2nd International Conference on History Education 2018

IDEOLOGICAL CONTESTATION IN THE FORMATION OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF : CULTURAL POLICY REVIEW 1962-1998

Citra Smara Dewi Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia, , Indonesia [email protected]

Abstract This article studies the formation of the state’s cultural institution, the National Gallery of Indonesia (GNI) in the social, political, and economic dynamic context. The formation of GNI could not be separated from President Soekarno’s concept of nation and character building. Since initiated in 1946 and set out in policy TAP MPRS 1962, GNI is established 52 years later. These realities have raised the questions on how the cultural policy was implemented that caused the formation of GNI to take a long time. Studies have previously been done by Jarot, who studied the revitalization of GNI as a cultural heritage but did not study the ideological and cultural policies issues. This study uses Louis Althusser’s paradigm critical theory on the Ideological State Apparatus. The method conducted is historical, which consisted of heuristic, verification, interpretation, and historiography. The result of the study shows that the formation of the National Gallery of Indonesia has political dimensions where power relationships and ideological interests became parts of the structure. Keywords: The National Gallery of Indonesia, Character Building, Ideological Contestation, Cultural Policy. Introduction political and ideological control of the nation's The formation of the National Gallery historical events became a central part of of Indonesia (GNI) encompasses a long history historical writing.1 that is inseparable to the Indonesian Nation’s This research will focus on the role of journey. Social, political, economic and the Government-owned State Cultural cultural dynamics greatly influenced various Institution, namely the National Gallery of government policies in the GNI formation Indonesia because in addition to the National process. This could be traced through various Gallery of Indonesia, there are several State events and policies taken under the related Cultural Institutions such as the National government through two periods of Library, National Museum, and National government order, namely the Old Order Archives Center. In addition to GNI, there are (1945-1966) and the New Order (1966-1998). also regional level cultural institutions under It took quite a long time - more than half a the direct guidance of relevant provinces, as century- to attain a State Cultural Institution well as private galleries established by called GNI, because GNI was officially individuals, entrepreneurs or artists/cultural established on 30 April 1998, exactly a month groups. National Gallery of Indonesia (GNI) is before Reformation took place. If calculated selected, with the consideration that GNI is the since President Soekarno initiated the idea at center of Visual Documentation of Indonesian the beginning of independence, in 1946, then Contemporary Art. GNI’s main duties include the process of establishing the GNI took 52 Collection, Study, Documentation, years. Factual data have illustrated how Maintenance, and Security Center for the State collection, Exhibitions and Publications, 1Southgate, Beverly. (1996:53). History: What and Creativity and Appreciation Programs, Why. London: Routledge. Expansion of Community and Cooperation-

87

2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 networks. GNI has a significant role in Programs associated with the Cultural Policy Contemporary Art development through its Sector in the field of Archeology, Museums, various roles and functions. In the midst of the and History, particularly during the New Order globalization era, the existence of GNI could Government. However, this study did not become the strength of the nation's cultural comprehensively discuss the existence of the identity. The research location is Jakarta, State Cultural Institution, not even mentioning which is the barometer in cultural arts the idea of establishing an Indonesian National development in the country. The year 1962 is Gallery.2 selected as the start of study limitation Furthermore, research on the State considering that in 1962, the idea of Cultural Institution associated with President establishing GNI was formally stated in the Soekarno’s idea on “Nation, Character state document through TAP MPRS. The year Building”, was once carried out by Yuke 1998 is selected as the end of study limitation Ardhiati, which consisted of; Bung Karno the because that year the GNI was officially Architect: Artistic study of architectural works, established. urban spatial layout, interior, chivalry, Factually, among other State Cultural symbols, fashion clothing and text of speech, Institutions such as the Indonesian National 1926-1945. In 2013, Yuke again conducted Library, the National Museum, and the research on “Bung Karnodalam Panggung National Archives Center, the formation Indonesia” (Bung Karno on Indonesia’s process of GNI was long and complicated. GNI Stage), 2013. This study emphasized the role of was developed through various cultural Soekarno in the development of the National policies synchronization of three governments, Monument in relation to the Mercusuar such as the Old Order, the New Order, and the (Lighthouse) Project Development policy. The Reform Era. How the structure works in two studies thoroughly discussed the role of generating various cultural policies in the Soekarno in the development concept of formation of GNI provokes questions for the "Nation, Character Building", but did not touch author. Various legal products such as the State deeply on the formation of the National Gallery Planning Policy, Decree and Instruction Letter of Indonesia. about the GNI formation process were certainly not free of value, because there were Research Methods many strategic, political, and ideological This article use method conducted is interests. Through various events, we can learn historical, which consisted of heuristic, how the policy was taken by involving the verification, interpretation, and historiography. roles, figures, and various ideological interests. Historical writing, whether it is realized or not, Ideological contestation played an important is closely related to historical philosophy as role in the formation process of GNI. interpretation basis with the aim of giving According to Oxford Dictionary, contention: meaning or significance of an event from past The action or process of disputing or arguing, human life dynamics. Similarly, when writing while according to the word reference con-test- the history of cultural institutions in Indonesia, ta- tion (kon′testā′shən): (1) the act of attempts are made to understand how a cultural contesting; (2) controversy; dispute, (2) an institution is formed and developed with its assertion contended for. various dynamics and ups and downs. Factors The previous study includes: that cause or force conditions in history that “Kebudayaan dan Kekuasaan di Indonesia: play significant roles include human, Kebijakan Budaya selama Abad ke-20 Hingga geography, culture. With these considerations, Era Reformasi” by Tod Jones, 2015 (Culture several theoretical frameworks of socio- and Power in Indonesia: Cultural Policy during political and cultural approaches are needed. the 20th Century to Reformation Era" (2015 In this study context, the author will use Louis- Tod Jones). In this study, Tod Jones emphasized the development of cultural policy in Indonesia 2Jones, Tod. (2015:187). Kebudayaan dan in broad outlines from the Late Colonial Period Kekuasaan di Indonesia. Kebijakan Budaya to the Reformation era. In one of the chapters, Selama Abad ke-20 Hingga Era Reformasi. it talked about: Cultural Institutions and Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Obor Indonesia.

88

2nd International Conference on History Education 2018

Althusser's framework about the role of developed with the opening of Bataviaasch ideological structure and function through the Lyceum which also accepted male students. In concept of the Ideological State Apparatus 1923, the name of the Advanced School (ISA). Althusser views ideology as a system Foundation for Girls in Batavia (Stichting with logic and obedience of its own, Hoogere Burger School voor meisje ste representations of images, myths, ideas or Batavia) was renamed as Carpentier Alting concepts, as well as practices internalized as a Foundation (Carpentier Alting Stichting). The result of the transformation of the material school was also renamed to Carpentier Alting world. Ideology provides a framework in Stichting Scholen (School C.A.S). In line with which human beings undergo relationships the political situation when Japan occupied with the social reality in which they exist. Batavia, changes in function occurred where Ideology forms subjects and in this formation all schools in Batavia including the C.A.S. put them in the relationship system needed in School were mobilized for Japanese interests. order for existing class relationships to After being closed during World War II, the survive.3 Bataviaasch Lyceum and two other elementary schools under the auspices of the Foundation Results and Discussion were reopened in March 1946 by W. Ruijs and The history of the GNI formation Z.H. Carpentier Alting. On August 1, 1958, the cannot be separated from the building’s Carpentier Alting Foundation was renamed to history, which was built during the colonial the Raden Saleh Foundation. The school's period as a residence. In 1900, it became the name was also changed to Pamardi Soenoe property of the Gospel Church Council in School (Mardi Soenoe). The Indonesian Batavia (College van Diakenen der Freemason Organization was banned until Evangelische gemeente te Batavia) and in President Soekarno's government period on 1912, it was used as a school and dormitory for February 27, 1961. The ban stopped all female students in Batavia. The Church activities of the Raden Saleh Foundation.5 Council sold the land located at Koningsplein Rapid changes occurred after that, Oost Sectie N No. 49 to the Advanced Schools through the Supreme War Leader Decree on for Girls Foundation in Batavia (Stichting June 12, 1962, signed by President Soekarno in Hoogere Burger School voor meisjeste the Republic of Indonesia State Gazette No. Batavia) for ƒ75,000. Educational activities 25/1962 prohibiting and dissolving held in this building developed quickly so that foundations and colonial formed organizations, in 1914, it was expanded with the opening of ranging from the Indonesian Freemasonry elementary education for female students. In Organization (Loge Agung Indonesia) to the addition, the Foundation also received Raden Saleh Foundation. Since then, the donations from the Freemasonry Brotherhood building complex located on Jl. Merdeka Organization. The laying of the first stone for Timur 14 Jakarta belonged to the Department the new building construction was carried out of Basic Education and Culture. Following the by Elsje Carpentier Alting, the daughter of a G30S-PKI incident, students, and youths foundation board member and granddaughter staged a demonstration to help crush the of the foundation’s founder on Wednesday, movement by demanding the dissolution of the November 19, 1913. The new building was Indonesian Communist Party (Partai komunis completed in 1914 and was officially opened Indonesia/PKI). At that time, the main building on July 6, 1914.4 was used as a command headquarters by the The school and dormitory was then Indonesian Student Action Unit (Kesatuan Aksi Mahasiswa Indonesia KAMI) and the 3Beilharz, Peter. Teori Teori Sosial. Observasi Kritis Indonesian Youth and Student Action Unit terhadap Para Filosof Terkemuka. (2002:6). (Kesatuan Aksi Pemuda dan Pelajar Yogyakarta:Pustaka Pelajar. Indonesia/KAPPI) until the end of the Old 4 Pusat Dokumentasi Arsitektur. (2015:18-20). Order. When order and security have gradually Penelitian Gedung Cagar Budaya Gedung recovered and KAMI - KAPPI returned to- Pameran Utama dan Gedung Serbaguna Galeri Nasional Indonesia. Jakarta:Dirjen Kebudayaan Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI. 5ibid page. 22-23.

89

2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 their respective campuses and schools, the collections of Indonesian painting could not be building was then functioned as the Jaya Sakti realized, although Colonel Agoes Djaja had Infantry I Brigade Headquarters in the Greater made a budget plan for funding. Nonetheless, Jakarta V Military Command. In 1982, it was Soekarno still ordered several paintings from returned to the Ministry of Education and Indonesian artists, through his implemented Culture. Based on the Decree of the Secretary- policy of collaborating with artists who were General of the Department of Education and members of the Yogyakarta’s Young Culture No. 12615/F/1982 dated February 28, Indonesian Artists (Seniman Indonesia 1982, the building was handed over to the Muda/SIM) workshop in collaboration with the Directorate General of Culture to be turned into State Minister for Youth Affairs (Sekretariat a National Art House (Wisma Seni Menteri Negara Urusan Pemuda/SMNUP) Nasional/WSN) again, while Brigif I Secretariat of the Republic of Indonesia headquarters was moved to Kampung government agency. SIM artists received Pekayon, East Jakarta.6 subsidies from SMNUP to create The formation of GNI began with the documentation paintings. In 1946, President aspiration of President Soekarno as stated in Soekarno himself commissioned Agus Djaja to the "Soerat Perintah/Letter of Command" of coordinate artists in Solo and Yogyakarta to President Soekarno No Pres/24 expressing the create paintings that depict struggles. Soekarno initial idea of forming a “Moesioem Kesenian also asked the artists to record the condition of Nasional” (National Art Museum). The the people at the time. President Soekarno said contents of the Letter: that the paintings that were subsidized by the SIM would fill the Museum Perjuangan No. Pres/24: Letter of Command “I, (Struggle Museum) in the future and would President of the Republic of Indonesia, become a state collection.8 commands all civil service and military Entering the 1950s, Indonesia was officers, to provide proper assistance to faced with unfavorable political situations, Colonel Agoes Djaja, in carrying out his where the Indonesian nation was still looking obligation to collect/buy/inquire about for a form of government. At this time, the role paintings and artifacts for the sake of the of political parties was very significant in National Art Museum. Yogyakarta, 13 determining the direction of the Republic of July 1946, President of Republic Indonesia government. In addition, the Indonesia, Soekarno”.7 Indonesian government also began to actively establish cooperation’s with several countries, Although the formation of the through many visits and welcoming several Indonesian National Gallery was not explicitly heads of state to the country. President written, the word “moesioem” (museum) had Soekarno's visit to countries that already included the Fine Art Gallery concept. The owned facilities of cultural institutions, either contents of the letter clearly stated the words museums or art galleries, influenced “painting and artifacts” therefore it implied that Soekarno's perspective in developing it was to establish some kind of national-level Indonesia’s civilization and identity. One Fine Art Gallery. Considering that the political impression was when Sukarno visited Moscow situation of the Indonesian people was still not in 1956 and had the opportunity to visit the stable at the beginning of Independence, Trytyakovskaya Museum in 1956. Soekarno establishing Art Museum that contained really craved for the design of a building called "National Gallery of Art" in Indonesia that 6Bagian Proyek Wisma Seni Nasional Jakarta. resembled the Trytyakovskaya Art Museum. It (1998:3-4). Sebelas Tahun Berdirinya Gedung was also stated that the location of the National Pameran Seni Rupa Depdikbud: Menuju Pusat Gallery of Art which serves to store the Pengembangan Kebudayaan Nasional. Jakarta: paintings would later be around the National Dirjen Kebudayaan Departemen Pendidikan dan Monument neighborhood and the region- Kebudayaan. 7 Susanto, Miekke. (2014:122). Bung Karno: 8Susanto, Miekke. (2014:79). Bung Karno: Kolektor Kolektor & Patron Seni Rupa Indonesia. & Patron Seni Rupa Indonesia. Yogyakarta: Yogyakarta: DictiArtLab Yogyakarta. DictiArtLab Yogyakarta.

90

2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 would then be called the National Monument- Gross Domestic Product (GDP) coupled with (Monas). According to Bung Karno's concept, very high inflation rates, while investment the cultural buildings on the Medan Merdeka slumped.13 Faced with these conditions, a field and the surrounding area would be a series strategic decision was taken, through the of various complexes, ranging from the President Decree of July 5, 1959. The contents National Monument, Istiqlal Mosque, National of the Decree included Constituent Dissolution Theater, National Gallery, and so on.9 and stipulated the 1945 Constitution to be in In 1956, Soekarno delivered a speech effect again.14 On the commemoration of in front of Heidelberg am Neckar University Independence Day on August 17, 1959, which voiced to the international world that President Soekarno delivered a speech on the “Indonesia is truly very rich and that wealth is "Political Manifesto of the Republic of abundant.10 This speech would be the soul and Indonesia" or known as manipol (Manifesto basic description for DEPERNAS - Dewan Politik Republik Indonesia) which later Perancang Nasional (National Planning became the basis of the Broad Outlines of State Council, now Bappenas) when Bung Karno Policy. The manifesto spirit was reiterated in proclaimed and compiled the basic draft of the opening speech at the Youth Congress in Eight-Year National Development Planning Bandung February 1960, with more details Pattern from 1961-1969 as the core of the consisting the 1945 Constitution, Indonesian Jakarta City Planning Project. The project Socialism, Guided Democracy, Guided consisted of the National Museum and Economy and Indonesian Identity (USDEK).15 National Art Gallery and several backup Significant changes occurred after projects such as the Jakarta National Theater, Soekarno adopted the Guided Democracy National Conservatory, National Circus, system as a result of the Presidential Decree of Natural Reserve, and Wildlife Park, and July 5, 1959, a new momentum of Indonesia's Village Library.11 Soekarno's belief regarding political system as a solution to the political the importance of art and cultural aspects in deadlock. In that era, Soekarno gained full national development was again conveyed authority with the implementation of the when attending the anniversary of the Guided Economy system to intensify economic Indonesian Student Art Cooperation on April development in the country as a result of 16, 1959. The President of Indonesia – inflation that coincided with the political chaos Soekarno, very clearly and explicitly reminded in 1959.16 The Guided Democracy Governance us to pay attention to the position of culture/art system gave the President authority to develop in national development.12 development policies, one of which was Entering the 1960s, the condition of the through the National Planning Council (now Indonesian people did not improve; it was Bappenas). It successfully compiled the Basic marked by greater state expenditure, especially Draft of National Development Planning the increased financing of government Pattern (Rancangan Dasar Pembangunan projects. In addition, government policies that Nasional Pola Semesta Berentjana). One of the prioritize political interests also created an concrete forms of the policy is the policy in the impact on the growth of the relatively low cultural field through TAP MPRS no. 1962, concerning the Outlines of the National Plan- 9Supardi, Nunus. (2015:11-12). Balai Budaya: 13 Riwayatmu Dulu, Kini dan Esok. Jakarta: Sejarah Moneter Periode 1959-1966-Bank Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Kementerian Indonesia. 7 Juni 2018, https://www.bi.go.id/cdb6 Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. 7000dabd84a92b03f8fe8d5cd27.SejarahMoneterP 10Depernas. (1961:5-6). Rencana Pembangunan eriode1959-1960. 14 Nasional Berentajana.Jakarta: Dewan Perancang Notosusanto, Nugroho (1981: 143). 30 Tahun Nasional. Indonesia Merdeka 1950-1964. Jakarta: PT 11Yuke Ardhiati. (2013:54). Bung Karno dalam Intermasa. 15 “Panggung Indonesia”. Jakarta:PT.Wastu Adicita. Notosusanto, Nugroho. (1981: 149). 30 Tahun 12Supardi, Nunus. (2015:12). Balai Budaya: Indonesia Merdeka 1950-1964. Jakarta: PT Riwayatmu Dulu, Kini dan Esok. Jakarta: Intermasa 16 Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Kementerian Ardhiati, Yuke. (2013: 54). Bung Karno dalam Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. “Panggung Indonesia”. Jakarta: PT Wastu Adicita.

91

2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 for National Development Planning Pattern building was the first to be designed by (Garis-garis Besar Pola Pembangunan- architect Ir. F. Silaban.19 Nasional Semesta Berencana/GBPPNSB) First Of the many programs and projects in Stage 1961-1969. In the GBPPNSB policy, the the cultural field, none of them had begun main priority of national development was the construction due to the limited budget at the field of "Culture" placing it first in project time. In the end, the entire construction ranking: "AA" which was then followed by 3 program was completely halted as a result of (three) art development facilities, which political turmoil after the G30S / PKI incident, included: (AA.2) National Museum, (AA.3) which led to changes in national leadership. In National Art Gallery, and (AA.6) Cultural Park. line with the political situation in the country For the National Art Gallery project, in that was still not conducive, only a part of the particular, the purpose to establish National Art Jakarta City Planning project was realized such Gallery included: a. To exhibit national arts, b. as the National Museum, while the National To maintain cultural identity, c. Creative work Art Gallery project, including the National development, d. Promote tourism. It was also Gallery of Indonesia, had not been realized until added in the description column, that the leadership transition from the Old Order National Art Gallery would later contain: 4,000 government to New Order government. painting in a row, 8,000 paintings in two rows The development policy of the New and can be enlarged with 2,000 paintings; with Order government can be seen in the planning a development plan to start in the first year of unit called the Five-Year Development lan Plan I and finished with the end of Plan I.17 (Rencana Pembangunan Lima Ta- In GBPPNSB, cultural plans and hun/REPELITA), which began with Repelita I programs were also outlined, such as (1969 - 1974) aimed at meeting basic needs and mentioned in point 1 and 5: (1) Projects that can infrastructure with an emphasis on agriculture. drive mass cultural activities throughout Repelita II (1974 - 1979) aimed to increase de- Indonesia; (5) Urgent projects include: ... (f) velopment on islands other than Java, Bali, and Cultural parks (museum/national art gallery). Madura, including through transmigration. For cultural field development placed in Repelita III (1979 - 1984) emphasized labor in- Appendix A (ranked first), it reflected that the tensive industries to increase exports. Repelita basic concept of development that would be IV (1984 - 1989) aimed to create new jobs and implemented at the time could not be separated industry. Repelita V (1989 - 1994) emphasized from the concept of national character the fields of transportation, communication, development (Nation and Character Building) and education. In the plan of Repelita IV often mentioned by Bung Karno. National (1984-1987) there was a Cultural Policy: Ren- development is the development of cultural ovation of the Ministry of Education and Cul- insight. The plan was to build two cultural ture Exhibition Building which would be the facilities, such as the gallery (National Art pioneer of the GNI building. Repelita I placed Gallery) and theater (National Theater) the Agriculture sector as a top priority in the separately. It was also known that the National national development effort, with priority Art Gallery construction plan was a priority scales: (1) food, (2) clothing, (3) infrastructure project and had a budget post of improvements, (4) public housing, (5) employ- Rp.469,000,00018; while the construction of ment expansion and (6) spiritual well-being.20 the National Theater was a reserve project The investment of the New Order in Repelita I because the budget post had not been provided. centered on three main areas (a) Agriculture, However, as it turned out, the reserve project’s including rehabilitation of the irrigation system and funding for fertilizer and pesticides costing 17Depernas. (1961: 27). Pembangunan Semesta Rp. 305 billion, (b) Industry and mining Rp. Nasional Berentajana. Jakarta: Dewan Perancang 380 billion, (c) Communication Rp. 265 bil- Nasional. lion, social welfare Rp. 172 billion, electrical- 18ibid page. 28. 19Supardi, Nunus. (2018). Jalan Panjang GNI: 20Ibid hlmn 197 Sebuah Dinamika Kebudayaan (1960-1998). 21Robison, Richard. (2012 :110). Soeharto dan Jurnal Galeri Seni Rupa. vol. Februari. Jakarta: Bangkitnya Kapitalisme Indonesia. Depok: Galeri Nasional Indonesia. Komunitas Bambu. 92 2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 power Rp. 100 billion, other important fields, Gallery of Indonesia began to heat up again. all costing Rp. 1,420 billion.21 Even in the 1970/1971 fiscal year, preparations Although the cultural aspect was not a for the construction of delayed cultural facili- policy priority for the New Order government, ties were discussed. After holding meetings the cultural aspects still received attention and seminars, it was agreed to build a cultural through the establishment of the Jakarta Arts complex which consisted of two main building Center, Taman Ismail Marzuki (PKJ TIM) in components and several supporting buildings. 1968. In the 1970s, fine arts museums were The two components comprised of the National built, such as the Jakarta History Museum / Art Gallery and the National Theater which in Fatahilah Museum (1974), Fine Arts / Painting the GBPPNSB were separated. Both would be Museum (1976), Textile Museum (1976), put together in one complex with the name Museum of Memorial Stone Park or Taman Wisma Seni Nasional/WSN (National Art Prasasti Museum (1977). The presence of the House). However, the plan never materialized Fine Arts Museum (Museum Seni Rupa) in until 1976 when the Minister of Education and 1976 received positive responses from painters Culture, Sjarif Thajeb, issued Decree No. because people could learn and enjoy works of 024/P/1976, 20 September 1976 concerning art, especially for people who could not afford the establishment of the National Working to buy paintings.22 Other establishments of Committee for WSN Planning. Based on the cultural facilities include the construction of formulation of various thoughts, in 1977, the the Beautiful Indonesia Mini Park (Taman WSN architectural design competition was Mini Indonesia Indah/TMII) which was built held. From the competition, winners I, II, and on the initiative of Ibu Tien Soeharto. This idea III were announced. Establishing the National emerged after President Soeharto made a state Art House had not been easy, due to some ob- visit to Bangkok, in which a similar project stacles, particularly in terms of the limited called Timland was completed in March 1970. budget by the Indonesian nation. Another ob- The TMII project had received protests from stacle had been landing acquisition issues on Jl students, about Mrs. Tien's statement that the Merdeka Timur 14 for WSN area expansion, project cost nearly 10.5 billion from "non which also required agreement and compli- budgetary" funds. At the Governor's Work cated negotiations between institutions because Meeting on December 1, 1971, and in front of an elementary school was still residing within 26 Governors, Mrs. Tien Soeharto stated that the area. According to architect F. Silaban, to the 100-ha TMII project must be continued and develop WSN, a land of at least 40 ha would be financial support must be obtained from the needed, because it must be magnificent as it is region. She instructed that each entrepreneur in a representation of the nation’s civilization. the region should contribute between 40-50 One solution offered was to find alternative lo- million and the remaining funds would be cations, for example, in the suburbs as a green derived from the central government. This belt area. However, because the proposal was project was managed by Yayasan Harapan not agreed upon, F. Silaban resigned from the Kita, Ali Sadikin Governor as Project Officer WSN Development Committee. Efforts to and Ali Moertopo as his deputy.23 The event build WSN continued on, and in 1979, a semi- illustrates that the policy of cultural facility nar was held regarding WSN and resulted in development was carried out with recommendations to simplify the building interventions of leaders, in this case Mrs. Tien plans to adjust with budget capability. Through Soeharto as First Lady. the Decree of the WSN Project Leader, the In line with the TMII project develop- Ministry of Education and Culture No: ment, the discourse on developing national- 17/A/WSN/VIII/81 concerning the Appoint- level cultural facilities including the National ment of the WSN Project Expert Team, 18 WSN Development Committees were ap- 22Harian Kompas. 13 Agustus 1976. Menyongsong pointed. The Committee members included Lahirnya Museum Seni Rupa: Untuk Apa, untuk Prof. Dr. Haryati Soebadio, Drs. Bastomi Siapa? Ervan, E. Sudiardjo, Tatang S. Raja, Ir. Andjat 23Ramadhan KH. (1992:308). Bang Ali Demi: D. Lamey, Ir. F. Silaban, Drs. Suparmo, Prof. Jakarta 1966-1977. Jakarta: Pustaka Sinar Dr. Astrid Susanto, Dr. Yusuf Enoch MA, Harapan. 93 2nd International Conference on History Education 2018

Drs. Uka Tjandrasasmita, Drs. M. Amir formation of GNI occurred in that period. Sutaarga, Suluh Darmadji, Drs. I Nyoman Various attempts were made by Fuad Tusan, Abas Alibasjah, Ir. Suparto, Ir. Hasan to anticipate land constraints, such as Raswoto, Drs. Fadjar- Sidik and Drs. Bambang considering the former Kemayoran Airport as Soemadio. In 1982, Master Plan, drawings and the location of WSN. The steps taken included models of WSN was made by PT Arsiplan writing a letter of application to the Bandung, and coordinated by Ir. Slamet Chairperson of the Kemayoran Complex Wirasonjaya. For the umpteenth time, WSN Management Agency and the land application development came to a dead-end, citing budget was approved by letter No. R- inadequacy. Ironically, due to the limited 707/M.Sesneg/11/1988 dated November 29, budget, this project was included in the list of 1988. However, other issues occurred, such as unimportant projects, thus, in the 1984/1985 funding constraints, therefore, could not be fiscal year, the project was abolished from the materialized. In addition to exploring the list of government projects.24 former Kemayoran Airport, Fuad Hasan also An opportunity came to light when in planned to build a National Gallery at the 1985 Prof. Dr. Fuad Hassan was appointed Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (TMII) complex Minister of Education and Culture, replacing in Jakarta. After a conversation with the Prof. Dr. who passed Chairman of the TMII Foundation, Mrs. Tien away. Fuad Hassan immediately showed , the TMII agreed and had prepared a serious action in evaluating WSN which had land area of 3 ha, but it must be compensated. been delayed since 1970. The first step taken The WSN Master Plan, planned to be built at by Prof. Fuad was to send a letter to the TMII, was then designed by PT Tripanoto. Minister of Development Planning / Based on the site plan, the WSN location would Chairperson of the National Development be located not far from the Golden Conch and Planning Agency (Bappenas) who hoped that the Tugu Api Pancasila Monument. However, the WSN project would be revived. The once again, this project was stalled because the proposal was approved by Bappenas, though Ministry of Education and Culture through the with a very limited budget. The colonial WSN Project budget did not have the land building on Jl Merdeka Timur 14, began to be acquisition funds required.25 renovated and used as a space for the Fine Art In 1993, there was a change of Exhibition which became known as the leadership with the commencement of the Ministry of Education and Culture's Fine Art Cabinet VI working period (1993-1998), in Exhibition Building (Gedung Pameran Seni which Suharto was still trusted to lead the Rupa/GPSR). On February 23, 1987, the Indonesian nation. The position of Minister of Ministry of Education and Culture’s GPSR was Education and Culture was entrusted to inaugurated by the Minister of Education and Wardiman Djojonegoro, Director General of Culture Fuad Hassan. Along with the Culture was held by Prof. Dr. Edi Sedyawati inauguration of the building, the exhibition of and Drs. Nunus Supardi served as Secretary of famed painter, Affandi, was held at the same the Directorate General. In this period the time on his 80th birthday. Since the discourse on the development of the inauguration of the GPSR, the Ministry of Indonesian National Gallery was revived due Education and Culture received major to the major role Edi Sedyawati played as the attention from artists and several art Director General of Culture. She emphasized exhibitions from great Indonesian artists were the importance of a National Gallery for the being held there. In the GPSR management, a Indonesian people. According to Edi Daily Manager and the Curator Team was Sedyawati, the formation of the National appointed based on the Decree of the Director Gallery of Indonesia began in 1993, during a General of Culture. GPSR played a significant consortium meeting of art sciences where role because various art events that support the informal conversations took place with fellow-

24Supardi, Nunus. (2018). Jalan Panjang GNI: Sebuah Dinamika Kebudayaan (1960-1998). 25Supardi, Nunus. Wawancara Pribadi. Kantor Jurnal Galeri Seni Rupa. vol. Februari. Jakarta: BKKI, Gedung E, Kemendikbud. 2 Februari 2017, Galeri Nasional Indonesia. pkl, 10.10. 94 2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 members of the consortium. The main The last alternative was to return to the discussion was inquiring whether National Ministry of Education and Culture’s GPSR Gallery of Indonesia was needed considering- Building on Jl. Merdeka Timur 14, which was that several ASEAN countries already owned previously used for art exhibitions. After a National Gallery. The conversation turned coordination meetings, various renovations out to be taken into serious consideration, and serious preparations were made, including which was then discussed with the Minister of building expansion, procurement of partitions, Information and Bappenas. At the time, the lightings, and other supporting facilities. This artist was represented by Jim Supangkat.26 exhibition had a strategic role because it seeks According to AD Pirous, establishing to find a basis for contemporary art experiences the National Gallery of Indonesia is very through the North and South framework, important, considering that the great exhibition starting with the experience of contemporary of Fine Arts always took place in Hong Kong, art development in the non- aligned movement Manila, , and , and which together represents the concept of revolved back to the upper region of Indonesia. “South”.29 The Non-Aligned Movement This occurred because Indonesia did not yet Exhibition was launched by President Soeharto have a National Gallery.27 Jim Supangkat and received a very warm response from the stated that for countries throughout the world international world because it was considered that are quite advanced, including Indonesia, as the world’s first exhibition held by non- the presence of a national gallery is as aligned countries and a very important important as the presence of the National historical event.30 Museum and National Library.28 In 1995, in AD Pirous felt fortunate to have had line with Edi Sedyawati’s efforts in the opportunity to accompany President establishing the delayed National Gallery, a Soeharto while visiting the exhibition, and political event took place in the country where according to him during his visit of the Indonesia became the host of the International Exhibition, President Soeharto did not provide Non-Aligned Movement Conference. The any indication that he would support the momentum was exploited to remind all parties development of an Indonesia National Gallery. of the importance of a National Gallery for a AD Pirous was stunned after accompanying nation. The initial idea of a Non-Aligned Soeharto, and asked himself, "what about the Movement Art Exhibition on 28 April-30 June continuation of the Ministry of Education's 1995 in Jakarta, according to AD Pirous, was GPSR building after the Non-Aligned delivered by Mrs. Edi Sedywati at a meeting. Movement exhibition?" AD Pirous thought, Big Art Exhibitions of international standard with all the limitations, the GPSR of the organized in several countries had indeed been Ministry of Education and Culture could be held at the National Gallery, but Indonesia, in implored to become Temporary National reality, did not have the facility. Therefore, Gallery of Indonesia. The Indonesian several places were proposed to hold the government should reflect Malaysia when exhibition, whether at Taman Ismail Marzuki developing the National Gallery that began or the Jakarta Convention Center (JCC). from an old hotel that was considered quite However, the two places were not possible. representative by Malaysian artists to be used TIM was considered unable to accommodate as a temporary National Gallery building. After large amounts of artifacts and also from a developing, the Malaysian Government built a- security point of view was not secured while the JCC rents were too expensive and the 29Directorate General for Culture (1995:3). building structure was not supportive of Catalogue Contemporary Art of The Non-Aligned holding the exhibition. Countries 1995. Jakarta: Department of Education and Culture. 26Sediawaty, Edi. Wawancara Pribadi. Jalan 30Directorate General for Culture, Department of Lembang, Jakarta. September 2013. Education and Culture (1995: 8). Contemporary 27Pirous, AD. Wawancara Pribadi. Bukit Pakar III Art of The Non-Aligned Countries: Unity in no 111 Bandung. 13 Januari 2018. Diversity in International Art. Jakarta: Balai 28Supangkat, Jim. Wawancara Pribadi. FSR IKJ, 31 Pustaka. Januari 2018.

95 2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 new building that was representative.31 struggles. Therefore, with the approval of the In line with the implementation of the- Coordinating Minister for Development international level Non-Aligned Art Supervision and Utilization of the State Exhibition, the National Arts House project was Apparatus (in letter No. reviewed through a mega project called the 34/MK.WASPAN/4/1998 dated April 30, National Cultural Development Center (Pusat 1998, signed by Sapta Nirwandar), the Minister Pengembangan Kebudayaan Nasional/PPKN). of Education and Culture Decree No. 099a The PPKN master plan was entrusted to Atelier /0/1998 was launched in Jakarta on May 18, 6 Jakarta consultant and was planned to be of 1998. Then, on 8 May 1999, the Indonesian international standard aimed to present the National Gallery was inaugurated by the Indonesian modern culture development Minister of Education and Culture, Prof. Dr. journey through its collection of modern Fine Juwono Sudarsono. The National Gallery Arts since the 19th century. The facilities Building was designated as National Cultural consisted of: Offices, Performances, Heritage Building by the Minister of Culture Exhibitions, Education and Information, and Tourism through Ministerial Decree no Supporting facilities (Café, Lodging, and Place PM.13/PW.007/MKP/05 dated April 25, 2005. of Worship).32 The PPKN project required an Looking at the long process of area of 36,349 m2, and various efforts were establishing GNI through various policies that carried out including land acquisition for were so dynamic from one Government to the former flat residents of the Ministry of next, it is clear how ideological contestation Education and Culture. However, the land played an important role. Althusser said that needed was not sufficient; therefore, a realistic the domination by the ruling class was done action was taken, which was to prioritize the through subtle methods without coercion or temporary Indonesian National Gallery (GNI) repressive. Althusser called it the concept of project. The decision was considered realistic, the Ideological State Apparatus (ISA), in which firstly because the condition of the building was the state apparatus carries out the ideological possible to be temporarily made into GNI. function; the institution in society that transmit Secondly, in the 1990s, Indonesian dominant ideas and values, such as places of contemporary art development was thriving worship, education, trade unions, institutions along with the booming of the Indonesian Art and media that are indirectly organized by the Painting. This was marked by an increase in the state. In this case, it can be seen how far the role number and frequency of exhibitions, the of ideology is played in the form of power growth of commercial galleries, exhibition through various legal products such as the sponsors, and exhibition collectors.33 National Development Policy, Decree, Throughout the 1990s, 275 exhibitions were Instruction Letter, and others. Althusser held, both solo and in groups in several separated the ISA from government apparatus Indonesian cities. This showed an increased such as the police and the army, which he appreciation in the field of Fine Arts.34 A long called the Repressive State Apparatus (RSA), journey full of twists and turns had finally been the state apparatus that carries out the surpassed, through various efforts and repressive - pressing function. Meanwhile, the nature of RSA's work is to oppress first. The oppression that carried out is then given an 32 GPSR Kemendikbud (1997:8). Dokumen Pusat ideological meaning (as if valuable and Promosi Kebudayaan Nasional (Nasional Culture legitimate). In this case, RSA is directly under Promotion Center) Atelier 6 Jakarta. Jakarta. the control of the ruling class under one 33Yuliman, Sanento. Editor Asikin Hasan. (2001:110). Dua Seni Rupa: Serpihan Tulisan command established with official tasks. In Sanento Yuliman. Jakarta: Yayasan Kalam. addition, RSA is central and systematic, 34Mustika dan Slamet Sukirnanto. (1996:33). identical to the state system and structure solely Mustika: Peta Pameran Seni Rupa dalam buku standing as a legitimate and explicit power Seni Rupa Indonesia Modern: Dalam Kritik dan buffer. This validity allows RSA to reach the Esei. Jakarta: Sanggar Krida. wider public and be filled with political content 31 Pirous, AD. Wawancara Pribadi. Rumah tinggal (bureaucracy, police, judicial instruments, and Bukit Pakar III no 111 Bandung. 13 Januari 2018, the military). The ISA concept approach is- pkl 12.00.

96 2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 always ideological, which will eventually be for power through the "national character" and repressive as well because it is intended to to reorganize the "new world order" by manipulate perceptions. ISA is not only within aligning with the international community.35 the scope of authority but can also be a means One form of "national character" can be seen to control the group beyond the authority. through the presence of various State Cultural This reality cannot be avoided if there is a clash Institutions such as the National Gallery of between groups of interests in ISA. GNI, as part Indonesia. Soekarno's idea in the formation of of the state apparatus, implemented ideological GNI was futuristic, to view the power of functions that cannot be separated from the cultural art through the works created by artists ruler’s interests, both from the reign of the Old in his era for the formation of Indonesian Order, the New Order to Reformation era. national identity and civilization in the future GNI’s formation process did not directly while the New Order government was more of interfere with the repressive actions of the state an emphasis on "preserving" ideology, such as apparatus such as the military and army of the presenting various cultural replicas of the Repressive State Apparatus (RSA). country through miniatures of traditional In this case, the ideological function is houses. to reproduce the production of social relations. Ideology is a practice that arises within rituals Conclusion of specific apparatus and social institutions or The process of establishing GNI for 52 organizations. Ideology is represented through years contains political and strategic contents, various policies through the role of the rulers’ in which the role of notable figures in various relations, of which the roles of notable figures events shows a very strong ideological and events would be very important. In the Old contestation. It is here that ideology acts as a Order government, the role of President social practice through the relation of the Soekarno was very important, when he subject rulers through subtle methods without initiated the idea to establish GNI. The Cultural pressure, but clearly shows a form of power. Sector became the main priority through the The concept of the Ideological State Apparatus Broad Outlines of the National Universal (ISA), in which the state apparatus carries out Development Plan Pattern policy (Garis- the ideological function through the role of the GarisBesar Pola Pembangunan Nasional rulers or related regimes, in socializing Semesta Berencana Tahap Pertama/GBPPN dominant ideas and values. Various cultural SB) Phase 1961-1969, ranking the project as policy priorities of the Old Order and New first with "AA" which was then followed by Order Governments were representations of other fields. The experience of visiting various the ruler’s ideology and dominant values. As a countries that have art museums influenced the newly independent nation, various cultural cultural policies of the Old Order. While during development policies cannot be separated with the New Order, the development of the GNI did the ruler’s experience and appreciation of the not appear to be a top priority, because several cultural arts when visiting various countries that times it was always halted due to budget are considered to have historical value and constraints. Nevertheless, the Taman Mini political interests. Visiting experiences or Indonesia Indah (TMII) development project, interactions with several countries became the which had cost a lot, could be developed in the collective memory of Indonesian leaders that 1970s. Here we see a fundamental difference flows into the subconscious, to create the same between ideological approaches during the Old thing in the country. Order and the New Order. During the New The role of several notable figures in the Order era, Soekarno emphasized the process of establishing GNI, include President importance of national ideology through the Soekarno, through his initial idea in "Jakarta City Planning Project", as a means of establishing Art Gallery/Museum in 1946 and managing the Nation and Character Building. the TAP MPRS Policy in 1962 concerning the Soekarno considered a way to ward off the lust "Lighthouse Project (Projek Mercusuar)". The role of the Minister of Education and Culture, 35Ardhiati, Yuke. (2013:18). Bung Karno Dalam Fuad Hasan, particularly in realizing the Panggung Indonesia. Jakarta: PT Wastu Adicita. establishment of the National Art House as the-

97 2nd International Conference on History Education 2018 forerunner of the GNI in 1987 was very Harian Kompas. 13 Agustus 1976. strategic, especially in reviving the idea of Menyongsong Lahirnya Museum Seni establishing a National Art House. Cultural Rupa: Untuk Apa, untuk Siapa?. diplomacy carried out by Fuad Hasan was very Jones, Tod. (2015). Kebudayaan dan optimal, through efforts to seek funding from Kekuasaan di Indonesia. Kebijakan foreign parties in order to establish the GNI. Budaya Selama Abad ke-20 Hingga Era The role of the Director General of Culture, Reformasi. Jakarta: Yayasan Pustaka Edy Sediawati in the formation of the GNI in Obor Indonesia. 1998, was very significant. Visionary policies Mustika dan Slamet Sukirnanto. (1996). in proposing to hold the 1995 Non-Aligned Mustika: Peta Pameran Seni Rupa State Contemporary Art Exhibition, made dalam buku Seni Rupa Indonesia many parties aware of the importance of a Modern: Dalam Kritik dan Esei. National Gallery for the Indonesian people. Jakarta: Sanggar Krida GNI is a representation of a nation's Notosusanto, Nugroho (1981). 30 Tahun civilization, especially through its collections Indonesia Merdeka 1950-1964. Jakarta: and several exhibitions held in the GNI. The PT Intermasa curator Jim Supangkat also played a major role, Pusat Dokumentasi Arsitektur. (2015). especially in compiling academic papers on the Penelitian Gedung Cagar Budaya GNI and some views in the art field. Gedung Pameran Utama dan Gedung Serbaguna Galeri Nasional Indonesia. References Jakarta:Dirjen Kebudayaan Kemen- Ardhiati, Yuke. (2013). Bung Karno dalam terian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan RI. “Panggung Indonesia”. Jakarta: PT Ramadhan KH. (1992). Bang Ali Demi: Wastu Adicita. TM. Jakarta 1966-1977. Jakarta: Pustaka Bagian Proyek Wisma Seni Nasional Jakarta. SInar Harapan. (1998). Sebelas Tahun Berdirinya Robison, Richard. (2012). Soeharto dan Gedung Pameran Seni Rupa Bangkitnya Kapitalisme Indonesia. Depdikbud:Menuju Pusat Peng- Depok: Komunitas Bambu embangan Kebudayaan Nasional. Sejarah Moneter Periode 1959-1966-Bank Jakarta:Dirjen Kebudayaan Departe- Indonesia. 7 Juni 2018, https://www.bi. men Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. go.id/cdb67000dabd84a92b03f8fe8d5c Beilharz, Peter. (2002). Teori Teori Sosial, d27.SejarahMoneterPeriode1959-1960. Observasi Kritis terhadap Para Filosof Southgate, Beverly. (1996). History: What and Terkemuka. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Why. London: Routledge. Pelajar. Supardi, Nunus. (2015). Balai Budaya: Depernas. (1961). Pembangunan Semesta Riwayatmu Dulu, Kini dan Esok. Nasional Berentajana. Jakarta: Dewan Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal Ke- Perancang Nasional. budayaan, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Directorate General for Culture (1995). Kebudayaan. Catalogue Contemporary Art of The Supardi, Nunus. (2018). Jalan Panjang GNI: Non-Aligned Countries 1995. Jakarta: Sebuah Dinamika Kebudayaan (1960- Department of Education and Culture. 1998). Jurnal Galeri Seni Rupa. vol. Directorate General for Culture, Department of Februari. Jakarta: Galeri Nasional Education and Culture (1995). Indonesia. Contemporary Art of The Non-Aligned Susanto, Miekke. (2014). Bung Karno: Countries: Unity in Diversity in Kolektor & Patron Seni Rupa International Art. Jakarta: Balai Indonesia. Yogyakarta: DictiArtLab Pustaka. Yogyakarta. GPSR Kemendikbud (1997). Dokumen Pusat Yuke Ardhiati. (2013). Bung Karno dalam Promosi Kebudayaan Nasional “Panggung Indonesia”. Jakarta: PT. (Nasional Culture Promotion Center) Wastu Adicita Atelier 6 Jakarta. Jakarta.

98 2nd International Conference on History Education 2018

Yuliman, Sanento. Editor Asikin Hasan. (2001). Dua Seni Rupa: Serpihan Tulisan Sanento Yuliman. Jakarta: Yayasan Kalam.

Interviewees Pirous, AD. Wawancara Pribadi. Rumah tinggal Bukit Pakar III no 111 Bandung. 13 Januari 2018, pkl 12.00. Sediawaty, Edi. Wawancara Pribadi. Jalan Lembang, Jakarta. September 2013. Supangkat, Jim. Wawancara Pribadi. FSR IKJ, 31 Januari 2018. Supardi, Nunus. Wawancara Pribadi. Kantor BKKI, Gedung E, Kemendikbud. 2 Februari 2017, pkl, 10.10.

99