The Westerly Drifting of Nomades, from the Fifth to the Nineteenth Century

The Westerly Drifting of Nomades, from the Fifth to the Nineteenth Century. Part VI. The Kirghises, or Bourouts, the Kazaks, Kalmucks, Euzbegs, and Nogays. Author(s): Henry H. Howorth Source: The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 1 (1872), pp. 226-242 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2840961 . Accessed: 15/06/2014 10:18

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This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 226 II. IT. 1OWORTH.-The WesterlyD}ifting of tionson thetruthful principles of ethnology, and to thateffect I have thusfirmly expressed my humble opinion. Mr.COOPER said: Someallusion having been made to the current superstitionsrespecting the evil eye havingalso prevailedat one timnein Egypt,I rise to observethat the allusionis onlyapparently borneout bythe numerous ocular amulets found in Egyptiantombs. In truth,these charms, consisting of sculpturedrepresentation ofthe rightsymbolical eye, either singly or in variousgeometrical multi- ples (four,ninie, fourteen, twenty-eight, etc.), were really as much designedto invokea blessingas to deprecateor avertan evil. The eye,the symbol of the all-watchfulHeserei (Osiris), is foundon the oldestmonuments of the Haniiticraces; and was not,I believe,con- nectedwith any idea of phallicenergy till the influenceof a later Semiticcultus, derived in the eighteenthdynasty from the Ramesaic kings,and culminated under their corrupt successors, the Ptolemnies. The followinggentlemen also tookpart in the discussionon the foregoingpapers and exhibitions:Professor Busk, Mr. C. Charles- worth,Dr. CarterBlake, Dr. Nicholas,Mr. A. L. Lewis,Mr. J. W. Flower,Col. Lane Fox, Rev. GeorgeSincltair, Mr. Wake, and the President.

The followingpapers by HENRY H. HoWORTH, M.A.I., Esq., were taken as read: The WESTERLY DRIFTING of NOMADES, froim the FIFTH to the NINETEENTHCENTURY.-PART VI. The KIRGHISES,or Bou- ROUTS,the KAZAKS, KALMUCKS, EUZBEGS, and NOGAYS. IN tracingthe pedigreeof the Turkishraces, we have arrivedat their firstemigrations across the Volga and the Oxus, the two frontierrivers of the moretypical Turkland. We have stripped Persia, Turkey,and SouthernRussia, of the Turk elementin theirpopulations. We must now cross those rivers,and enter the more properhomeland of the Turks-so held,at least,in popular estimation. Our difficulties,of course,increase very much,and our conclusionsare necessarilymore tentative, as we journeyaway fromthe haunts of civilisation. The countrywe have to deal withis the stoniyand sandy steppe,reaching from the Volga to the Desert of Gobi,and fromthe Sea of Aral and the Caspian to the Ural Mountainsand the Steppe of Baraba- a hungryland, a land of robbersand nomades,whose ethnology offersas confusinga subject for investigationas could be de- siredby the most patient unwinderof puzzles. We shall tra- verse a small portionof the groundcovered by the firstpart of this paper; and be able, perhaps,to correcta few errors,for whicha widerarea of observationhas suggesteda betteranswer. Our method,as previously,will consist in graduallyunpeeling -thevarious layers of populations,until we arriveat the primitive kernel of the whole.

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions JNoincades,fromw Fifth to Ni)ieteenth(Century. 227 A greatportion of the area which we proposeto investigate is occupied by the Khirgises,and is fromthem known as the KhirghizSteppes-wastes describedpicturesquely by Atkinson, and morevaluably by Levchine. Like most predatoryand dis- integratedraces, they have no connectedhistory. They can tell of renownedchieftains, of marvellousescapes, of successfulraids, of all the more strikingincidents in the career of theirances- tors,the natural subject matterof ballads and traditions;but of their own origin,etc., they speak as empiricistsconstruct history. The ethnographyof these steppes has been verymuch con- fused by a not unnaturalmistake. The name Kirghiz is un- knownto the tribesto whomit is commonlyapplied in Europe. They invariablycall themselvesKazaks. It is a name indi- genous to a race of robbers,now inhabitingthe nmountainsof Kaschgar Khoten, etc.,generally known as Bourouts,Eastern Kirghises,Rock, Wild, or Black Kirghises,whose origin and historyis differentfrom that of the so-called Kirghises of the Great, Middle, and Little Hordes. When the Cossacks con- quered Siberia, they found these real Kirghises living in the Eastern Altai, and afterwardsapplied the name to the neigh- bouring tribes of Kazaks, whose language,manners, etc., were sufficientlylike theirsto pardon the classification. From the Cossacks,the name has spreadinto the pages of westernwriters. In this examination,we must distinguishthem. The name Kirghiz,or Bourout,will be applied to the Kirghises proper, while the so-calledKirghises of the threehordes will be referred to as Kazaks. The confusedhistory of tlle Bouroutshas been collected by RadlofftLevchine and others,and fronmthem I shall take the followingepitome. They are now most distinctlya Turkish race; that they were not always so is most certain,and will appearpresently. During the supremacyof the Yuen or Mongol dynastyin China,the Opon (Ob or Obi) was the south-western, and the Joussethe north-easternboundary of the countryof the Kirghises, while the Jenissei flowed through their country (Klaproth). When the Cossacks invaded Siberia,at the begin- ning of the seventeenthcentury, they were livingon the black and whiteJousse, on the Abakan, and the neighbourhoodof the Sayan Mountains; that is,they still occupiedtheir ancient seats. Hence, they pillaged for a whole centurythe New Russian colonies,dividing their nominal allegiance between the Russians, the EasternMongols, and the Soongars. At length,just at the beginningof the seventeenthcentury, the -Russians,in concert with the Kontaisch of the Soongars,tired of their robberies, drovethem out of their old country,alnd forcedthemii to settle

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 228 H. H. HOWOUTti.-The WesterlyDriftimg of in the mountainouscountry between Arizitchdzan and Kashgar, where they are now found,and are under the protectionof China,Russia, and the Khans of Kokand. Radloffsuggests they have been called Kara Kirghises,or Black Kirghises,from the obstinacywith which they have clung to their old idolatry. Believers still call the unconverted"kara kapir",or black infidels. They are only nominallyMussulmans; shaving the head, performingcertain ablutions,and repeatingoccasionally some Arabic sentence,more as a charm than as attachingany meaningto it. They have neithermosques nor priestsamong them,and say no prayers. They are almost entirelyoccupied in rearing cattle and brigandage. Luxury is a misnomerto apply to any of theirextravagances. Travellersremark on the monotoniythat exists amongthem; the rich being distinguished merelyby a somewhatlarger yourt,or more embroideredcoat. They are very fond of music, and very hospitable and trust- worthyto their guests,contrasting favourably with the Kazaks. In war,and to their enemies,they are describedby all their neighboursas cruel,vindictive, and untameable. In their old homes,the Kirghiseswere borderedon tlheeast by the greatplains reachingto the Baikal Sea, now occupiedby verybroken and disintegratedtribes. It seems to be verywell established,that the YakouLts, who now live farto thenorth-east, on the Lena, who are a Turkishrace, isolated entirelyfrom the rest of the Turks,and surroundedby strangers,have onlyvery lately arrivedin theirpresent homes. Theirtraditions all agree in a veryrecent migration down the Lena, froma countrywhere theyformerly lived as brothersof the same kin with the Bou- routs. Now these Bourouts cannot be the Bouriats of Lake Baikal, who are Mongols,and not Turks. They were,no doubt, the Bouroutsof whomwe have just written-i.e.,the Kirghises. Their name,we know,agrees with tribal names foundamong the Turks of the Baraba Steppe,generally called the Barabinski; and manywriters, notably Fischer and De Lessep,have affirmed the identityof the Yakouts and the Barabinski. The latterare verynearly related, as theyused to be veryclose neighboursof the Kirghises; and I have no hesitationin making all three- viz.,the Bourouts,or Kirghises,the Yakouts, and Barabinski- fragmentsof an ancientrace, which has been dispersedby the arrival of the Russians,or, perhaps, by the far-reachingambi- tion of the S'oongars,a race which,on the Lena and the deserts of Baraba,has preservedfor us a pictureof what the Siberian, and probably all the Asiatic Turks, were, before they were sophisticatedby contactwith Mohammedanism.This dispersal I place not mutchearlier than the end of the sixteenth,or begin- ning of the seventeenthcentury. The details upon whichthese resultsare founded,will be printed,I hope, elsewlhere.

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Normades,fr-o mFifth to NineteenthCentur71y. 229 We will now turn to the Kazaks, on whom Levehine has writtena mostexhaustive work. All accounts,traditional and native,as well as historicaland foreign,agree that the Kazaks are but recentoccupants of much of their presentarea. Everywherein its westernportion, we meet with tracesof the previousoccupants, the Nogays. In the easternportion, the broken remains of the Kalmucks are the wrecksof the power whose decay opened a wide path for the aggressionsof the Kazaks. The pressureof the Kazaks has been constantlytowards the south and south-west,occupying the desertedcamping-grounds of the Nogays,etc. During the earlier part of the seventeenth century,the Sari Sou, whichrises in the Ak Tag Mountains,and, aftera verybroken course, loses itselfin the sands of Karakum, was theirfrontier towards the south-east,separating them from the Kalmucks. The Baschkcirsstill wanderedbetween the upper watersof the Ural,or Jaick,and the Emba, while the Kalmucks held the countryabout the mouthsof these rivers. The Kara- kalpacs and Turcomanspastured the desertsof Ust Urt and the shoresof the Aral. It was onlya shorttime before the Russian advance into Siberia that theKazaks had overrunthe old Khan- ate of Tura, beforewhich their northernfrontier was bounded by the Tartarsof that ancient dependencyof Genghiz Khan. So that,at that period,the Kazaks were confinedto the central and eastern portionsof their presentarea. Their chief Khan lived at Turkestan,and theyplundered their neighbours on all sides. Their originesI shall considerwith those of the Euzbegs. Here it will sufficeto say, that tlheirhistory as an independent powercommenced with the expulsion of the Euzbegs fromthe countrybeyond the Jaxartesby the Soongars. During the sixteenthcentury, our noticesare veryscanty and isolated. We have, in Fischer's" Historyof Siberia",an account of the conquestof Siberia by Kutchum Khan, the son of Mur- taza, and his Kazaks. We have fragmentarynotices of Kazak raids uponthe Nogaysof the Ural; and the earlyEnglish traders Jenkinsonand othersmention the Kazaks as inhabitingthe steppes. But it is not till the beginningof the seventeenthcen- turywe get on stable ground. AbulghaziKhan relateshow, in 1630, he took refugewith Ichim,the Kazak khan,who lived at Turkestan. lchim was succeededby Djanghir; and he again by Tiavka, looked upon by the Kazaks as their Lycurgu-s,whose equity and whose strong hand created somethinglike order amongthe hordes. He was obeyed apparently,like his father and grandfather,by all the Kazaks. Under him, tlhreelesser khans governedthe Great,Little, and Middle Hordes. As he grewold, his hand became too weak to restrainhis turbulent

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 230 H, 1..IOWORTH.-7rhe WesterlyDrifting of subjects; and Abulkhair and Kaip, two celebrated names in Kazak history,were associatedwith him. Tiavka died in 1717. Internalquarrels and dissensionsimmediately arose, which led to attacksfrom all sides on the partof long-enduringneighbours. In 1723, the Soongars took Turkestan,the residenceof Abul- khair,and subjected portionsof the Great and Middle Hordes, and scatteredthe rest of the Kazaks in all directions. In the languageof one of theirelders, " We fledbefore the Kalmucks, the Kossacks of Siberia,and of the Jaick and the Baschkirs, like hares beforegreyhounds." This dispersionwas rnostdisas- trousin its effects;multitudes of both the men and theirflocks perished. Ill-fortunesomewhat restoredpeace among them; theyagreed to accept Abulkhairas leader,and under him re- turnedto theirold homes,and a whitehorse was sacrificedas a gage of futurepeace. In 1732, Abulkhair,and a numberof his subjects, took the oath of allegiance to RRussia,which agreed, shortlyafterwards, to confirmthe dignityof khan in the family of Abulkhair. In 1735, at the request of the Kazak khan,the fortressof Orenburgwas comimenced;and the next year, to check the turbulenceof both Kazaks and Baschkirs,and to form a better frontier,the line of Orenburgrforts was constructed. The Kazaks were never veryobedient to their khans,and this intercourseand subservienceof Abulkhair to Russia weakened his hands very much. The khans of the Middle Horde, over whom he claimiedsuzerainty, became very independent,and attractedniany recruits. In his latter days,Abulkhair himself graduallygot estrangedfrom R-ussia; he was killed by Barak, one of the khans of the Middle Horde, 1748. Meanwhile,the Chinese overthrewand destroyedthe power of the Soongars: this was in 1756; and their vast country, almostreduced to a desert,was annexedto Clhina. The Kazaks of the Middle Horde,who had assistedthe Chinese,were allowed to driftover this area. They had desperatestruggles with the Bourouts; but became verypowerful under their Khan Ablai, althoughunder the nominalbanner of the Chinese. When the Soongars,or Eastern Kalmucks,were overthrown, ten thousand of themjoined their countrymenoni the Volga; these new comers,accustomed to freedom,incited their country- men against the Russians, and induced their celebratedflight acrossthe desert,when fiftytlhousand families attempted to run the gauntlet of the KirglhizSteppes, and were fearfuillydeci- mated by the tlhreehordes in succession, and lastly by the Bourouts. Ablai Khan died in 1781, and the Middle Horde was imume- diatelysplit into fragments. Catherinethe Second triedto reclaimthe Kazaks bybiilding

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Noiaades,from Fifth to NineteenthCentury. 231 mosques,schools, and caiavanserai,and appointingtribunals to settletheir quarrels and legislatefor them, but withvery partial success. The measuresof her ministerInjelstrom, to break up the power of tlhegreater khans, were at last successful. The Little Hordewas dispersed:a portionjoined the Midcle, another went over to the Euzbegs,a third to the Turconians,while a fourthdivision of ten thousand fanmiliescrossed the Volga, and settled in the land left vacant by the Kalmucks, where they have since remained. The land of the Middle Horde has been gradually annexed to Russia. It has been found,as is very natural,that neithertreaty nor promnisewill bind the desert robbers. Plunderthey will; perhaps,plunder theymust is the more rationalexpression. The land is too hungry,life too pre- carious,and propertytoo easily stolen,for mauchorder to reign there; and it was inevitable,and surelynot verydisheartening to philosophers,that Russia should continueher advance till she enclosedwith her iron disciplinethe whole of the desert. The historyof the Great Horde was, with great propriety, separatedfroin that of the other Kazaks by Levchine. Sepa- ratedby a long distancefrom the Russians,and situatedclose to the Soongars,they naturally became more or less subjectto the latter. At length,leaving the neighbourhoodof the Lake Bal- kash, they retired towards the river Sara Sou, and thence pillaged Taschkend and Turkestan,which, in 1739, were subject to them. On the dispersionof the Soongars by the Chiiiese in 1756, the Great Horde driftedover theirdeserted country,and recognisedthe suzeraintyof China. The Torgouts, in theirflight from IRussia, were cruellyassailed by one portion of the Kazaks of the Great Horde. Another portion of the Horde had fixedits camp in the neighbourhoodof Taschkend, and pillagedthat townand the surroundingcountry. In 1760, a large body of Karakalpacs, driven fromthe monlthsof the Jaxartes'by the Little Horde,joined them. In 1798, theywere subjectedby a rigorousKhan of Taschkend,who attacked the plunderers,and exposedpyramids of theirheads to frightenthe rest. He reducedthiem to order. A portionof themescaped to the Irtysch,and joined the Middle Horde; othersdispersed in variousdirections. When,in 1814, the Khan of Khokand took Taschkend,these Kazaks changed masters; but many of them, who had settleddown, left theirfields and gardens,and escaped towardsChina. The Great Horde is now brokenup: a portion still obeysthe Khan of Khokand,a second obeys China, a third is underthe dominionof Russia. Having epitomisedthe tedious historyof the Kazaks, from the time of their forminga distinctnationality, we must now turn to the Soongars,or Kalmucks,whose arrival led to this result.

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 232 H. H. HOWORTH.-Th1eTWester-ly Drifting of The origin of the Kalmucks is an obscurequestion. Pallas is probablyright when he says that the Mongolswere divided initotwo branchesbefore the days of Zenghiz. These were most probablythe Keraites and theirdependent tribes, anid the Mon- gols proper. His strongarm kept themunited for a while,and probab]ythe unity lasted during the continuanceof the dy- nastyof the Yuen in China. When this was destroyed,the old divisionarose, and Kalmucks in the west and Khalkas in the east denotedthe rival parties. Abel Remusatanid othershave shown good reasons for identifyingthe Kalmucks with the Keraites,the Ouirates,and theirother dependenttribes. I believe this positionto be well founded; and, if so, we mustplace theirwestern limit at that date at the countryof the Naimans. When the powerof the Naimans was destroyed,and theywere scatteredin the Kirghiz and Nogay deserts,as we shall show furtheron, the ancestorsof the Kalmucks driftedwestwards, and occupiedthe abandonedcountry. Here theywere situated, apparently,at the fall of the Yuen dynasty,and hence,accordilng to the relation of Emperor Kienlung (see "Memoires sur la Chine"),a body of themadvanced on the countryabout Koko- noor, or Thibet,where their descendantsstill remaini. They were divided into three main divisions; namely,the Soongars (withwhom were joined the Derbetes),the Torgouts,and Kos- chotes. In the beginningof the sixteenthcentury, the Soongar princessubdued or scatteredthe otherdivisions. The fugitives to Thibetwere probablya portion; anlotherportion, after a long strugglewith the Soongarprinces, left the country,and foundits way, as we have shown in the firstpaper of this series,in the year 1630, to the banks of the Volga. Afterthese events,the Eastern Kalmucks are oftenreferred to simplyas the Soongars. The growthof a centralpower among the Soongars,by the sup- pressionof the independenceof manytribes, coincides witlh the decay of the power of the successorsof Timourin Turkestan, and the break-upof the old Khanate of Kaptchak. This led to two migratiolls. The Kalmucks pressedacross the Irtyschinto Eastern Kaptchak,the Desht Jittehof the Arabs,and dispos- sessed the tribesof the latter. Some of thesejoined the Kazaks to the north; the greaterportion, under the name of Euzbegs, crossedthe Jaxartes,and drove thence Baber and his so-called Mongols-i.e., the descendantsof Timour. The Soongarsrapidly acquired a vast power. The EmperorKanghi, in the" Memoires"already quoted, tells us the firstkhan of the Eleuths who came to do homagewas Kousihan. He was well received by the Emperor Chuntche; was treateclas a king,and presentedwith a special seal and the title " sour6", meaning e'minent.One of his descendants,

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Nfoomades,from Fifth to NineteenthCentury. 233 Tchetchemombon, we are told,showed great skill in clearinghis countryof plunderers,and receivedfrom the Chinese the titles of Patour and Tousietou. Another,called Hotohotchin,with the title of Patour Taidji, was the Kontaisch of the Kalmucks, with whom the Russians came in contact when they occupied Siberia. He was the fatherof the celebratedGaldan, or Kaldan. Educated as a lama, it was on the murderof his brotherSengue, who had succeeded his father,that Galdan received permis- sion fromthe GrandLama to revengehis death,and declarehim- self Taidji. On veryslight pretexts,he attacked the other in- dependentTaidjis; and, havingunited the threemain hordesof the Eleuths,was practicallythe founderof the empire of the Soongars. Flugitivesfrom his ambitionsought assistance from China,which sent a large armyagainst him, and defeatedhim: when hard pressedhe poisonedhimself. This was in 1697. Tse ouang Reptan was originallya smiallchieftain under the King of the Eleuths. With him, Septen Patchoiir, the son of Galdan, took refuge,taking with him his father's body. Reptan deliveredhim up to the Chinese,and withhim the head of Galdan. This was only the beginningof his trea- chery. On the retreatof the Chinese,he ravagedall the border- land, includingthose parts of Mongolia subjectto China. His aim seemed to be to revive the old empiresof Zenghiz and Timrour.By fraudor force,he subduednearly all the surround- ing tribes,and beat the Chinese armies. He was apparently succeeded by Ta-tse-reng,a prot6gy'of the Chinese court. A period of confusionfollowed, in which many pretendersarose. At length,more successful than the rest,Amoursana raised the royal standard on the banks of the Ili. . Several of the chief- tains,fearful of impendingtroubles, fled into China,and were settledby the Emperorin the countryof the Khalkas. Amour- sana now threwhimself1 at thlefeet of the Emperor,who gave him a high title. The EmperQrKhanghi says,emphatically, the perfidiousAmoursana, like a wolf which has once tastedflesh, could not be quiet. The factis, the Chinesesurveillance invari- ably becomesunbearable to the dependenttribes. The ambigu- ous summonsesto Pekin to receivefresh honours, literally mean prostrationat the foot of the throne. Tired of the restraint, Amoursanatook up arms,and overranall the line of fortsbuilt by the Chineseto protecttheir frontier. The Chineqesent two large armies,which were both unsuccessful. In 1752, two new armiesset out,broke up the confederationof the Mongol tribes, and we are told Amoursanafled, to returnno more,to the vast solitudes of Locha (the Chinese name for the Russian posses- sions). The Eleuths were destroyedor dispersed,and the disin- tegratedremnants were administered by the Chinese. They still VOL. I. R

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 234 H. H. HOWORTH.-TheWesterly Drifting of remainabout Lake Balkash and the adjoiningmountains, and are generallyknown as Eastern Kalmucks. Before the Kalmucks appeared on the Volga, Turkishtribes, moreor less pure,occuipied all the countryfrom the Volga to the mountainseast of Lake Balkash,a tractwhich formed the ancient Khanate of Kiptchak,or the Golden Horde. At this period, this tractwas dividedinto two sections: thewestern portion, in- cludingall the valleys of the Jaick,the Djemba, etc.,formed the so-called Great Nogaia, and was the camping-groundof the Nogays; the eastern,the Desht Jitteh,was occupied by the Kazaks and the Euzbegs,apparently subject to a commonkhan, who probablylived at the town of Turkestan. We mustnow examine the originesof the Euzbegs and the Nogays. These were but streamsof the great Turkishflood, which swept over Asia with ZenghizKhan. At the accessionof Zenghiz,the countrywest of the Jaick or Ural was occupiedby the Kaptchaks or Comans,of whom we have already written. East of the Jaick, the steppes of the Kirghises,as faras the frontiersof Turkestanproper, were the campingground of the Turkish horde,known as Cancalis or Canglis. Both Kaptchaks and Cancalis were subjectto Moham- med, the Sultan of Kharezm, known as the Kharezm Schah. He ruled over a vast empire,formed of the de'brisof that of the Seljouks,including nearly all Persia,bounded on the south by the Indian Ocean; on the east by the Indus and the mountains ofBudakschan, etc.; and on thenorth-east by the furtherfrontier of Transoxiana. Here commencedanother great empire,about whichyou have lately heardfrom Dr. Oppert;viz., that of Kara Kathay,occupying very nearly the centreof Asia, and including what is generallyknown to geographersas Turkestan; that is, it included the townsof Yarkand,Kaschgar, Euzkend, Caialik, Amalik,and Bishbalik,and was the cord which tied together the variousTurkish tribes whose independentcentres were those towns. All these obeyed the supreme Khan, known as the Khan of Kara Kathay. These two Khans, he of Khorazmand he of Kara Kathay,ruled over by farthe mostimportant powers of Asia at the accessionof Zenghiz. North-eastof Kara Kathay and east of the GreatAltai Mountains,was the small independent Khanate of the Naymans. Here we must linger awhile. The Naymans,by most authors,have been classed as Mongols. I believe theywere nothingof the kind,and that this mistake has led to some veryfalse reasoning. Accordingto the Arabian historian,IRaschlid, the countryof the Naymanscomprelhended in its full extentthe Great Altai and theCaracorum mountains, as well as the mountainsof Eloug Serass, lake Ardisch(Saissan), the balnksof the riverArdisch

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Normades,from Fi,fth to NineteenthCentury. 235 (the Upper Irtysch),and the mountainsbetween this riverand the countryof the Kirghises. It was boundedon the northby the Kirghises; on the east,by the Keraites; on the south-west, by Ouigouria; and on the west,by the Cancalis. One tribeof the forty-ninebanners of the Mongolsis, unquestionably,called Naiman; but, as assuredlytwo Nogay (Turkish tribes) and a Kirghiz tribe also bear the same name,so that the balance of evidence,so far,is in favourof the Turks. The firstking of the Naymansmentioned by D'Ohsson is Inandje,which, he says, is a Turkishword, meaning believer; the secondis Belga Boucou Khan. Boucou Khan, he says,is the name of a celebratedan- cient king among the Ouigours(Turks). He says, again, the greaterpart of the sovereignsof the Naymans joined to their title of Khan the epithet Goutschlouc, which means in Turkishpowerful, or Bouyourouc,which means commanding;a generalof the Nayinanswas called Gueugussu,which has also a Turkishetymology. These names are quite sufficientto prove thatthe Naymanswere no Mongols,but Turks,-the mosteast- erlyof the Turks; (forwe have alreadyshewn their neighbours, the Keraites,to have been Kalmucks)-the most like the Mon- gols,and thereforenot unlike the modernNaymanis; that is,the Nogays; mostprobably they were the Kimakes of the Arabs. The Naymancountry is too remotefrom the centresof civili- sationto be oftennoticed by historians,unless it happen,for the timebeing, to have some exceptionalconnection with them. We are not surprised,therefore, to meetwith the name Naymanfor the firsttime in the historiansof Genghiz. It is a Mongol word,and means merelysix (see D'Ohsson). We may tracethe peoplesomewhat further, perhaps. Thus the countryoccupied by the Naymans in the latter half of the twelfthcentury was the home of the Ouigours,or Hoeitche,in the ninth,when the latterwere well knownto the Chinese. The same countrywas at both dates borderedon the northby the Kirghises. When the Ouigourpower was destroyed,in 847, by the Chinese,it was chieflywith the assistanceof the Kirghises,who overrantheir countryin all directions. Now Naymanis still the chiefof the tribesof the Middle Horde ofthe Kirghiz-Kazaks;when the King of theNaymans was defeatedhe tookrefuge among the Kirghises (D'Ohsson). We shall not be unreasonableif we conclude that the Naymans are in fact the descendantsof these Kir- ghises,and of the Hoeitche,or Ouigours,a mixed race,whose poweris perhapsto be dated fromthe year 847. The following facts are chieflyfrom D'Ohsson, vol. i. Their firstappearance is when GourKhan, uncle of Thogrul,commonly known as Oang Khan, the chief of the Keraites (who, until lately, has been R 2

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 236 H. H. HOWORTH.-TheWesterly Drifting of deemed the Prester John; (vide Dr. Oppert Kitai, and Kara Kitai), took refugewith Inandje,chief of the Naymans; the latter vanquishedThogrul, who took refugewith Yissougi,the father of Genghiz. He, in his turn,drove out Gour Khan, made him take refugein Tangout, and restoredOang Khan. In 1199 Zenghiz,in alliance with Oang Khan, marchedagainst the Nay- mans. Inandje Belga Boucou Khan,such was his full namie,was then dead. His two sons,Tai Bouca and Bouyourouc,quarrelled; the formerkept the paternalhome and the plains; the latterre- tiredwith such tribesas clungto himto the mountainouscoun- tryof Kiziltasch,near the Altai. Most of the sovereignsof the Naymansjoined to theirtitle of Khan that of Goutschlouc,but Tai Bouca bore the Chinese title of Taivang, or Great King; pronouncedTayang by the Mongols. Zenghiz and Oang Khan, taking advantage of the quarrel, severelydefeated Bouyourouc, who took refugein the country of the Kem Kemdjoutes, a dependency of the Kirghises. The invaders,in turn,quarrelled; and Saira, a general of Bou- youLrouc,defeated Oang Khan, and overranthe Keraite country. The Naymanswere only driventhence by the superioraddress of Zenghiz. In 1202 BouyouroucKKhan, besides his own people,headed a confederacyof the tribesDourban, Tatar, Kataguin, Saldjout, and Ouirat,all jealous of the risingpower of Zenghiz; theyattacked the latterin alliance with Oang Khan, and drovethem among the mountainsof CaraounTchidoun, on the frontiersof China, but theremost of themwere destroyedby the cold,etc. In 1203 the long jealousy between Zenghiz and Oang Khan ended in the completedefeat of the latter,who escaped to the land of his old enemies,the Naymans. Here he was murdered, much to the sorrowof the Khan, who,to shew his respectmore Na yman,had his skullencased in silver,and used it as a drinking bowl on greatoccasions of ceremony. In 1204 Zenghiz marchedagainst Tayang, Khan of the Nay- mans,with whoin were Toucta, King of the Merkites,Alin Tais- chi, chief of a Keraite tribe,the Ouirates,Djadjerats, Dourbans, Tatars,Katakins, and Saldjouts. The Naymanswere beaten; their chief was badly wounded; th,echiefs of the nation,rather than survive the defeat,rushed on the victors,and died sword in hand; the restof the Naymanswere dispersedin all directions or else reducedto slavery. Goutschlouc,son ofTayang,fled to his uncle BouyouroucKhan; and Toucta,chief of the Merkites,sought the same refuge,among the mountainsof Ouloug Tag, the westernspurs of the Little Altai, and south of lake Balcash. Here theywere defeatedby Zenghizin 1206, and Bouyourouckilled. Goutchloucand Toucta

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Nomades,from Fifth to NineteenthCentury. 237 fled to the countrywatered by the Irtysch; i. e.,to the north. In 1207 the Kirghisesand Kem Kemdjoutessubmitted to Zen- ghiz. In 1208 Zenghizmarched once moreagainst Goutschlouc and Toucta; he defeatedthem on the Djem (i.e.,the Jenissei); the latterwas killed; his brothersand sonsescaped to the country of the Ouigours. Goutschloucfled to the Grand Khan of Turkestanor Kara Kathay. In 1211 the Khan of the Ouigours,Arslan Khan chief of the Carlouks and Prince of Cayalik, and Ozar, Prince of Almalik, broke their allegiance to the Khan of Kara Kathay,and sub- mittedto Zenghiz; two of them,and the son and successorof the third,married relations of Zenghiz. GoutschloucKhan had marriedthe daughterof the Gour Khan of Kara Kathay. The weak sovereignof that once vast empirehad lost the allegiance of his threegreatest vassals, the King of theOuigours, the Prince of Transoxiana,and the Sultan of Kharezm. Koutchlouc,with true Tartarfidelity, thought it a good opportunityfor retrieving his fortune. He firstset out to collect the dAbrisof his nation, now scatteredin the countriesof Imil, Cayalic,and Bisch Balig. He was also joined by the Prince of the Merkites. He entered into a league with the renownedMohammed of Khorazm,to overturnthe empire of Kara Kathay, and then proceededto Euskend, where the treasury of. Gour Khan was situated. Goutschloucwas soon afterseverely defeated; but,in 1211 or 1212, he surprisedthe great Khan and made him prisoner. Master of his person,he lefthim the titleof sovereign,which he bore till his death,two years afterwards. Goutschloucattacked and killed the Khans of Almalio and Caschgar,ravaged their countries,and then conqueredKhotan. He tried to forcethe inhabitantsto abjureMohamedanism. He summonedthe Cadhis to discuss the questionwith him; their chief Imam defended his faithwith some warmth; the Khan, in anger,abused Ma- homet; whereuponthe formercursed him. " May the earth coverthy false tongue,"he said. The Imam was thereforecruci- fied,and a rapid persecutionof Mahometanscommenced. In 1218 Genghizappeared on the frontiersof the empire;Goutsch- louc was driven into Badakshan,and there beheaded; and the empireof Kara Kathay was swallowedup in the vast conquests of the Mongols. This conquestformed afterwards the chief re- cruitingground of the Mongols. Its varioustribes of Ouigours, Carlouks,etc., were the best soldiers in the Mongol armies. It has long been knownthat the verygreat majority of theirtroops were Tturksand not Mongols. When Zenghiz attackedthe Kho- razm Schah,the Cancalis claimed to be very near relativesof the invaders. The same relationshipwas claimed by the Kipt- chaks on the invasionof theirterritory by the Mongols; both of these werewell knownTurkish tribes.

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 238 H. H. HOWORTH.-TheWesterly Drifting oj On the deatliof Zenghizhe dividedhis einpireamong his sons, makingone of themparamount. The heritageof Djoutchi,the eldest,was situatednorth of the sea of Aral,extending westwards as faras theBulgarians; or, in themore graphic words of an Arab author,"To the furthestspot touched by the hoofsof a Tartar horse". These vast steppeswere the home of the Kiptchaks,the Cancalis,and of the de'brisof the varioustribes driven westward by the Mongols,the Naymans,Merkites, Kataguins, Carlouks, etc. The small proportionof Mongolsmay be judged fromthe fact,that each of the foursons of Zenghiz had only a corpsof fourthousand Mongols assigned to him,the restof his forcebeing Turks. In 1235 it was decidedat the greatassembly of the Mongols to send an armyto conquerthe countrywest of theVolga. This armywas led by Batou,son of Djoutchi Khan. Tt firstsubjected the great Bulgarians on the Volga. In 1237 it attacked the Kiptchaksor Comans; one portionof these emigrated,a second was destroyed,a third subnmitted(see D'Ohsson, " Histoire des Moingols",ii, 112). The Mongols then attacked the Bourtasses and Mokschas or Mordoines,Finnic tribesof east centralRussia, the Circassians,and a people called by Raschid, Vezofiniah. Having subdued all the countriesnorth of the Caucasus, the Mongols overranall Russia, except Novgorod; and, returning home again,once more defeatedthe Kiptchaks and the Tchere- misses. During the next fewyears they carried their arms into the heartof Europe,ravaging Bohemia and Hungaryand most effectuallysubjecting the Russian princes,who for'three cen- turiesremained their humbledependents. The storyis told in detail by D'Ohsson. On theirreturn they fixed their capital at Serai. The empire whichthey founded and whichwas handed down to the successors of Batou is knownas that of the Golden Horde. On his returnto Serai, Batou commissionedhis brotherTar- bouga to conquerfor himself an appanage in Siberia. This con- questwas the foundationof the Khanate ofTura orSiberia, which lasted down to the days of the Russian advance. We, perhaps, meet with an effectof this invasion in the pages of Torfteus, iv, 303,when he relatesthat, during the reign of Hakon II, 1217- 1263, therearrived in Norwaya greatnumber of Permianswho fledfrom the crueltyof the Tartars. Mangou Timour,Khan of the Golden Horde,died in 1280, and was succeededby Tonda Mangon,who was deposedfor imbecility about 1285, and was succeeded by four of his relatives as co- regents,of whomToula Bouca seenmsto have been the chief. This branchof the familywere descendedfrom Djoutchi, son of Zen- ghiz. At this timeother cadets of the same descenthad acquired

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Nomades,from Fifth to NineteenthCentury. 239 appanagesunder their more illustriousrelatives. Among these was the renownedNoughia or Nogai, son of Tatar,son of Boucal, son of Djoutchi,now an old man, craftyand very powerful. ID'Ohssontells us he held a vast appanagenorth of the Black Sea, and includingthe Alans, Circassians,Russians, Poles, Vlakhes, and Bulgarians,as his dependents.In 1259 he made an invasion of Poland,in conjunctionwith Toula Bouca. In 1265 he married Euphrosyne,natural daughter of the EmperorMichael Palaeologus. He was now orderedby Toula Bouca to join in an expedition to the countryof Kerk (Circassia? or the countryof the Kir- ghiz ?), with his l'oumans. The two armiespillaged the couiltry. Overtakenby severe weather,Nogai withdrewhis army into winterquarters. Toula Bouca, more venturesome,or perhaps unlucky,was overtakenby cold and famine,and his armysuf- feredseverely. Taking umbrageat Nogai, he summonedhim beforehim. The old warriorcame, laid an ambuscade for his master,killed him,and placed his brotherToucta on the throne. He was not long in quarrellingwith the new Khan,who, irritated at some insolentconduct, sent him a spade,an arrow,and a piece of earth,which guerdon was thusexplained by his councillorsto Nogai: The spade means,that if you buryyourself in the bowels of the earth,I will drag you out; the arrow,if youescape to the heavens,I will make you come down again; and the piece of earth,choose a battle-fieldwhere we may fight. Nogai's answerwas sharp: " Tell thymaster that our horsesare thirsty, and we intendto waterthem in theDon." The riverDon passed by Serai,the capital of the Golden Horde. The two armiesmet in 1267 at Yacssi, and Nogai musteredtwenty thousand horse- men. Toucta was severelybeaten. In a second battle Nogai was deserted by his sons and others(Novairi); he was then an old man; his long eye-lashes covered his eyes. In this battle he was killed. His name must have been famous in- deed, and was adopted by those over whom he ruled. Their descendantsare still knownas the Nogai Tartars. His sons sllc- ceeded to the governmentof theHordes, but did notremain long united,and Toucta was enabled to occupyhis territoryand to give it as an appanage to one of his brothers. The whole story is told in great detail in the notes to the fourthvolume of D'Ohsson's historyof the Mongols,from Novairi, etc. The strangecommentary suggested by the factof this double Khanate,the imperiumin inmperio,possessed by Nogai, has not been properlyexplained by the writerson the subject. The ex- planationmay be found,I think,if we examinethose tribes who still call themselvesNogai, and who have always been independent,both of the great Khans of the Golden Horde and the smallerKhans of Krym,Astrakhan, and Casan, who succeeded

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 240 H. HI. IIOWORTH.-TheWesterly Drifting of to theirpower. The Golden.Horde was reallythe armyof Batou Khan, the greatMongol invader of theWest. IPallas,Dr. Clarke, and otherwriters, all distinguishvery sharply the Nogais from the otherTatars of Krym,etc. Their physiqueand faces are much more like those of the Mongols,and theyalso approach themin otherrespects. Now, the Nogai traditionscollected by De Hell pointto theirhaving come into theWest afterthe days of ZenghizKhan. Their mostdistinguished tribes on the other side of the Volga were formerlythe Naymansand the Mankats, (? the same as Merkites)the mosteastern and the mostMongol- ised,if I may use the word,of the Turks. It would appear as if the followersof Nogai consistedchiefly of the novihomines, to- getherwith all the less settledand morepredatory tribes, while the Khans of Serai were dependenton the olderinhabitants, the Kiptchaks,the WesternCancalis, etc., who wereacquainted with townsand moreamenable to discipline. On the deathof Nogai,the tribeswho wereproud to be known by his name, refused,or were too weak to be ruled by his descendants,and seem to have been conqueredby the Khans of Serai. This conquest was, however,very partial. The strong hand of such leaders as Bereke and Euzbeg managed easily to controlthe whole Khanate. On theirdeaths we findconfusion, and especiallywas it so when the line of Batou Khan was ex- tinguished.In thedays of Timour,the Golden Horde was divided and brokenup, and the Nogai tribesconstituted themselves once morea separate and distincthorde. When the Bashkirswere conqueredin the sixteenthcentury, the Nogai Khan still ruled over a vast extent of country: a portionof the Bashkirs were subjectto him. The western.writers now speak of two Nogais, Great and Little Nogaia; the formeron the east,the latteron the west of the Volga. Great Nogaia, no doubt,consisted of a great portionof the western so-called Kirghiz Steppe; on the emigrationof the Euzbegs,some remnantsof the old Golden Horde who were still nomads,no doubt coalescedwith the Nogais,as othersdid with the Kazaks. These Nogais were graduallypushed out or assi- milatedby the Kirghises. The Karakalpacs,who live about the easternshores of theAral, and who consistof Mankats,Kataguns, etc. (Nogai tribalnames), I believe to be remainsof them;others were pushed forwardby the Kalmucks in the seventeenthcentury,and theywere transplantedby Peter the Great. In the provinceof Oufa a road is still called Nogaiskaia. Near the Irtyschis a steppe called the Noghaiskaia Steppe, while the Bashkir countryis filledwith similartraces. The greater portionof the Nogais crossedthe Volga about the middleof the sixteenthcentury, when the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Nomades,from Fit,h to NineteenthCentury. 241 werebroken up by Ivan the Terrible,and settled in the Kuban and northof the Euxine. But even in the middleof the seventeenthcentury they were the dominantrace northof the Caspian and the Aral (see Levchine," Historyof the KirghizKazaks.") Let us now turnto the Euzbegs. The successorof Toucta on the throneof the Golden Horde was his nephewEuzbek, son of Togrouldjeand grandsonof Mangou Timour. He came to the thronein 1312. We are told the militarychiefs were inclined to supportthe sons of Toucta againsthim because he was a Mus- sulmanand insistedon convertingthem. They always replied to his overtures:" Contentthyself with our obedience. What mattersour religionto thee? Why shouldwe abandonthe re- ligion of Zenghiz for that of the Arabs?" He escaped a plot theyformed to take his life; returnedwith his troops; killed the sons of Touctai,with a lhundredand twentyother princes of the blood; and occupied the throne. In 1314 Euzbek sent an embassyto the courtof Egypt,which is describedby Novairi. It took splendidpresents, and a letterin which ]ie congratulated Nassir on the fact that Mahomedanismhad spread as far as China. He told him that in his dominionsthere were no others than Mahomedans; that on his advent to the thronehe left to the northernnations the alternativeof Mahomedanismor war; that he had vanquished those who would not be converted. Those who did not perishin these campaignshe made slaves of. Many of these slaves he sent to the Sultan,who, in return,sent ambassadorswith presents to Euzbek (D'Ohsson,iv, 574). These boastswere by no means vain. The Khan of Kipchak was thenone of the mightiestsovereigns of Asia,ruling from the frontiersof Lithuania to those of China. Khorazm,i. e., the modernKhanate of Khiva, was one of his provinces. In 1315 it was sacked by Baba, a princeof the house of Zenghiz,who was dependenton Ouldjaitou,the Khan of Persia. Euzbek sent an ambassadorto the Persian Khan, who beardedtlhat potentate with the menacethat onlya strongpower could make. "If Baba has done this by thineorders," he said, " we counselthee not to winterin Arran; forwe shall enterthat provincewith an army as numerousas the sand of the desert." The Persian disavowed the act,and appeased Euzbek by orderingthe culpritBaba to be executedin the presenceof the ambassador(D'Ohsson). In 1313 a sisterof Uzbek Khan was marriedto Yury,Prince of Moscow: this led to the elevationof the latter to the throne of the GrandPrincipality in 1320, and eventuallyto Moscow, becomingthe firstand mostimportant of the Russian principal- ities and the settledseat of the GrandDukedom. This was not the onlymarriage which broughtinfluence to the GreatKhan. About the same period the Sultan of Egypt sent him an em-

This content downloaded from 185.44.78.76 on Sun, 15 Jun 2014 10:18:09 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 242 H. H. HOWORTH.-TheWesterly Drifting o, bassy,praying a wifeof the familyof ZinghizKhan. D'Ohsson has told the storyof the embassy,and the curiousbargains that were made,very picturesquely (see "list. des Mongols,"iv, 652). Euzbeg Khan died in 1342. To him the consolidationof the empireof Kaptchak,the greatapostle of Islam in the steppesof CentralAsia, the Euzbegs of Khiva and Bokharah trace the originof theirnationality, as we are told by Abulgazi; himself a Princeof the Euzbegs. Followingthe customof Turkishtribes theyadopted the name of theirmost renowned chief: thus imi- tatingthe Nogays and the Kaptchaks,the Seljuks and the Otto- mans. The Euzbegs,then, are neithermore nor less than the tribes which formedthe Khanate of Kaptchak; that is, the Golden Horde,those, that is, whichformed its easternhalf and were notsettled in thevarious towns of the threelesser Khanates ofCazan, Astrakhan, and Krym,and did notjoin the confederacy of the Nogays. They remainednecessarily nomads fromtheir situation. Khiva is their stronghold,where they affirmtheir purest blood is to be found. As we have seen, Khiva was a mere dependencyof theirgreat hero,and thereforeoverrun by themat an earlydate. They are divided,according to Vambery,into thirtyprincipal Taife or tribes. Amongthese tribesare verymany, such as the Kungrat,Kaptchak, Khitai, Nayman,Kulan, Taz, Uygur,OshuLr, Kandjegaly,Djelair, Kanli, Karakazak, etc.,which are identical in theirnames with the tribesof the KirghizKazaks. It is also a curiousfact, that when the Euzbegs are at a loss fora Khan, eitherfrom failure of the royal stock amnongthem or otherwise,they have recourseto the Kazaks. These factsgo stronglyto prove that Euzbegs (i.e., Uz-begs)and Kazaks (i.e., Kaz- or Gaz-ak) are branchesof one people,torn asunder only at the irruptionof theKalmucks, and that beforethat theywere the commonsuLbjects of Enzbeg Khan and his successors. We have now followedthe migrationsof the Turks in Tluran since the foundationof the Golden Horde. In the next paper we shall shew how and whenthe vast steppes,bounded by the Volga and theAltai mountains,the Oxus and steppesof Baraba, were firstoccupied by the Turks,and trace their course down to the days of Zenghiz. PARTVII.-Tle THUKIUEor TURKSPROPER, and the HOEITCHE or UZES. It is the practice among the Turkish hordes-a practiceof whichseveral examples have occurredin the presentseries of papers-to name a hordeor congeryof clans fromthat clan or tribeto whichthe ruling familybelongs, and which is forthe timepredominant. Thus we, at one period,hear of Gusses,at

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