Livelihood Profile Tigray Region, Ethiopia

Central Mixed Crop Livelihood Zone February 20071

Zone Description The central mixed crop zone extends across Ganta Afeshum, Ahferom, Adwa, Werei Leke, Laelay Maichew and Naeder Adet woredas. It is located in central Tigray, and includes part of Mereb leke and a very small part of Gulomekeda to the north, and shares a border with Kola Temben to the south, and Tahtay Machew to the west. It lies in the woina dega (midland) agro-ecology, with a scenic landscape of undulating mountains alternating with plains. The most prominent mountain is the Soloda mountain, which imposes its presence on Adwa town. Bush scrub and scattered trees are the main vegetation in an area. Marble and black stones are found in abundance just below the surface, and they are used for house construction. Population density is medium to high. Rainfall is approximately 350 to 700 mm per year, and temperatures are moderate because of the altitude. Water for human consumption is collected from developed springs, hand dug wells, and deep and shallow wells during both the wet and dry season.The production system is mixed farming, comprised of crop and livestock production. Crop production is dependant on the April to August long rains (Kiremt/kiremti). The main crops cultivated are sorghum, teff, hanfets (mixed barley and wheat), finger millet, and maize. Oxen are used to provide draught power for land preparation activities. Both men and women participate in weeding and harvesting. The zone is not well suited for crop production because cultivable land is limited by the terrain. The infertile sandy and clay soils reap modest crop yields. Erratic rainfall and land degradation present further obstacles to improved food security in the zone. Soil conservation, water harvesting and fertilizer are important to improve production. The zone faces a food deficit every year. The main crop hazards are shoot fly that mainly affects teff, rodents that attack barley and wheat, and rust which affect all crops. Treatment is available from the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) for cash or credit payment. The main livestock are cattle and shoats (sheep and goats), fed mainly from communal pasture and crop residue. Livestock are important for providing draught power, and as a source of both food and income. Goats are the commonly consumed and sold livestock. Consumption and sale of goats is usually during the festival periods. Goats are typically sold at least 10 months after birth. Cattle are valuable assets that are rarely sold, and hardly ever consumed. Cattle are kept for productive agricultural activities, and also serve as an investment that can provide relatively significant income in bad years. When cattle are sold, it is at least three years after birth. Younger oxen are purchased from the market to replace ageing oxen. Mature females are scarcely available on the market, and are replenished from within the herd. Households receive nourishment and earn income from livestock products such as butter. The major hazards are pasteurellosis, external and internal parasites, coccidiosis. pasteurellosis affects shoats, external and internal parasites are infecting all livestock, and coccidiosis affects chicken. Treatment is available free of charge and for cash from the BoARD. Labor sales are a major source of income and food particularly for poorer households. Male household members migrate to the sesame producing areas of western Tigray for weeding and harvesting activities between August and October. The Productive Safety-Net Program (PSNP) was initiated in 1997 Ethiopian Calendar (E.C). It is designed to protect the assets of chronically food insecure households through the provision of food and cash entitlements. Household with

1Field work for the current profile was undertaken in February 2007. The information presented refers to September 2005-August 2006 (EC 1998) a good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2011). The exchange for the reference year was 1USD: 8.767 ETB and all the prices refer to the reference year. The Ethiopian calendar is approximately 7/8 behind the Gregorian calendar.

Central Mixed Crop Livelihood Zone 2 able-bodied members get access to food or cash entitlements through public works activities. Households without labor receive direct support i.e. without participating in public works. In this zone, beneficiaries are receiving both food and cash distributions. The daily wage rate is 6Ethiopian Birr (ETB) for 5 working days a month, over a three-month period. 15kg of wheat per month is given as the equivalent food entitlement for the following three months. Access to credit was provided through the household credit package. The poor, middle and better-off households were provided loans that go up to 1500 ETB. These loans were used mainly to purchase cattle. Smaller loans of 800ETB were available to all wealth groups for shoat purchase. A third loan of 1200ETB was available to the middle and better- off households for beehive purchases. The repayment period for loans is 1-3 years depending on the value of the package. All loans have a 9% interest rate and repayment begins one year after loan disbursement. Repayment can be deferred in the event of a drought or epidemic.

Markets The main cereal on the market during the post harvest season from December to March is teff. The teff that is available on the market comes from Nebelet and Edaga Arbi. It is destined for markets in Axum through intermediate markets in Endaselassie. Some of the teff is exported to Mekelle through Adwa, Enticho and Adigrat. During the hunger season from May to September, sorghum and maize are imported into the zone from Humera and Gojam respectively. Sorghum from Humera is imported into the local Edaga Arbi market through intermediate markets in Endaselassie, Adwa, and Enticho. Maize is imported from Gojam through Edaga Selus, Adwa, and Enticho, heading for the destination market in Edaga Arbi. The purchase price of sorghum is slightly lower than maize. Pulses are imported into the zone throughout the year. The livestock markets are dominated by goats, cattle, and chickens. Goats are exported from Adwa to Rama; and from Enticho to destination markets in Adigrat. An additional trade route supplies goats from Edaga Selus to Axum, for destination markets in Endaselassie.. Cattle are exported to Axum from markets in Rama, Adwa, and Enticho and Axum, coming from Edaga Arbi.. Chickens are sold to markets in Shire, Rama, and Adigrat, supplied from Axum, Adwa, and Nebelet. Butter is also sold on the market.. Markets are moderately accessible. The roads around the livelihood zone are in fair condition. Of those people migrating for casual labor: 50-60% migrate to western Tigray (Humera, Dansha, and Sheraro) for sesame weeding and harvesting between August and October; 30-40% seek work in local towns, and 10-15% seek work in the local rural areas.

Seasonal Calendar There are three main seasons in the zone, namely the cultivation season which is made up of the short Asmera rains from April to May, and the main Kiremt/ Kiremti rains from mid June to September, Harvest season Meher/Kew’e from October to November , and cold dry season Belg/Hagai from December to March. Agriculture production is dependant on the April to August rainy season. The brief April rains are necessary for the planting of long cycle sorghum and finger millet in April and maize in May. The onset of the main rainy season allows the planting of short cycle teff and hanfets in June and July. Weeding by both men and women is done in July and August.

The consumption year begins in October with the harvest of maize, and hanfets. Teff and finger millet are harvested in

Central Mixed Crop Livelihood Zone

3

November. Local agricultural labor opportunities are available during the crop production season, mainly for weeding and harvesting activities. The onset of rain also marks the beginning of the livestock production season. Increased availability of pasture initiates the cattle heat and births period in May and June. The lactation period starts in June soon after the May births, and lasts until November. Livestock are sold throughout the year, however, there are seasonal peak trading periods: oxen sales increase during the land preparation period from April to June; goat sales increase during the festival periods, in April (Easter/Fasika), in September (New Year/ Meskerem), and in January during the (Epiphany/Timkat) celebrations. All households send somebody to western Tigray from August to October during the sesame weeding and harvesting season. Livestock migrate from Werei Leke to the lowlands in Werei catchment for pasture and water during the dry season. During bad years, livestock migrate in June to August, and December to January to the lowlands of Tsaedat in search of water and pasture. The hunger season peaks in July and August. During this period, the market is the main source of food for household consumption. As such, access to income is the primary livelihood strategy during this period. The main sources of income are labor migration, local labor, and milk production. The hunger season is broken by the October harvest. Malaria is associated with the onset and offset of rain. Infections begin in May and June, subside in July and August, and resume in September until November. Wealth Breakdown

Wealth Groups Characteristics Land area HH size Crops cultivated Livestock Holding cultivated

Very Poor 4-6 0-1 timad teff, sorghum, hanfets 1.25-3.25 shoats, 4-6 chickens

1.25-3.25 teff, lentils, maize, sorghum, 0.5-2.5cattle, 0.5-1.5 oxen, 4-6 Poor 5-7 timad hanfets, finger millet, barley shoats, 4-6 chickens

2-4 cattle, 1-3 oxen, 7-10 teff, lentils, maize, hanfets, Middle 6-7 2.5-3.5 timad goats, 0-2donkey, 6-8 finger millet chickens, 0-2 beehive

3.5-5.5 cattle, 1-3oxen,11-15 teff, lentils, hanfets, finger Better-off 5-7 4-5 timad shoats, 0.5-2.5 donkeys, 6-8 millet chickens, 1-3 beehives

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% % of population 1 hectar =4 timad

The main determinants of wealth are land cultivated and amount of livestock owned, particularly oxen. The amount of land cultivated is important for providing food and income, for household consumption. The main crops cultivated are teff, hanfets, finger millet, sorghum, and maize. Maize is mostly cultivated by the poor and the middle, and sorghum is mainly cultivated by very poor and the poor. Teff is the only crop that is both consumed and sold by all wealth groups. To get access to more land for cultivation, the better-off households rent-in land from the very poor. Crop sharing arrangements secure half the harvest from the rented land for the very poor. Livestock are important for draught power, income and food. Oxen are important for land sterilization. Only the very poor do not have oxen. The very poor rent-out land primarily because they do not have the draught power to utilize their entire land holding. The very poor at times exchange 2 days human labor for one day’s oxen labor. Alternatively, crop residues for cattle feed are exchanged for oxen labor. Livestock are particularly important for income. Goats are the commonly sold livestock to meet regular household expenses. Cattle are the valuable assets that are less frequently sold to allow the herd size to grow. Cattle are preferably sold when they are no longer productive, or in the event of a hazard when other income sources are unavailable and households need access to relatively significant income. The middle and better-off sell a modest 1 cow in four years and 1 cow in two years respectively. Livestock products such as butter, eggs and skins are also sold. Labor is an important asset particularly for the very poor and poor households. Labor opportunities are available in agriculture activities both locally and in western Tigray on sesame farms. The main constraints to crop production are lack of oxen and limited access to land. Livestock productivity is restricted by poor access to water and pasture. Residents construct small ponds to collect rain (water harvesting) for livestock, and also collectively manage swamps to allow harvesting of grass for livestock feeding. There is also land closure to facilitate pasture regeneration.

Central Mixed Crop Livelihood Zone 4

Sources of Food – A good year (2005-2006) The main source of food is own crop production. It is the biggest food source for the middle and better-off. The staple food crops produced are teff, hanfets and finger millet. The very poor and poor produce sorghum to compensate for lower teff yields. Own crop production increases from the very poor to the better-off. Food purchases are also important, providing 45-50%, 35-45%, 25-35% and 40-45% of food for the very poor, poor, middle and better-off respectively. This is the largest food source for the very poor and poor. The main food purchased by all In the graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of minimum food wealth groups is maize and sorghum. requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day. Non-staple purchases include pulses, oil and sugar. The very poor and poor do not purchase any oil. Staple food purchases start to increase from May, and peak between July and August when own stocks have been exhausted. Non- staple food is purchased throughout the year. Staple food purchases decrease from the very poor to the better-off, whilst non-staple food purchases increase from the very poor to the better-off. Food distributions from the PSNP are a significant source of food for the very poor, poor and middle wealth groups. Each wealth group has a maximum of 4 household members in the program, and they receive food distributions for 3 months. Payment in kind from agriculture labor in western Tigray is a food source for all wealth groups. At least one person from households in all wealth groups migrates for sesame weeding and harvesting for 2 months. During this period the household is absolved of the responsibility of feeding that individual, who gets his meals from the area of temporary residence, and this increases availability of food for the remaining household members. Payment in kind received through labor migration provides nearly 2-5% of food for all wealth groups. Household consumption of livestock products is only available to households that own livestock: the poor, middle and better-off. Main products consumed are eggs, butter and milk. The better off slaughter a shoat for household consumption particularly during holidays Sources of Cash – a good year (2005-2006) Sales of livestock and livestock products generate the most income make a significant contribution to incomes particularly for the middle and better-off. All wealth groups sell goats and chickens. Livestock product sales comprise butter, eggs and skins and its income share increases from very poor to the better off wealth group. Honey is also an important livestock product, sold by the middle and better-off that own beehives. The biggest income source for the very The graph provides a breakdown of total cash income according to income poor, and poor is income from labor source. migration. All households migrate to Annual western Tigray for the sesame weeding 1,750- 2,200- 3,200- income 4,100-4600 and harvesting season from August to 2,250 2,700 3,700 (ETB) October.

Central Mixed Crop Livelihood Zone

5

1 household member migrates from each wealth group. The poor migrate for up to 2.5 months, while all other households usually migrate for 2 months. The better-off migrate for labor – attracted like the other wealth groups to the higher rates paid in Humera PSNP is the third most important income source for the very poor and poor. Beneficiaries are from the very poor, poor and middle households. Participating wealth groups have a maximum of 4 household members each in the program. They are paid a wage rate of 6ETB per person per day for five working days a month over three months. Public works performed include road construction, land conservation, and water harvesting projects. The PSNP contribution to HH income declines as the wealth status rises. The better off are not part of the PSNP. However, they are involved in cash for work programs doing watershed management activities. Crop sales make a minor contribution to the incomes of the very poor and poor. Higher teff production among the middle and better-off mean that crop sales are more important for these wealth groups. Petty trade done by the very poor is linked weaving, while the middle and better-off have small shops. Expenditure Patterns – a good year (2005-2006) All wealth groups purchase staple food (sorghum and maize). Staple food expenditure decreases from the very poor to the better-off. Non-staple food expenditure is on pulses, sugar, oil and meat purchases. The very poor and poor do not purchase oil. The non-staple food purchase increase across the wealth group. Non-staple expenditure has an inverse relationship with staple food expenditure in terms of their magnitude of expense. The graph provides a breakdown of total cash expenditure according to category of expenditure. Expenditure on essential inputs increases from the very poor to the better-off and includes plowing expenses, seeds, fertilizer, agricultural labor hiring, and tools purchase. The very poor do not spend money on labor or plowing. Essential inputs expenditure enhances productivity through building the household asset base. Other expenditure includes credit repayment as well as transport, and community obligations. Household items are composed of soap, grinding, coffee, and utensils. Household items are 15-20% of expenditure for all wealth. Another major expenditure is on social services (health/education), 3-5% of expenditure for all wealth groups. The expenditure on clothes increase across the wealth group. Expenditure on constitutes a negligible share of the total expense. Hazards The main hazards to crop production are shoot fly, rodents and rust. Shoot fly affects teff, rodents attack barley and wheat, and rust affects all crops. Erratic rainfall patterns and hailstorm are intermittent hazards that occur once every three years. They are the biggest natural hazards. Land degradation is also threatening long term food security in the zone. The major livestock hazards are pasteurellosis, external and internal parasites, coccidiosis. Pasteurellosis affects shoats, external and internal parasites are infecting all livestock, and coccidiosis affects chicken. Coping Strategies The primary response to a bad year for the poor is to intensify their main source of income, labor sales. Most households can expand the number of household members migrating for labor, and the length of time for which they migrate. The poor only increase small stock sales reluctantly because they already have small livestock holdings. The better off have relatively larger livestock holding of both cattle and goats, and so greater capacity to expand livestock sales without damaging recovery prospects or long term household food security. The better off can also migrate along with the poor households for longer periods, with more people.

Central Mixed Crop Livelihood Zone 6

Summary This is a scenic zone with a midland ecology characterized by undulating hills and imposing mountains alternating with plains. It faces an acute food deficit every year because the terrain, though captivating, is unsuitable for crop cultivation. Landholdings are moderate, but soil erosion and the resulting soil infertility, compounded with unreliable rains, all contribute to very modest crop yields. The main crops produced are sorghum, wheat, teff, finger millet and hanfets. Hanfets is cultivated to mitigate the risk of drought because it is relatively drought resistant. A large proportion of the population are not self sufficient with food. The majority receives part of their food from the PSNP. All wealth groups heavily depend on food purchases to fulfill their annual food requirements. Residents in this zone are especially vulnerable to market shocks because of the high dependency on the market for household food. Income for the food purchases is predominantly earned from livestock sales and labor migration to the sesame producing areas of western Tigray. Livestock sales provide some measure of reliability, providing significant source of income for the middle and better-off. Labor migration provides half of the very poor and poor income, and between a third and a fifth of middle and better-off income respectively. Dependence on agriculture labor presents a measure of vulnerability to climatic shocks that affect labor demand. Given the proximity of the sesame producing areas to Eritrea and Sudan, political insecurity is a concern surrounding access to this source of income.

Central Mixed Crop Livelihood Zone