Perspectives on Land and Water Politics at Mushandike Irrigation Scheme, Masvingo, Zimbabwe
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PERSPECTIVES ON LAND AND WATER POLITICS AT MUSHANDIKE IRRIGATION SCHEME, MASVINGO, ZIMBABWE A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY RHODES UNIVERSITY BY JONATHAN MAFUKIDZE December 2017 Supervisor: Professor Kirk Helliker Department of Sociology i ABSTRACT Access to, control and ownership of land and water, amongst other natural resources in Zimbabwe, shape and affect rural lives, livelihoods, social relations and social organisation. Rural poverty has been entrenched and exacerbated by, amongst other factors, highly restricted access to these scarce resources. Historically, Zimbabwe’s rural areas (such as communal areas, smallholder irrigation schemes and resettlement areas) have existed as sites of struggles where contestations and negotiations over access to, control or ownership of these resources have taken place. Resultantly, multifaceted and dynamic social relations have been weaved and contested social spaces carved out. In rural Zimbabwe, contestations have tended to be complex, nuanced and intricate, working themselves out in different ways across time and space. In their heightened and more visible state, they have been characterised by violent physical expressions which, in the history of the country, involved two wars of liberation, the First Chimurenga (1896-1897) and the Second Chimurenga (1960s to 1980). The most recent violent manifestation was through nation-wide land invasions, politically christened the Third Chimurenga, which peaked in 2000 and continued sporadically to this day. Few studies on smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe have focused on understanding how contestations for access to scarce land and water resources are framed and negotiated at the local level. Cognisant of this lacuna, this thesis uses social constructionism in examining, as a case study, Mushandike Smallholder Irrigation Scheme in Masvingo Province in order to understand and analyse how land and water politics occur at the local level. The study deploys a qualitative research methodology approach in examining local water and land politics, which involved original irrigation beneficiaries and more recent land invaders. Findings of the thesis indicate that land and water shortages have increased considerably in the past two decades at the irrigation scheme due to the influx of land invaders into the scheme. This influx has had a negative impact on agricultural production and other livelihood strategies. Both scheme members and land invaders lay claim to land and water at Mushandike. These claims are ii intricately constructed and contested, and they are linked to broader issues such as partisan party- politics, policy developments, and tradition, origin, indigeneity and belonging. Though the struggles over land and water at Mushandike are firmly rooted in the concrete conditions of existence and experiences of beneficiaries and land invaders, external actors such as political leaders, state bureaucrats and traditional chiefs tend to complicate and intensify the contestations. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to my supervisor, Prof. Kirk Helliker, for his astute intellectual guidance and unparalleled moral and financial support. His guidance and support made the completion of the thesis possible. I also want to thank the department of Sociology and the Mellon Foundation who through Prof Kirk Helliker extended much needed financial support to me; this made the journey more possible and comfortable. May such benevolence be extended unto many needy PhD students to avert dropping out. I am also thankful to Mrs. Juanita Fuller and the staff in the Sociology Department at Rhodes for always being ready and willing to serve. Many thanks to the people of Mushandike (community leaders, irrigation farmers, land-seekers, herdboys, veterinary officers, Agritex officials and public transport operators) who helped me without expecting much; I am thankful and feel deeply indebted to you: “May you find an amicable solution to your land and water problems”. My gratitude also goes to Mr. Tawanda Dovie (my dear brother), his wife Constancia, and children Takudzwa, Tafara and Tanyaradzwa, as my hosts during my visists to Mushandike, for the undeserved VIP treatment. To my brothers (Goodluck, Jeremiah, Gift, Michael, David and Douglas), my sisters (Locadia, Ellen, Dadirai, Sekai and Itai) and children (Rutendo, Rugare and Rufaro), thank you for standing by me, unflinchingly. To Jona and Miria who fell before the completion of this endeavour, I am forever grateful and deeply indebted. Heartfelt gratitude to my wife (Vandudzai Mbanda) for supporting me all the way, for sacrificing her time to read and discuss my work with me and for encouragement. Many thanks to the following men and women who inspired me along the way: Mike Movondori, Cde Brian Chitumba, Takesure Zhowa, Gidion and Mrs. Sinqobile Ncube, Brian Chiwodzi, Dr Manase K. Chiweshe, Pastor Elia and Mrs B. Chavula, Bishop Garry Skosana, Dr. Shepherd Skosana, Pritchard and Heydan Skosana, Dr. Omar Hamza Mokiwa, Lovemore Muchenje, Munyaradzi Mugowo, Eddie C. Nyamutsika, Dr. Christopher Mabeza, Makgabo H. Tsiri, Mompati Bhaipeti, Ms Catherine Cross, Prof. Michael Neocosmos, Dr. Michael Onyebuchi Eze, Reason Wafawarova, Dr. Peiter Kok, Niel Roux, Leornard Ndinde, and my ever positive brother iv George (Mushuga) Tevera. Special thanks to Felix Tombindo for the camaraderie, for leading me by the hand at Rhodes and for braving and enjoying the odd-hour trips to and from the library. v Table of Contents ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... iv TABLES AND FIGURES .........................................................................................................x List of Tables........................................................................................................................................ x List of Figures ..................................................................................................................................... xi ACRONYMS .......................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Conceptualising land, interrogating supposed positivity of exclusion.............................................. 4 1.2.1 Land and land reforms in Africa ............................................................................................... 6 1.3 Conceptualising water ................................................................................................................... 9 1.3.1 Past and present discursive constructions ............................................................................... 9 1.3.2 Water, life, rights, equity and social justice ........................................................................... 12 1.4 Land, water and irrigation schemes: significance, scarcity and competition.................................. 15 1.5 Land and water symbiosis: contestation and conflict.................................................................... 17 1.6 The Zimbabwean water situation in recent years and its effects................................................... 20 1.7 Problem statement ...................................................................................................................... 24 1.8 Research questions and goals ...................................................................................................... 30 1.9 Significance of the study .............................................................................................................. 31 1.10 Background to the case study area ............................................................................................. 32 1.11 Research methodology and methods ......................................................................................... 33 1.11.1 Epistemology and ontology ................................................................................................. 34 1.11.2 Case study research design ................................................................................................. 36 1.11.3 Research methods............................................................................................................... 39 1.11.4 Sampling procedure ............................................................................................................ 46 1.11.5 Data analysis ....................................................................................................................... 49 1.11.6 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................................... 50 1.12 Thesis outline ............................................................................................................................. 51 CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTANDING LAND AND WATER POLITICS THROUGH A SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONIST THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................... 53 vi 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................