The Wakhi: Community and Language Nadeem Shafiq Malik

Me’yar : Academic and Research Journal, Department of , IIUI, Vol: 2, No: 2, Jul-Dec 2010

The Wakhi: Community and Language

Nadeem Shafiq Malik *

The Northern is an area of geographical and ethnic diversity and is placed among the most multilingual places of the world.i The important languages spoken in the region include Shina, Balti, Burushashki, Khawar and Wakhi,.ii Wakhi is basically the language of inhabitants of Corridor, an area presently divided between the extreme northeast of and Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province of . It belongs to the southern group of the Pamiri languages which are spoken in the mountainous regions of Afghanistan and Tajikistaniii. All these languages do not have a script or written legacy and, therefore, are used only as spoken languages. iv

However, as far as the language structure is concerned, Wakhi, which is rich in archaisms, is relatively different from its neighboring Pamiri languages which are genetically more coherent. v Like other Pamiri languages, Wakhi still exists as a non-written language and is limited to phonetic notations. However, different writing systems have been adopted by some scholars to preserve Wakhi language and literature which included , Cyrillic, and Latin. vi

Although divided by borders, the Wakhi language is still very much the same, and dialectal differences are not great.vii Main dialects of Wakhi spoken in Pakistan include Gojali, Ishkomani, Yasini, and Yarkuni. Dialect intelligibility is reported not to be a problem even of those living in other countries. Lexical similarity is 84% between Iskoman and , 89% between Yasin and Gojal, and 91% between Iskoman and Yasin. viii

* Joint Secretary/Financial Adviser, Ministry of Finance and Revenue.

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The Wakhi: Community and Language Nadeem Shafiq Malik

At present, 65,000 Wakhis live in remote areas of Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and . In Afghanistan, they live in the of where three quarter of the population is Wakhi speaking. ix In China, the Wakhis live in the Taskurghan Tajik . They use Uigher or Chinese for writing purposes. x In Tajikistan, the Wakhis occupy the highest valley in the South-Central region of Gorno-Badakshan province having higher altitude Pamir Mountains. xi In Pakistan, the major settlements of Wakhis are found in the most northeastern part of Chitral called Bargoghil area, upper Yarkhun and Iskoman Valleys of Chitral, and in Gojal, and Chupursan Valleys of . xii

The literacy rate among the Wakhis of Pakistan is about 60%. Men and young school going children are fairly bilingual in Urdu while less than half of the women can also speak Urdu. In Pakistan, the main organization of Wakhis is the Wakhi Tajik Cultural Association (WTCA) which is working for the preservation of the Wakhi language and culture, as well as documenting their and culture. xiii

Due to several reasons including wars, natural calamities, heavy taxation, slavery, oppression by the local rulers and Afghan officials, the members of Wakhi community used to flee to the neighbouring countries particularly to the Chitral and -Baltistan regions of Pakistan. 17 These migrants have mostly come from the , but Wakhi speaking asylum seekers belonging to Tajikistan and Chinese Turkistan have also settled in Northern Pakistan. 18

The Wakhi community of Pakistan adheres to the Ismaili interpretation of Shia Islam31. Under the leadership of the Agha Khans III & IV, a process of modernization has been initiated within the Ismaili community and several educational and social reforms have been introduced. 32 The main focus of this reformatory process is on community development, improvement in education and health care systems, and rising of income level of the community members. Women are also being encouraged to take part in out door social activities. 33 On the whole, the Ismailia community has moved towards constitutionalism by incorporating and explaining role of different institutional bodies set up for welfare of the community. The

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theological philosophy has also undergone a process of reform. Outdated terminologies, theories and practices have been either revoked or modified. 34

The religious life of Ismailis of Pakistan has also been influenced by other social, economic and cultural changes. The main cultural variants like dietary habits, dress code and life style have been drastically changed. Instead of adopting ancestral professions like low- level business activities and agro-pastoral practices, the younger generations of Ismailis prefer to enter into modern professions like medicine, teaching, banking, management and information technology.44

The trend of bi/multilingualism is present throughout the Northern Pakistan including the Wakhi speech community. Generally speaking, Wakhi speakers have shown pragmatic attitudes toward adoption of languages of wider communications. Since so many languages are spoken in close proximity, it is common for them to acquire some degree of proficiency in one or more neighboring languages. Besides, other social factors like inter-ethnic contacts, regional dominance of some language and promotion of Urdu and English through education and media have also played their role in growth of multilingualism.48

On the whole, the Wakhi speakers have positive attitude towards learning other languages. Nevertheless, the Wakhi language spoken in the Northern Pakistan does not seem to be endangered by a threat of extinction as its speakers are not forced to use a foreign language in everyday life. As a matter of fact, due to their isolated settlements, the Wakhis are less subjected to historic and economic changes. Therefore, the Wakhi language has no immediate threat of disappearance as a spoken language but there is a dire need to preserve its folk literature, vocabulary, idiomatic phrases, and other linguistic heritage in written form.

NOTES:

i For details, see Calvin R. Renseh, Sandra J. Decker and Daniel G. Hallbreg, ed., Socio – Linguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, Vols.1-IV. (Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies, 2002).

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ii For details, see George Abraham Grieson, ed., Linguistic Survey of India, Vol. VIII, Part. II, Specimens of the Dardic or Pisacha Languages (Including Kashmiri), and Vol. X, Aryan Family (Calcutta: Government of India Press, 1919 & 1928). See T. Grahame Bailey, Grammar of the (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1924); David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer, The Language (Oslo: Institutect for Sammenlynende Kulturforshining, 1935-38); , “Burushaski and its Alien Neighbours: Problems in Linguistic Condition”, Transactions of the Philological Society, 1937, pp.63-98; , “A Note on Various Hunza and Shimshali Names,” The Himalayan Journal, Vol. X, (1938), pp.121-25; and , “The Dumaki Language: Outlines of the Speech of the Domo or Bericho of Hunza”, in Publications de la Commission d’ Enquete Linguisique IV. Nijmegan: Comite International Permanent des Linguitses, 1939; Georg Morgenstierne, Report on a Linguistic Mission to North-Western India (Karachi: Indus Publications, n. d. ); , Indo–Iranian Frontier Languages, Vol. II., Iranian (Oslo : Institutect for Sammenlignede Kulturforskning, 1938); , Languages of Nuristan and Surrounding Regions,” in K. Jettmar, ed., Cultures of the Hindukush (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1974); George Buddruss, “Linguistic Research in Gilgit and Hunza: Some Results and Perspectives,” Journal of , Vol.8, No.1, (1985), pp.27-32, “Zur altesten Sammlung von Sprichwortern and Ratseln in der Shina-Sprache,” Studien Zur Indologie and Iranistik, Vol.13/14, (1987), pp.39-57; “German Linguistic Research in the Northern Areas of Pakistan,” in Zingel-Ave’ Lallemant, Stephanie and Zingel, Wolfgang-Peler, ed., Neueve deutsche Beitrage zu Gsckiehte und Kultur (Bonn: Schriftenveihe des Deutsch – Pakistanischen- Forums, 1993), pp.38-49; Dshoj Josiforna Eddman, The Dardic and (Moskan: Nauka Publishing House, 1983); Gerard Fussman, Atlas linguistique des parles Dardes et Kafirs (Paris:Publications de Ecole Francaised’ Extreme Orient 86, 1972); Alexandar Lenowich Grunberg, “Opytlingvisticeskoj karty Nuristana,” Strany i narody Vostoka, Vol.10 (1971), pp.288-290; ______, Jazyki Vostochnogo Gindukuska, Jazyk kalti (Moscow: Nauha Publishing House, 1980); , Afghanistan Sprachsituation and Sprachenpolitile” Abandlungen and Berichte des Staaticher Museums fur Volkerkunde Dresden , Vol.47 (1992), pp.235-42; Ruth Laila Schmidt, “Report on a Survey of of Kashmir”, Indian , Vol.42, (1981), pp.17-21; George Buddruss, “Neue Schriftsprachen in Norden Pakistan” in A. Assmann, and J. Assmann ed., Schrift und Gedachtnis Archaologie der literarischen Kommunikation (Munchenn: Wilhelum Fink, 1983), pp.231-44; ------, “Domaaki chot ‘Ton’. Mit Beitragen zur historischen Lautkhre” Munchener Studien zur Sprachnissenschaf , Vol.42 (1983), pp.5-21); _____ “Domaaki – Nachtrage zum Atlas der Dardsprachen,” Munchener Studien zur Sprachuissenschaft, Vol.43 (1984), pp.9-24; Alexander Leonowich Grunberg and Steblin – Kamensky, Iwan Michailowich, Vakhanskij Jazyk (Moscow: Nauha Publishing House, 1976); Hermann Berger, “Berich uber sprachliche und volkskundiliche Forschungen im Hunzatal,” Anthropos, Vol.55, (1960), pp.657-664;

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___ , “A Study of Burushaski Studies”, Journal of Central Asia, Vol.8, No.2, (1985), pp.33-37; , Die Burushashki – Sprache van Hunza und Nager (Wiesbaden: Harrassouitz, 1998); David Lockhart Robertson Lorimer, The Burushaski Language (Oslo: Instituiltet for Sammen-lignende Kultur forsknsing, 1935-1938); , “Burushaski and its Alien Neighbours: Problems in Linguistic Condition,” Transactions of the Philogical Society, 1937, pp.63-98; Bertil Tikhanen, “On Burnshaski and other Ancient Substrata in Northwestern ,” Studia Orientalia, Vol.64 (1988), pp.303-325; Ivan Ivanovich Zarubin, “Versikshoe narecie kandzutshogo jazyka,” Zapiski Kollegii Vostokovedov, Vol.2, No.2, pp.275- 364; Hermann Berger, Das Yasin-Burushaski: Werchikwar (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1974); Etienne Tiffon and Jurgen Pesot, Coutes du Yasin: Introduction au bourouc- haski du Yasin avee grammaine et dictionnaire analytique (Paris: Peeters & Selaf ,1989); Hugh van Skyhawk, Burushaski – Texteans Hispar: Materialien zum Verstandnis eiuner archaischen Bergkultur in Nordpakistan (Wiesbaden: Hanassowitz, 2003); Roland Bielmeier, “A Survey of the Development of Western and Southwestern Tibetan Dialects,” in B. N. Aziz and M. Kapstein, Soundings in Tibetan Civilization (New Delhi: Manohar, 1985); A.F.C. Read, Balti Grammar (London: The Royal Asiatic Society, 1934); Klans Sagaster, “Tales from Northern Pakistan: The Discovery of the Folk Literature of Baltistan” in Zingel-Ave Lallemant, Stephanie and Zingel, Wolfgang – Peters, eds., Neueve deutsche Beitrage Zu Geschichte und Kultur Pakistans (Bonn: Eigenverlag, 1993), pp.83-92. iii “: Wakhi, “ The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies , http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/languages/Wakhi htm. (accessed on December 20,2006). iv For details see, R.E. Asher ed., The Encyclopedia of Languages and Linguistics, Vol, I, p.46; and Leila Dodykhudoeva, “The Socio-Linguist Situation and Language Policy of the Autonomous Region of Mountainous Badkhshan: The Case of ”, World Congress on Language Policies, Barcelona, April 16-20, 2002, Wikipedia.com. (accessed on April 10, 2007). v For details, see Fazal Amin Beg, “Indo-European Family of Languages and the Place of Wakhi: A Crucial Perspective.” Unpublished research paper provided by the author. [email protected] . vi Hermann Kreutzmann, “Ethnic Minorities and Marginality in the Pamir Knot: Survival of Wakhi and Kirghiz in a Harsh Environment and Global Context,” The Geographical Journal, Vol.169, Issue 3, (September 2003),”, pp.218-19. Also see “Wakhi”, Wikipedia.com (accessed on December 24, 2008). vii“Iranian Languages: Wakhi”, The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies, http: //www.cais.soas.com/CAIS/languages/wakhi.htm. (accessed on December 20,2006). viii In China, Eastern Wakhi dialect is spoken while in Tajikistan, Western, Central and Eastern dialects of Wakhi are spoken. Quoted in http: //www. ethnolongue.com/shaw language.asp? code = wbl. (accessed on May 8, 2008).

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ixhttp.//www.ethnologue.com/show-language.asp? code = wbl. (accessed on May 8, 2008). xFazal Amin Beg, “Religion and the Wakhi,” unpublished paper provided by the author himself. [email protected]. xi Hermann Kreutzmann, “Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time: A Survey in the Eastern Hindukush and Karakarum”, Himalayan Linguistics, Vol.4, (2005), p.8. Also see, Iraj Bashiri, “The Languages of Tajikistan in Perspective,” http://www. angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/ Tajling/Tajling html. (accessed on May 30, 2007). xiihttp.//www.ethnologue.com/show-language.asp?code=wbl. (accessed on May 8, 2008). xiii Gerard Fussman, ‘‘Languages as a Source for History’’ in Ahmad Hasan Dani, ed., History of Northern Areas of Pakistan (Islamabad: National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research, 1991), p.54. 17 M. Nazif Mohib Shahrani, The Kirghiz and Wakhi of Afghanistan,: Adaptation to Closed Frontiers (Seattle: University of Washington Press), 1979 p.45. 18 Jamal Hyder Siddiqi, Wadi-i-Chitral: Tarikh, Mashiat, Munsharat (Islamabad: PPA Publications, 1996), p.70. 31 For an overview of the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam, see Wilferd Madelung, “Shism: Ismailiyah,” Mircea Eliade, ed., Encyclopedia of Religion (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1987), Vol. 13, pp.247-260; and “Ismailite,” The New Encyclopedia Britannica (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 2005), Vol. 6, p.415. 32 Quoted in The Pillars of Islam: Diamal Islam Al-Qadi Al-Numan, translated by Asaf A. A. Fyzee, revised by Ismail Kurban Hussain Poonawala, Vol: II, Maumalat: Laws Pertaining to Human Intercourse (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), p. xiix. 33 Amin Valliani, “Modernization in Ismaili Community of Pakistan”, PJHC, Vol. LIII, No.4 (October-December 2005), pp. 90-91. 34 Ibid. 44 Amin Valliani, “Modernization in Ismaili Community of Pakistan,” p.98.

48 Calvin R. Renseh, Sandra J. Decker and Daniel G. Hallbreg, ed., Socio – Linguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, Vol.1, p. xv.

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Abstract

Dr. Nadeem Shafiq Malik is a civil servant by profession and a researcher by passion. He received his M. Sc and M. Phil degrees in History from the Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad; M.A. Punjabi from the Punjab

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The Wakhi: Community and Language Nadeem Shafiq Malik

University, Lahore; and Certificates in Librarianship and Refugees Law; Post Graduate Diploma in Women Studies; M. Phil Iqbal Studies and M.Phil Pakistani Languages & Literature; and Ph.D degree in Iqbal Studies from the Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad. Dr. Nadeem has contributed about sixty research articles on history & politics of Pakistan and different aspects of life and works of Allama Muhammad Iqbal which have been published in the reputed research journals of the leading universities and learned bodies of the country. His earlier books included Iqbal and the English Press of Pakistan (Lahore: Iqbal Academy, 1996); The Politics of Opposition in Pakistan (Lahore: Plus Communication, 1996); Research Papers on Pakistan (Islamabad: National Book Foundation, 1997); The Political Sagacity of Iqbal (Islamabad: National Book Foundation, 1997); The All India Muslim League, 1906-1947 (Islamabad: National Book Foundation, 1997); Allama Iqbal Ka-Khutba-i-Allahabasd, 1930: Aik Mutalia [Urdu] (Lahore: Ferozesons, 1998); and The Formative Years of All India Muslim League, 1906-1919 (Lahore: Azharsons, 2007).

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