general, in these scientific works on the perhaps, more willingly adopt if he were art of savage life and of early civilization, writing of one artist or one group of artists namely, that nothing is designed for its own or unit of only. sake as an ornamental pattern pat- seems to be Finally, there is another statement to make tern, but that every figure which which modifies unfavorably the very high such a purely ornamental conception, is the re- which estimate in which this book is to be held. The sult of copying of some natural form works which the author criticises are those has gradually lost its character as the portrait a conventional handed which he has seen; that is obvious and has become figure natural. The works which he alludes to are down from master to pupil through the ages. that no one who himself feels those which he knows by reproduction, if not It is probable instinct of decorative and knows in the originals; that also is easy to under- the design, feel that instinct work undei stand. He takes "Punch" pictures from the "Ga- how others who in to this theory zette des Beaux-Arts" instead of from "Punch" its influence, will ever give as as its propagators would desire. itself, and pictures by Englishmen and Ameri- heartily cuts a notch out of a slip cans from European journals in which they The savage who a in the unwritten have been reproduced; "L'Art" or the "Maga- of wood is as much reality as the other savage who zine of Art," or even from a publication of history of the past a in his savage way, or the Munich Photographic Union, or of Braun has represented head, his of the head of Dornach. It follows from this that there his successor who copies copy it into something almost unrecog- are great and damaging omissions; not and makes many, but enough to injure the book. It is, nizable. Flinders Petrie is not to be however, chiefly in the American school that Professor we have dared to urge we find these omissions to exist. In dealing charged with the fault writers on these matters. His with the Americans, the author has taken, as against many the statement that it is pro- is natural and has been his custom, the works page 1 contains book under consideration of art which he has seen in the exhibition posed in the little limit our view to the historical develop- galleries, or has learned of from their repro- "to 236 THE ARCHITECTURAL RECORD.

ment of the various motives or elements of a floor space as with bricks or tiles, and it decoration," and on page 2 there is this sen- would not require a very original workman tence: "As I have said, all Egyptian design to alternate a square of about 6 inches on was strongly decorative." On page 5 the other each side with another square, maybe of nine question which seems so interesting is fairly small pieces 2 inches on each side, while yet met and the discussion initiated of what is a pattern so composed would be extremely the real origination of patterns. The uncer- spirited and vigorous. Now, whether a man tainties attending any present answer to this who had once made such a pavement, or had question are hinted at in a very suggestive even seen such a pavement, could go on and manner on pages 7 and 8. The arguments in imagine others and scratch the patterns on a favor of the origination of all designs in copy- yielding surface without having a pavement ing and of the constant repetition of these itself before him, is a question which, appar- designs to the exclusion, almost, of any in- ently, the decorative designer would answei vented pattern, are compared with those in one way and the scientific investigator 'in doubts which arise in the mind of every per- another way. Professor Flinders Petrie is cau- son who understands art in a practical way; tious here, also. No one will find in this book and if the author does not give a final an- an ex-cathedra statement of any of these ques- swer to his own question, he sets an example tions, but its pages are filled with an analytical of moderation which we may all be glad to account of Egyptian ornament and the thought follow. Page 10 hints at the "structural or- is made clearer by 220 illustrations. nament which results from the structural ne- All persons whose studies have taken them cessities of building and of manufacture." so far afield as to ancient Egyptian decora- It is shown that defects and failures are some- tion, are aware how rich it is, how varied, times perpetuated in ornament of this kind, how suggestive, and how tasteful and beauti- and an instance is given which will serve ful. Such a book as that of Prisse d'Avennes to remind us how puzzling in the future will offers page after page of surface ornament be the origin of patterns of our own time. which can hardly be matched in any collection Whence come "the circles stamped in the of ornament of another epoch. Much of this plain end of meat-tins?" These tins, which beauty is indicated or suggested by the little we call cans, in the United States, have a wood-cuts of Professor Flinders Petrie's circular patch soldered on to one end, and pages; thus, the cuts on pages 65-72, with our author tells us that a circle is stamped in their analysis of the Anthemion and 20 little the other end, imitating the effect produced pictures, would keep any designer busy for by the necessary closing of the top. It may, awhile. These little pictures are valuable as indeed, seem so very natural to us to stamp suggestions to modern designers, valuable a circle concentric with the outer rim upon historically, and valuable in this archaeologi- the circular end of a cylindrical vessel of any cal study, which, as we have said, is now sort, that it will not seem to us probable that eoming forward, demanding so much attention. any future inquirer will ask whence it or- On pages 89 and 90 is an interesting sugges- iginated, and yet it has been in that way that tion of the Egyptian workman's way of look- patterns of ornament have originated in the ing at fine natural materials; his habit of past. painting, and even of plastering and painting Chapter II. is devoted to geometric decora- his hard stone statues, while he enjoyed indi- tion and the zig-zags and diamond patterns, cating the grain of alabaster and agate and the wave lines and spots. The "spirals" and such precious materials in painting upon "coils" of the earlier Egyptian decoration are common pottery vases. "Our abstract stand- shown to have been copied and recopied, modi- point of an artistic effect which must never fied and altered during the centuries of involve falsity, but which may have little or Egyptian art. Basket work patterns and nothing to do with nature, was altogether chequers are also a part of this traditional outside of his aesthetic." This "abstract art, and here arises one of those questions standpoint" is largely a modern one, derived which can never be answered in a final way, from study of mediaeval art, and, therefore, the question, namely, how far a chequer may it is better known and more generally recog- be created as a natural way of decorating a nized in England, where the study of mediae- surface by a man who takes a rudely squared val art has been so serious and consistent, stone and uses it to stamp with. The assump- than elsewhere in Europe. The attempt to tion of the scientific investigators is generally try ancient decoration by it involves some that all these patterns are copied from bas- curious considerations. In this, as in other ket work. The interlacings and interweavings matters, this little volume seems like a set may, indeed, be so copied. It is certain, how- of notes for a much longer and more detailed ever, that a chequer may have come of paving discussion. Russell Sturgis.