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Der VERMUTUNGEN Das BUCH der VERMUTUNGEN. Marco Polo – Eine Legende und deren Weltbeschreibung am Prüfstand aktueller Forschungspositionen. DIPLOMARBEIT zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades eines Magisters der Philosophie an der Geisteswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz vorgelegt von Markus Robert HAUSMANN am Institut für Geschichte Begutachter: Ass.-Prof. Mag. Dr. phil. Johannes Giessauf Graz, Dezember 2013 Für mich. Für meine geduldige Familie. Für die (Nach-)Welt und deren Bücherregale. „Bei allem immanenten Interesse an Marco Polos Buch mag man doch zweifeln, ob es über Generationen hinweg auf viele Leser solch anhaltende Faszination ausgeübt hätte ohne die schwierigen Fragen, die es stellt. Es ist ein großartiges Werk voller Rätsel, wobei wir im Vertrauen auf das menschliche Wahrheitsstreben glauben, dass es zu jedem Rätsel eine Lösung gibt.“ (HENRY YULE, The Book of Ser Marco Polo) INHALTSVERZEICHNIS i. | MARCO SEI DANK! 5 I. | PROLOG – EINLEITUNG 6 II. | WER WAREN DIE POLOS? 11 III. | ZWEI SAGENHAFTE REISEN 19 IV. | KONTROVERSIELLE AUTORSCHAFT 37 V. | KOMPLEXITÄTEN DER ÜBERLIEFERUNG 44 V. I. | DIE FAMILIEN DER HANDSCHRIFTEN 44 V. II. | DISKUSSION UND FORSCHUNGSTENDENZEN 49 VI. | KOHÄRENZPROBLEME DES „ITINERARS“ 55 VI. I. | EIN GEO-ETHNOGRAPHISCHES DICKICHT 55 VI. II. | CHINESISCHE NAMEN IM PERSISCHEN KLEID 60 VII. | VERGESSENE ZIVILISATIONS-/KULTURASPEKTE 64 VII. I. | SCHRIFTLOSE DRUCKWERKE 67 VII. II. | VERSCHMÄHTE AUFGÜSSE 71 VII. III. | VON EINGEBUNDENEN FÜßEN UND KORMORANEN 73 VII. IV. | DIE ÜBERSEHENE GROßE MAUER 78 VIII. | EINE BEEINDRUCKENDE FÜLLE AN FAKTEN 83 IX. | VERMEINTLICHE ÄMTER UND AUFGABEN 96 IX. I. | DIE SELBSTERNANNTEN BELAGERUNGS-EXPERTEN 96 IX. II. | RÄTSELHAFTE GOUVERNEURSWÜRDEN 99 IX. III. | EIN JUGENDLICHER EMISSÄR & SEINE DIPLOMATEN 105 X. | DAS SCHWEIGEN DER QUELLEN 112 XI. | EPILOG – ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 117 XII. | LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 121 XII. I. | PRIMÄRLITERATUR 121 XII. II. | SEKUNDÄRLITERATUR 122 i. | MARCO SEI DANK! Zehn Jahre lang studiere ich nun schon, was wohl auf die amorphe Angst vor Verantwortung(en), das Peter Pan-Syndrom eines ewig Jugendlichen und meine unbän- dige Hingabe zu einer (pseudo)hedonistischen Lebensführung zurückzuführen ist. Ich wollte stets das Sandkorn im Getriebe sein und meiner (mich charakterisierenden) bürgerlichen Sozialisierung entfliehen. Zudem erlegte ich meiner Seele den malträtierenden Druck auf, dass eine Diplomarbeit ein revolutionäres Opus Magnum von wissenschaftlicher Bedeutung sein müsse. Diese Zeilen wollen nicht eine Rechtfertigung artikulieren, sondern als Reflexion eines bemühten Gegen-den-Strom- Schwimmers gelesen werden, der als idealistischer Träumer seinen Platz in der Gesell- schaft erst finden muss. Studieren soll nicht wiederkäuen sein, sondern darf auch amüsieren und muss – wie ich meine – einen selbstverantworteten Prozess darstellen, denn ich will ja Lehrer werden und nicht leerer. Zwar ist diese Identitätsfindung nach wie vor nicht abgeschlossen und meine aus vielfachen Interessen resultierende innere Zerrissenheit kaum befriedet, aber das psychosomatische Leiden hervorrufende Damoklesschwert eines nicht abgeschlossenen Studiums scheint nun endlich bezwun- gen worden zu sein. Dass ich mich meinen Dämonen gestellt habe, ist schlussendlich vor allem der faszinierenden Thematik des MARCO POLO zu verdanken, welche mir auf- grund einer im Frühling dieses Jahres konsumierten arte-Dokumentation in Herz, Hirn und Iris flimmerte. Bedanken möchte ich mich auch bei meinem Vater für dessen Ge- duld, das in mich gesetzte Vertrauen sowie das grundsätzliche Ermöglichen meines magistralen Marathons. Dank gebührt auch meiner Mutter, die den „verlorenen Sohn“ im Rahmen des Schreibprozesses nicht nur in ihre umsorgenden Arme nahm, sondern mich auch immer wieder zur Weiterarbeit anspornte. Bedanken will ich mich auch bei meiner Schwester, deren hocherfreutes Diplomprüfungs-Gesicht ein in mir aufkeimen- des „neidisches“ Sehnsuchtsgefühl zeitigte und mich an den Arbeitstisch regelrecht zwang. Schlussendlich wäre dies alles nicht möglich gewesen, hätte ich in Ass.-Prof. Mag. Dr. phil. JOHANNES GIESSAUF nicht einen menschlich wie fachlich außerordent- lich herausragenden Diplomarbeits-Betreuer gefunden, der mich im Zuge der sechsmonatigen Werksentstehung tatkräftig unterstützte und meinen diesbezüglichen Zweifeln stets mit balsamierendem Humor begegnete. 5 I. | PROLOG – EINLEITUNG MARCO POLO ist heute nahezu der einzige Fernostasienreisende des Mittelalters, dem aufgrund seiner uns überlieferten Beschreibung des asiatischen Kontinents ein welt- weiter Bekanntheitsgrad zugeschrieben werden kann. Als eines der wenigen großen Menschheitsbücher wusste (und weiß) dieses seit mehr als 700 Jahren nicht nur von fernöstlichen Naturräumen, Königreichen und Menschen, ihren kulturellen Leistungen und Bräuchen zu berichten, sondern auch das außergewöhnliche Leben eines veneziani- schen Kaufmannssohnes zu skizzieren, der sich laut eigenen Angaben als 17-Jähriger in das von der mongolischen Yuán-Dynastie (1271-1368) beherrschte „Reich der Mitte“ begab, dort zum Berichterstatter sowie Vertrauten des chinesischen Kaisers reifte und den gepflasterten Kai seiner heimatlichen Lagunenstadt erst nach vierundzwanzig- jähriger Abwesenheit wieder betrat. Bereits zu seinen Lebzeiten bezweifelten einige Zeitgenossen die Wahrhaftigkeit seiner Schilderungen, zumal deren merkwürdig-fremdartigen Inhalte die menschliche Vorstellungskraft des 14. Jahrhunderts überstiegen und jegliche Grundfesten der selbstverständlichen Überzeugungen zumindest zu irritieren vermochten. Auch wenn man dem Venezianer im Laufe der Jahrhunderte zu manchen Zeiten Glauben schenkte, so artikulierte sich besonders seit der Mitte des 18. Jahrhunderts das wissenschaftliche Misstrauen und wollte vor allem aufgrund der mit Schwierigkeiten verbundenen Identifizierung der von ihm verzeichneten Ortsnamen sowie der unerwähnt gebliebenen Großen Chinesischen Mauer nicht verstummen. Weder konnten die in der Folge entstandenen – und ausufernd kommentierten – Editionen seiner Asien-Beschreibung jene Skepsis befrieden, noch gelang es der zuhauf veröffentlichten Sekundärliteratur1, die undurchsichtige Problematik restlos zu (er)klären. Vielmehr vermuteten einige POLO-Forscher des 20. Jahrhunderts, allen voran die englische Sinologin FRANCES WOOD, dass MARCO nie in China gewesen sei und seine Informationen von einer nicht zu eruierenden, wahrscheinlich persischen Quelle stammen müssten. Ihre 1995 erschie- 1 Kein anderes Themenfeld des Mittelalters wurde derart häufig debattiert wie auch kommentiert. Die diesbezüglich 1986 zusammengetragene Bibliographie des japanischen Historikers HIROSHI WATANABE beinhaltet über 2300 Artikel, Monographien und Sammelbände, welche alleine in den europäischen Sprachen veröffentlicht wurden. Siehe WATANABE, HIROSHI (Hg.): Marco Polo Bibliography, 1477-1983. Tokyo: The Toyo Bunko 1986. 6 nene Monographie „Did Marco Polo go to China?“2 sorgte in der akademischen Welt für eine Flut an Publikationen und eine (wiederholte) Intensivierung der mittels verschiedenster Argumentationen und Interpretationen geführten Kontroverse. Diesem Diskurs widmet sich die in der Folge ausgebreitete Diplomarbeit, welche auf- grund meiner fehlenden sinologischen Expertise keine Neubewertung der Thematik vornehmen kann,3 sondern sich einer Darbietung der aktuellen Forschungspositionen verschreiben will. Das vorrangige Ziel meiner Ausführungen besteht also in einer Art vergleichender Literaturschau, die unter Einbeziehung der mir zugänglichen bzw. verständlichen Veröffentlichungen versuchen soll, den durch die WOOD’schen (Hypo)Thesen gezeitigten Nachhall an Entgegnungen bzw. Debatten festzuhalten und derart den Status Quo der POLO-Forschung abzubilden. Hierbei soll und kann es nicht um die Lösung eines Rätsels gehen, sondern um die Entflechtung und Darstellung des zu Klärenden. Um dieser Ambition annähernd zu genügen und ohne einen Anspruch auf Vollständigkeit zu erheben, wurde ein beträchtliches Maß an Sekundärliteratur konsul- tiert, welches sich nicht auf die in den letzten zwanzig Jahren erschienenen Forschungsergebnisse des beispielsweise von STEPHEN G. HAW, HANS-ULRICH VOGEL, IGOR DE RACHEWILTZ, MARINA MÜNKLER, PHILIPPE MÉNARD, JOHN LARNER und ALVARO BARBIERI repräsentierten Westens beschränkt, sondern auch die (ins Englische übersetzten) Schriften einiger chinesischer Wissenschaftler – vor allem PENG HAI, YANG ZHIJIU, CAI MEIBIAO und GU WEIMIN – zu Wort kommen lässt. Da die um MARCO POLO sich rankenden Vermutungen zahlreiche Fragen aufwerfen, musste ich notgedrungen eine inhaltliche Auswahl treffen, welche sich dennoch be- müht, die zentralen Inhalte der von unterschiedlichen Standpunkten bzw. Fachwissen- schaften ausgefochtenen Diskussion zu bündeln. So widmet sich die vorliegende Diplomarbeit anfänglich der umstrittenen Ahnenreihe der Familie POLO und versucht die historische Person des MARCO POLO anhand einiger Lebenszeugnisse in einen größeren Kontext einzubetten. Ferner setzt sich dieser Abschnitt zum Ziel, den beruf- 2 Vgl. WOOD, FRANCES: Marco Polo kam nicht bis China. Aus dem Englischen von BARBARA REITZ und BERNHARD JENDRICKE. München: Piper 1998. 3 Nach meinem Dafürhalten gestaltet sich eine gleichsam kritische wie umfassende Untersuchung der überaus vielschichtigen und detailverliebten Materie als schwieriges und für mich als Nicht- Chinakundler beinahe unmögliches Unterfangen, welches nicht nur die Kenntnis einiger arabisch- asiatischen Sprachen voraussetzt, sondern einem auch Kompetenzen in
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