Princeton University professor has found way to alter property of lone electron without disturbing trillions of electrons in its immediate surroundings, an important step toward developing future types of quantum computers (Courtesy Princeton University/Brian Wilson)
The Quantum Leap into Computing and Communication A Chinese Perspective
By Cindy Hurst
A nation’s success in military operations often rises and falls on the basis of how well it communicates. When a nation does not secure its communications effectively, its enemies intercept and read its communications and win thereby military and diplomatic advantages.1
ice Admiral Noel Gayler, former ant in wartime.”2 For a few decades, director of the National Security nations have been relying on encryption Agency, once wrote, “Important systems to protect a wide variety of Lieutenant Commander Cindy Hurst, USNR, is V an Analyst with the U.S. Army’s Foreign Military as it is in peacetime, communications computerized transmissions ranging Studies Office. security becomes even more import- from commerce to government to mil-
44 Forum / The Quantum Leap into Computing JFQ 77, 2nd Quarter 2015 itary communications. While today’s data, a quantum computer would use than developing a quantum computer, encryption systems are considered quantum bits (qubits), which can si- although the latter is still “very attractive reasonably secure, the possibilities of multaneously have the value of 0, 1, or to me.”8 If Pan really did shift his focus, it quantum cryptography and quantum any “superposition” of the two.4 The could be that the reality of the challenges computing offer a whole new dimen- quantum phenomenon becomes even involved with building a quantum com- sion and threat to computerized more bizarre when considering the con- puter had indeed set in. secrecy. cept of “entanglement.” Entanglement Dr. Ivan Deutsch, professor and China is among a growing number of links the properties of two or more Regents’ Lecturer at the University of countries seeking to unlock the science of qubits together. These qubits, even when New Mexico, explained the difficulty quantum cryptography and computing, separated, remain strongly correlated or in achieving a quantum computer. In which many experts believe will one day interconnected in a manner much stron- quantum cryptography, which is ex- revolutionize computerized security. ger than any classical relationship. This plained more in depth below, the goal With China’s ongoing push to modernize is what famed physicist Albert Einstein is to distribute two shared secret keys. its military and advancing to become a called “spooky action at a distance.” Basically, the secret keys are created using global innovative force, success in this A quantum computer using entangled the properties of quantum randomness. area could materialize into an enormous qubits would therefore be vastly faster It works on a particle-by-particle basis. In economic and military advantage. than the average computer, which uses other words, in quantum encryption one This article examines the significance simple binary numbers. Theoretically, photon can be sent at a time. It is simple of these technologies, China’s progress in once a quantum computer comes online, to control a single particle. Quantum quantum communication and quantum it would be able to break current en- computing, on the other hand, is much computing, and the consequences for the cryption systems such as Rivest, Shamir, more complex because it deals with United States and other nations should and Adleman (RSA), a commonly used computation as opposed to the transmis- the Middle Kingdom acquire a real capa- computer encryption and authentication sion of single photons. Computations bility in this science. It is an area that U.S. system that uses a complex algorithm require logic, and logic requires the use analysts will need to follow closely in the developed in 1977 by Ron Rivest, Adi of many 1s and 0s that cannot be sent coming months and years. Shamir, and Leonard Adleman. These individually since each one is interdepen- encryption systems are needed to protect dent. Furthermore, each qubit needs to China’s Leap information such as financial transac- be in an entangled state simultaneously. The world is currently in the midst of a tions as well as military and government Due to this added degree of complexity, second quantum revolution.3 The first communications. quantum computing is much further quantum revolution began in 1900 In 2001, Guo Guangcan, an academi- away from realization than quantum when the new rules governing physical cian of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, cryptography.9 science were discovered. Today, in the established the Key Laboratory of Despite this apparent shift in interest second quantum revolution, these rules Quantum Information at the University from quantum computing to quantum are being used to develop new revolu- of Science and Technology of China cryptography, in February 2013, a tionary technologies. Two such possible (USTC) in Hefei. The laboratory became Chinese report emerged touting a break- technologies are quantum computing “the most important research center of through in trying to achieve the quantum and quantum cryptography, the latter quantum information in the country.”5 computer: “The solid-state quantum falling within the area of quantum In January 2006, while the field of research crew from the University of communications. While they each rely quantum technology was still considered Science and Technology of China suc- on the properties of quantum physics, in its infancy in China, Guo predicted ceeded in performing the quantum logic their end goals differ. Theoretically, that the first quantum computer would gate operation on one single electron at a quantum computer would be able likely be developed in the next 15 to 20 10 picoseconds, renewing the previous to break current encryption systems, years.6 In 2007, Dr. Pan Jianwei, director world records by nearly 100 times.”10 but quantum cryptography is argu- of the Division of Quantum Physics Prior to China’s achievement, “U.S. and ably unbreakable even by a quantum and Quantum Information at Hefei’s Japanese research institutes achieved the computer. National Laboratory for Physical Sciences electrically controlled semiconductor The Quantum Computer: Code at the Microscale, USTC, optimistically logic gate at 1,000 picoseconds.”11 Breaker or Problem Solver? The idea of predicted that the country might be the China’s achievement, however, increased creating a quantum computer has been first to develop a quantum computer.7 the operational speed by nearly 100 times around since the 1970s. These comput- More recently, however, Pan seems to to 10 picoseconds. According to Guo ers would be extremely powerful since have shifted his focus. A 2010 article Guoping, director of the research project: they can harness quantum properties. quoted him as saying that quantum com- Unlike an ordinary computer, which uses munication is “more important for China China has launched the solid-state binary numbers (1s or 0s) to represent because it is already closer to application” quantum chip project in efforts to gain a
JFQ 77, 2nd Quarter 2015 Hurst 45 foothold in the global competition in the cryptography is a relatively new field in stability in quantum cryptography sys- next-generation computer chips. . . . The which research is conducted on pub- tems.”15 These results are questionable, quantum chip . . . will make the quantum lic-key encryption systems, which are not but not impossible. According to Carl computer characterized by exponentially breakable using quantum computers. Williams, “If I wait long enough and my increased operational speed and greatly Quantum cryptography (distinct from fiber is perfectly dark and still, I can prob- improved data processing capabilities.12 post-quantum cryptography) offers an- ably get a photon through at a longer other way to try to counter the risks of a distance than 50 kilometers.” The ability to break current en- quantum computer coming online. This In a November 2005 article, China cryption systems makes modern day newest form of cryptography is based claimed to lead the United States, France, information vulnerable. Furthermore, an on quantum theory and is proving to be and Austria in quantum entanglement inherent risk to national security should unbreakable. research when it provided an “experi- a quantum computer come online would Quantum key distribution (QKD), mental demonstration of five-photon be its ability to access archived informa- a process within the context of quan- entanglement and open-destination tele- tion previously protected by systems such tum cryptography, generates a random portation.”16 The more photons that can as today’s RSA encryption. Dr. Jonathan encryption key shared by the sender be successfully entangled, the higher the Dowling, a professor and Hearne Chair and recipient. The biggest advantage of accuracy of the transmission.17 of Theoretical Physics at Louisiana State QKD is that if a third party attempts to In 2006, China reported having University, explained that information en- intercept it, the party will be detected fulfilled quantum teleportation of a crypted using RSA could be intercepted and the secret message will not be sent. two-particle system. Voting results at the and archived today in its encrypted for- QKD deals with photon states and works Chinese Academy of Sciences showed mat. Once a quantum computer is online, as follows: Alice, Bob, and Eve are three that 565 academics chose it as the ninth it could be used to break older archived fictional characters. In quantum cryp- most significant development that year in encrypted data, possibly still classified.13 tography, Alice wants to send a secret the country’s science-technology sector.18 Carl Williams, chief of the Quantum message to Bob. She has to first send In 2007, a report stated that China Measurement Division of the National him the key through the process known had created a quantum router, which Institute of Standards and Technology, as QKD. This means she is sending him they claimed was the first in the world. agrees that there are certain risks to a series of photons in random quantum The router was said to have succeeded quantum computers, but he adds that states. If Eve tries to intercept the mes- in encrypting data flowing between four there are benefits as well, pointing out sage, it changes the quantum states of the computers on a commercial communica- they could eventually solve problems of photons. tions system. The router is different from profound scientific and technical benefit. QKD is already a reality, although point-to-point transmissions conducted “If you ask me 100 years from now what limited in capability. A small number in other parts of the world because it the benefit of this technology is, I would of commercial companies have offered makes a quantum network possible.19 probably say it is a societal benefit,” quantum encryption systems. For exam- Then, in May 2009, a report emerged in stated Williams.14 ple, the U.S.-based technology company the Chinese press claiming that the coun- Quantum Communication: The MagiQ sold a system in 2003 called try had built the world’s first quantum Pursuit of the Perfect Encryption System. the Q-Box. The Q-Box is a single-pho- encrypted government network and that Encryption methods have evolved over ton-based system developed for further its trial operation in Wuhu City, Anhui time, becoming increasingly complex and research related to QKD. These systems, Province, served eight government de- difficult for an adversary to break. The however, are far from perfect and have partments in Wuhu.20 trend in cryptography has evolved from had a limited distribution. Moreover, Scientists in China in 2012 reportedly traditional manual enciphered and deci- QKD can be sent either via fiber optic or teleported multiple photons 97 km across phered codes to mechanical encryptions through free space. Going through fiber a lake within the country.21 This signif- and computerized cryptography. Today’s optic cables, it generally cannot travel icant experiment puts China one step top cryptography systems such as RSA more than 50 kilometers (km) without closer to achieving global transmission and Pretty Good Privacy are considered a quantum repeater, which has not yet of quantum communications. Scientists highly secure. Breaking messages has be- been developed. would eventually like to use satellites to come nearly impossible with the growing China has touted a number of achieve global transmission of quantum sophistication of today’s cryptography. successful experiments in the area of communications. The distance that a However, experts believe it is only a quantum communication. For example, quantum key can be sent through free matter of time before existing encryption in 2004 the Key Laboratory of Quantum space depends on which direction it is systems are broken. Information reportedly completed a traveling. Traveling straight up toward Currently there are projects in place 125-km fiber point-to-point QKD ex- space, it can go farther due to the inte- to try to counter the threat of a future periment. This experiment, according to grated air mass (that is, the air becomes quantum computer. Post-quantum Chinese reports, “solved the problem of less dense). China recognizes that “by
46 Forum / The Quantum Leap into Computing JFQ 77, 2nd Quarter 2015 using satellites, ultra-long-distance quantum communication and tests of quantum foundations could be achieved on a global scale.”22 By 2016, China plans to launch the first “Chinese Quantum Science Satellite,” a satellite dedicated to quan- tum experiments, which according to China Daily would put the country ahead of both the United States and Europe. According to Pan, “The satellite will provide scientific answers to the feasibility of intercontinental quan- tum teleportation—to make it simple, whether I can talk to my friend in Vienna from Beijing on a quantum phone.”23 Matthew Luce, a researcher with Defense Group Inc.’s Center for Intelligence Research and Analysis, thinks that because of important applications for satellites as well as the security level: quantum communication technology figures centrally in the objectives of the Chinese military to upgrade their grow- ing command and control capabilities. A functional satellite-based quantum communication system would give the Chinese military the ability to operate Air Force Research Laboratory Directed Energy Directorate researcher and leader of joint AFRL and University of Hawaii Manoa quantum computing group received two new tabletop quantum computing further afield without fear of message systems to trap and study behavior of atoms in their condensed, pristine state (U.S. Air Force) interception.24 tamper resistant security. According to University of Defense Technology has Furthermore, Luce points out that Ronald Meyers, who is leading an Army been conducting quantum information China’s research in quantum applica- project in collaboration with the Joint technology research since the 1990s.28 tions could help the country expose Quantum Institute at the University of The People’s Liberation Army (PLA) weaknesses in a network should the Maryland at College Park, “The great- has clearly taken an interest in quantum United States or another nation win the est potential that a quantum communi- communications because other insti- race in achieving the same technology.25 cations network holds for the Army is tutions are also studying the topic. For secure communications.” Meyers also example, the PLA’s University of Science A Military Perspective contends, “Quantum computers will be and Technology (PLAUST) reportedly on Quantum Power able to easily decrypt communications opened 11 new research directions in While the possibility of cracking that are currently secure. . . . That’s one 2011, to include quantum communi- quantum technology is often viewed reason why it’s vital for us to explore cation technology.29 Some researchers by scientists in academia as a personal quantum encryption.” Meyers envisions believe that quantum communications, challenge—presenting a potential a future in which there will be “very along with cloud computing, intelligence opportunity to receive a Nobel Prize powerful quantum computers with a optic networks, and high-speed satellite or a patent—it is also viewed by mil- lot of intelligence. They’ll be able to communications, provide asymmetric itaries and governments as having work over long distances without being operational superiority for military forces great security potential and significant intercepted. It’s going to change the and generate new types of combat power. implications.26 In November 2012, for world.”27 PLAUST has worked with both mil- example, the U.S. Army News Service China has also recognized the poten- itary and nonmilitary research institutes, reported that scientists at the U.S. Army tial power of quantum communications, achieving major successes in key technol- Research Laboratory were conducting and there is evidence indicating it is ogies. The university conducts strategic research and development on data researching the possibilities at a higher cooperative research with civilian institutes teleportation to one day achieve secure, level. Reports reveal that the National to establish joint laboratories, which have
JFQ 77, 2nd Quarter 2015 Hurst 47 Sandia National Laboratories’ Daniel Soh, right, offers overview of continuous variable quantum key distribution lab (Dino Vournas) reportedly resulted in over 90 percent of president, Bai Chunli, announced plans projects along with quantum com- their achievements being applied to the to establish five innovation centers that munications held interest.35 Quantum armed forces’ needs. Quantum commu- would unite the country’s leading sci- topics have had high-level interest nications research is just one area, with entists and experts in advanced science for some time. Former President Hu information grid networking and electro- and technology. The fields of study were Jintao stated in a speech that quantum magnetic camouflage and protection also quantum information and technology, communications had exerted great being researched.30 The China Academy Tibet plateau and Earth system science, influence on China’s economic and of Space Technology has done prepara- particle physics, brain science, and tho- social development.36 Premier Wen tory work to establish the country’s first rium molten salt reactors.32 As a result, Jiabao noted, “Quantum theory and quantum remote-sensing laboratory. on January 15, 2014, China established the theory of relativity stimulated the The aerospace community believes that the CAS Center for Excellence Quantum development of semiconductors and remote sensing is an important area for Information and Quantum Physics in microelectronic integrated circuit tech- the application of quantum information Hefei. This new center is recognized as a nology, information technology, laser technology. It is hoped the laboratory model for the other four centers.33 technology, nuclear energy, and related will allow Institute 508 to apply for technologies.”37 In 2011, Liu Yandong, funding from the national 863 and 973 Research, Academics, state councilor and Communist Party programs. Such a funding request appears China’s Education Dilemma, of China Central Committee Political appropriate because, in 2012, quantum and Economic Impact Bureau member, noted that quantum information technology was designated China considers itself second in the communications have made “fresh con- as one of the four key areas of scientific world in terms of research and devel- tributions to scientific development.”38 research in the next 15 years.31 opment spending, and it has conducted She stated in 2012 that quantum More recently, quantum commu- original research in quantum commu- communication technology has import- nication received recognition as a key nications that has had an international ant strategic significance in ensuring technology by the Chinese Academy impact.34 Research has been ongoing the safety of state information. More of Sciences (CAS) after the university’s in CAS since 1998, when innovative important, she made these remarks
48 Forum / The Quantum Leap into Computing JFQ 77, 2nd Quarter 2015 while attending a ceremony to launch U.S. Naval Research Laboratory’s second in research and development to maintain the financial information quantum com- annual Karles Invitational Conference, both innovative and economic superi- munication verification network.39 Zachary J. Lemnios, Assistant Secretary ority. According to Williams, “While With such high-level cover it is not of Defense for Research and Engineering, quantum technologies clearly create a surprising that China’s rapid science and pointed out that: direct risk to national security, the bigger technology development has been tied to risk is the threat to economic security quantum information.40 As an example of Nations with strong GDP growth—think since a strong economy is required to the use of quantum information, in 2011 China, Russia, South Korea—are using drive a strong military and innovation CAS reported on cooperation between their increasing wealth to bolster invest- and quantum technologies are likely the Institute of Modern Physics and the ments in basic science, applied research, to be an innovation driver for the 21st International Atomic Energy Agency. and advanced technology development, century.”48 The physics research team “reportedly and these investments are increasingly Physicist Paul Davies once wrote, “The made significant progress in the research focused. For example, the Chinese National nineteenth century was known as the on the quantum state of ion-atom Medium- to Long-Term Plan for the machine age, the twentieth century will go collisions, contributing to the better Development of Science and Technology down in history as the information age. I understanding of plasma evolution and (2005–2020), aims to make China an believe the twenty-first century will be the plasma state diagnosis.”41 Such discover- “indigenous innovator” by 2020, and to do quantum age.”49 Quantum technology is ies are ongoing and expanding.42 this they are investing in 16 goal-oriented still in its infancy. The first organization China has been on a path to expand basic research “megaprojects,” one of which or government to achieve quantum com- its overall technological capabilities. One is quantum research.45 munication or quantum computing will approach has been to overhaul the coun- control the technology, giving that coun- try’s education system. During China’s Basic research is essential for inno- try an advantage in every respect. Ninth Five-Year Plan (1996–2000), the vation. While the United States spends government began to initiate actions to more money overall in basic research than Conclusion strengthen a number of higher learning any other country, Chinese investments According to a 2010 article published and key disciplinary areas. The goal was are rising at a faster rate. According by Time, “China is now at the cut- to upgrade 100 institutions to greatly im- to Dowling, “One of the things that ting-edge of military communications, prove their quality of education, scientific concerns me in the United States right transforming the field of cryptography research, management, and institutional now is that we are falling behind in our and spotlighting a growing commu- efficiency. The select 100 institutions investments, particularly in basic science nications arms race.”50 China, intent were expected to, through their own research. . . . We are getting to the point on becoming a global technology merit, easily “exert significant impact where we are no longer even in the top innovative force, has been making huge on the country’s social and economic ten in terms of per capita investment in strides in research and development in development, scientific and technological basic research anymore.”46 many areas including quantum commu- advancement, and the national defense.”43 Despite its economic wealth, how- nication. There is a major push in the The availability of funding in China ever, China still has a number of hurdles country to become the frontrunner in for basic research has also been increas- to overcome before it can become a breakthroughs that will one day lead ing steadily. In 1986 the investment in global innovative force. Pan attributes to the first quantum computer and basic research was only 80 million yuan some of China’s lack of creativity to the the perfect quantum communication (approximately $9 to $10 million).44 high amount of pressure placed on stu- network. Should China eventually win By 2012, according to Chen Yiyu, di- dents. Students devote years to intensive the race in achieving certain quan- rector of the National Natural Science studying. However, according to Pan, tum-based technologies, it could have Foundation of China (NSFC), the they “are often incapable of developing a significant impact on national secu- Chinese government allocated more independent solutions” due to a lack of rity and China’s role as an emerging than 15 billion yuan ($2.38 billion) from creativity. There has been talk of chang- superpower. the central budget to the NSFC. While ing the education system, but this has not Quantum technologies have the only a portion of the money goes toward yet happened. As Pan pointed out, there potential to revolutionize secure com- researching quantum information, the are simply too many students.47 munications for military and intelligence NSFC is a key source of funding for China’s academic and scientific efforts organizations. A quantum computer China’s research and development on point to the country’s desire to achieve might one day be able to access informa- quantum properties and applications. global technical superiority. Williams, tion that had been archived but not yet China’s growing economy and increas- who recognizes that quantum technolo- declassified. Quantum technologies could ing wealth make it easier than most other gies will likely one day offer tremendous also lead to revolutionary applications countries to sink money into research benefits to society, also sees the impor- that might help propel a nation to eco- and development programs. During the tance of maintaining a competitive edge nomic superiority.
JFQ 77, 2nd Quarter 2015 Hurst 49 15 33 While China still lags behind “China Successes in Test of Quantum Zhu Lixin, “China’s Top Quantum Tech Cryptography Network: Scientists,” People’s Center Founded in Hefei,” China Daily, Janu- developed nations in many ways, as Daily, April 3, 2007, available at
50 Forum / The Quantum Leap into Computing JFQ 77, 2nd Quarter 2015