And Drought Tolerant

SORGHUM PRODUCTION IN TRANSITION

Through Striga Management

Taye Tessema and Gebisa Ejeta

የኢትዮጵያ የግብርና ምርምር ኢንስቲትዩት Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research

Taye

SORGHUM PRODUCTION IN TRANSITION

Through Striga Management

©EIAR, 2019 ኢግምኢ፤ 2011 Website: http://www.eiar.gov.et Tel: +251-11-6462633 Fax: +251-11-6461294 P.O. Box: 2003 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Editor: Abebe Kirub

ISBN: 9789994466634

Contents

Preface 1 Foreword 3 Chapter 1 5 Introduction 5 Chapter 2 15 Seed System, Production and Distribution of Striga Resistant and Drought Tolerant Varieties 15 Chapter 3 31 Training on Sorghum Production and Integrated Sorghum Management 31 Chapter 4 49 Integrated Striga Management Demonstration 49 Chapter 5 61 Popularizing and Adopting Striga Resistant Varieties 61 Chapter 6 67 Strengthening Striga Research 67 Chapter 7 71 Combining Complementary Tactics and Research Results 71 Chapter 8 87 Project Administration, Monitoring and Evaluation 87 Chapter 9 95 Challenges, Lessons, and Looking Ahead 95 References 105 Index 109

Preface

This book documents EIAR‟s and the respective bureaus of agriculture, seed agencies and regional research institutes of the four major regions in Ethiopia, i.e., Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray Regional States in scale up of integrated Striga management in sorghum in Ethiopia. The chapters are arranged in a logical progression. Chapter 1 introduces on sorghum and Striga species in Ethiopia. The second chapter pursues the discussion of seed system, seed production, and distribution of SRV. Chapter 3 deals with farmers‟ practices in sorghum production in Ethiopia and the trainings delivered on sorghum production and ISM technology along with the training impact and lessons. Chapter 4 discusses ISM technology package, comparison of SRV variety versus striga susceptible improved and local variety, farmer field days and experience sharing visits on ISM technology package demonstration. Popularization and adoption of SRVs are presented on Chapter 5. Chapter 6 discusses on strengthening capacity for striga research through support to post-graduate MSc training and establishment of striga bioassay laboratory. Chapter 7 describes combining complementary tactics and research results supported by the project. Project administration, monitoring, and evaluation are presented in chapter 8 while the challenges, lessons and way forward are presented in chapter 9.

The ISC Project would not have been possible without the contribution of many people and organizations over a period of six years. It would be hard to acknowledge the contributions made by every individual and by every organization or institution. All can rest assured that we are deeply thankful for their inputs into the massive team effort to confront the menace of striga in sorghum in Ethiopia. The idea of putting together experiences and lessons achieved from implementing the scale up of integrated Striga management came in March 2017 from Dr. Diriba Geleti who was the acting Director General of EIAR by the time, now Deputy Director General for Research. I am very grateful for his continuous support and encouragement in compiling this book. I am highly indebted to Dr. Mandefro Nigussie, DG EIAR, for his generous support and energizing me in making this book a reality.

The real driving force, however, behind almost every aspect of the ISC project - from its detailed planning to the application of sound technical approaches, and from raising awareness to boosting Striga management capacity – has to be Prof. Gebisa Ejeta, the Principal Investigator of the project. His expertise and passion has raised the profile of the devastating impacts and control of Striga species among communities, institutions, and regional governments in Ethiopia. Besides, he chaired the annual project

1 implementation evaluation and annual progress and planning meetings, and national training workshops. Of course, many other people contributed to the success of the project. The administrative staff of EIAR including Dr. Adugna Wakjira, the then deputy director general, devoted his time and energy to play a leadership role during the project implementation. I am grateful to him also for reviewing this book.

The Project‟s subsequent success has been due largely to the commitment of a core of dedicated professionals and leaders of organizations and institutions. In particular, we are grateful to Dr. Yilma Kebede, who was the program officer for research and development at BMGF, for providing valuable insights and guidance starting from the preparation phase all through the implementation phase of the project. Dr. Yilma has long been firm in his support and has played a pivotal role in making this project a success. I also appreciate the support provided by Prof. Tesfaye Mengiste, plant biotechnologist at Purdue University, for his continuous support in delivering training for experts working in project implementing regions and for providing support on establishment of striga bioassay lab. I would like to thank staff of the department of agronomy, Dr. Patrick Rich, from Purdue University also for his support in training and establishing striga bioassay laboratory at the national agricultural biotechnology research center at Holetta.

Staffs from the implementing organizations, i.e., bureaus of agriculture and natural resource in the respective regions of Amhara, Oromia, Tigray, and SNNP were instrumental in implementing the activities of the Project. The regional project coordinators in EIAR and the respective regions – Dr. Alemu Tirfessa, Habte Nida, Dr. Solomon Assefa, Tamirat Tesfaye, Ayana Mirkena, Diriba Megarsa, Girmay Shinun, Sisay Lemawork, and Getaneh Berhanu made a telling contribution. I am also grateful to Dr. Abera Deressa for his support and encouragement during planning phase of the Project. Financial management staff and administrative staff of the respective implementing regions also performed wonders in making sure that the budgets were all completed accurately and on time.

No list of credits and acknowledgments would be complete without mentioning the considerable time and effort put in by Abebe Kirub in reviewing and editing this book. Abebe was also instrumental in giving me advice in compiling this book. He is author of many books in field of agriculture and an experienced editor of a number of scientific reports.

Taye Tessema (PhD)

Foreword

Striga species are major challenges for production of cereal crops including sorghum. Yield losses up to 100% are common in sorghum growing areas and arable lands are often abandoned because of the prohibitive parasite populations. The “Integrated Striga Control (ISC) in Sorghum in Ethiopia and Tanzania” Project was developed and implemented by Purdue University in collaboration with EIAR, Amhara, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray Bureaus of Agriculture in Ethiopia from 2012 to 2017. The overarching goal of the project was to improve income, food security, and livelihood of small-scale sorghum farmers. The major components of the project included scaling up of integrated striga management technologies that comprises deployment of officially released striga resistant and drought tolerant varieties through large-scale demonstration and popularization on farmers‟ field, and multiplication and distribution of the seeds.

The federal and regional research institutes, public and private seed enterprises, and community-based producers in Oromia, Amhara, Tigray, and SNNP Regional States conducted seed production and its distribution. Fifteen tons and 120 tons of foundation and certified seeds of Striga resistant and drought tolerant sorghum varieties were produced, respectively, from 2012-2017. ISC package demonstrations and popularization of Striga Resistant Varieties (SRV) were conducted on a total of 18,000 farmers‟ plots and on more than 500 Kebeles (lowest level of admin category). The project mobilized diverse stakeholders, integrated disciplines, and covered large production areas. A significant improvement in the production and distribution of high quality seeds of improved striga and drought tolerant varieties were achieved. Concerted efforts in the training and technology transfer activities has created high demands for striga resistant varieties that needs to be met to further boost production and improve food security in striga prone areas.

The biggest challenge during implementation of the project was the recurrent drought in different locations in all regions. In many cases, farmers plant twice or thrice when moisture is not sufficient for the crop seed to germinate. However, there is little chance for the farmer when the rain stops for long after crop reaches vegetative stage or flowering. However, farmers have their own innovative ways of coping mechanisms, like diversifying crops, saving from previous harvest and building social capital. Bird attack was also a challenge in Project implementing regions. Farmers cope up mechanisms with this challenge was by adjusting planting time of SRV so that their maturity period coincides with other sorghum varieties in the area. Secondly, farmers grow SRV at the same time over large areas so that birds distribute over wide area of crop fields and thus damage due to birds shared among fields. Several farmers do not implement full ISM packages for growing sorghum because of various reasons. Such problems could be overcome by awareness creation activities.

Efforts should be made to institutionalize the changes achieved through the ISC project in regional, zonal and Kebele agricultural systems. The extension system in the respective project implementing and non-project regions need promote striga resistantvarieties to expand coverage especially to areas where the project did not address. The seed system in Ethiopia is still poor. Thus, the research and development institutions in the country and private seed growers should work towards improving the seed system. The national research system also needs to strengthen sorghum research to address current and future research challenges. Next generation of striga resistant sorghum both open pollinated and hybrids with introgression of genes for drought tolerance, disease resistance and intermediate plant height are very important to respond to the needs of sorghum farmers.

Mandefro Nigussie, DG EIAR

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1. Sorghum in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is the center of origin and diversity for both cultivated as well as wild relatives of sorghum. Thus, Ethiopia's sorghum germplasm contribution to the international gene pool has been huge. The Ethiopian sorghum germplasm is a known source for various economically important traits such as high lysine sorghum, good grain quality, resistance to diseases and insect pests, and stay- green.

Sorghum is cultivated in all regions in Ethiopia in altitudes that ranges from 400 to 2500 m above sea level (Figure 1). It is cultivated mostly at lower altitudes along the western, southwestern, north western, northeastern, and central parts of the country. Sorghum is grown in 14 of the 18 major agro- ecologies of Ethiopia. The main sorghum growing areas are grouped into four major traditional agro-ecologies such as dry lowlands, humid lowlands, intermediate altitude and highland sorghum growing agro-ecologies. Dry lowland agro-ecology is the vast majority sorghum growing area of the country and mostly characterized by erratic rain-fall, low soil fertility and fragile eco- system. In humid lowland sorghum growing areas, the altitude range is the same as the dry lowlands but moisture level and humidity is very high. The intermediate altitude sorghum growing agro-ecology (1600-1850 m) is characterized by high moisture and humidity, while the high elevation sorghum growing areas have altitude ranges from 1850-2500 masl and receives high annual rainfall (EIAR, 2014). 5

Out of the total grain crop area covered by cereals; i.e., 10.2 million hectares, 14.97% (1.88 million hectares) is covered with sorghum, ranking third next to tef and maize. Similarly, out of the total national grain production, cereals contribute to 87% (253 million quintals) with sorghum shares amounting up to 16% (47 million quintals). This makes sorghum the fourth-ranking grain crop produced in the country next to maize, tef, and wheat (CSA, 2016). It was produced by around 5 million small-scalefarmers in 2015 and its yield increased from 13.6 q/ha to 23.7 q/ha while cropped area increased from 1.28 million ha to 1.83 million ha during the same period (Figure 1).

Oromia, Amhara, Tigray and SNNP Regions are the major producers of sorghum covering more than 91% of the total area and production (CSA, 2015). In Oromia, sorghum covers 719,399.7 ha. of land. It is the third major food crop next to maize and tef and the fourth in production next to maize, wheat and tef with an average yield of 25.22 q/ha. Its major challenges are the lack of resistant variety, proper management systems, post-harvest loss and unfavourable environmental conditions. Estimated losses due to Striga infestaion ranges from 40 to 100% (Ayana, 2017).

In SNNP, sorghum is the fourth both in area of cultivation (150, 000 ha) and production volume (2,500,000 q of grain). Regional average productivity is 20.0 q/ha. The project was implemented in Segen Peoples Zone which is the largest Sorghum growing Zone in SNNP. In this Zone, sorghum is the third both in area coverage (45,000 ha) and production volume (1,500,000 q). Moreover, about 40,000 household farmers engaged in sorghum cultivation with zonal average productivity of 13.00 q/ha (Sisay, 2017)

Tigray is another major sorghum producing region in Ethiopia. More than 399,209.5 ha of land covered by sorghum though its productivity is limited by different biotic and a biotic factors. Among the biotic, Striga is the most devastating pest that may cause up to 100% losses and its enormity is magnified in less fertile and dry areas (Girmay, 2017).

In Ethiopia, sorghum provides more than one third of the cereal diet and is almost entirely grown by subsistence farmers to meet needs for food, income, feed, traditional brewing and construction purposes (EIAR, 2014). It is also the 6 preferred grain to complement tef in making enjera among the rural and urban poor. The grain is used for the preparation of other traditional foods and beverages like tella and areki. Besides usage as grain, the stover of sorghum has several roles in many cases in the country even more than the grain does in some case. It is used as livestock feed, fuel wood, construction materials and several other uses. Besides, sorghum is known to be strongly tied to the livelihood of people particularly in dry lowlands and highland sorghum growing areas where livestock feed is usually scarce. It is also a vital source of cash via its versatile purposes and products.

Figure 1. Sorghum production areas of Ethiopia (after EIAR, 2014)

Sorghum research in Ethiopia The objectives of sorghum research are to develop high yielding, widely adapted and high grain quality varieties with multiple resistance traits to address major production constraints; optimizing the crop management; strengthening the seed system; and promoting varieties along with their management packages.

Research has been conducted by targeting the sorghum growing areas into four major traditional agro-ecologies: dry lowlands, humid lowlands, intermediate altitude, and highland areas. Technologies suitable for these agro-ecologies were generated over the last five decades. 7

The major constraints of dry lowland agro-ecology are drought, striga and stalk borer. Hence, research emphasized on developing early maturing and striga- resistant sorghum varieties with 90 - 120 days to maturity, which can escape the early offset of rainfall. In the humid lowlands, the major production constraints are leaf and grain diseases. Therefor the focus of sorghum research was identifying leaf and grain disease tolerant/resistant varieties. Three varieties were released for their disease-tolerance ability. In the intermediate and the high elevation agro-ecologies, the emphasis was to develop multipurpose sorghum varieties that have high grain yield and biomass. Eleven and eight varieties were released, respectively for intermediate and for highland agro- ecologies (EIAR, 2014).

In optimizing sorghum crop management, research focused on investigating planting date, planting density, fertilizer rate, and time of application, tillage, and soil and water management and cropping systems. Accordingly, the appropriate planting date, density and fertilizer application were determined for the four traditional agro-ecologies. Several research activities were carried out to develop soil management that conserves rainwater by reducing runoff, improving infiltration and water retention. Tied-ridges were very effective in terms of reducing runoff, water retention and improving infiltration, Research activities related to intercropping of sorghum with other legumes were conducted in the last couple of years and the results suggested that sorghum intercropped with mungbean9 and common bean showed a yield increase, soil fertility and low weed infestation (EIAR, 2014).

1.2. The Devastation Impacts of Striga Species

Striga spp are the major parasitic weeds affecting cereal crops, commonly called as „witch weed‟ because of their damage on to the crop during their subterranean growth, i.e., before the plants emerge. They are named by their genus name. Depending on infestation level, they can cause crop losses of 60- 90%. A striga plant has the potential to produce more than 20,000 seeds that are capable of remaining dormant and viable in the soil for over 20 years, makes the parasite very difficult to control. The fact that seeds come out of dormancy at short and long intervals, makes striga control even more difficult. The most

8 appropriate approach to striga management is the use of a combination of control methods and a variety of options such as cultural, chemical, biological, and physical and use of resistant crop varieties.

The biology of striga Striga thrives in low soil fertility, light sandy soils, low rainfall areas and temperature ranges of 18 to 40 °C. Striga seeds are capable of remaining dormant and viable for up to 20 years. Seed germinates after a short period of moist conditions and is induced by a stimulus produced by the host plant. After germination, it produces haustoria (root like structures) that penetrate the host roots. The haustoria suck water and nutrients from the host plant to feed the striga plant. Attachment of the Striga haustoria to the host plant may start as early as two weeks after sorghum germinates. It takes 5 to 8 weeks after germination for the striga plants to start emerging above ground. Not all shoots of striga emerge; hence, the actual degree of infestation may remain invisible until most damage has already been done. Striga does not only release phytotoxins to host plant as it germinates, but also drains photosynthates and siphons off nutrients and water from the host plant causing the crop to wither and produce low yields (Mgonja et al, 2011).

The striga plant is a hairy, single-stem or branched annual herb that may grow from a few centimeters to over a meter. All species have opposite leaves and a reduced root system. Flowering occurs one month after emergence with seeds maturing in 2-4 weeks. Flowers are red, yellow, white, pink, or bluish depending on species. The most common Striga species parasitic to sorghum and finger millet in Ethiopia are S. hermonthica and S. asiatica and have pink flowers and red flowers, respectively (Figure 1a). Flowering and fruiting may continue until the host plant dies and the full life cycle of striga is 3 to 4 months. The small striga seeds (270 million in 1 kg) are easily spread by wind, water or animals and through use of infested tools and contaminated seed. A single plant may produce 20,000 seeds. Plants affected by striga are stunted with wilted yellow leaves (Figure 1a-d). Most of the damage is done before striga emerges from the ground.

Striga management Integrated striga management involves use of a combination of complimentary cultural, chemical, biological, physical, and resistant crop varieties as measures for its control. Use of recommended crop rotation systems and plant populations, striga resistant sorghum varieties, improved soil fertility and soil moisture conservation practices help to maximize crop vigor and shading and minimize effects of striga. Timely and effective weeding of sorghum field in combination with hand pulling of striga prior to flowering will minimize the effect of striga on sorghum production. Further, care should be considered to avoid physical spread of striga seeds through animals, fodder, manure, and contaminated soil on tillage tools. Use of herbicides for striga control, is expensive for the resource poor farmer and should only be used where other options have failed or are difficult to use.

Distribution of Striga species Ethiopia is unique of its parasitic weed problems. Of the total, 14 families of higher plants, which have parasitic representatives, nine occur in Ethiopia, making a varied, colorful and sometimes damaging contribution to the plant life of the country. Of these, the species in four families Convolvulaceae, Orobanchaceae, Loranthaceae and Viscaceae represent the most important plant diseases in agricultural crops and forest trees that are caused by parasitic plants (Parker,1992). The species under the genera of striga and Orobanche, which belong to the family Orobanchaceae, are known to be notorious pests infecting cereals, legumes, and vegetables in Ethiopia.

Striga is abundant in most of sorghum growing areas especially where soil fertility and moisture stress are limiting factors. It causes the crop to bewitched while it is invisible underground which results in stunting, wilting, and chlorosis. Of the devastating striga species of the world, the two worst species are represented in Ethiopia and cause widespread losses to major cereal production. Yield losses of 65-70% are common in sorghum growing areas and arable lands are often abandoned because of the prohibitive parasite populations. S. hermonthica is the most widespread and the host range of the parasite includes sorghum, maize, finger millet, and tef. S. asiatica, the second most widely spread that attacks sorghum, maize, millet, and wheat in the altitude range of 1250 to 1900 meters above sea level (Parker and Riches, 1993;

Fasil and Parker, 1990). Figure 2 shows devastating impacts of Striga spp in sorghum in Ethiopia.

Although the exact distribution and coverage of Striga spp is not known, it is estimated that over 50% area covered by sorghum, i.e., about 1 million ha is infested by striga species in Ethiopia. General assessment survey report from the four regional Government states in Ethiopia, however, indicated that 114, 488 ha in Amhara; 149,691 ha in Tigray; 61,254 ha in Oromia and 97,360 ha in Benishangul Gumuz Region are highly invaded by striga species (Tables 1a, 1b, 1c, 1d) . In SNNP, 62 kebeles were reported to be infested with striga species (Sisay, 2017).

Table. 1a. Distribution of Striga Infestation in Amhara (Amhara BoANRD, 2016)

Zone No. of districts Area of infestation (ha) North Shewa 6 12,033.00 Oromia 6 9,135.00 South Wollo 11 11,930.00 Waghimra 6 - North Wollo 4 15,000.00 Awi 3 18,682.00 North Gonder 12 12,925.00 South Gonder 8 9,859.00 East Gojam 11 14,084.00 West Gojam 9 10,840.00 Total 76 114,488.00

Table 1b. Area of land infested with striga in Tigray (Girmay, 2017)

Woreda Area (ha) Woreda Area (ha)

Tahtay Koraro 427 Tahtay Maychew 1200

Asgede Tsimbela 1175 La'ilay Maychew 2264

Tselemti 16282 Naeder Adet 1650

La'ilay Adiyabo 3937.5 Kola Tembien 978

Tahtay Adiyabo 2684 Abergele 9862

Samre 5899 Alaje 188

K/Awlailo 734 Ofla 198

Ganta Afeshum 4 Raya Azebo 4998

Adwa 50 Alamata 4200

Mereb Lehe 14825 Wolqayt 37

Werie Lehe 6220 Tsegede 987

Ahferom 892 Kafta Humera 70000 Total coverage 149,691 ha

Table 1c. Area infested by striga species, and number of districts in Oromia (Ayana, 2015)

Zone No. of districts Area infested (ha) No. of households

West Hararghe 10 3360 13,440 East Hararghe 11 4,912 12,541 North Shewa 9 26,444 35,273 Total 30 34,716 61,254

Table 1d. Area infested by Striga species in Benishangul Gumuz (Benishangul Gumuz BoANRD, 2016)

Zone No. of ddistricts Total No. No. of Kebeles Area infested (ha) of kebeles infested with Striga

Metekel 7 167 145 (86.8%) 55037.00 Assosa 7 211 131 (62.1%) 38197.00 Kamashi 5 64 22 (34.4%) 4125.25 Mao-Komo 1 32 0 (0%) 0.00 Total 3 + 1 474 298 97359.25

(63%)

a b

c d

Figure 1. Striga species: (a) mixed infestation of S. hermonthica with violet flowers and Striga asiatica with red flowers; (b) Severe infestation of S. hermonthica; (c) severe infestation of Striga hermonthica; (d) severe infestation of S. asiatica

Chapter 2

Seed System, Production and Distribution of Striga Resistant and Drought Tolerant Varieties

2.1. The Seed System

Ethiopian farmers have a long history of settled agriculture, contributing to the evolution of rich cultural practices, biodiversity, and strong informal seed system (Zewdie and Louwaars, 2012). Generally, the Ethiopian seed systems can be divided into two broad types: the formal system and the informal system, which is sometimes referred as farmers‟ seed system (Abebe and Lijalem, 2012). Both systems are operating simultaneously in the country, and it is not simple to demarcate between the two types. There is, however, a fact that the formal system is the original source of improved seeds in the informal system. There is also a system referred to as integrated seed system, combining both types such as community-based seed system. Although not well developed, few commercial seed systems, as part of the formal system, are also operating in the country, especially for more profitable crops like hybrid maize.

In Ethiopia, crop production in general and that of sorghum in particular has been practiced by smallholders (subsistence farmers), and it is characterized by low productivity. This low productivity is detrimental to the food security, economic development, and growth of the country. The major cause of this low productivity is purely due to limited use of improved seeds and their associated technologies. Seed is, therefore, a key input for improving crop production and productivity, and increasing the quality of seeds can increase the yield potential of the crop by significant folds and thus, is one of the most economical and efficient inputs to agricultural development. Generation and transfer of new technologies are critical prerequisites for agricultural development particularly for an agrarian based economy such as Ethiopia. Seed, especially that of improved varieties, is an essential input for increasing crop productivity. This suggests the need to emphasize on sustainable and efficient seed production systems through training on seed development systems.

The training should emphasize on crop improvement and seed supply activities to be able to distinct breeding and seed production activities. Seed is a great vehicle of change and it is considered as a driver for agricultural transformation. It all starts with seed, though other inputs and better management are also needed. No nation advanced its agricultural industry without developing its input delivery system. This means that without a functional input delivery system, it would be impossible to increase productivity, which will in turn results in no significant impact.

In traditional agriculture, farms are largely independent; grain harvested from crop fields used as “seed,” there is limited scope for crop improvement and limited incentive for better management options. On the other hand, in modern agriculture, agricultural scientists develop improved varieties and hybrids that are high in yield, tolerant to pests and diseases, and have better quality traits. It is purchased as inputs with fertilizers and insecticides. The higher crop performance because of use of these inputs gives farmers the incentive to use better management.

In developed countries, seeds are produced by privately owned farms and thus the seed is catered by “Business” as input. In developing countries, on the other hand, seed is regarded as “Public Service” effort. Moreover, seed is the source of planting material that come thorough research investment and has 16 added value matched by performance. It is a technology channel through which genetic improvements in yield, nutrition, agronomic traits, fungicide and insecticide seed coatings, and biotech (input and output) traits are amended as individual or stacks. In other words, there should be a distinction between what we call a seed and grain. “Seed” is an entity with known genetic and physiological attributes, and produced under most optimal conditions. These attributes are “Distinctiveness, Uniformity, and Integrity”. “Grain”, on the other hand, is a product harvested from Seed. A major educational effort is needed to produce the seed and thus, has taken too long to get this distinction clearly established in Africa (Gebisa, 2013).

The training should also underline that the seed system development has a series of processes. These are: breeding program for a steady flow of improved products; testing scheme to identify appropriate products; parent seed or foundation seed production; seed production capability to produce large quantities; seed quality evaluation and control; facilities for cleaning, treating, packaging and storage; an outlet network for making seed available at local level; and a feedback mechanism to assess product performance.

Seed business has unique features that make it different from other production schemes. Firstly, it requires an inflexible time lag-preplanning years in advance from breeder to basic to certified seed production. Secondly, it requires technical tasks, such as timely planting, detasseling, rouging, isolation distance; nicking etc. This means that activities need to be done regardless of circumstances-no second chances. Thirdly, appearance cannot be used as indicator of quality. When a farmer buys seed, he cannot tell if producer has done a professional job during production. Thus, certification and labeling laws help in ensuring good quality. Fourthly, proper handling is needed to preserve quality since viability of seed revolves around its moisture content.

There is always lack of recognition especially in traditional farming existing in developing countries with regard to seed quality, seed systems and seed science. Seed quality is a most underappreciated input in traditional farming. Seed systems are also unappreciated among least developing countries institutions. By its very definition, seed science is the sound technical process around seed production, seed conditioning, seed certification, seed quality 17 control; as well as the management of seed operations, are also underappreciated.

In developing countries, value of seed is not recognized. When farmers and agents of change recognize the value of seed, a necessary impetus for technology generation and adoption is catalyzed. When it is recognized by policymakers and decision makers, then conditions for agricultural transformation are facilitated (See Figure 2). It is only then seed can be conducted as a profitable business operation that renders invaluable service.

Based on the Ethiopian context, there are five categories of classes of seeds. These are breeder, pre-basic, basic, certified and the recently adopted seed class called quality declared seed. Breeder seed is nuclear seed that is always produced and maintained by the plant breeder who developed the cultivar or variety. Pre-basic seed is produced from breeder seed and maintained by a reputable research center or public seed enterprises. Basic seed, sometimes equates to foundation seed is produced from pre-basic seed by research centers, public seed enterprises and private farms. Foundation seed can also be produced from prior year foundation seed, if available. Certified seed is produced only from basic seed, this is the seed sold to farmer to produce “grain” sold as commodity. Quality declared seed is produced by farmers or farm unions from prior year certified seed.

The value chain of the seed system has five categories: seed breeding or research, seed multiplication, seed processing and storage, seed marketing and distribution, and finally the end users. These functions operate in a coordinated and sequential manner. Seed breeding or research develops a variety with superior quality. A seed production entity is responsible for careful and controlled production of good quality; seed quality control is responsible for assessing and controlling as well as operationalizing of field and laboratory quality control procedures including isolation, rouging, contaminants, germination, etc. Seed certification the regulatory arm of quality control with official authority to declare seeds of acceptable quality through legal certification; and seed marketing is responsible for assessing seed demand projections and managing advertising, and seed sales and distribution for the seed agency. Large firms have the resources to perform all of the activities indicated earlier, while smaller firms may choose to specialize 18 in selected aspects such as marketing and distribution. The end users, farmers, buy seed and produce grains for sale to consumers.

The major activities of a seed production agency are field selection, optimizing seed setting, rogueing, artificial emasculation, harvesting, seed drying, seed conditioning, seed quality control, seed storage, and seed marketing. Field selection is selecting seed-fields based on distance away from contaminants, soil fertility, and quality, water source or rainfall amount, good management and potential yield is expected. Optimization of seed set means ensuring available pollen vectors, wind and wind direction patterns and implementation of male and female row: rations (for hybrid production). Rogueing of seed field includes timely rogueing of potential contaminants before pollen shedding starts. It needs to be repeated to be effective. In producing hybrids, some method of removing the male flower from female rows is needed. The removal needs to be 100% complete, as it takes only a small error to have a great negative effect on hybrid seed production.

During harvesting of a seed production field, the operation needs to be carried out with suitable equipment at proper temperature in clean containers or space. Gentle handling is required in order to avoid physical harm to seed. After harvesting, seed drying must be conducted if the seed is harvested below optimal moisture. Drying should be made at optimal temperature soon after harvest in order to prevent loss of germination and vigor.

Seed conditioning and pre-cleaning upgrade seed to improve its planting value. These include cleaning (remove trash, broken seed, inert matter and other crop/weed seed, separating based on seed physical characteristics such as size, shape, weight and treatment with chemicals (fungicide, insecticides, germination boosters, etc.), bagging, labeling and blending. Genetic purity should be the same or similar from first batch to last batch of seed packaged for the year. Seed quality testing involves management for purity that starts with plant inspection in the field, seed inspection in the laboratory, germination test, weed seed frequency, foreign (inert) matter admixtures. Thereafter, seed must be stored at proper condition. Poor storage puts all previous effort to waste. Hence, seed must be kept under optimal temperature and humidity, in facilities that maintain high germination. Long-term storage reduces germination of most crops drastically. 19

A separate department often handles seed marketing. Basic elements of market management include product quality, distribution system, price structure assuring a reasonable return, promotional activities that create demand, providing background information on product, and customer support. Educational and promotional activities must be jointly targeted during seed production by using as many different media and forum as available.

The barriers to accessing seed are weak production and quality assurance and poor extension of information and knowledge for uptake of new technologies. In order to increase production and quality assurance, one has to ensure certification (methodology for ensuring that varieties are true to type), field inspection, testing seed samples for quality in relation to physical purity, germination/ vigor, health and genetic purity/ true to type.

2.2. Public–private partnership

In modern agriculture, public sector roles are supporting research, seed standards regulation, variety release/registration, seed quality evaluation and seed certification. The private sector, however, is engaged in seed multiplication of various seed class (breeder, foundation, certified), seed processing (dry, clean, grade, treat), product introduction, promotion, distribution, customer service and farmer uptake. In, traditional agriculture, however, private sector engagement is very low or does not exist. Thus, the seed and seed system is highly supported by public institutions. Therefore, seed production and distribution in an evolving modern seed industry should make a paradigm shift as indicated on Table 1. The key issue in transforming to modern seed industry is developing competence, competition, and incentives with public resources. Figure 1 shows Schematic representation of the evolution of a seed delivery mechanism in a country (Gebisa, 2013).

Table 1. Share of responsibilities in seed production and distribution in an evolving modern seed industry in Ethiopia (After Gebisa 2013).

Type of seed Who produces seed Short-term Long-term Breeder seed Public breeder Public and private Pre-basic seed Public breeder Publicbreeder and private Basic seed Public and parastatal Privatebreeder Certified seed Communal, public, parastatal, and Private private Quality declared Private, parastatal, farmer unions - seed and cooperatives

Figure 1. The evolution of a seed delivery mechanism in Ethiopia (Gebisa, 2013).

2.3. Production and distribution of striga-resistant and drought tolerant varieties

A significant part of this project‟s effort was devoted to seed production and distribution in extending to the user community available and relevant Striga control technologies for immediate impact. One such technology is use of striga-resistant sorghum cultivars. During the early nineties, Purdue University, in conjunction with national programs in Africa, has generated a large set of such sorghum cultivars, both officially released in a set of African countries and

21 those that have limited exposure to a particular country or region. In Ethiopia, three such varieties were released. Besides, ICRISAT in collaboration with the national programs also released two Striga resistant varieties in Ethiopia (Table 2). The extent of diffusion of these varieties into large number of households, however, was very limited by seed production both private and public agencies, including research farms and regional and national seed producing agencies. The quality and number of extension agents or private promoters of the technologies also affected diffusion. As a result, theoretical and field practical trainings were delivered and monitoring of seed value chain were conducted to agricultural extension educators, subject matter specialists and development agents in sorghum farming communities in Ethiopia.

Table 2. Characteristics of striga resistance varieties

Character Gobiye Abshir Birhan Hormat Gedo (Gambela (P9401) (P9403) (PSL5061) (ICSV 1112 BF) X P9401) Maturity ( day) 127 121 101 121 122 Seed color white White brown White White Yield (q/ha) 33 22 40 23.3 34 Plant 116.7 128.5 106-167 161-171 116-138 height(cm) Seed Production and distribution of Striga resistant and drought tolerant sorghum varieties were conducted by the respective Project collaborators, i.e., EIAR, regional agricultural research institutes, regional seed enterprises, district offices of the Bureaus of Agriculture and Natural Resource Development in the Project regions. Consensus was reached on sharing responsibilities for seed production by class of seed. Breeder seed production was conducted by the research centers in the EIAR; foundation seed by regional research centers; certified seed by private seed growers and regional seed enterprises; and quality declared seed by farmers union and clusters. Table 3 shows institutional responsibilities in production and distribution striga resistant and drought tolerant varieties in Ethiopia.

Table 3. Institutional responsibilities in SRV seed production and distribution by seed class

Institution Responsibility EIAR Breeder and pre-basic seed RARIs Pre-basic and/or basic seed Seed growers Basic and certified seed Unions and farmer clusters Certified and quality declared

Early generation seed production The sorghum plants on seed production fields were not uniform showing genetic impurity that was estimated at 20 to 30%. Thus, 10 q of SRV of sorghum (Gobiye, Abshir and Birhan) was multiplied on 1.71 ha (1 ha Gobiye, 0.5 ha Abshir and 0.21 ha Birhan) at Werer ARC. Since bird attack is a serious problem during off-season, each sorghum panicle was covered using cloth and paper bags for protection. Thereafter, pre-basic seed and basic seed multiplication of different striga resistant varieties were made from these source seed in different locations in different regions (Figure 2).

The early generation seed produced was distributed for research centres, local seed enterprises, and ISM demonstrations and scale-up activities during the same year in June. Amount of breeder and pre-basic seed produced and distributed from 2012 to 2017 is indicated on Table 4.

Table 4. Amount of SRV breeder and pre-basic seed produced and distributed to Project regions

Year Amount Produced (q) Amount distributed (q) 2013 74 74 2014 3.71 3.71 2015 2.79 2.79 2016 46.2 46.2 2017 0.22 0.22 Total 126.92 126.92

Seeds of striga resistant sorghum varieties were regenerated each season, multiplied and distributed to the farmers. Thus, seed production by class was maintained each year starting from 2012 following sequential pattern with knowledge of controlled pollination that involved skills that are understood by 23 staff on research and production fields of project partners. During the project period, seed producing farms were identified and farm personnel were trained on modern seed production techniques at various levels to make good quality seed of Striga resistant sorghum cultivars available on timely bases. The seed production farms were provided foundation seed, and encouraged and supported to produce and sell the produced seed in the community. The project also worked with research farms in each region, public seed agencies, and other parastatal organizations by providing training and foundation seed sources.

The major activities conducted under seed production and distributions were as follows

 Providing breeders seed and consulting to contracted parties who agree to assist in seed multiplication for Striga resistant varieties;  Distributing improved Striga resistant varieties to regional agricultural research stations, regional seed enterprises and private seed growers for multiplication of foundation seed;  Conducting field days to show plots of improved varieties to local interested farmers, along with explanations about how to maintain genetic purity of the production plots;  Contracting out seed production to interested farmers, farmers unions and farmer clusters according to their land availability, production plots for the coming growing season in order to produce quality declared seeds; and  Purchasing multiplied seeds from out growers at harvest for redistribution to farmers.

Tables 4a-4d shows the amount of basic seed produced, area of production and amount distributed by the project regions while Table 4e shows the total basic seed produced in each year over Project regions from 2012-2017.

Similarly, Tables 5a-5d shows the amount of certified seed produced, area of production and amount distributed by the respective project regions while Table 5e shows the total seed produced each year over project regions in Ethiopia from 2012-2017 in Ethiopia. Quality declared seeds of Striga resistant and drought resistant verities were multiplied on adjacent fields of small-scale farmers and farmer unions in all project regions. However, the amount of this quality declared seeds produced and distributed were not registered by Project regions. The quality of the seed are monitored at various growth stages of the 24 crop and are given quality certification by universities especially by Haramaya University in the case of Oromia region and by regional agricultural research institutions in other Project implementing regions.

In general, 2,408 q basic-seed of striga-resistant and drought tolerant sorghum varieties was produced on about 181 ha of land by the support of the Project from 2012 to 2017 in Ethiopia. Of these, 2,267 q were distributed to seed producers and used as ISM demonstration and popularization plots (Table 4e). The total amount of certified seed produced during the project implementation period was 20,956 q in Project regions. Of this, 16,323 q were distributed to farmers in Striga and drought prone areas; 1,233.7 q of seed was registered as carry over seed; and 4,017.3 q was used as grain. This means that the project regions should work on the seed supply and demand by users. Since seed production is costly and involves extra management and operation costs, critical emphasis should be given on the amount of seed produced and distributed to the farmers on demand basis.

During the project lifetime, 23,364 q of basic and certified seeds were produced excluding the early generation and quality declared seed. Taking 2kg seed is distributed on average as small pack per farmer, it can be projected that the project is able to reach over one million farmers in Project regions in Ethiopia.

Table 4a. Basic seed produced in Amhara Region Year Amount produced Area of production Amount (q) (ha) distributed (q) 2013 45 1.5 45 2014 40 1.5 40 2015 10 1 10 2016 25 1.5 25 2017 31 2.5 31 Total 151 8 151

Table 4b. Amount of basic seed produced in Oromia Year Amount produced Area of production Amount (q) (ha) distributed (q) 2012 124 6.0 124 2013 397 12.5 397 2014 156 8.37 156 2015 390.4 20 390.4 2016 286 9 286 2017 37.2 37.2 37.2 Total 1390.6 93.07 1390.6

Table 4c. Amount of basic seed produced in SNNP Year Amount produced Area of Amount (q) production (ha) distributed (q) 2013 22 6 22 2014 50 10 50 2015 35 5 35 Total 107 21 107

Table 4d. Amount of basic seed produced in Tigray Year Amount produced Area of production Amount (q) (ha) distributed (q) 2012 140 14 140 2013 105 9.9 42 2014 8.3 8 79 2015 16 4 139 2016 420 16 100 2017 70 7 120 Total 759.3 58.9 620

Table 4e. Total amount of basic seed produced by the Project Year Amount produced Area of production Amount distributed (q) (ha) (q) 2012 264 20 264 2013 569 29.9 506 2014 254.3 27.87 325 2015 451.4 30 574.4 2016 731 26.5 411 2017 138.2 46.7 188.2 Total 2407.9 181 2268.6

Table 5a. Amount of certified seed produced, distributed, carry over and used as grain in Amhara Year Amount Amount Carryover Amount produced (q) distributed (q) used 2013 2,587.5 as 265.0seed (q) - as2,322.5 grain (q ) 2014 1,897.7 304.5 1,105.7 - 2015 - 1,105.7 - - 2016 1,000.0 1,000.0 - - 2017 1,850.0 1,838.0 12.0 - Total 7,335.20 4,513.20 1,117.70 2,322.50

Table 5b. Amount of certified seed produced, distributed, carry over and used as grain in Oromia Year Amount Amount Carryover Amount used produced (q) distributed (q) as grain (q) 2012 310.0 as 310.0seed (q) - - 2013 793.4 793.4 - - 2014 337.0 332.0 5.0 - 2015 799.0 804.0 (5.0) - 2016 1,102.6 1,102.6 - - 2017 1,296.0 1,296.0 - - Total 4,638.0 4,638.0 - -

Table 5c. Amount of certified seed produced, distributed, carry over and used as grain in SNNP Region Year Amount Amount distributed Carryover Amount used produced (q) as seed (q) (q) as grain (q) 2013 111.0 22.0 - 89.0 2014 611.0 26.0 - 585.0 2015 450.0 450.0 - - 2016 680.0 680.0 - - 2017 5,000.0 5,000.0 - - Total 6,852.0 6,178.0 - 674.0

Table 5d. Amount of certified seed produced, distributed, carry over and used as grain in Tigray Year Amount Amount Carryover Amount produced (q) distributed as (q) used as 2012 140.0 seed140.0 (q ) - grain- (q) 2013 1,292.8 215.0 57.0 1,020.8 2014 448.0 389.0 59.0 - 2015 16.0 16.0 - - 2016 157.0 157.0 - - 2017 77.0 77.0 - - Total 2,053.8 917.0 116.0 1,020.8

Table 5e. Total amount of certified seed produced, distributed, carry over and used as grain Year Amount Amount Carryover Amount used produced (q) distributed (q) as grain (q) as seed (q) 2012 450.0 450.0 - - 2013 4,784.7 1,295.4 57.0 3,432.3 2014 3,293.7 1,051.5 1,169.7 585.0 2015 1,265.0 2,375.7 (5.0) - 2016 2,939.6 2,939.6 - - 2017 8,223.0 8,211.0 12.0 - Total 20,956.0 16,323.2 1,233.7 4,017.3

Figure 2. Pictures depicting sorghum seed production fields

var Berhan at Errer research station

var Gobiye at Cheffa Robit

var Abshir at Gololcha

var Hormat nearby Shewa Robit

Chapter 3 Training on Sorghum Production and Integrated Sorghum Management

3.1. Farmers’ Sorghum Production Practices

Majority of sorghum production by small-scale farmers in Ethiopia is marked by use of their local varieties that are long maturing along with local agronomic practices. The farmers‟ varieties are planted in May or April every year depending on the onset of rainfall and mature from five to eight months. Local varieties are diverse not only in their maturity, but also in plant height, head type, grain color, shape, size, etc. This might be because sorghum is native to Ethiopia and farmers have long been growing sorghum maintaining its diversity to meet their needs and overcome risks associated with biotic and abiotic stresses. Hence, sorghum farmers have tremendous contribution in maintaining and conserving sorghum genotypic and phenotypic diversity. It is from these farmers‟ local landraces that different traits in resistance to pests, drought, and nutrient deficiencies, nutritional quality, etc. are originated. Figure 1 below is a photograph showing diverse sorghum panicles with different size, shape and seed color.

Figure 1. Sorghum panicles with different size, shape and seed color (courtesy of Neway Mengistu)

3.2. Recommended sorghum production technologies

With the support of the project, training was given to farmers, development agents, subject matter specialists in district and zonal administration staff of project implementing regions, on the recommended sorghum production technologies. These technologies were recommended by the research system in Ethiopia. The training included: use of adapted or improved sorghum varieties, improved agronomic practices, pest management methods, farm implements, and the ISM technology package (Mesfin and Alemu 2014), as indicated here below.

Selecting adaptable varieties If farmers are interested to use the local variety, they are recommended to select the best adaptable variety for their production system. Farmers were advised to select sorghum heads with full grains and the ones that were not attacked by pests and diseases from the previous year to use as a seed. Heads/panicles of the selected varieties need to be hung in a suitable place and protected from rain/moisture, pests, and diseases. When planting time reaches, the seeds need to be free from weed seeds and other foreign matters, and if possible need to be treated with fungicide and insecticide. On the other hand, if farmers are using improved sorghum varieties, they can get seed through the extension department nearby. About 47 sorghum varieties were released by the research system until 2017. However, only about 20 varieties are in production, while the rest became out of production because of various reasons.

Using recommended agronomic practices Land clearing, tillage, harrowing, making terrace if land is sloppy, and construction of drainage are considered under land preparation. Tillage is practiced for conserving soil moisture, improving soil structure, soil aeration, root penetration, weed control and seedbed preparation. In order for sorghum seeds to germinate smoothly, tillage must be conducted to make soil friable so that the seeds are able to contact with soil and obtain enough moisture. Workability of soil, rainfall condition, and farmer‟s ability to afford cost of tillage matters on the frequency of tillage to be made. In general, a minimum of two to three times tillage operations are recommended (Figures 2 and 3).

Figure 2. Land preparation and ridging at Werer Agricultural Research Center

a b Figure 3: Land preparation and ridging made by farmers using oxen plough before planting (a) and ridging with oxen plough (b) in Kobo District, Amhara Region.

Planting dates for sorghum vary depending on the agro-ecology, which in turn depends on the onset of the rainfall and the growing period of the crop. It is decided by considering availability of moisture at planting, during the vegetative/reproduction stage and its absence after maturity and at harvest. 33

Under Ethiopian conditions, sorghum-planting dates are recommended from mid-March to first week of April for highland; end of April up to the first week of May for mid altitude areas; and from end of June to first week of July for lowlands. Table 1 shows planting dates and growing periods for sorghum under different agro-ecologies in Ethiopia.

Table 1. Planting dates and growing periods for sorghum

Altitude (m) Growing period (days) Sowing date High (1900-2700) 175-240 15 April – 10 May Mid (1600-1900) 150-180 1-15 May Low (<1660) 90-130 10–15 June

Seed treatment before planting is recommended to protect against diseases and pests in the soil. Thus, it should be dusted with a combined fungicidal/ insecticidal dust before planting. Sorghum seed shows dormancy for the first month after harvest. Hence, freshly harvested seed should not be used for planting. Planting depth depends on seed size, cultivar, and soil type. Seeds are planted at 3-5 cm depth and care should be taken not to plant deeper than 4 cm for some varieties. Experience gained from planting sorghum variety called Gobiye greater than 4 cm depth showed no germination or emergence in Konso district, SNNP region in Ethiopia during 2012 crop season.

Seeding rate depends on variety, fertility of soil and moisture. In general, a seed rate of 10 - 12 kg ha-1 is recommended with 60 – 75 cm spacing between rows and 15-20cm between plants. Tall varieties are recommended to be planted at a spacing of 75*20 cm, while short varieties at 75 * 15 cm. The seed should be drilled in rows, sparsely to obtain a spacing of 15 – 20 cm between plants. Schematic representation of method of planting sorghum seed in or on or in the middle of furrow is showed in Figure 4. Planting on the side or top of the ride is practiced in heavy rainfall areas and under irrigated condition. If thinning is required, it has to be made when plants reach 2-3 leaf stage by maintaining 1-2 plants when soil is moist in order to ease uprooting of seedlings (see Figure 5). The total number of plants per ha should end up with 88,888.

Soil temperature, soil moisture, planting depth, and planting dates were reported to affect seed germination. Plant growth, however, is affected by the 34 amount nutrients in seed. Low temperature and high soil moisture may affect seed germination and may create favorable conditions for pathogens to occur. In warm and moist soils, it takes only 3-5 days for the sorghum seed to emerge, but it may take up to 10 or more days if the soil temperature is cooler. At five- leaf stage, sorghum is very sensitive to weed competition and damage by insects (Figure 6). Therefore, proper control of weeds and insects is very important to reduce yield loss.

Inter-cultivation, weeding, and other operations can easily be made in row planted sorghum, but is difficult in broadcasted sorghum. Planting sorghum in broadcast is not recommended since it makes these operations difficult and damages plants.

Figure 4. Planting sorghum seed in rows in furrow, on the side of ridge and on the top of ridge

a b

Figure 5. Broadcast planting and no thinning at knee height (a) and heading (b) on farmers’ field

Fertilizer application Naturally, sorghum utilizes soil nutrients efficiently. Most soils in crop growing regions of Ethiopia have limited nitrogen and phosphorus for plant growth and development. Thus, N and P fertilization are recommended for sorghum: DAP, source of N (18%) and P (46% P2O5), at planting and Urea, source of N (46%), at knee height growth stage of the plants. Generally, 100 kg DAP and 50 kg/ha Urea is recommended depending on soil type and rainfall conditions. DAP is applied at planting while Urea is applied when the crop reaches knee height after the second weeding. Fertilizer should be applied around the plant when there is enough soil moisture and need to be covered with soil by cultivation. A crop usually responds well to additional dressings of nitrogen during plant growth. Fallowed black soil clay may not need fertilizer. Rotation with a leguminous crop can also give low-cost fertility build-up.

a b

Figure 6. Sorghum growth stages: 3 leaf stage or 10 days after sowing (A) and five leaves stage (B).

Weeding Weed control is critical during the early crop growth stage. Unless sorghum seedlings are growing free from weeds more than 30% yield reduction may occur. Therefore, weeding should be made twice: first weeding should be made between 20 and 25 days after emergence of the crop, while the second weeding should be made from 45 to 50 days after emergence of the crop. If chemical control is preferred, one can use a non-selective herbicide like Primagram before emergence of the crop by diluting in 400lt water per ha (Figure 7).

Preventative weed control like use of clean crop seeds, making the land free from weeds during land preparation, and cultural weed control methods like hand-weeding and hoeing during critical period of weed competition, crop rotation, intercropping, etc. are measures to combat weeds in sorghum production. During rainy season, weeds grow fast. These weeds need to be uprooted before they set seeds and could be left in the field under sorghum plants as much as possible. In general, one has to use various methods in an integrated approach in order to combat weed problems in any situation.

a b

Figure 7. Comparison local practice with broadcast planting and poor crop management (a) versus improved management involving row planting, fertilization and weed control on farmers field at Kobo (b). Insect pests The major insects pests affecting sorghum production in Ethiopia are stem borers (Busseola fusca Fuller, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) and Sesamia calamistis Hampson), sorghum chaffer (Pachnoda interrupta), shoot fly (Atherigona soccata Rondani), African bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)), corn leaf aphid (Rhopalsiphum maidis (Fitch), Contarinia sorghicola (Coquillett), maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais (Motschusky)) and

Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella (Olivier)). These insect pests cause both pre and post-harvest losses which may range between 20-50% (Emana et al. 2001). Table 2 below shows the major insect pests of sorghum and recommended cultural and chemical control methods.

Table 2. Major Insect pests and their control in sorghum Common name Cultural control Chemical control Stem borers Removal of the thrash, stubble and Diazinon 10% G by placing the chemical volunteer plants after harvest on inner side last leaf at or around knee Destruction of wild sorghum species height stage Early planting sorghum suffers less Sevin 85% WP 1.5 kg per ha. damage as compared to late planting Carbaryl 85% wp insecticide is also Crop residue management by effective spreading stalk horizontally on the Cypermetrin 3.5kg/ha dust application in ground for six weeks the leaves Sanitation of the field from crop residue, cutting of the stalk at the lower tip of the stem, removal of lower leaves showing dead heart symptoms Intercropping, application of push-pull technology and use of resistant varieties. Rogue plants affected (dead hearts) Locust Destroy larvae by hand with leaf Malathion 50 % EC 2lt/ha in 200-300lt Destroy larvae by trampling with cattle water Preventing larvae not to enter fields by Fenithrothion 50% EC 2lt/ha in 200-300lt making furrow and destroy larvae Diazinon 60%EC 1lt/ha in 200lt water falling in Sevin 85% DP 1.5kg/ha in 200lt water Sorghum chaffer Destroy alternate hosts Trichlorofin 1.5lt/ha in molasses in little water and sprad around the plants Fenithrothion 50% EC 2lt/ha in 200-300lt Shoot fly Early planting sorghum can escape the Carbofuran (Furadan) 10G (pre-sowing damage application) at the rate of 4.4 kg ai/ha Increasing seed rate and using Sumicidin 20% at the rate of 0.2 kg/ha resistant Dimethoate 40% EC at the rate of 0.05-1 varieties a.i. /ha in furrows during planting Use of intercropping sorghum with bean

Sorghum midge Early and simultaneous planting, Insecticides such as Dimethoate sanitation, eliminating wild sorghum 40% EC at the rate of 0.05-1 a.i. per ha in 600 lt of water at flowering African bollworm Destroy and clean weeds in the field Endosulfan 35% EC 2lt/ha in 250lt water Cultivation of the land in order to bring up pupae for the sun and bio-agents corn leaf aphid Avoid planting in dry condition Metacyletox 250 EC 1.25 lt/ha in 200- Use resistant varieties 300lt water maize weevils Keeping proper hygiene Disinfection of the storage structures 38

Use of non-chemical management using Malathion 50% EC, with dilution of methods such as management of 1:100 at the rate of 3 lit/100 m2 temperature, moisture content of grain, Prophylactic treatment methods by ensuring availability of oxygen, spraying insecticides for stored grains moisture content in grain such as Malathion, Primiphosmethyl 50% EC 9Actellic), Pyrethrym with 2.0% Pyrethrin EC, Deltamethrin 2.5% WP (K- othrine) Curative treatments with Knockdown chemicals, Grain protectants or Fumigants

Diseases The major diseases attacking sorghum are smuts, Anthracnose, bacterial blight, grain molds, downy mildew, and ergot. Table 3 shows cultural and chemical control methods against these diseases.

Table 3. Major sorghum diseases and their control

Common name Cultural control Chemical control Grain smut, Use disease free seeds. Treat the seed with covered smut Treating seeds with cattle or goat urine that stayed a week for Captan or Thiram at and loose smut 20 minutes 4 g/kg or with fine Follow crop rotation. sulphur powder at Collect the smutted ear heads in cloth bags and bury in soil. 0.5%. Use resistant varieties Anthracnose Use of resistant varieties Not applicable Grain mold Use resistant varieties Not applicable Bronze and red colored seeded varieties are generally more resistant due to higher tannin levels Timely harvest Grain will continue to weather as long as it is in the field Keep grain moisture at < 10% and grain temperature at < 10°C during storage Avoidance can be practiced either by delaying sowing dates or by growing medium to late maturing cultivars such that the grain filling and maturity stages occur after end of the rains. Hot water treatment can eradicate some fungi from sorghum grains Host plant resistance is the most preferred method of control Ergot Avoid late planting Fungicides like Tilt, Quadris, Quilt are recommended for hybrid seed fields 39

Farm implements Use of farm implements is among agricultural inputs that play great role in increasing sorghum productivity. The agricultural mechanization research has been developing implements that can help farmers for sowing, water and soil conservation, tillage and threshing. These equipment are hand tools, implements that can be driven by animals, motorized threshers, and processing tools. Figure 8 shows tie-ridger, and seed driller equipment developed by Melkassa Research Center, EIAR. However, these implements were not adequately multiplied and reached the farmers due to limitation of resources, extension, and policy and priority issues.

In the drier areas, moisture conservation is very important to consider. Tied- ridges have been extensively used in the African semi-arid tropics as in-situ soil and water conservation systems. In low rainfall and sandy areas use of water conservation structures like tie-ridge is very important. When this water conservation structures are made before onset of rain, the conserved water will infiltrate into the soil and helps the growth of plants during the time when there is drought. This has been proved to increase yield by 50-100%. In clay soils the water conservation structure need to be made at an interval of 6m, while in sandy soils it is recommended to be worked closer to each other, at an interval of 3m. In general, the tie-ridge length depends on the soil type and land slope. The ridge height should be 35cm, while the distance between ridges should be 75cm. Figure 9 indicates the water conservation structures using tie-ridger while Figure 10 shows ridging made by tractor supplemented with hand tools at Werer Agricultural Research Center.

a b

Figure 8. Tie-ridger for making ridge (a) and seed drilling tool (b)

Figure 9. Water conservation structures using tied ridge.

Figure 10. Ridging with tractor supplemented with hand tools Harvesting Harvesting of sorghum is made after observing a black mark on the ear head. The mark is a sign of physiological maturity. This can be observed by removing a few seeds from the bottom of the ear head. However, since the physiologically mature sorghum may contain moisture of up to 25-30%, the crop is mot harvested until the moisture level is reduced. If birds are problem in the area or if the farmers want to make the land free for the next crop, the crop can be harvested at the physiological maturity and drying will follow afterwards. Grains can also be dried by spreading it in the sun in thin layer. In some areas, sorghum is harvested when the crop is matured, but not when it is fully dry. This is done to allow enough time for the ratoon crop to develop.

Intercropping and crop rotation The farming systems and growing conditions in the dry areas of Ethiopia vary considerably. In the lowland water stress areas of northern Ethiopia and the rift valley areas cereal-based mono cropping is the dominant cropping system. In these areas, sorghum mono cropping is the usual practice with little use of production inputs such as fertilizer. This practice has led to decline in soil fertility and high pest infestation particularly striga and stalk borers. 41

Crop rotation is traditionally practice in many parts of Ethiopia. It has many Advantages in terms of pest control of pests such as weeds, disease, and insect pests, and improve the fertility of the soil. To increase yield, cereal- legumes rotation is recommended. For example, sorghum should follow haricot bean. Crops may vary in their effectiveness in reducing the striga seed population in the soil. Some so-called trap-crops are known to produce Striga germination stimulants but are not susceptible to Striga. A great many such crops have been reported and include cotton, cowpea, jute, soybean, pigeon pea, chickpea, kenaf, and groundnut. Therefore, rotating such crops particularly legumes into the largely cereal dominated cropping system of small-scale farmers has the added advantage of sustaining soil fertility in addition to reducing striga infestation. In sorghum growing regions, however, rotation is not practiced or the rotation is made with other cereals like maize and low land oil crops (sesame and safflower) and fiber crop (cotton). Table 4 shows crops that farmers are growing in rotation with sorghum.

Intercropping also helps to maintain soil fertility, satisfy farmers‟ interest in getting different crops, and reduces the damage due to weeds insects and disease causing agents. In survival oriented agriculture systems, farmers resort to mixed, or intercropping with a view to minimize certain risks. Intercropping produce space, time and can give higher output and return, spreading out peak labor times, and give greater stability of production. It also smoother weeds, improve ground cover, reduce soil erosion and evapo-transpiration. Sorghum can be grown together with crops like haricot bean, soybean, groundnut, cowpea, mung bean, and chickpea. In intercropping, planting one row of legume in every one or two rows of sorghum is recommended (Figure 11).

Table. 4. Rotation crops with sorghum in Tigray and Amhara Regions.

Region District Location Selected crops in rotation Tigray Tanqua Yechila Chick pea, cotton, safflower Tigray Lay’Abergelle lay Adiaybo Dogalee Cotton Tigray Raya Azebo Tsega Cotton and sesame Amhara Metema Shehidi Safflower and sesame Amhara Kalu Addis Mender Chick pea and safflower Amhara Kobo Mahalencha Cotton 42

Figure 11. Intercropping of haricot bean with sorghum

Alley cropping Planting leguminous shrubs like, Sesbania sesban, Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea) and Leukeania at an interval of 4 - 6 m in sorghum rows has no effects on sorghum productivity and helps to increase soil fertility, reduce soil erosion and makes additional profit to the farmer by producing cattle feed, green manure or mulch. Very encouraging results were obtained by alley cropping in Ethiopia from alley cropping of sorghum with sesbania and pigeon pea.

3.3. Integrated Striga Management (ISM) Technologies

In order to mitigate the two major constraints of sorghum production in dry lowland agro ecologies, drought, and striga, Purdue University in conjunction with national programs in Africa, has generated a large set of sorghum cultivars that are drought tolerant and striga resistant. These varieties were officially released in a set of African countries (Table 5) and have limited exposure to a particular country or region.

As part of the extension program, these sorghum varieties were introduced into a few sorghum-growing areas of Ethiopia in the late 1990s. As the infestation of striga is associated with low soil fertility and drought, the Integrated Striga Management (ISM) technology package was formulated and demonstrated on different striga-infested areas in Ethiopia. The ISM technology package included, among others, striga-resistant varieties, use of organic or inorganic 43 sources of fertilizer, and water harvesting techniques using tie-ridge along with agronomic practices. For example, in Tahtay-Adiabo Woreda (an administrative unit equivalent to a county in the US), Western Tigray, was one of the areas where the technology package was first introduced. The area is known as a principal sorghum producer as well as for a high prevalence of striga infestation. The technology has shown more than 2x increases in yield of sorghum and 3X lower in number of striga per plant of sorghum (Tesfaye et al, 2007).

The extent of dissemination of these striga resistant and drought tolerant varieties into large number of households, however, were very limited after the demonstrations made in late 1990s because of various reasons. Among others, shortage in production and distribution of quality seeds of striga-resistant varieties to the end users, and limited awareness of ISM technology by farmers growing sorghum in Striga-infested areas in Ethiopia were the priority constraints. Besides, seed production by both private and public agencies, including research farms, national seed producing agencies, state agencies, and private seed firms were not available. The quality and number development agents or private promoters of the technologies might also affect dissemination. As a result, training and monitoring of subject matter specialists, development agents and lead farmers in different regions, zones, districts and kebeles that implemented the Project were trained during the implementation (see training of farmers and DAs).

3.4. Farmers and Development Agent Trained through the Project

Capacity building is an evidence-driven process of strengthening the abilities of individuals, organizations, and systems to perform core functions sustainably, and to continue to improve and develop over time. Training farmers and change agents on sorghum production technologies and ISM technology in particular were part of the ISM technology scale up. It involves the transfer of new knowledge, skills and attitudes to develop and maintain trainees‟ competencies to perform specific roles at their work place. Tables 3a –d shows number of farmers, DAs and agricultural experts trained on ISM package in project regions, while Tables 5a-e shows data of the number of trainees over the years.

Figure 12. Training of model farmers and development agents

Table 5a. Number of farmers, DAs and Agricultural Experts Trained on ISM Package in Amhara Region

Year No. of farmers No. of DAs No. of experts No. of admin,

staff

2013 633 49 + - 2014 733 50 - -

2015 457 136 2 49 2016 2,642 165 57 42

Table 5b. Number of farmers, DAs and agricultural experts trained on ISM Package in Oromia Region No. of farmers No. of DAs No. of experts No. of admin, staff 2012 18 12 9 0 2013 1370 162 57 - 2014 1560 253 83 21 2015 3090 210 76 24 2016 6,966 470 135 67 2017 7600 420 147 74 Total 20,604 1,527 507 186

Table 5c. Number of farmers, DAs and agricultural experts trained on ISM Package in SNNP Region No. of No. of No. of No. of farmers DAs experts admin, staff 2013 223 34 - - 2014 580 85 - - 2015 250 51 0 0 2016 310 28 8 0 Total 1363 198 8 0

Table 5d. Number of farmers, DAs and agricultural experts trained on ISM Package in Tigray Region No. of farmers No. of DAs No. of No. of admin, staff 2013 938 53 experts270 40 2014 1920 78 250 - 2015 2859 48 - 0 2016 2,118 102 72 15 2017 1983 72 82 335 Total 9818 353 674 390

Table 5e. Number of farmers, DAs and agricultural experts trained on ISM packages Region No. of farmers No. of DAs No. of experts No. of admin, saff 2012 18 12 9 0 2013 3163 355 250 40 2014 6475 388 83 21 2015 6776 445 78 73 2016 12,046 765 272 124 Total 28,478 1,965 692 258

Impacts and lessons The training on sorghum production technology in general and integrated striga management in specific addressed large number of farmers, development agents, subject matter specialist and local administrators at kebele, district and zonal levels in ISC Project implementing regions. Because of the training, the project was widely recognized and known by stakeholder, politician, and policymakers. Besides, major sorghum producing regions and ecologies were covered with spillover effects into other non-project regions in Ethiopia. Knowledge of the farmers on the ISM technology generated a high demand for seeds of striga resistant varieties, which was met by moving seeds from seed producing states to other regions in the country. It also increased demand by NGOs for striga resistant varieties.

At present, there is a growing recognition and acknowledgment of the value of the ISM project in Ethiopia at both national and regional levels. The work from previous years have demonstrated the benefits of the striga resistant germplasm as well as the improved management. There is evidence that adoption is

46 increasing in striga and drought prone regions. Farmers are requesting the government for striga resistant and drought tolerant varieties especially during the drought years. The SRV combined drought tolerance which enabled expansion in a wider sorghum growing region than anticipated. In Tigray, not only striga resistance but drought is a significant problem. In moisture deficient areas the striga severity is likely to be high. Gains were impressive in drought affected areas such as Abergele in Tigray that suffer from recurrent moisture deficit and poor nutrient soils that makes them prone to severe striga infestation. The striga resistant varieties showed a significant yield advantage over the farmers‟ varieties. There is an increase in numbers of farmers and area devoted to striga resistant varieties and productivity (5.5 tons/ha with the technology). In general, the Project availed the required technologies, knowledge, and skills to the stakeholders, farmers and other development partners, providing significant food and income security and useful lessons to the users. It also demonstrated impressive implications for future investments in sorghum R4D endeavors (inputs to outputs relations) in Ethiopia.

Chapter 4 Integrated Striga Management Demonstration

4.1. Technology Packages

The main objective of Integrated Striga Management (ISM) demonstration packages was to promote greater adoption of the ISM technologies using participatory approaches on the farmers‟ field and Farmers Training Centers (FTCs) under different agro- climatic regions and farming situations. The package combines the use of striga resistant sorghum varieties (Gobiye, Abshir, Birhan, Hormat and Gedo) with water conservation practice using tie-ridge (Figures 1 and 2) and a soil fertility amendment (Urea and DAP). Fertilizers were applied at the recommended rate of the specific location. For example, in Oromia region the fertilizers were applied at the rate of 100kg DAP per ha at planting and 50 kg Urea 35-40 days after sowing as single application.

Water conservation practices used were tie-ridging using local plow supplemented with manual application using spade and hoes. Training was given to the selected farmers owning demonstration plots on application of ISM technology package before planting. Other agronomic practices, i.e., method of planting, spacing, thinning plants, weeding, insect and disease control, etc. were similar to the recommended practices for sorghum production.

Figure 1. Water hold in tied-ridge in furrow and rectangular pattern after planting

Figure 2. Application of fertilizer along the furrow

4.2. Comparison of SRV variety versus striga susceptible varieties

In November 2013, a Project implementation evaluation team surveyed northern (Wollo) and eastern parts (Harar) of the country where the ISC Project is being implemented. Attending were a team of scientists from Purdue University, senior BMGF program officer, the NPC, and team of researchers from Feddis Agricultural Research Center. During this survey it was suggested by the team to make a super imposed trial for comparison of the performance of Striga Resistant variety (Gobiye) versus improved variety (Teshale) and farmers‟ variety that were planted by farmers adjacent to each other.

Based on the suggestion of the evaluation team, the Project coordination unit discussed with Feddis Agricultural Research Center in order to undertake this task. The objective of this trial was to compare the performance striga resistant variety (Gobiye) with improved non-striga resistant sorghum variety (Teshale) and farmers‟ local variety based on striga count and crop yield. The trial was 50 made at two locations with high Striga infestation in Babile district, Eastern Hararghe in November 2013 crop season. Farmer fields growing improved variety (Teshale), striga resistant variety (Gobiye) and local sorghum variety in adjacent fields were identified. Data on Striga count, stand count at harvest, yield, and thousand seed weight (TSW) were recorded by taking sample plots (each 5m x 5m) randomly from the respective fields grown with the aforementioned varieties. Twelve sample plots (quadrants) were taken, four quadrants for each variety as replication and data for the aforementioned parameters were recorded.

Analysis of variance showed that there is significant difference (at p < 0.05) in yield and highly significant difference (at p < 0.01) in striga count, stand count and thousand seed weight (TSW) among the varieties. High relative yield advantage of 97.9% and 40.92% was obtained by using Gobiye over Local and Teshale, respectively. Thus, farmers have to use improved Striga resistant sorghum varieties in striga-infested areas with appropriate integrated Striga management to minimize reduction of yield and obtain higher sorghum yield (Table 1, Figure 3).

Similar to this experiment, there were hundreds of ISM package demonstrations on farmers‟ fields and Farmer Training Centers each year during Project implementation in the four Project regions in Ethiopia depicting better performance of ISM practice as compared to the farmers practice (Figures 4,5, 6, 7 8, 9, 10 and 11). In summary, seed yield advantages up to 98% of ISM package over the local check is highly commendable result for sorghum growers and it seems an attractive business area in years ahead.

Table 1: Mean Striga count, stand count, grain yield and thousand seed weight of improved sorghum varieties (Gobie and Teshale) vs local variety grown on farmers field in Babile area, 2013

Treatment Striga count Crop stand yield/ha TSW 2 (plants/m ) count (q/ha) (g) (plants/m2) Local 473.23 2.72 19.578 33 Teshale 201.75 6.09 27.495 31.25 Gobiye 37.5 5.83 38.745 35

LSD 163.62 1.64 13.5 0.9564 CV % 39 19.38 27.27 1.67 P value ** ** * ** Key: * = significant at p< 0.05; ** = significant at p< 0.01

Figure 3: Mean performance of improved sorghum varieties over local variety

Figure 4. Comparison of Teshale (left) vs. Gobiye (right) in controlling striga

Plate 5. Comparison of farmers’ variety (left) vs. Gobiye (right)

Figure 6. Comparison of local practice (left) vs. ISM package (drought resistance) demonstration (right)

Figure 7. Comparison of local practice (left) vs. ISM package (drought and striga resistance) demonstration

Figure 8. Comparison of ISM package demonstration (drought resistance) (right) vs local practice (left) on a farmer’s field

Figure 9. Comparison of ISM package demonstration (drought resistance) (right) vs local practice (left) on farmer’s field

Plate 10. Comparison of local practice (left) vs. ISM package demonstration (striga resistance) (right) in on farmers field

Figure 11. Comparison of ISM package demonstration (right) vs local practice (left) (drought and striga resistance) on farmer’s field

Field days The objective of the field-day demonstrations in Project implementing regions at various levels, i.e., kebele, woreda, zonal and regional was to share and promote important information to the farmers and other stakeholders on integrated striga management system. During the field day celebrations, farmers observed and exchanged views on the performance of ISM package and other recommended agronomic practices on ISM demonstration plots conducted on FTCs and model farmers so that they could be able to gain skills and knowledge for wider uses. Other than farmers, administrators and experts from wereda, zonal and regional offices of agriculture, regional seed enterprise, NGOs, ISM Project focal persons from the Project regions, and representatives from research centers in the EIAR and RARIS participated depending on the scope of the ceremony. High-level administrative staff, politicians, and policy makers also participated on field day that is organized at regional and national levels. After field visit, a discussion and reflections from field days were made on the issues of ISM demonstrations, seed production, and distribution and other issues related to farming community.

In Oromia region, for example, regional level field day was conducted on 19 October 2013 in Feddis and Babile Districts, besides farmers‟ field days at Kebele and woreda levels. More than 500 people were participated on this field day. Moreover, another field day was conducted on Gobiye seed production owned by private farmer in Nonno Woreda during the same year in Fesfese Village on 14 October 2013. The Oromia Seed Enterprise organized the field 55 day jointly and the farm since Oromia seed Enterprise contracted the private farm to produce Striga resistant sorghum var. Gobiye. About 75 participants (farmers, administrators and experts from west Shewa office of agriculture, Woreda bureau of agriculture, OSE, and representatives from EIAR and various research centers were involved in this event. Field day participants and visitors appreciated the efforts done to enhance the production and productivity of sorghum in the region as well as in the country at large, applying new technologies, and skills.

Similarly, series of field days were organized at the target Kebele, Wereda and Regional levels in Amhara, SNNP, and Tigray Regions every year from 2013 - 2017 and valuable information and experiences were exchanged, Tables 2a-2e also shows number of Kebeles, demonstration plots and farmers participated in field days on ISM packages in project regions in Ethiopia.

Since field days are organized at planting, vegetative stage, flowering, and maturity, it took much more resources than planned by the Project and woreda, zone, and regional offices of agriculture and the nearby research centers contributed additional money for field day, indicating the usefulness of the event and interest of the stakeholders. For example, Abergele Woreda had contributed a total of 45,000 birr on the top of what Project budgeted (15,000 birr) during 2004. Similarly, TARI through its Research Centers also contributed substantial amount of money for holding farmers field days. In nutshell, these field days have created vital communication platforms, and have involved major stakeholders and the mass media to spread the successful information and experiences across the nation for broader applications.

Table 2a. Number of kebeles, demonstration plots, and farmers participated in field days on ISM packages in Amhara Region

Year Number of No. of demo No. of farmers kebeles plots participated (4x) in field days* 2013 17 130 575 2014 26 175 575 2015 27 457 10,955 2016 30 157 3,806 2017 62 340 - Total 162 1259 15911 Note: + = not reported yet; * = farmers participated in field days 4X during crop growing season, i.e., at sowing, at tillering, at flowering and at maturity

Table 2b. Number of kebeles, demonstration plots, and farmers participated in field days on ISM packages in Oromia Region

Region Number of No. of demo No. of farmers participated kebeles plots (4x) in field days* 2012 4 60 131 2013 19 200 11,100 2014 30 410 10,052 2015 101 764 10,955 2016 91 600 12,107 2017 30 600 12,645 Total 275 2,634 56,990 Note: + = not reported yet; * = farmers participated in field days 4X during crop growing season, i.e., at sowing, at tillering, at flowering and at maturity

Table 2c. Number of Kebeles, demonstration plots, and farmers participated in field days on ISM packages in SNNP

Year Number of No. of demo No. of farmers kebeles plots participated (4x) in field days* 2012 4 28 0 2013 10 99 + 2014 44 84 11,043 2015 6 24 + 2016 13 22 6,452

Total 77 257 17495 +

Note: + = not reported yet; * = farmers participated in field days 4X during crop growing season, i.e., at sowing, at tillering, at flowering and at maturity.

Table 2d. Number of kebeles, demonstration plots, and farmers participated in field days on ISM packages in Tigray

Year Number of No. of demo No. of farmers participated kebeles plots (4x) in field days* 2012 0 10 350 2013 17 17 1275 2014 28 28 + 2015 48 48 1405 2016 21 21 18,000 2017 24 24 + Total 138 148 21,030 Note: + = not reported yet; * = farmers participated in field days 4X during crop growing season, i.e., at sowing, at tillering, at flowering and at maturity

Table 2e. Number of kebeles, demonstration plots, and farmers participated in field days on ISM packages in Project regions

Year Number of No. of demo No. of farmers kebeles plots participated (4x) in field days* 2012 8 98 462 2013 64 446 4412 2014 140 697 23,972 2015 157 921 9,848 2016 155 800 40,365 2017 116 964 12645 Total 640 3926 91704 Note: * = farmers participated in field days 4X during crop growing season, i.e., at sowing, at tillering, at flowering and at maturity

Figure 12. Field day on farmer’s field

4.4. Experience Sharing

An experience sharing visits were organized at Babile and Feddis Woredas of eastern Oromia to show successful fields of model farmers and experts to other Project regions (Table 3). The visits were very educative and thus much inspired and appreciated by those visiting farmers and agricultural experts for further applications. It was observed that farmers who practiced the ISM package have obtained up to 65 q/ha against 20q/ha from the local practice. Besides, the visitors observed intercropping of sorghum with food legumes, sharing valuable knowledge, skills, technologies, and experiences (Figure 16). 59

Table 3. Number of model farmers and experts participated in experience sharing visit held in eastern Hararghe, Oromia Region during 2014.

Visitor Participant Male Female Total SNNP (From 9 districts 2 zones) Subject Matter Specialists 11 2 13 DAs 6 - 6 Farmers 3 - 3 Amhara (from 4 districts) Researchers 2 1 3 Farmers 10 - 10 Tigray (from 4 districts) SMSs 3 - 3 Farmers 6 2 8 Total 41 5 46

Figure 13. ISM technology experience sharing visit

Chapter 5 Popularizing and Adopting Striga Resistant Varieties

5.1. Popularization

The major objective of popularization of SRVs was to expand deployment of officially released striga resistant and drought tolerant sorghum varieties in Project regions through small packs of seeds and advisory practices. Seeds of striga resistant sorghum cultivars (Gobiye, Abshir, Birhan, Hormat, and Gedo) that were produced by the seed enterprises of the respective regions – Oromia, Amhara, SNNP and Tigray, and private farms and farmer‟s organization were packed for small trial plots. Seeds multiplied by selected producers in each region of a country were cleaned and processed and, eventually distributed to interested farmers to evaluate and promoted further via extension offices of project regions.

Packaging of seeds by seed enterprises is made on 100 kg basis except in the SNNP‟s Seed Enterprise that makes in smaller packs for better distributions. The 100 kg packs will be redistributed to other farmers in 2 or 3 kg, depending on farmers‟ plot sizes and needs through the extension system, in consultation with local leaders and relevant stakeholders.

Training was provided regarding varietal description and recommended agronomic practices by agricultural experts and development agents in the target areas. The project distributed the seed packs through extension offices

61 down to targeted kebeles and farmers. The participating farmers were surveyed during the growing season and at harvest to get their feedbacks on SRVs and changes in striga infestation and their responses were very positive, interesting and impactful (Figures 1-4). Tables 1a-e shows number of kebeles, farmers participated and amount of seed distributed in popularization from 2012 - 2017.

Table 1a. Number of kebeles, farmers participated and amount of seed distributed for popularization of SRVs in Amhara

Year Number of No. of farmers Amount of seed kebeles participated distributed (q) thrugh 2013 17 130 project3.25 2014 26 175 4.50 2015 27 1171 59.00 2016 30 2,467 110 2017 62 3,000 75 Total 162 6943 251.75

Table 1b. Number of kebeles, farmers participated and amount of seed distributed for popularization of SRVs in Oromia

Year Number of No. of farmers Amount of seed kebeles participated distributed (q) through project 2013 51 1160 5.00 2014 42 1730 10.25 2015 60 3616 61.50 2016 114 4,520 113 2017 116 6970 190 Total 383 17996 379.75

Table 1c. Number of kebeles, farmers participated and amount of seed distributed for popularization of SRVs in SNNP

Year Number of No. of farmers Amount of seed kebeles participated distributed (q) through 2013 10 99 project2.48 2014 44 84 4.10 2015 24 224 5.60 2016 19 309 48 Total 97 716 60.18

Table 1d. Number of kebeles, farmers participated and amount of seed distributed for popularization of SRVs in Tigray

Year Number of No. of farmers Amount of seed distributed (q) kebeles participated through project 2012 10 87 2.60 2013 17 17 0.43 2014 28 28 1.00 2015 48 3916 152.0 2016 34 2,392 114.5 2017 35 2763 146.6 Total 162 9,116 414.53

Table 1e. Number of kebeles, farmers participated and amount of seed distributed for popularization of SRVs in Project regions

Years Number of No. of farmers Amount of seed distributed (q) kebeles participated through project 2012 10 87 2.60 2013 64 446 11.16 2014 140 697 19.85 2015 150 7771 276.60 2016 197 9,688 386 2017 213 12,733 411.6 Total 764 31,335 1,105.21

Figure 1. Popularization of SRV (Gobiye) on farmer’s field

Figure 2.Popularization of SRV (Abshir) on farmer’s field

Figure 3.Popularization of SRV (Gobiye) on farmer’s field

Figure 4.Popularization of SRV (Birhan) on farmer’s field

5.2. Adoption of SRVs

Adoption in project regions The Project generated a high demand for seeds of striga resistant varieties especially during the drought seasons. Farmers requested the agricultural development offices continuously to obtain seeds of SRV, which was moving from seed producing states to other regions in the country. There is also an 64 increasing demand by NGOs for striga resistant varieties in order to support those farmers affected by severe drought and Striga weeds.

The work from earlier years have demonstrated the benefits of the Striga resistant varieties as well as the improved management. Thus, there is growing recognition and needs for the ISM Project activities in Ethiopia both at national and regional levels. Average sorghum productivity at national level has increased from 2.0 tons per ha at the start of the project to 2.4 tons per ha by the end of the Project. There is enough evidence that adoption is increasing in striga and drought prone regions. The SRV combined drought tolerance which enabled expansion in a wider sorghum growing region than anticipated (Figure 5). In some regions of Ethiopia like in Tigray, not only striga resistance but also drought is a significant problem. In moisture deficient areas the striga severity is likely to be high. Gains were impressive in drought affected areas such as Abergele in Tigray that suffer from recurrent drought and poor nutrient soils that makes them prone to severe striga infestation. In general, the striga resistant varieties have shown significant yield advantages over the farmers‟ varieties. Recently, some of these SRVs; for example, Birhan has shown desirable malting quality that makes suitable for the local brewery in Ethiopia. This will be an interesting business opportunity for the flourishing brewery industry of the country and for the sorghum farmers as well.

Adoption in non-project regions Harare Region has similar agro-ecology with other Project implementing woredas in Oromia like Babile and Feddis. Sorghum farmers in the region always suffer in growing sorghum because of moisture stress during May - June specially when there is no rain at all or when the rainfall is inadequate. During 2004, rain started during early April but, stopped during May and June and resulted in total crop failure. Thus, farmers who are neighboring Project implementing woredas of eastern Oromia have requested for seeds of SRV from Harari? Bureau of Agriculture, based on their observation on ISM technology demonstration and popularization works at the ISC Project sites.

Then, the Project Coordination Office had communicated with Project implementing regions, facilitated purchase of 50 q of seeds of SRV and drought tolerant varieties and transported to Harari region. The purchased seeds were

65 distributed to farmers in 1, 2, and 3 kg packs based on farmers plot area. Farmers who planted the seeds harvested good yields. About 450 ha of land were planted, and many farmers who did not get seeds have visited plots of SRV and drought tolerant varieties for the next season adoptions. Since then, the Harari Region has been producing by its own on farmers‟ adjacent fields and has purchased more seeds from seed enterprises of Amhara and Oromia Regions for reaching additional farmers. Farmers also save seeds from previous harvest and kept planting SRVs. Other regions, like Benishangul Gumuz Region also requested and obtained SRV for adaptation trials and then for further dissemination in striga and drought affected areas.

Figure 5. Production of SRV Gobiye showing technology adoption by farmers

Chapter 6 Strengthening Striga Research

6.1. Supporting Post-Graduate Training

In Ethiopia, there are very few scientists and expertise on striga biology and management research and development. Those that are supporting Striga management research and development are from other disciplines having courses in agronomy and plant breeding but with little/no knowledge on parasitic plants and their interaction with their host plants. Recognizing the critical lack of qualified personnel that supports striga research and development both at federal and regional institutions in implementing regions, the ISC Project initiated the support of MSc Students training for junior researchers and development practitioners in Project implementing regions in 2013.

The Project supported 12 MSc students in Haramaya, Ambo, Bahirdar, and Mekelle universities. Specifically, the project funded their MSc thesis research; covered top-up payments for house allowance, stationery, and transport costs, and gave technical support in identifying thesis research areas on sorghum and striga and advisory services. Two students were recruited each from the project implementing collaborating institutions, i.e., Ethiopian Institute of Agriculture 67 and respective project implementing regions of Amhara, Oromia, and SNNP while 4 students were supported from Tigray region. Before the start of their thesis research, students were given title of their research project based on their areas of disciplines - agronomy, breeding, soils, and crop protection. This Project played a unique support and service in capacitating skilled human resource for the continuous improvement of sorghum productivity and production.

6.2. Establishing Bioassay Lab

Germination and other plant bioassays are short-cut method of identifying germplasm for striga resistance. However, since this facility was not available in Ethiopia, researchers used to do field screening in order to select germplasm with striga resistance by either inoculating the soil with striga seeds or conducting the screening in striga hot spot areas. However, field screening is difficult to handle large number sorghum germplasm. Besides, screening for resistance is affected by field uniformity in terms of Striga seed bank, soil moisture, soil nutrients, etc. It is also affected by prevailing conditions like rainfall and temperature. Germplasm resistance using bioassays under lab condition makes the work easy and very efficient. Thus, it was felt by the Project to establish striga bioassay lab at national level so that all research who want to run high through put-assays from the national research system could get an opportunity to utilize the facility.

The striga bioassay laboratory was established at the National Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center at Holetta by the support of the ISC Project in 2014 (Figure 1). The purpose of establishing this lab was to back up striga- sorghum research such as screening sorghum germplasm for resistance and studying variation in virulence of striga. One lab room was dedicated by the Center for striga bioassay lab by the research center. A focal person assigned by the center and one junior researcher hired as full time through regular Government budget to support research on striga and sorghum. Equipment and consumables that cannot be obtained in the country were procured. It was also envisaged that the bioassay lab could share some of the equipment from the biotechnology center for its full functioning.

The first striga resistance screening in sorghum germplasm using high-through- put bioassay training was given to researchers working in Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research. Seven participants involving sorghum breeders from Melkassa Agricultural Research Center; weed science researchers from Holetta Agricultural Research Center; and researchers working on plant biotechnology from Agricultural Biotechnology Research Center and MSc students working at Haramaya University were included on the training. Both theoretical and practical trainings were given for the trainees along with the detail descriptions of the lab protocols. Among the lab protocols included in the training were the following

 Conditioning striga  Surface sterilization of sorghum seed  Plating sorghum seed into agar with embedded striga  Thinning the sorghum, treating the blank plate  Exudate assay technique  agar gel assay technique  Reading striga germination and  Sand column root exudates study

Figure 1. Partial view of striga bioassay laboratory

A Marker assisted selection of sorghum germplasm for striga resistance and second round training on high-through-put bioassay were given to sorghum

69 researchers working at federal and regional research centers across the country. Three female researchers and 20 male researchers participated on the training. Besides, a theoretical training on introduction to ISC project, striga biology, control and research findings on the host and parasite interactions were presented to the trainees.

Following the trainings given to researchers and postgraduate students, for example, 225 sorghum varieties have been screened in the established bioassay lab at Holetta. The laboratory is hosting graduate students from various universities in the country and researchers working on germplasm resistance for striga (Table 1).

Table 1. Post-graduate research activities in striga bioassay laboratory No. Title Degree, Institution

1 Evaluation of Ethiopian sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] MSc, EIAR landraces and wild relatives for pre-attachment resistance mechanisms to S. hermonthica (Del.)] 2 Screening of striga resistant sorghum varieties MSc, HU 3 Screening susceptible/resistant faba bean against Orobanchea crenata PhD, EIAR 4 Screening resistance to striga PhD, EIAR 5 Screening suspected/possible host crops other than sorghum to striga DARC, EIAR 6 Identification and characterization of striga seed bank depleting fungi MSc, EIAR under in vitro and in vivo conditions 7 Isolation and characterization of S. hermonthica seed bank depleting MSc, EIAR bacteria 8 Screening and identification of striga suppressive sorghum associated MSc, EIAR rhizosphere soil bacteria 9 Screening and identification of sorghum growth promoting rhizosphere MSc, EIAR soil bacteria 10 Screening of striga resistant/susceptible sorghum using germination MSc, EIAR bioassay and marker assisted selection 11 Influence of the microbiome on Striga resistance or suppressiveness PhD, EIAR from the perspective of the Sorghum root, 12 Diversity and functional potential of the sorghum root microbiome to PhD, EIAR suppress S. hermonthica 13 The potential of soil microbes for S. hermonthica suppression and PhD, EIAR sorghum performance in Ethiopia

Chapter 7 Combining Complementary Tactics and Research Results

7.1. Combining Complementary Tactics

An effective integrated approach for striga control should include interventions that are selected in response to the level of infestation, socio-economic, and environmental circumstances of the farmers (the local resources that are available to deal with the problem) that complement one another (Ransom et al., 2007). Hand weeding; for example, may be the best option to prevent the buildup of striga in fields with very low striga levels or as a supplementary treatment with resistant varieties. However, this is impractical as well as useless for heavy infestations. Moreover, prescribing a single cultivar of a rotation crop, for example, may offer the best option for striga control in a given environment, but if seed is unavailable, or if there is no market for the crop at harvest, then the chance for real impact at farm level will be minimal. Thus, the challenge of availing a wide range of striga control options that can then be adapted by farmers to match their needs and interests is indeed frightening.

There should be plan for an effective integrated striga control program. The plan for interventions should be based on an understanding of the problem and solutions that are available and takes into account the effect of time, environment, and socio-economics. Farmers and change agents are better able to choose interventions and be motivated to implement them when they understand how striga develops and reproduces. The amount of time can vary significantly before crop management practices have a visible impact on Striga control. Many currently recommended control practices have failed to be 71 widely adopted because they require several seasons of implementation before they have a noticeable impact. Conversely, low or very low infestations can explode damaging levels after a single season if left uncontrolled (Ransom et al., 2007). Unfortunately, farmers with new or low infestations may not intervene, as they do not understand the potential dangers of few plants.

Environment can dramatically affect the impact of striga on susceptible cop. The most important environmental variables affecting the striga-crop association is soil moisture, indirectly the amount and distribution of rainfall. Soil moisture influences how crop root develops, the rate of soil biological activity, the conditioning of striga seeds and interaction of these factors. These conditions also favor microbial activity that can hasten the breakdown of organic matter including striga seeds. Low rates of Striga seed degradation in the soil may be one reason that striga is problematic in the drier cropping areas while Striga suppressive soils, soils where Striga seed banks decline even in the absence of any germination, have been reported (Ransom et al., 2007). Hence, an ideal integrated control tactics are categorized into those that protect and/or enhance yield, reduce the production of new seed, and decreases striga seed bank.

Cognizant of the above indicated facts, twelve MSc students were selected from the project implementing regions in order to do their thesis research on priority research gaps identified by the Project team on one hand and develop the capacity of expertise that are working on striga in different project implementing regions in the country on the other hand.

The objectives of project supported MSc studies were to  determine the level of infestation and distribution;  determine the indigenous knowledge in striga control;  estimate the magnitude of sorghum genotypes by environment interaction and stability of released striga resistant open-pollinated and hybrid varieties;  determine the effect of plant density and fertilizer rates on yield related traits;  optimize legume density and nitrogen fertilizer;  determine the intercropping pattern of sorghum with legumes; and  assess soil fertility versus striga infestation levels.

The integrated striga management packages up on which other control methods could be added depending on local situation are use of striga resistant and drought tolerant varieties along with the application of soil fertility management using application of commercial fertilizers and/or organic manures and tie ridge. It was envisaged that these research information conducted by post-graduate students might give answer (s) regarding local situations in the fight against striga by the farming community in areas where these studies conducted.

7.2. Highlight of Research by MSc Students

Title: Assessment of Farmers’ Indigenous Knowledge on Striga Management in Sorghum: The Case of Fadis District, East Hararghe, Ethiopia

Summary This study is based on in-depth assessment of the indigenous knowledge of farmers through analyzing primary data collected from 120 randomly selected representative sample households. Both primary and secondary data were collected to understand farmer‟s indigenous knowledge on striga management practices and its effect on the livelihood of smallholder‟s farmers. Both qualitative and quantitative data were also collected to know farmers perceptions and gather quantitative figures, respectively for policy influencing and informed decisions. Quantitative data were analyzed using descriptive statistics (SPSS 20) while qualitative data were analyzed using narration of farmer‟s perceptions and opinions. A Logit model was used to analyze the determinants of adoption of indigenous knowledge. The study revealed that, Striga is one of the major problems affecting the production and productivity of sorghum in the study area.

To mitigate the problems, farmers in the study area, use various types of indigenous knowledge such as  early planting;  intercropping with legumes;  hand-weeding or mechanical control at early stage;  local variety;  apply soil and water conservation practices such as sunken seed bed and mulch to retain the available moisture, use of organic ash; and 73

 applying different kinds of soil fertility management practices such as manure and burning the soils.

The study also shows that there are two groups of farmers in the study area, those who use and do not use indigenous knowledge for striga management in sorghum production. A t- test showed that, there is a statistically significant mean yield difference between the two groups of farmers. Those farmers who use indigenous knowledge for the control of striga have gained 36.2 percent yield advantage as compared with those farmers who are not used the indigenous knowledge. From the logit model analyses, it can also be concluded that the older farmer with better education and larger family size, the better the tendency to adopt indigenous knowledge on striga management. This is due to the fact that, the elder farmers with better education are often tended to use indigenous knowledge as result of their long time experience in sorghum farming and good understanding of the threat that striga poses to their land and yield loss respectively. Similarly, the logistic regression results indicated that the adoption of indigenous knowledge is determined by a combination of institutional arrangements, socio-economic characteristics, household characteristics, physical factors, and management factors. In connection with this, the result from the study showed that framers participation in indigenous knowledge is significantly influenced by variables such as sex of household head, family size, education level, sorghum farming experiences, contact with extension agents and farmers training. Therefore, incorporating indigenous knowledge into the research system are important, The need for district extension service providers to consider age difference, education level, farmer‟s experiences and their priority interest in extension service provision and potential key stakeholders should act jointly to reduce the problem and enhance production and productivity of smallholders farmers engaged in sorghum production.

Title: Genotype X Environment Interaction and Stability of Released Striga Resistant Sorghum [Sorghum Bicolor (L.) Moench] Genotypes in Ethiopia

Summary Field experiment was conducted to evaluate striga resistant sorghum genotypes during the 2014 cropping season at Fedis, Miesso, Kobo, Pawe and Humera. The materials used in the study consisted of eight striga resistant sorghum 74 genotypes representing the types widely grown in lowland areas. The treatments were laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) and replicated three times. Data were collected on sorghum traits in accordance with the procedure outlined in the IBPGR/ICRISAT sorghum descriptor. The objectives of the study were to estimate the magnitude of genotype by environment interaction (G x E) for grain yield and yield attributes, determine yield stability of striga resistant sorghum genotypes in lowland areas of Ethiopia, to estimate correlation between yield and yield attributes and among stability parameters. The individual location analyses of variance showed that genotypic mean square were significant only at Miesso and highly significant at Kobo for grain yield. The combined analysis of variance test showed that environment, genotype, and genotype x environment sum squares contributed 5.96%, (41.47%) and (41.81%) for grain yield respectively. The combined analysis of variance revealed significant variation among entries for most of the traits considered. From twelve characters, the environment effect was highly significant for days to flowering and stand count at harvest and significant for days to maturity and thousand seed weight. Based on the mean performance Abshir, Gobiye and Birhan gave higher mean grain yield of 2.85, 2.82 and 2.69 t/ ha respectively and the lowest yield was obtained from N-13 and SRN-39 2.28 and 2.27 t /ha respectively. Generally, the study showed the importance of testing striga resistant sorghum genotypes for their yield and stability across diverse lowland areas of Ethiopia.

Title: Survey and Mapping of Striga Infestation and Distribution in Major Sorghum Growing Areas of Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia

Summary A survey was conducted in 2014 to determine the abundance and distribution of striga, to determine the association of striga with major chemical & physical properties of the soil and to assess the association of striga infestation and population density of sorghum along with the socio-economic impact of striga. The result of the study and distribution map showed that S. hermonthica was distributed all over the study sites. But its prevalence varied among Kebeles. The highest level of striga infestation was observed at Hadinet, Dabano, Nebar Hadinet, Giera, Hadas Lemlem, Selam, Zuriya Dansha and Edaga Hibret. Whereas, the lowest infestation level was recorded at Genetie, Gergellie, Kara Adishabo, Rawyan, Mentebteb, Adi Keyh, May Shek, and Tsehafti. There was 75 no association between the number of Striga and the individual sorghum stands per unit area of land. In contrast, there was a strong association between the average number of Striga and population density of sorghum. Similarly, strong association was observed between Striga infestation and soil pH, available phosphorous, percent organic matter, total nitrogen and soil texture. The influence of soil organic matter on average level of Striga infestation was observed superior to other soil chemical and physical properties. The socio economic survey result revealed that all the respondents are aware of the economic importance of striga, favorable conditions for its spread, as well as the effect of management practices. However, there was a lack of awareness on the use of some of the available management practices. In conclusion, the highest level of striga infestation was recorded at kebeles, which got the highest population density of sorghum, kebeles with low organic matter and available soil phosphorous content and sandy textured soils. Therefore, management practices channeled towards improving these limitations have been suggested for controlling of S. hermonthica in the region.

Title: Effect of Cowpea Density and Nitrogen Fertilizer on a Sorghum-Cowpea Intercropping System in Kobo, Northern Ethiopia

Summary A field experiment on sorghum/cowpea intercropping was conducted in 2014/15 cropping season to assess the effect of density of the intercropped cowpea and nitrogen fertilizer rates on yield and yield related traits of sorghum and cowpea as well as to determine the appropriate plant density of cowpea and nitrogen fertilizer rate that maximize the productivity of the intercrop system. Treatments consisted of factorial combinations of three cowpea densities (50, 75 and 100%) and four levels of nitrogen rates (0, 20.5, 41 and 61.5kg N ha-1) accompanied with sole sorghum and sole cowpea, carried out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. The analyzed result showed that plant height and dry biomass yield of sorghum as well as leaf area and leaf area index of both crops showed an increased trend as N level increased linearly. Leaf area index of cowpea was also affected by cowpea density in which the largest data was recorded at high population density. Similarly, grain yields of component crops were significantly influenced (P<0.01) due to the interaction effect. Thus, the highest grain yield of sorghum (2370.4 kg ha-1) and cowpea (821.3 kg ha-1) were obtained from the 76 combination of 41 kg N ha-1 + 75% sole cowpea density, and 20.5 kg N ha-1 + 100% of cowpea density, respectively. Similarly, 20.5 kg N ha-1 + 100% planting density produced the highest dry biomass (2375.0 kg ha-1) of cowpea. The land equivalent ratio (LER) and gross monetary value (GMV) showed that sorghum-cowpea intercropping was highly superior to and more advantageous over sole cropping. The highest values of LER and GMV were obtained from combination of 41 kg N ha-1 and 75% sole cowpea density. This is, therefore, sorghum-cowpea intercropping was proved more productive and efficient system in utilizing land compared to sole cropping with carefully managed N fertilizer and cowpea plant density. Hence, combination of 41 kg N ha -1 and 75% sole cowpea density can be recommended for the farmers in the study area to improve sorghum productivity and the cropping system at large.

Title: Genotype x Environment Interaction and Yield Stability of Striga Resistant Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] Hybrids in Ethiopia

Summary In spite of biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, the procedures in the selection of good performing and stable genotypes are complicated by the phenomenon of genotype by environment interaction; therefore, interaction is the major concern to plant breeders to develop improved varieties/hybrids. Forty nine sorghum genotypes (hybrids and open pollinated varieties) were evaluated at five environments during the 2016 main cropping season. The objectives of this study were to estimate the magnitude and nature of GEI for yield and yield related traits and to determine yield stability of striga resistant sorghum genotypes in the dry lowland areas of Ethiopia. The study was conducted using a simple lattice design with two replications at each environment. The result of the combined analysis of variance for grain yield revealed very highly significant (P≤0.001) difference among environment (E), genotype (G) and genotype by environment interaction (GEI). Environment explained 76.13% of the total (G + E +GE) variation, whereas, G and GE explained 11.21% and 12.66% of the total variation, respectively. The magnitude of the environment used was 6.8 times greater than the genotype, implying that most of the variation in grain yield was due to the environment. Based on the combined analysis of variance over locations, the mean grain yield of environments ranged from 588 kg ha-1 in Humera to 4508 kg ha-1 in Sheraro. The highest yield was obtained from ESH-1 (3278 kg ha-1), while the lowest was from 77

K5136 (735 kg ha-1) and the average grain yield of genotypes was 2184 kg ha-1. Different stability models: AMMI Stability Value (ASV), Yield Stability Index (YSI), Regression coefficient (bi) and Deviation from Regression (S2di) were used to identify stable genotypes. Yield was significantly correlated with bi (0.91), r2 (0.55) and ASV (-0.56) while it was not correlated with S2di (-0.26). Generally, AMMI model and GGE biplot were better for partitioning the GEI into the causes of variation and the best multivariate models in this study. Thus, AMMI model was used to identify superior genotypes for specific and wide adaptation. Accordingly, K7439, K7252 and K7437 were specifically adapted to low environments of Humera, Kobo and Fedis, whereas, ESH-1 and K7233 were the better hybrids for favorable environments of Mehoni and Sheraro, respectively. Moreover, the GGE biplot identified two different sorghum growing mega-environments for grain yield. The first mega environment includes higher (Mehoni) to low yielding (Humera, Kobo and Fedis) environments, respectively, with the winner genotype ESH-1 and the second mega environment containing the highest yielding environment in Sheraro area with winner genotype K7233. Thus, the which-won-where biplot showed two winning genotypes in two mega environments. However, the standard hybrid check, ESH-1 won in most of the environments. In order to give recommendation that is more reliable this experiment should be repeated at least for one year.

Title: Genetic Variability and Association of Yield and Yield Components in MAGIC Populations of Sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] at Humera, Western Tigray, Ethiopia

Summary Extent of genetic variability is important for generating superior varieties to improve productivity. Therefore, this research was initiated to quantify genetic variability, heritability, and genetic advance; estimate magnitude of correlations among yield and yield components; determine the direct and indirect effects of yield contributing traits on yield, and determine genotype to phenotype associations of traits and yield. The experiment was conducted in Humera, Northern Ethiopia in 2016/17 cropping season and it consisted of 259 accessions in Alpha lattice design with two replications and three blocks nested within replication. Tested results revealed statistically significant differences at (P≤ 0.05) for the measured traits. Higher GCV ranged (30.71 to 98.03) and 78

PCV (41.17 to 110.55) values were observed. Panicle exertion (PE) (0.94), plant height (PH) (0.83), days to flowering (DF) (0.82) and number of tillers (NT) (0.82) were highly heritable traits, while GY (0.56) was moderately heritable. Most of traits except SPAD, DF, and DM scored higher GAM ranging from 23.32 for TSW to 196.31 for PE indicating these traits were controlled by additive genetic action. Moreover, higher GCV and higher H2 with higher GAM were obtained for GY, YPP, HW, DBM, PE, PH, NT and NPT, suggesting that the traits were important as selection criteria for sorghum improvement. Genotypic and phenotypic correlation of traits revealed strong significant association of GY with YPP (0.73, 0.75) and moderate correlation with DBM (0.67, 0.47), HW (0.72, 0.59) and HI (0.44, 0.24) indicating the true linear relationship of traits with grain yield. The DBM (0.68) exerted the highest positive direct effect on grain yield followed by HI (0.53) and YPP (0.37), while the highest indirect effect was contributed by YPP (0.73) through DBM (0.35) and HI (0.15) to grain yield with 86% explained coefficient of determination. Four distinct groups of clusters with sufficient amount of dissimilarity were identified at P ≤ 0.05. The first five PCAs out of 14 traits having Eigen value greater than one explained 76.44% variation. The GWAS also showed significant genotype to phenotype association for PH, FLH and PE, but no significant association for GY. As a conclusion, focus has to be given to the simultaneous improvement of DBM, YPP, HI, HW, PH, NDF, NDM, NPT and GY for sorghum improvement. Further specific identification of gene, which controls the grain yield have to be studied with large sample size and higher statistical power. As the result was based on one year and one location data, the research has to be repeated for drawing practical recommendation.

Title: Influence of Cowpea and Soybean Intercropping Pattern in Sorghum on Striga (striga hermonthica) Infestation and System Productivity at Mechara, Eastern Ethiopia

Summary Striga is a serious constraint to sorghum, millet, rice and maize production in the dryland zones of Africa Field experiment was conducted at Mechara Agricultural Research Center during; to determine the effect of cowpea and soybean intercropping pattern on Striga hermonthica infestation in sorghum and to assess the effect of S. hermonthica and intercropping on system productivity. The treatments included two legume crops (soybean and cowpea), their 79 planting time (simultaneously and at first weeding of sorghum),three planting patterns of legumes (double alternate plants within sorghum plants, two rows in between two rows of sorghum and both double alternate plants and two rows in between two rows of sorghum) along with sole crops (sorghum, soybean and cowpea). The experiment was conducted in randomized complete block design with three replications. The results showed that cowpea proved significantly superior to soybean in reducing striga infestation. Though simultaneous planting of soybean and sorghum in double alternate plants and two rows in between two rows of sorghum had minimum striga infestation, but it was statistically at par with cowpea planted simultaneously with sorghum under all the planting patterns and planting with first weeding in sorghum under double alternate plants and two rows in between two rows of sorghum. Interaction of legumes with planting pattern significantly influenced sorghum plant height and aboveground dry biomass yield, while legumes and their time of planting and time of planting and planting pattern had significant effect on crop stand count and kernel weight per head, respectively.

Title: Assessment of Soil Fertility under Striga hermonthica Infested Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) Fields at Pawe, Northwestern Ethiopia

Summary The parasitic weed (Striga hermonthica) infestation is seriously limiting sorghum production especially in nutrient poor soils. The study was conducted to investigate the status of soil physico-chemical properties in Striga-infested fields and find out the relationship between soil properties and infestation levels. Field survey was conducted to identify different sorghum fields with no (0%), low (1-25%), medium (26-50%) and high (> 51% area coverage with Striga) Striga infestation level. Under each infestation level, 12 fields were selected randomly. A composite soil sample from the depth of 0-20 cm was prepared from each selected fields during the main cropping season of 2014. Accordingly, 48 soil samples (4 infestation level * 12 replication) were collected. Soil physico-chemical analysis was carried out on the samples and based on the results, BD, porosity, OM, total N, available P, exchangeable K, exchangeable Na, the C: N ratio and available Zn were significantly (P < 0.05) differed among the infestation levels. Soil BD and porosity showed decreasing and increasing pattern with increasing Striga infestation level, respectively. Moreover, porosity, OM, total N, available P, and exchangeable K showed 80 consistently decreasing pattern with Striga infestation levels. Considering no infested fields as a reference point; low, medium and high infested fields OM decreased by 16.6, 38.9 and 45.3%, total N decreased by 15.3, 28.6 and 32.3%, available P decreased by 65.8, 74.5 and 84.3% and exchangeable K decreased by 46.6 %, 52.6 and 53.6%, respectively. Simple linear regression analysis showed that soil OM, total N, C: N ratio, total porosity, available P and exchangeable K negatively influenced Striga infestation level. Whereas, soil bulk density influenced Striga infestation level positively by increasing Striga infestation in sorghum fields. Furthermore, stepwise multiple regression identified OM, available P and exchangeable K as potentially most important in explaining observed variations in striga infestation levels in sorghum fields (R2 = 0.66), indicating that the higher content of these nutrients helps for the improvement of the soil fertility status and reducing Striga infestation in the study area.

Title: Evaluation of Food Legume Intercropping for the Control of Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth. In Sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor L. Moench) In Eastern Amhara, Ethiopia

Summary A field experiment was conducted to identify the most effective intercrop species/varieties compatible with sorghum, and determine the effect of intercropping system on S. hermonthica in eastern Amhara during 2015. Treatments consisted soybean, haricot bean, cowpea and groundnut with three varieties of each crop accompanied with a satellite treatment of sole sorghum for comparison. Treatments were evaluated under naturally striga infested (hot- spot) areas of Kobo and Cheffa using a randomized complete block design with three replications. In the experiment, growth and yield parameters, economic analysis and land productivity were investigated. The data analysis at Kobo indicated that sorghum leaf area, plant height and leaf area index were significantly influenced by the effect of intercropped legumes. While at Cheffa only plant height and panicle length were significant. The sorghum-haricot bean cv-Lehode association recorded highest grain yield (3177kg/ha), thousand-seed weight (41g), grain yield per plant (78.3g) and head-weight per plant (105.4g) at Kobo. On the other hand, at Cheffa the highest grain yield (3150kg/ha) and grain yield per plant (73.2g) was recorded from haricot bean cv-Nasir, while the highest head-weight per plant (105.4g) and thousand-seed weight (41g) from 81 haricot bean cv-Lehode. The result also showed that Striga populations were influenced by legume varieties planted. At Chefa, cowpea variety Tentekit intercropped with sorghum had the least number of emerged Striga plant (18 plants/plot) without significance difference with Bekur, Bole and Lehode, and the highest number of Striga population (51 plants/plot) was recorded from soybean variety Wollo. At Kobo, the association of sorghum with cowpea variety Bekur, Tentekit and bean cv-Lehode had minimum Striga population (31, 34, and 39 plants/plot, respectively) and groundnut variety Eta had maximum Striga plants (135 plants/plot). The ANOVA of partial Land Equivalent Ratio (PLER) and Gross Monetary Value (GMV) indicated significant differences due to the effects of intercropping sorghum with different legume varieties. At Kobo, the highest partial LER (1.34) of sorghum and GMV (19508.6 Birr ha-1) was obtained when bean variety Lehode intercropped with sorghum and the soybean varieties and cowpea cv-Bole showed poor compatibility for intercropping with sorghum. However, at Cheffa, bean variety Nasir gave the highest partial LER (1.4), and the highest GMV of 21688.4 Birr ha-1 was recorded when groundnut variety Sedi was intercropped with sorghum without statistical difference with Fenta (21108.0 Birr ha-1) and bean variety Nasir (20328.2 Birr ha-1). Hence, intercropping sorghum with haricot bean (cv-Lehode and Nasir) and cowpea (cv-Bekur and Tentekit) could be strategically combined with other approaches for integrated management of Striga to stabilize and improve sorghum production in the subsistent agricultural system of eastern Amhara.

Title: Effect of Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) - Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) Intercropping and Fertilizer (DAP and Urea) Application on Striga (Striga hermonthica Del. Beth) in Adiasmien, Kola Temben and Da Arbaete Ensisa, Enderta Woredas, Tigray, Northern Ethiopia

Summary The study was conducted at Adiasmien and Da Arbaete Ensisa in 2015 aiming to investigate the effect of sorghum - soybean intercropping and fertilizer application on striga emergence, development and infestation and yield and yield components of sorghum under field condition. Three sorghum varieties, Gobiye, Chiro and Melkam, and a soybean variety Wollo were used in the study. Sole sorghum with no fertilizer, sorghum-soybean intercropping, and sorghum with fertilizer (urea and DAP) were the treatments. The treatments

82 were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The result obtained showed that the application of fertilizer 32KgN/ha significantly (p<0.01) increased grain yield by 50% and 85% over intercropped and sole crop, respectively. Sorghum yield from the intercropped also increased by 23% over the sole crop. All the three varieties showed significantly (p<0.01) highest grain yield in the fertilized and Gobiye gave significantly (P<0.01) higher grain yield (12.06 q/ha) than varieties Melkam (10.31q/ha) and Chiro (9.61 q/ha). Variety Melkam under sole cropping at Da Arbaete Ensisa scored highest above ground biomass yield (25.94q/ha) than the rest of the varieties while sole cropped variety Chiro at Adiasmien had the lowest (7.94 q/ha). Striga emergence in sole sorghum and intercropped plots was delayed by 19 and 22 days respectively than in plots that received fertilizer. Whereas, the number of striga shoots per plot was significantly different (P<0.01) among treatments, with significantly lower striga shoots emerged in plots that received fertilizer in Adiasmien. The number of emerged striga shoots in the sole sorghum and intercropped plots was higher by more than 727% and 400%, respectively than the number of emerged striga shoots in plots that received fertilizer. Therefore, fertilizer applications and intercropping showed considerable results on controlling striga. Although fertilizer application was the most effective input, intercropping is recommended as relatively more advantageous controlling mechanism for the small-scale subsistence farmers because of the low input and its higher economic value under limited resources.

Title: Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on Striga Infestation, Yield and Yield Related Traits In Sorghum [(Sorghum Bicolor (L.)Moench] Varieties at Kile, Eastern Ethiopia,

Summary The objective of this study was to assess the effect of nitrogen fertilizer on striga infestation, yield and yield related traits in three sorghum varieties (Gubiye, Hormat and Teshale)and five nitrogen fertilizer rates (0, 23, 46, 69 and 92 kg N ha- 1) at Kile, eastern Ethiopia in a randomized complete block design replicated three times. Plots treated with N fertilizer had significantly fewer number of Striga for 10, and 12 weeks after planting (WAP, but 8WAP and at harvest was not significant due to all. Based on this study, nitrogen fertilizer has the potential to reduce number of Striga per plot while increasing rates from zero to 92kg N ha-1. Similarly, N fertilizer was significantly affected 83 the plant height, capsules/plant and dry weight/plot. Nitrogen at 92 kg ha-1was significantly more effective in suppressing than nitrogen at 0, 23, 46, and 69 kg ha-1 applied at 10 and 12 WAP. There was statistically significant difference due to variety for days to 50% flowering, due to nitrogen was not significant. Days to 90%, maturity was not significant due to all. Initial and final stand count was not significant due to all. Among growth parameters, total productive tiller was not significant for all except nitrogen by variety. Plant height was only significant due to nitrogen. However, tiller number per plant was significant due to all except variety. Regarding yield and yield components of sorghum such as panicle weight, above ground biomass, grain yield, 1000- kernel weight, and harvest index) were significant due nitrogen and variety, but nitrogen by variety was not significant. Panicle length was significant due to only variety. With regard to economic analysis, application of 92 kg ha-1was gave the highest gross benefit (45,402.48 Birr ha-1) whereas the lowest gross benefit (22,217.76 Birr ha-1) was obtained under no N treatment. The highest net benefit (30078.48 Birr ha-1) was obtained with 92 kg N ha-1 application while the lowest net benefit (14,993.44 Birr ha-1) was from application of 23 kg Nha-1. Marginal rate of return was positive for all N rates. The percentage gain from 69 to 92 kg Nha-1 is better as compared to the gain from 0 to 23 kg N ha-1, 23 to 46 kg N ha-1 and 69 kg N ha-1. The economic analysis has led to the emergence of one N rate (92 kg N ha-1) which was most economically attractive when compared to 0, 23, 46, and 69 kg N ha-1 as suitable for potential adoption by farmers.

7.3. Impacts and lessons of MSc training Through the ISC Project initiatives, the capacity of national agricultural research systems to develop control options for striga has improved. For example, four researchers from Tigray Agricultural Research Institute who completed their MSc training program by the support of the project are back to their respective research centers at Mekelle, Humera, and Abergele and are now working on striga-sorghum research. Likewise, two researchers each from Oromia, Amhara, and SNNP comes back to their research centers and are supporting research programs in sorghum and other cereals.

For example, a student conducted his research on survey and mapping of striga infestation and distribution in major sorghum growing areas of Tigray region.

He reported that S. hermonthica was distributed all over the study sites, but its prevalence varied among locations. He also found that there was strong association between Striga infestation and soil pH, available phosphorous, percent organic matter, total nitrogen and soil texture. In his conclusion, he indicated that Striga infestation was recorded in areas with high sorghum plant density, low organic matter, and available soil phosphorous content and sandy textured soils. Thus, he recommends management practices need to be channeled towards improving these limitations in order to control S. hermonthica in the region.

As another thesis research conducted on food legume intercropping for the control of S. hermonthica in sorghum suggested that intercropping sorghum with haricot bean (cv-Lehode and Nasir) and cowpea (cv-Bekur and Tentekit) have resulted in higher yields of sorghum, reduced striga plants and increased profit margin as compared to other treatments. Thus, he recommended that intercropping could be strategically combined with other approaches for integrated management of striga to stabilize and improve sorghum production in the subsistence agricultural system of eastern Amhara. He was also working as a focal person for ISC-I Project in Amhara region after his graduation in 2015.

Similarly, nine others were also successfully graduated and are being stationed at their respective home research centers except the one who quitted his study for a better chance to do his masters in the Netherlands after finishing all his course work at Bahr Dar University in Ethiopia. In general, the project has contributed to the development of human power who are engaged in the battle of striga in sorghum. This indicates that other Government programs and donor- supported projects that are being implemented in the country should focus on strengthening human capacity in order to ensure sustainability of agricultural research and development plans/programs.

Chapter 8

Project Administration, Monitoring and Evaluation

8.1. Coordination and Implementation Mechanisms

The Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) and the respective Bureaus of Agriculture and Natural Resource Development in project regions implemented the Project through their extension offices, seed enterprises, and regional research institutes of the four major regions of the country, i.e., Amhara, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray. The project is coordinated by the national coordination office that is hosted by EIAR. Besides, project focal persons were assigned at various levels to implement Project activities along with Government activities in extending the technology to farmers, seed production, and research by project collaborators. Project Focal Persons (FPs) who coordinates the Project activities at organizational level and activity level that ensure implementation of planned activities on research, seed production, demonstration of ISM technology packages, and popularization of SRV in respective project regions were formally assigned by the project collaborators and communicated to the Project Coordination Unit (PCU) at the EIAR.

Specific Term of Responsibilities (TOR) that was given to the organizational and activity focal persons included the following:

 Ensure implementation of planned research activities of the Project in the Center;  Coordinate, planning and implementation of breeder and pre-basic seeds;  Prepare budget for planned Project activities of the Center;  Administer and ensure appropriate and timely utilization of project budget as per approved plan;  Communicate effectively and timely the progress of Project activities to the National Coordinator of the Project;  Conduct and coordinate trainings and meetings with stakeholders as required to ensure linkage among research, extension and users for rapid dissemination and utilization of available technologies in the center‟s mandate area;  Represent the Center Project Team in forums related the Project; and,  Undertake other duties as requested by the Project National Coordinator. This coordination and implementation mechanism has brought about an effective project coordination, M&E and financial utilization by project collaborators (Tables 1).

Table 1. Integrated striga control project collaborators

Region/Institution Organizations Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Agricultural Research Centers at Melkassa, Werer and ResearchOromia Regional (EIAR) Government MehoniOromia Bureau of Agriculture State Oromia Seed Enterprise Oromia Agricultural Research Institute Amhara Regional Government Amhara Bureau of Agriculture State Amhara Seed Enterprise Amhara Agricultural Research Institute SNNP Regional Government SNNP Bureau of Agriculture State SNNP Seed Enterprise SNNP Agricultural Research Institute Tigray Regional Government Tigray Bureau of Agriculture State Tigray Agricultural Research Institute

7.2. Monitoring and Evaluation Activities

Monitoring and Evaluation activities were conducted through field visits, regional and national ISM field days, Project implementation evaluation field surveys, regional and national annual review and planning meetings, annual progress reports throughout the project life time as further explained below.

Field visits The Project Coordination Units at both national and regional levels conducted regular monitoring visits in all project implementing regions, woredas and kebeles during the life of the project. The major objectives the field visits were

 to evaluate Project field activities (seed production, demonstration and popularization of ISM technologies and offer technical support and advice as needed to Project Site Coordinators, DAs and local implementers;  to monitor progress made in project implementation in all project implementing regions; and  to discuss on problems encountered during Project implementation with Bureaus of Agriculture in Project implementing woredas and kebeles and suggested solutions. Field visits conducted helped to take timely corrections and enhance performance of the planned activities.

The project coordination unit had also made a visit to research activities conducted by project implementing RARIs and research centers. Corrective measures were taken and progresses were evaluated against plans. Revisions were made in areas where clarity was lacking during the Project annual meetings.

Project implementation evaluation Project implementation evaluation was organized and implemented annually from last week of October to first week of November for about 10-15 days before harvest of sorghum in project implementing regions.. Comments, suggestions, and corrective measures were taken where there were inappropriate actions made on seed production, ISM demonstrations, and popularization activities conducted by implementers. Progresses were also evaluated against plans at every occasion. By the end of each evaluation field

89 surveys, reflections and discussion were carried out with leaderships of project implementing regions.

National ISM field day Joint field days were organized on different occasions in different regions by the national project coordination office together with the project team in respective regional coordination offices, agricultural research centers of regional agricultural research institutions in Amhara, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray Regions, and the team of Pre-extension Technology Scaling up of the EIAR. On each occasion, a large number of farmers, development agents, subject matter specialists, and local administrators participated on field days organized on demonstration of ISM package, popularization of Striga resistant varieties, and seed production technology scaling up activities.

Annual review and planning workshops The Project Annual Review and Planning Workshops were held regularly once a year during March/April. The purposes of the workshop were to review progress and achievements of the Project in the cropping season, and new plan activities for the following year, discuss on challenges and problems encountered, and search for consensus solutions.

Participants of annual and planning workshops held included bureau heads, extension heads, and focal persons from Amhara, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray Regions. Directors and seed focal persons from Seed Enterprises of Amhara, Oromia and SNNP regions; Crop research directors and research focal persons from EIAR and Amhara, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray Research Institutes; professionals from national and international Project Management Units.

Major comments and outcomes from the annual review and planning workshops were highlighted based on research, ISM package demonstration and popularization, seed systems development, seed production and distribution; and capacity building were as follows:

Research  Findings and significance of research works conducted at Purdue University as part of the ISC project were presented and discussed by the participants of the workshop;  Coordination of germplasm flow between national and international programs realized;  Research on intercropping of legumes with potential for intercropping studied as MSc thesis research;  Striga bioassay lab established at Holetta. Dr. Patrick Rich identified and send the necessary equipment and chemicals required and trained practitioners/technicians;  National agricultural biotechnology research center at Holetta dedicated one lab room for establishment of Striga bioassay lab;  Central sorghum research coordination at Melkassa ARC was strengthened in order to harmonize research activities, utilize budget and human resource efficiently; and  Issues with the use of open pollinated and hybrid variety resolved in order to develop breeding and sorghum improvement strategy.

ISM demonstration and popularization  The diverse reports from the ISC project partners incorporated photographs of field activities and plans. While these pictures are good and tell a story, quantitative data collected to support the pictures presented. Data that show demonstration plot in comparison with local practice documented;  Harmonizing methodology for demonstration and popularization increased quality of work; and  Areas previously not covered by the project and new infested areas surveyed, planned, and considered for ISM package demonstration and popularization.

Trainings  Focus given to training large number of farmers and development agents in project implementing regions;  Training on seed and seed production were given to farmers, private seed producers, and seed enterprises in project implementing regions; an  Booklets, leaflets and other media including videos prepared and distributed to farmers and DAs, subject matter specialists, and kebele and woreda administration staff. PCU developed Training Guideline for MSC Students; MARC developed Striga Management Manual; SNNP produced Striga Management Manual in Amharic; Oromiya BoA and OSE produced Leaflet on Striga Management and seed production in Oromo language, respectively; Sirinka Agricultural Research 91

Center produced Leaflet on Striga Management; and Tigray BoA, and TARI both produced leaflet on Striga Management in Tigray language.

Seed and seed systems  Cleaning seed production field by rouging off types and weeding practiced. Besides, quality of seed is maintained with good agronomic practices;  Methods for planting, harvesting and cleaning for seed production was developed  Standard procedures in implementation of good crop husbandry, rouging ,and inspection of SRV seed production fields established;  An ecological definition of Striga resistant variety to prevent varietal mixture was practiced. Each of the project implementing regions identified and made ecological recommendation of the SRV to be grown to avoid potential varietal contamination. Since Gobiye and Abshir sorghum varieties have similar plant morphology and architecture and could be difficult to distinguish between the two, growing these varieties in separate ecologies was recommended in order to reduce easy mix up if grown in close proximity. Thus, Gobiye and Birhan or Abshir and Birhan were recommended for the same area since they are distinguishable from one another;  Grow out of the produced seed was found very important in order to check uniformity of the seed (true to type) before recommendation of the seed for distribution;  Plan for distribution of produced seed was made well ahead of planting time in order to utilize the produced seed efficiently and prevent carryover seed;  The fate of seed produced and not accepted by seed inspection agency because of not fulfilling the requirement; for example, presence of striga plants in the field in case of Amhara was suggested for decision whether to use or not to use. Thus, care must be taken on decision-making process. If the seed production field has Striga infestation, field cleaning can be made before striga sets seeds along with careful harvesting;  The demand for improved seed by Woredas reached the respective BoAs of the project regions well ahead of time for distribution/allocation of the produced seed.

 Seed distribution plan for popularization within the project and outside the project through regular extension worked out very clearly;  Plan for seed production came along with plan for seed distribution;  How and when to pack the seeds was suggested to be agreed up on by some project implementing regions like in Tigray though SNNP prepared 5kg bags to be divided between two neighboring farmers;  Consensus was reached on responsibilities for seed production - Breeder seed production, foundation seed by regional research centers, while certified seed by private seed growers/farmers and seed companies; and  Clear assessment of farmers‟ interest in terms of variety, and other attributes, i.e., disease resistance, striga resistance, thresh ability, utilization, marketing, training, etc.

Thesis research  Input needed for MSc Thesis Research, i.e., literature, ideas, finance, etc. were given to MSc students from Purdue University through project national coordinator;  Project PIs supported students‟ thesis research as Advisors/Co-advisors as per the Universities‟ regulation; and  Students‟ thesis research budget was administered by project coordination office in EIAR.

Reporting  Annual Progress and quarter reporting format was developed to standardize reports coming from implementing institutions. Accordingly, regional BoAs and EIAR were reporting to the PCU regularly. Subsequently, the PCU is reporting to EIAR Crop Director, Deputy Director General/ Director General and Purdue University. Annual reports are also produced and distributed to all implementing agencies in implementing regions.

Chapter 9 Challenges, Lessons, and Looking Ahead

9.1. Challenges

The biggest challenge during implementation of the project was the recurrent drought in different locations in all regions. Drought occurred every year but its extent varied in years and locations. Rain comes early or late or stops before the crop matures. When the rain starts late, planting also become late and the crop may get moisture stress before maturity because of insufficient rain.

Though the ISM technology packages have involved the use of drought tolerant varieties together with moisture conservation practices and use of fertilizers among other packages, the prevailing drought was sometimes beyond the level of crop tolerance. In many cases, farmers plant twice or thrice when moisture is not sufficient for the crop seed to germinate. There will be little chance for the farmer when the rain stops for long after crop reaches vegetative stage or flowering. However, farmers have their own innovative ways of coping mechanisms, like diversifying agriculture and building social capitals.

Another challenge was bird attack that encountered in Project implementing regions especially in SNNP and Oromia. Since the striga resistant sorghum varieties are early maturing as compared to the farmers‟ varieties, they were very liable to bird attack. Farmers normally practice bird scaring using family labor. They say SRV are sweat to birds and hence are easily attacked. Adjusting 95 planting time of SRV so that their maturity period coincides with other sorghum varieties was recommended to curb bird problem. In SNNP, this challenge was due to a migratory bird, Qulea qulea, and the problem was overcome through early detection of bird problem and rapid response mechanism by agricultural development offices at kebele and district levels. Thereafter, the problem was reported to the Ministry of Agriculture through SNNP Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources. The migratory birds control unit conducted a chemical spray-using airplane through the support of Government.

In Oromia, however, farmers in Hararghe overcome bird problem by growing adjacent fields with SRV. When many farmers are growing SRV at a time, birds distribute over wide area of crop fields and the damage due to birds on to many farmer plots is shared. Thus, damage on to a single farmer‟s plots becomes negligible. Such an approach in bird control was taken as lessons learnt and model farmers from other project implementing regions made an experience-sharing visit to Hararghe in Oromia region. Crop improvement, protection research and other innovators have to take this assignment for other sustainable solutions.

Several farmers who grew sorghum do not implement full ISM packages for growing sorghum because of economic, cultural, social, etc. reasons. One of these reasons could be due to their belief that sorghum is tolerant to various circumstances like drought, insects, diseases, etc. Secondly, some farmers could not afford the cost of buying fertilizers, while others could not get time for weeding or able to afford the cost of weeding or buying herbicides. Still others have no awareness on drawbacks of not implementing full package. Still some do not use proper spacing or make thinning. Obtaining uniform germination, i.e., filling up the gaps in a plant row where seeds did not germinate by re- seeding, maintaining ridges for water conservation, and occurrence of insect pests, were also among the major problems encountered during implementation of ISM package demonstration on farmer‟s plots.

Such problems overcome by awareness creation activities through training farmers on ISM technology, inviting farmers on field day celebration on ISM package demonstrations, dissemination of leaflets, and monitoring demonstration sites by making regular visits. For example, a visit to Bahr Dar by Prof. Gebisa Ejeta and his team discussed with H.E. Ato Gedu Andargachew 96 on the importance of using full technology packages in increasing productivity. Because of this discussion, large-scale awareness was given to subject matter specialists, development agents (Das) and farmers were given in a form of training use of full package in sorghum production areas in the region. In fact this became a model for other crop commodities in Amhara and the other regions in Ethiopia. Despite these challenges and problems, implementation of project activities in the course of project period brought successful achievements in terms of Farmers, DA and Experts training, foundation seed production, ISM package demonstration, popularization and certified seed production.

Figure 1. Crop failure as a result drought

9.2. Successes and Lessons

In general, the Integrated Striga Control (ISC) project promoted striga resistant and drought tolerant sorghum, coupled with moisture conservation and enhanced seed system using sorghum as a model. The varieties used in ISM package have embedded striga resistance, drought tolerance, early maturing and high yielding especially under striga infestation. Thus, the project demonstrated a well-integrated approach involving research, extension, seed enterprises, seed inspection and other stakeholders to achieve long-term local ownership of the project and enhances sorghum productivity. The project covered major sorghum producing regions, i.e., Amhara, Oromia, SNNP, and Tigray contributed to

97 more than 95% of sorghum production were included in the project. The project had spillover effects into other non-project implementing regions

The SRV combined drought tolerance, which enabled expansion in a wider sorghum-growing region than anticipated. The striga resistant varieties showed a significant yield advantage over the farmers‟ varieties under striga infested and moisture stress areas. Adoption is increasing in striga and drought prone regions, e.g., in Babile District. Increase in numbers of farmers and area devoted to Striga resistant varieties and productivity. Some of SRVs (e.g. Birhan) has desirable malting quality that makes suitable for the local brewery in Ethiopia.

The project established protocol for seed production, delineated the responsibilities of various federal and regional agencies and seed enterprises for seed production by class (breeder, foundation, certified), which resulted in expansion of high quality seed production at research stations, seed enterprises, and farmers‟ fields. Thus, it was a model project for other commodities for institutionalization of this protocol and division of labor.

The Project widely recognized and generated a high demand for seeds of Striga resistant varieties especially during drought years by farmers, development practitioners, politicians, and policy makers. Impacts are also beginning to reach beyond the project regions of four regional states showing significant spillover of technologies. There is also an increased demand by NGOs for striga resistant varieties. Improvements in quality seed production of sorghum in Ethiopia has been encouraging although private sector interest in sorghum seed production is limited at present,

The ISC Project initiative has increased the capacity of national agricultural research systems to generate and disseminate control options for striga. Twelve researchers from regional agricultural research institute from project implementing regions completed their MSc training program by the support of the project.

Establishment of Striga bioassay laboratory by the support of the project brought short-cut method of identifying germplasm for striga resistance. Earlier, researchers in the country screen germplasm under field condition where Striga 98 is a hot spot. However, field screening is difficult to handle large number sorghum germplasm. Besides, screening for resistance is affected by field uniformity in terms of Striga seed bank, soil moisture, soil nutrients, etc. It is also affected by prevailing conditions like rainfall and temperature. Study of germplasm resistance using bioassays under lab condition, however, makes the work easy and very efficient. Following establishment of bioassay lab and trainings given to researchers, hundreds of germplasm were screened. Besides, the laboratory is hosting graduate students from various universities in the country and researchers are working on germplasm resistance for other parasitic weeds like Orobanche on tomatoes.

9.3. Looking ahead

The SRV that were popularized to a large number of farmers have wide acceptance by the community because of their earliness, drought tolerance, and striga resistance. The project recommendation for SRV is planting from ends of June to the first week of July. However, cognizant of the fact that striga resistant varieties are early maturing and are drought tolerant, farmers feedback in areas where there is bimodal rains frequently ask if there is a possibility of growing SRV twice a year? Therefore, future research and development need to verify whether there is a possibility of double cropping, intercropping, or sole cropping of SRV in areas with bimodal rain. Specifically, future research needs to evaluate

 Possibility of June/ July planting Vs April/May Planting;  Double cropping of SRV - one in April/May and the other in June/July;  Double cropping - legume in April/May and SRV in June/July or vice versa;  Intercropping SRV with Legumes 2X - one in April/May and the other in June/July; and  Sole legume in April-May and SRV-legume intercropping in July or vice versa.

Efforts should be made to institutionalize the changes achieved through the ISC project. For example, the extension system in the respective project implementing and non-project regions need to promote striga resistant varieties to expand coverage especially to areas where the project did not address. The seed system in Ethiopia is still poor. Thus, the research and development

99 institutions in the country and private seed growers should work towards improving the seed system.

The national research system also needs to strengthen sorghum research to address current and future research challenges. Current challenges are drought, striga, bird attack, other pests including insects, diseases and weeds, and agronomic practices need to be considered for sorghum growing agro ecologies. Next generation of striga resistant sorghum both open pollinated and hybrids with iintrogression of drought tolerance, disease resistance traits, and intermediate plant height for stalk are very important to answer the question of sorghum farmers arising.

8.4. Experiences from elsewhere

Experiences from Elsewhere There are several options for the control of striga in sorghum though there is no single, all-inclusive and ultimately effective method broadly applied. The available strategies include the use of resistant sorghum varieties, crop rotation practices, intercropping with pulse crops, manipulation of planting time, deep planting, use of trap crops, application of organic and inorganic fertilizers, use of herbicides, and biological control agents (Hearne, 2009). In conceptual terms, four independent Striga control approaches, namely cultural, chemical, genetic, and biological, have been studied and applied in particular scenarios (Gebisa et al, 2007; Labrada, 2010).

Cultural control of striga Among the cultural methods, the most commonly practiced are hand-weeding, use of trap and catch crops, crop rotation, intercropping, and multi-year fallowing. Crop rotation, intercropping, alley cropping with perennial legume shrubs along with integrated use of resistant varieties, fertilizer, 2,4-D, and hand pulling significantly improved land and crop productivity along with effective control of striga (Fasil and Verkleij, 2007). Other methods such as soil transplanting, the use of fertilizers to enhance soil fertility, and the adoption of field management practices, and „Push–pull‟ technology, although relatively costly, remain as well-practiced methods used for striga control. Smallholder subsistence farmers mainly practice cultural methods since the majority of these

100 farmers are unable to access other advanced and costly control options. Hence, current cultural control options are mechanical, laborious, less effective, and the resulting effects are short lasting (Joel and Gressel, 2013).

Chemical control of striga There are two categories for the chemical control of striga: germination stimulants and herbicides (pre- and post-emergence). Chemicals capable of inducing striga seed germination; for example, ethylene, ethephon, strigol, and strigol analogues can be used as a control strategy. These are known to induce striga seed germination in the absence of the host, thus leading to „suicidal‟ or „ineffective‟ germination. This strategy also contributes to the depletion of the striga seed bank in the soil. The drawback of this method is related to the cost associated with the use of ethylene and the accessibility of the technology to smallholder subsistence farmers (Xie et al., 2010; Yoneyama et al., 2011).

The treatment of seeds with pre-emergence herbicides (e.g., imazapyr) has been shown to be an effective and promising approach in the control of striga both in maize and sorghum (Kabambe et al. 2008). This chemical is applied to the seeds of genotypes with resistance to ALS-inhibiting herbicides and the system has been widely tested and can increase yields by three to four fold (Ransom et al., 2007). This system is effective in reducing striga and could be used as the base upon which an integrated management program could be established in those environments for which adapted herbicide tolerant genotypes are available. Even though being effective in preventing the onset of striga germination, pre-emergence chemicals lack the potential to limit the progress of striga after its aboveground emergence (Yoneyama et al. 2010).

Among the post-emergence herbicides tested, 2,4-D has been the most selective and widely used option. Similarly, the 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid (MCPA), a compound closely related to the 2,4-D, has also been showed to be effective when mixed with bromoxynil. The use of glufosinate, oxyfluorfen, the combination of urea and dicamba, and the combined use of chlorsulfuron and dicamba were also shown to effectively control striga (Satish et al., 2012). The limitation of both pre- and post-emergence herbicides relates to their inability to prevent crop yield loss. This occurs because, at the time these chemicals affect striga, the impact on the host plant has already occurred. In addition, these are

101 relatively expansive and often inaccessible methods to subsistence farmers (Labrada, 2010).

Use of striga resistant varieties Host plant resistance is often the cornerstone up on which an integrated striga management program is built. It is regarded as the most feasible and attractive method for striga control. By using biotechnological approaches including biochemistry, tissue culture, plant genetics and breeding, and molecular biology, significant progress has been made in developing screening methodologies and laboratory assays, leading to the development of plant-host resistance against striga (Rodenburg et al., 2017). This also constitutes to a feasible and potentially cheap strategy of striga control for resource-poor farmers. However, reliance on host resistance alone has been proven not to be ideal so far. The current sources of resistance are quantitative in nature and yield losses can still be significant at high striga levels. Genetic resistance needs to be verified in each environment, as it is probable that resistance may be striga biotype specific (Ransom et al., 2007). Hence, integrating genetic resistance with other control measures is the smartest option possible for both the effectiveness of control as well as for the increased durability of resistance genes (Rodenburg et al., 2017). Moreover, adequate knowledge related to the host-parasite interaction at the different growing stages of both plants is required, in addition to a better understanding of the complex genotype by environment interaction.

Biological control In general, the biological control of weed comprises herbivorous insects, microorganisms (especially fungi), and so-called smother plants. Unlike the cultural, chemical and resistance breeding methods, biological control is considered less costly, safe, economically accessible, and environmentally beneficial.

The application of selective strains of Fusarium oxysporum that are pathogenic to striga significantly reduced the emergence of S. hermonthica and increase crop yields. The soil-borne fungus, F. oxysporum, has been shown to be highly effective in hindering striga seed germination, growth, and development. Few studies showed that fumonisin B1, which is produced by Fusarium nygamai isolated from S. hermonthica, has a herbicidal effect on Striga spp in particular 102 when applied at post-emergence (Vurro et al,2017). In addition, Fusarenon X, nivalenol, deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, and neosolaniol produced by Fusarium sp. were shown to be effective in inducing detrimental impact on striga panicle development and maturity. Other Fusarium species were also shown to have the potential to act in striga control, e.g. F. equisetii (Hess et al., 2008; Sauerborn et al., 2007). A current challenge to the use of this technology is its delivery to the farming community, along with the methodologies for the production, application, and storage of these biocontrol agents. Restrictions on the movement of biocontrol agents from one country to another may also limit the availability of this technology.

The biological control of striga with microbial resources can occur at any of the stages of the parasite‟s life cycle, from germination to seed set. During this time, crucial exchange of signal molecules and biochemical cross-talk occur between plant-associated microbes and striga (Cardoso et al. 2011). Microbes can suppress striga either by preventing seed germination or enhancing it in the absence of host plants, thus leading to suicidal germination. In addition, microbes can be deployed at distinct stages of the striga lifecycle (germination, attachment, haustorium formation). Moreover, other microbial-based methods are directed to the improvement of field conditions, plant-growth promotion, enhanced fertility and direct pathogenesis (Pal and Brian, 2006; Rubiales and Monica, 2012). A diverse set of soil microorganisms including bacteria, filamentous fungi, and yeasts are capable of producing physiologically active metabolites that have known effects on sorghum plant-growth, development and health. A better understanding of this tri-partite association system may allow us to seek effective complementary strategies of striga control (Rubiales and Monica, 2012).

The exploitation of microbes capable of inducing striga suicidal or ineffective germination has long been practiced (Cardoso et al. 2011; Rubiales et al. 2016). For instance, ethylene produced by microbes stimulates striga germination, even in the absence of a suitable host (Babiker et al., 1993; Joel & Gressel, 2013). The lifespan of germinated seeds with no access to nutritional sources from the host is short (days to weeks). Hence, this strategy can assist the reduction of the striga seed bank in soils, thus relieving the plant from future attacks. For instance, it was noted that the genera Pseudomonas is an effective

103 producer of ethylene, thus capable of stimulating striga germination in the absence of sorghum plants (Ahonsi et al., 2002).

Members of the bacterial genera of Acetobacter, Agrobacterium, Arthobacter, Azospirillum, Azotobacter, Bacillus, Klebsiella, Pseudomonas and Xanthomonas are known to produce phytohormones and related lipophilic compounds. These metabolites were previously reported to have the potential for inhibiting striga seed germination, affecting radicle growth, and cell differentiation (Keyes et al, 2000). In addition, hydrogen cyanide (HCN) is a potent inhibitor of cytochrome C oxidase and other several metalloenzymes. HCN affects sensitive organisms by inhibiting the synthesis of ATP mediated by cytochrome oxidase and it is highly toxic to aerobic microorganisms, even at picomolar concentrations. HCN-producing microbes can help plants in their defense against striga and other pathogens (Haas et al, 2000). This property was predominantly described in Pseudomonas strains (Voisard et al. 1989). Moreover, the production of enzymes including ACC deaminase, peroxidases, chitinase, β-1,3-glucanase, protease, lipase was demonstrated both in PGPR and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM). These enzymes are capable of degrading some pathogenic fungal cells and the lignocellulosic parts of the parasite root system. In addition, the ability to produce these active enzymes confers an adaptive advantage to these microbes by out-competing others (including phytopathogens) for nutrients and niches on the plant-root surface (Glick, 2014).

Therefore, biological weed management tends to be broader including the induction of resistance or tolerance using molecular approaches, modification and application of virulence, pathogenesis and metabolic products associated with the pathogen (Joel and Gressel, 2013; Ransom, 2000). However, there are several disadvantages associated with biological control of striga. It usually requires a long period (ca. 5 to 10 years) of research and a high initial investment of capital and human resources. In addition, the hyper-variability in host-range and continuous evolving plant and parasite genotypes makes the development of effective biological controls challenging (Grenier et al. 2007; Labrada et al. 1994).

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Index Hand weeding, 71 Abishir,, 75 harvest index, 83 Abshir, 21, 22, 47, 59, 62, 92 Harvesting of sorghum, 40 adaptable variety, 31 haustoria, 9 agro-ecologies, 5, 7, 8, 33 haustorium formation, 103 alley cropping, 42 heritability, 78 basic seed, 17, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 heritable traits, 78 Basic seed, 17, 20, 24 high lysine sorghum, 5 biomass yield, 76, 79, 82 highland agro-ecologies, 8 biotic factors, 6 Hormat, 21, 47, 59, 83 Birhan, 21, 22, 47, 59, 63, 75, 98 Host plant resistance, 38, 101 Breeder seed, 17, 20, 22, 93 improved seed, 92 carry over seed, 24 indigenous knowledge, 72, 73 certified seed, 16, 17, 22, 24, 26, 27, 28, insects pests, 36 93, 97 Integrated Striga Management, 4, 43 classes of seeds, 17 intercropping, 8, 36, 37, 41, 58, 72, 73, crop rotation, 10, 36, 38, 41, 100 76, 79, 81, 82, 84, 91, 99, 100 cropping season, 74, 76, 77, 78, 80, 90 kernel weight, 79, 83 demonstration, 1, 3, 24, 47, 51, 52, 53, Land preparation, 32 54, 55, 56, 57, 64, 87, 89, 90, 91, 96, landraces, 30 110 light sandy soils, 9 disease free seeds, 38 livestock feed, 7 disease-tolerance, 8 Local varieties, 30 Double cropping, 99 low rainfall areas, 9 drought tolerant varieties, 3, 21, 22, 43, Melkam, 82 46, 64, 72, 95 moisture conservation, 10, 39, 95, 97 Drought Tolerant Varieties, 14 parasitic plants, 10, 67 Dry lowland agro-ecology, 5 parasitic weeds, 8, 70, 99, 105, 106 dry lowlands, 5, 7 pest, 6, 31, 41 emasculation, 18 planting date, 8 evapo-transpiration, 41 planting density, 8, 76 farm implements, 31, 39 planting patterns, 79 farmers‟ seed system, 14 planting time, 4, 31, 79, 92, 95, 100 fertilizer rate, 8, 76 popularization, 3, 24, 59, 60, 61, 64, 87, field inspection, 19 89, 90, 91, 92, 97 Gedo, 21, 47, 59 post-emergence herbicides, 101 genetic advance, 78 post-harvest loss, 6 genetic variability, 78 pre-basic seed, 22 genotypes, 72, 74, 77, 101, 103 Pre-basic seed, 17, 20 Gobiye, 22, 33, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, push–pull‟ technology, 100 59, 62, 65, 82, 92 ridging, 32, 47 grain quality, 5, 7 rogueing, 18 growing period, 32 seed multiplication, 17, 19, 22, 23 109 seed production and distribution, 19, striga seeds, 9, 10, 68 20, 21, 22, 90 striga shoots, 82 seed quality, 16, 17, 18, 19 striga species, 10, 11 Seed quality testing, 18 subsistence farmers, 6, 15, 83, 100, 101 seed rate, 33, 37 tie-ridge, 39, 43, 47 seed setting, 18 tillage, 8, 10, 32, 39 seed storage,, 18 traditional foods, 7 seed system, 1, 4, 7, 14, 16, 17, 19, 97, variety release, 19 99 weed competition, 34, 36 seed systems, 14, 16, 90, 92 wild relatives of sorghum, 5 small-scale farmers, 24, 30, 41 soil and water management, 8 soil management, 8 sorghum cultivars, 21, 23, 42, 59 sorghum germplasm, 5, 68, 70, 99 sorghum growing agro-ecology, 5 sorghum growing areas, 3, 5, 7, 10, 84 sorghum heads, 31 sorghum panicle, 22 sorghum production, 1, 10, 30, 31, 36, 42, 44, 45, 47, 73, 80, 82, 85, 97, 98 sorghum productivity, 39, 42, 63, 68, 76, 97 sorghum research, 4, 7, 8, 68, 84, 91, 100 SRV, 1, 4, 22, 46, 48, 62, 63, 64, 65, 87, 92, 95, 96, 98, 99 stover, 7 stress tolerance, 77 striga, 1, 42, 43, 73, 84 Striga, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 21, 23, 24, 41, 42, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 59, 60, 63, 64, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 110 striga control, 8, 10, 103 striga emergence, 82 Striga hermonthica, 10, 13, 75, 79, 82, 84 Striga infestaion, 6 striga infestation, 41, 75, 79, 80, 84 striga-infested areas, 49 striga resistant, 10, 21, 22, 77 striga resistant sorghum varieties, 10 110

The ISC Project The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation supported Project entitled “Integrated Striga Control in Sorghum in Ethiopia and Tanzania” was developed and implemented by Purdue University in collaboration with the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) and the respective regional Bureaus of Agriculture and Natural Resources (BoANR) in Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) Government States from 2012-2017. The purpose of the Project was to improve income, food security and livelihood of small-scale sorghum farmers. It has promoted field tested, proven integrated Striga management technologies in the short term to provide immediate relief to the farmers. Short-term solutions to the infested areas were achieved by expanding the use of control technologies that have been previously piloted, i.e., deployment of Striga resistant varieties and use of existing agronomic practices that offer relief to the Striga problem in a participatory approach with farm communities.

The overall objectives of the Project was to develop, promote, and deploy ISM technologies in a participatory and value chain approach with key stakeholders to bring about increased and sustained crop yields and improve livelihoods of sorghum farmers and consumers in Ethiopia and Tanzania. The specific objectives were

 Elucidate further the array of host-parasite biological interactions between Striga and sorghum to develop improved selection tools and methodologies;  Develop and deploy adapted Striga resistant sorghum varieties and hybrids and improved agronomic technologies and;  Scaling up Integrated Striga Management (ISM) technologies, i.e., promote and deploy previously piloted ISM technologies, adapting them to the varied ecologies and livelihoods of smallholder farmers in highly infested regions of Ethiopia and Tanzania.

The major activities under this objective comprised the following  Expand seed production of Striga resistant sorghum varieties using existing formal (institutional) and informal (farmer) public organizations;  Expand deployment of officially released Striga resistant and drought tolerant sorghum varieties in each country through small packs of seed and advisory practices; and,  Conduct a large number of demonstration plots of an integrated Striga management (ISM) packages to promote greater adoption using participatory approaches

This book presents accomplishments of the Project activities that were accomplished in Ethiopia under the objective three of the Project and lessons learnt from 2012 up to 2017.