Appendix A: Tables

Table A.1 Trade value of international and local repertoire sales by format and in total (millions of ZAR) according to the RiSA statistics (for the years 1997–2012; format details for 2007 not available)

International Local

CD CD MC, MC Albums DVD, music Total CD CD MC, MC Albums DVD, music Total Total singles single video intern. single single video local all

1997 405 40 51 – 496 53 2 92 – 147 643 1998 451 31 35.2 – 517.2 69 5 87.5 – 161.5 678.7 1999 476.3 33.6 34.2 0.001 – 544.2 70.8 1.6 76.1 – 148.47 692.67 2000 430 18.5 18.8 0.025 – 467.3 72.1 0.9 66.1 0,003 – 139.1 606.5 2001 415.45 12.1 21.2 −0.006 4 452.7 87.1 0.6 67 2.1 156.8 609.5 2002 445.9 16.4 22.3 0.006 27.5 512.17 122.8 1.5 64.8 3 192.16 704.3 2003 416 4 20.3 0.02 40 480 150.2 1.2 67.7 5.9 225 705 2004 464 1 12 63 540 259 – 74 14 347 887 2005 501 1 7 83 592 285 1 54 42 382 974 2006 460 – 4 73 537 339 1 44 71 455 992 2007 – 577 – 443 1,020 2008 440 0.013 2 67.3 509.3 291.3 10 9.2 63.3 383.8 893.1 2009 409.73 0.07 1.4 60.3 471.53 320.5 6 10 58.7 395.27 866.8 2010 366 1.6 0.45 58.1 426.2 291 3.5 8.3 61.2 364 790.2

Physical Digital Physical Digital

2011 337 42.2 379.2 311.2 – 311.2 690.4 2012 305.7 48.3 354 289.7 0.04 289.7 643.7

Note: – = not available; intern. = international. Appendix A 185

Table A.2 Sales of units by format (millions), according to RiSA, AGM (2007, p. 11). The numbers of units broken down by format in the international and domestic repertoire are not available after 2006

International Local

CD CD MC DVD Total CD CD MC DVD Total single single

1997 9.8 2.2 2.4 – 14.4 2.0 0.1 6.0 – 8.1 1998 10.7 1.8 1.7 – 14.2 2.3 0.2 5.6 – 8.1 1999 10.2 1.8 1.5 – 13.5 2.2 0.1 5.0 – 7.3 2000 9.0 0.9 1.0 – 10.9 2.2 – 4.4 – 6.6 2001 7.7 0.6 1.1 (0.1) 9.5 2.3 – 4.5 – 6.8 2002 7.7 0.7 1.2 0.2 9.8 3.0 – 4.2 (*) 7.2 2003 7.0 0.1 1.2 0.3 8.6 3.7 – 4.5 (*) 8.2 2004 7.9 – 0.7 0.6 9.2 6.5 – 4.7 0.2 11.4 2005 9.5 – 0.4 0.9 10.8 7.6 – 3.4 0.6 11.6 2006 8.5 – 0.3 1.0 9.8 9.7 – 2.9 1.1 13.7

Note: – = not available.

Table A.3 Shares of international and local music in the sales, in terms of trade value and units, and annual changes in the total trade value, according to the RiSA statistics (1997–2012)

International repertoire Local repertoire Total trade value, change

Value share Unit share Value share Unit share

1997 77% 64% 22% 36% 1998 76% 63.4% 23.7% 36.6% 5.3% 1999 78.5% 64.8% 21.4% 35.2% 2.2% 2000 77% 62.2% 22.9% 37.8% −12.4% 2001 74.3% 58% 25.7% 42% 0.5% 2002 72.7% 57.4% 27.3% 42.6% 15.6% 2003 68% 51% 32% 49% 0.1% 2004 60.7% 44.1% 39.3% 55.5% 25.9% 2005 60.7% 48% 39.3% 51.8% 10% 2006 54.2% 41.7% 45.7% 58.3% 2% 2007 56.6% – 43.4% – 2.8% 2008 57% 48.2% 43% 51.8% −12.4% 2009 54.4% 45.9% 45.6% 54.1% −2.9% 2010 54% 46.4% 46% 53.6% −8.8% 2011* 55% – 45% – −12.7%* (−17.9%)** 2012 55% – 45% – −6.7%

Note: * Digital sales included in the RiSA statistics from 2011 on. ** Trade value change of physical product between 2010 and 2011. – = not available. 186 Appendix A

Table A.4 South African recorded music trade value by format and in total (US$ million; Total also in ZAR million) as given in the following IFPI reports: RIN 2005 (IFPI 2006, p. 96; for the years 2001–2003), RIN 2008 (IFPI 200, p. 83; for the years 2004–2008); RIN 2013 (IFPI 2014, p. 103; for the years 2009–2013)

Physical Digital Perf. Synch. Total Total Change % rights revenue US$ ZAR

2001 104.8 666.3 2.2 2002 119.1 757.3 13.7% 2003 119.2 758.1 0.1%

2004 110.6 – – 110.6 915.5 20.8% 2005 121.5 0.5 – – 122.0 1,010.2 10.3% 2006 124.0 2.0 – – 126.0 1,043.1 3.3% 2007 126.2 2.8 – – 129.0 1,067.5 2.3% 2008 114.6 3.4 1.7 – 119.7 990.9 −7.2%

2009 95.6 3.5 2.1 – 101.2 976.3 −1.3% 2010 87.1 3.8 1.9 0.6 93.4 901.6 −7.6% 2011 71.5 4.3 – 0.8 76.6 739.0 −18.0% 2012 66.3 4.3 – 0.7 71.3 687.8 −6.9% 2013 52.7 8.8 – 1.4 63.0 607.6 −11.7%

Note: – = not available; Perf. = performance; Synch. = synchronization. 187 5%* 7%* 0.1%** Other*, value 2% 1% 1% Synch. rights 2% 2% 1% Perf. rights DVD, value 82% 79%80% 14% 13% 79% 77% 82.8% CD, value VHS, value . MC VHS CD DVD 9.6% 0.3% 81.3% 8.7% MC, value 12.5%12.4% 0.6%14.0% – 80.3% 5.9% 80.7% 3.8% 16% 18% Music video – – – 6% 5% 4% 3% 2% 18% 2% 0.005% <1% Digital, value – 0.7% 2.5% 3.2% 5% 6% 84%91%93% 93% 14% 8% 94% 96% 98% 98% Physical, value Singles, value LPs, value Format shares in the sales (in value terms), according to IFPI’s RIN reports (2014–1999, with data for 2001 missing) for 2001 with data (2014–1999, reports RIN to IFPI’s according (in value terms), the sales shares in Format The reported categories have changed over the years. The reported categories have changed over the ** Other: singles. synchronization – = not available; Perf. = performance; Synch. = : * Other: physical singles, LP, MC, VHS. * Other: physical singles, LP, Note: Table A.5 A.5 Table 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 188 Appendix A

Table A.6 Sales of international and local repertoire, in trade value terms, according to IFPI’s RIN reports (IFPI 1994–2012). The shares differ somewhat from those given by RiSA (Table 4), because IFPI add a weighting to the raw data of the national organizations in an attempt to reflect the overall market

Domestic International Classical repertoire repertoire

2011 48% 52% 2010 45% 55% 2009 45% 55% 2008 43% 57% 2007 43% 57% 2006 45% 55% 2005 40% 60% 2004 41% 59% 2003 32% 66% 2% 2002 27% 73% – 2001 27% 71% 2% 2000 23% 74% 3% 1999 21% 73% 6% 1998 24% 70% 6% 1997 23% 71% 6% 1996 22% 71% 6% 1995 20% 74% 6% 1994 19% 71% 11% 1993 43% 51% 6% 1992 43% 51% 6%

Note: – = not available. 189 15.21 67.09 15.84 69.57 15.80 77.47 15.18 87.05 15.34 89.5 14.98 – 15.13 – 15.33 – 15.47 – 15.26 – 8.41 17.30 19.33 20.89 22.69 18.42 21.19 18.70 20.13 15.98 Local in ZAR), according to RiSA, AGM (2007, p. 12). Data on (2007, p. 12). Data to RiSA, AGM (in ZAR), according 14.92 73.42 34.95 17.24 88.11 37.36 17.55 99.88 39.89 16.98 114.95 40.52 18.34 114.53 40.32 18.81 91.11 38.07 18.90 – 33.51 23.18 – 31.67 20.71 – 29.51 21.18 – 27.03 and local repertoire in international 25.32 24.72 12.45 24.65 21.88 19.79 20.97 19.21 17.55 17.12 CD single CD MC DVD CD CD single MC DVD Formats by average value Formats by 2006 54.28 2005 52.91 2004 58.72 2003 59.51 2002 57.61 2001 53.96 2000 48.16 1999 46.72 1998 42.05 1997 41.22 Note: – = not available. International Table A.7 Table the average value are not available after the year 2006 value are not available the average Appendix B: Interviewed People

Agulnik Alex, founder and CEO of African Cream label (since 1995) (interview: 10 June 2005). Alexander David, MD of Sheer Publishing Ltd; former MD at Sheer Publishing, and former MD at Tequila Music (interview: 14 November 2013). Allingham Rob, the Archive Manager for Gallo Africa from 1990 until 2008; currently owns a label called Recordiana (interview: 4 November 2013). Azevedo Joe, Director of RTG (Replication Technology Group) (interview: 26 May 2005). Bennett Mark, worked at the record label Shifty Records; in the 1990s owned and ran two music retail outlets, and later he run the Jive City music retail chain for six years (until 2005) (interview: 1 June 2005). Botelho Sergio, MD of MESH (Music & Entertainment Solutions Hub) (interview: 30 October 2013). Cowling Rob, GM of Sheer Sound (a division of the Sheer Group); MD at Dr Doctor Music publishing; earlier Branch Manager at Musica (1991–1994) (interview: 5 November 2013). Dajee Faizel, owner and MD of Reliable Music Warehouse; since 2009 the owner and MD at Vexiwave (Pty) Ltd (interviews: 8 April 2004, and 25 November 2011). Dana Simphiwe, a famous artist and songwriter in Afro-soul and jazz (interview: 13 June 2005). Darren (pseudonym) (interview: 17 March 2011). du Plessis David, Operations Director at RiSA (Recording Industry of South Africa), Chief Executive Officer at SAMPRA (South African Music Performance Rights Association) (interviews: 26 April 2004, and 30 March 2011). Fane Raymond, owner of the distribution company Ring Records (interview: 24 May 2005). Friedman Marc, owner of Cactus Media and entertainment lawyer (interview: 30 May 2013). Fuhr Ian, the founder and an owner of the Moonshine Records (later named Priority Records), later an owner of the Super Mart retail chain, and the Great Value Music (record label and distributor), since 2005, an owner of the Sorbet beauty chain (interview: 10 June 2005). Ghelakis Chris, MD and owner of Electromode (since 2005), former A&R consultant at Universal Music Group (2001-2002), and MD at CSR Records (1987–1999) (interview: 5 November 2013). Gibbon Duncan, at the time of the interview the Strategic MD at Sony BMG Music Entertainment; former A&R Manager and Director at the Gallo Record Company, and former MD of Sony Music South Africa (interview: 20 May 2005). Gregory (pseudonym) (interview: 12 June 2013). Gresham David, CEO and MD of the David Gresham Record Company (since 1972); earlier a radio presenter in music programs for LM Radio, Springbok Radio and Radio Highveld (interview: 11 November 2013).

190 Appendix B 191

Haarburger Ivor, at the time of the interview the Acting CEO of Gallo Music Group; CEO positions in Gallo Music Group / Warner Music Group Africa (1968–2008); since 2008 CEO at Content Media Services (interview: 9 March 2004). Hardwick Clive, at the time of the interview an owner of Bula Music and Energy One; former CEO at Ad Lib Communications (1985–1994) (interview: 29 May 2013). Haycock Ken, MD of CCP (Clive Calder Productions, part of EMI) during the 1980s; owner and MD of Cool Spot Productions since 1988 (and Cool Spot distribution 1996–2012) (interview: 24 May 2013). Hooijer Robert, at the time of the interview the Secretary of SAMRO (the Southern African Music Rights Organisation); earlier CEO of SAMRO; later CISAC Director of African Affairs and Interim Director at CISAC (the International Confederation of Authors and Composers Societies) (interview: 5 April 2004). Jack (pseudonym) (interview: 25 May 2013). John (pseudonym) (interview: 4 April 2011). Kekana Steve, a famous artist and songwriter in soul, mbaqanga and Afro-pop, and an advocate (interview: 1 June 2005). Kennan Yoel, founder and owner of Africori; earlier worked in A&R, marketing, digital and business development at Universal Music and the BMG (interview: 17 November 2011). Keswa Nobuhle, a young music fan who lives in Soweto and plans to become a professional ballroom and Latin dancer (interview: 6 March 2011). King Adrian, MD at Warner Music South Africa (since 2013); former Marketing Manager at Warner Music Group (since 2011), and Frontline MD at Sony Music Entertainment (2001–2005) (interview: 14 November 2013). Lebona Koloi (now late), initially a guitarist in a band called the All Rounders, later a well-known freelance producer and owner of the Get Ahead Records (interviews: 3 May 2004, and 6 June and 10 June 2005). Malatji Nathaniel Paledi, an artist and composer fusing traditional tunes with African pop (interview: 12 March 2004). Manager of Plum CD record store (interview: 19 May 2005). Marks David, founder, Music Director, Producer and Archivist of Third Ear Music label, Director at Third Ear’s Hidden Years Music Archive (interview: 31 July 2006). Masondo David (now late), the lead vocalist in the famous soul-mbaqanga group Soul Brothers (interview: 18 March 2004). Matzukis Nick, an advocate specialized in consulting on music industry law and business matters, and Director of the Academy of Sound Engineering (interview: May 2013). McCormack Lance, the Artist Development Manager in BMG; later the GM for Domestic Labels at Sony BMG Africa and Artist Development Manager at Sony Music Africa (interview: 30 March 2004). McGahey Craig, Owner of Mama Dance! Music Library, Music Supervisor at Mama Dance! Music Solutions; earlier owner of Mama Dance! Records (1996–2004) (interview: 11 May 2012). Mkhize Lindelani, former MD of African Repertoire Division at Sony Music South Africa (1995–2004), after which worked for Sony BMG as a consultant, and later as the Executive Director at Universal Music South Africa (2011– 2013); since 2004 he also has had his own company LME (Lindelani Mkhize Entertainment) (interviews: 10 March 2004, 14 June 2005, and 23 May 2013). 192 Appendix B

Mlangeni Babsy, a well-known artist in Afro-pop and the owner of the company Jozi Entertainment (interview: 6 June 2005). Moncho Lazarus Kidwell (artist name Kid Moncho), a long-time musician and composer, specialized in playing pennywhistle, saxophone, and piano (interview: 7 June 2005). Moola Baboo, an industry long-timer on the retail and wholesale side, having worked in the music mail order company Malets Music (1972–1992), and Reliable Music Warehouse (1992–2008); currently works at Dakota Music Warehouse (interview: 20 May 2013). Motsatse Nicholas, Executive Director at the collection society SAMRO (Southern African Music Rights Organisation) (2006–2013) (interviews: 25 May 2005, and 28 March 2011). Mudie Benjy, the founder and owner of Fresh Music label (since 1998); A&R Consultant at Universal Music Group (2009–2013); the former Marketing and A&R Director at WEA Records/Tusk Music (1976–1997) (interviews: 3 May 2004, and 12 November 2013). Ngwenya Moses, the keyboardist in the famous soul-mbaqanga group Soul Brothers and producer; since the 1990s, also the owner of the company Black Moses Production and Studios (interview: 4 May 2004). Nicoll Allan, Label Manager of Soul Candi (interviews: 28 November 2011, and 30 October 2013). Nkosi Stanley (now late), CEO at Zakheni Music Trust; earlier worked in several record labels, such as GRC (Gramophone Record Company), and Moonshine/ Priority Records, and as the MD of the Soul Brothers Record Company in the 1980s (interview: 5 March 2004). Olsen Brian, former Director of Musica and Director of Merchandise of CD Wherehouse; currently Senior Salesman at Look & Listen (interview: 26 April 2004). Paul (pseudonym) (interview: 7 June 2013). Pieterse Elster, the Digital Manager in Soul Candi label and the Label Manager of F! Records (Soul Candi record label’s sister label) (interview: 30 October 2013). Rees Andrew, Johnnic Communications Africa Ltd T/A Nu Metro Media Stores, former Merchandise Manager at Musica (interview: 25 March 2004). Roberts Harvey, at the time of the interviews an owner and Director at Bula Music record label, Adlib Music Publishing, and IMD (Independent Music Distribution) (interviews: 16 March 2004, and 23 May 2013). Rosin Mark, media and entertainment lawyer (interview: 12 June 2005). Ross Morgan, PR, Marketing and Booking Agent at Electromode/G Management (interview: 29 March 2011). Sarawan Manusha, the Legal and Business Affairs Director at Universal Music South Africa (interview: 17 March 2004). Sibisi Nhlanhla, the Legal and Business Affairs Director of Sony Music Entertainment South Africa (interview: 18 March 2004). Simon (pseudonym) (interview: 1 March 2004). Sithole Sipho, the owner of the label Native Rhythms Records; earlier Deputy Chief Executive Officer at Gallo Music Group (interviews: 26 May 2005, and 26 May 2013). Stehr Lance, since 1994 the owner and CEO of Ghetto Ruff record label/ Muthaland Entertainment; former Head of Local music division at Polygram (1999–2001) (interviews: 12 March 2004, and 27 May 2013). Appendix B 193

Stella Antos, since 2004 founder and owner of AS Entertainment (Antos Stella Entertainment); the former Gallo Executive Director, General Manager at Gallo Music International, and MD at Gallo Music SA; later MD at Content Connect Africa (interview: 29 April 2004). Stephens Damian, a founding partner and the Label Manager at Pioneer Unit Records, an independent hip hop record label (interview: 21 November 2013). Stevens Clive, the Chief Operations Officer at CDT (Compact Disc Technologies) (interview: 30 May 2005). Stuart Kevin, founder of the record label Ready Rolled Records, and an event and festival organizer; earlier worked at sales, A&R, events, and touring at the Sheer Sound record label; currently working at Breakout Management (Sheer Group) (interview: 30 March 2004). Tloubatla Hilda, an artist with a long history with especially mbaqanga music groups, such as the famous Mahotella Queens (interview: 15 June 2005). Watson Sean, the MD of CCP (2004–2009); since 2011 the MD of Sony Music Entertainment Africa (interview: 18 March 2004). Williams Shaun, an owner of the Jet Music retail music chain (interview: 28 May 2013). Woodin Richard, Label Manager at Sheer Sound (interview: 5 November 2013). Notes

Introduction

1. For a different view that emphasizes the local formation of music industries, see Williamson and Cloonan (2007) and the edited collection by Marshall (2013b). 2. Griots are found among many West African peoples, such as the Mande, Fulbe, Hausa, Songhai, Tukulóor, Wolof, Serer, Mossi, Dagomba, Mauritanian Arabs and some other smaller groups. 3. Kretschmer and Kawohl (2004, p. 23) mention, however, that the earliest known privilege for the exclusive rights to print and sell sheet music was granted in 1498. 4. I have rounded the exact percentages given by the statistics, according to which blacks constitute 79.8% of the population and whites 8.7% (Stats a, 2013.). 5. The population category ‘black Africans’ consists of people considered to be indigenously African and composed of several ethnic and language groups, most notably the Nguni (comprising the Zulu, Xhosa, Ndebele and Swazi people), the Sotho-Tswana, the Tsonga and the Venda. In the popular and music industry parlance, these people are usually simply called ‘blacks’, and I too will mostly use that word. The term ‘coloureds’ refers to people of mixed descent, initially distinguished from ‘blacks’, because they were perceived to have lighter complexion. They are the result of diverse mixtures of peoples, such as the white settlers, the Khoisan and Xhosa populations and the slaves imported from other parts of Africa and some islands of the Indian and Atlantic oceans. The majority of coloureds speak Afrikaans. ‘Whites’ constitute of Afrikaners (descendants of Dutch, German and French settlers who came to the country from the seventeenth century onwards and speak Afrikaans), the English-speaking descendants of settlers from the British Isles (who came to the country from the late eighteenth century onwards), and the immigrants and descendants of immigrants from the rest of Europe. The terms ‘Indians’ and ‘Asians’ are used interchange- ably; the majority of these are of Indian origin, many of them descendants of indentured workers brought to work on the sugar plantations in Natal (today called KwaZulu-Natal) in the nineteenth century. They are largely English-speaking, although many also retain the languages of their origins. Currently there is also a group of Chinese South Africans. 6. ‘Country Income Groups’; ‘World Economic Situation and Prospects’. 7. In this research the food poverty line was set at ZAR 321 per capita per month and the upper-bound poverty line at ZAR 620 per capita per month in the prices of 2011 (Stats d, pp. 7–8, 12). 8. Stats d, p. 27. 9. As measured by the Gini coefficient. 10. Stats c, p. 42.

194 Notes 195

11. Both van der Berg (2014) and Leibbrandt et al. (2010, pp. 13, 16) come to the conclusion that the within-group inequality has increased quite strongly in the post-transition period and is the greatest among the black population. They diverge in their results concerning the developments of inequality between the population groups; van der Berg maintains that it has declined, while Leibbrandt et al. assert that also the inequality between the groups has increased. 12. There was what can be considered a black middle class already in the apartheid era, consisting of different groups and factions. For a review of some of the literature concerning them, see e.g. Southall 2004. 13. This is a study made in the Stellenbosch University by S. van der Berg, H. Kotzé, R. Burger and C. Steenekamp. They used a monthly income per capita threshold of ZAR 4,100 (in 2012’s prices) for the middle class. The research found that the black middle class had grown from 350,000 individuals in 1993 to almost 3 million individuals in 2012 (the results as reported in ‘Black South Africans Now Largest Part of Middle Class,’ 2013). 14. For instance, Southall (2004) belongs to the researchers who define middle class more by occupational terms, that is, as those of non-manual, white collar employment. Using such a determination, Southall (2004, p. 10) comes to the conclusion that in 2004 blacks already constituted about 60% of the middle class. Southall further divided the group into upper middle class (professionals and managers) and lower middle class (sales and clerks persons), finding that of these two the former category has been the princi- pal beneficiary during the post-apartheid era in terms of the distribution of income. 15. I have calculated these on the basis of the Stats b, p. 8. 16. An attempt to get a grasp of the diversity of the middle class in general (with the diverse population groups included) can be found in the study by Visagie and Posel (2013), which distinguishes between the ‘literal or actual middle’ and the ‘relatively affluent middle’. The former represents the average household in terms of the statistical median income and the latter represents households in which the highest income earner is in a middle class occupa- tion. Based on the 2008 income levels, the size of these two sub-categories were similar (at a bit over 4 million households each), yet the ‘relatively affluent middle class’ received about 47% of the total income, in comparison to about 13% received by the ‘literal middle’. Those in the ‘literal middle’ had lower level education and were overwhelmingly blacks, while in the ‘relatively affluent middle’ just over half of the individuals were blacks. 17. ‘Black diamond’ is a term coined in the TNS and the University of Cape Town’s Unilever Institute survey in 2007. It is a contested and slippery label, which is sometimes used to refer to the upwardly mobile black middle class in general, at other times only to the very rich blacks. Donaldson et al. (2013, p. 115) distinguish three subgroups within the category of black diamonds. First, those who are well off through their hard work but who are not necessarily highly educated; second, those who are prosperous because they are better educated and therefore have well-paid jobs; and third, those who are wealthy because they are politically aligned to the ruling party. 18. ‘Racial Spread of SA Millionaires’, 2013. 196 Notes

19. This compares to the 14% ownership by white South Africans of the total value of the Johannesburg Stock Exchange. However, different calculation methods create different results; see Bauer (2012). 20. Consequently, many of the top politicians are very wealthy and big share- holders in diverse businesses. For instance, Cyril Ramaphosa, the former trade union leader and currently the Deputy President of South Africa and the Chairman of the National Planning Commission is among the 20 rich- est men in South Africa through his holdings in a mining company and Standard Bank (‘Fool’s Gold’, 2013; Southall 2013, p. 31; Taylor 2013). 21. The unemployment rate among blacks is estimated to be 28.5% and among whites 5.6% (‘Fool’s Gold,’ 2013). 22. The minerals-energy complex (MEC) that already dominated the economic sector during the apartheid period has remained strong in the post-apartheid era, when the economic influence of the finance sector (banks and private investment institutions) has increased. Today, these are jointly called the minerals-energy-finance complex (MEFC) (Southall 2013, pp. 23, 28). 23. Some researchers consider the distinction between the major and the independent labels spurious, because few labels are literally independent, given their reliance on the majors for various services. Negus (1999, p. 28), for instance, refuses to use the distinction for this reason. I use the terms ‘major’ and ‘independent label’, however, because they are used by the South African recording industry insiders. As will be seen, my analysis of the industry does not entail the usual moralizing tone that the distinction often implies, that is, the view of the majors as ruthless profit-seekers and independents as music enthusiasts devoted to creativity.

1 The South African Recording Industry

1. Andersson (1981, p. 8) uses the name ‘Columbia Gramophone Company’, and Stapleton and May (1987, p. 263) use the name ‘Columbia’, but the correct name is Columbia Graphophone Company. I am grateful to Pekka Gronow for pointing this out to me. 2. According to Rob Allingham, Trutone was founded by Arthur Harris in 1939 (Allingham, interview by the author, 4 November 2013). 3. Allingham (interview by the author, 4 November 2013) and David Gresham (interview by the author, 11 November 2013). 4. ‘Gallo Record Company’, Discogs. 5. For a time, the three entities, called the Gallo Music Productions, Teal- Trutone and RPM, were operated quite independently and were competing with each other, even though they were part of Gallo Africa (Allingham, interview by the author, 4 November 2013). 6. Gallo Record Company website (accessed 2003). 7. After the incorporation in 1985, the company was called Gallo-GRC until 1989, when the name was changed to Gallo Record Company (Gallo Record Company website, accessed 2003). 8. This is the history as related to me by Rob Allingham (interview by the author, 4 November 2013). However, according to Andersson (1981, p. 38), Notes 197

in 1938 EMI’s South African agents, Mackay Brothers and Herman Polliack, merged and were given the franchise of all EMI products. 9. Allingham, interview by the author, 4 November 2013. 10. Clive Calder sold CCP to EMI in 1978 and later moved abroad. In London, with Ralph Simon, Calder established Zomba Music Group, which eventually expanded to New York and became hugely successful. In 1990 Calder bought out Simon’s share and ran the company until 2002, when he sold Zomba to BMG. In South Africa, Zomba Music was operated and distributed through EMI, and the label manager was Koloi Lebona from 1996 to 2002 (Koloi Lebona (interview by the author, 6 June 2004), and Ken Haycock (interview by the author, 24 May 2013)). See more about Lebona in Chapter 6. 11. Allingham, interview by the author, 4 November 2013. 12. Joe Azevedo, the Director of the RTG, interview by the author, 26 May 2005. 13. According to Benjy Mudie (interview by the author, 12 November 2013), in the 1970s both Gallo and EMI had record stores as well. 14. See Allen (2007, p. 67), and Gallo Record Company website (accessed 2003). 15. Rob Allingham was the Archive Manager for Gallo Africa from 1990 until 2008. In 2013 when I met him, Allingham had set up a small label called Recordiana to reissue old recordings and he was also getting into a small- scale clothing business (having African record label designs from the 1970s printed on t-shirts). In addition, he was training to become a tourist guide (Allingham, interview by the author, 4 November 2013). 16. Gallo Record Company website (accessed 2003). 17. Gallo Record Company website (accessed 2003); ‘Teal Trutone Music’; Goldstuck (1995). 18. Benjy Mudie, the former Marketing and A&R Director at WEA Records / Tusk Music, interview by the author, 3 May 2004. 19. The cassette factory was sold to RTG, as mentioned above. In 2008 the leg- endary Downtown studios were bought from Avusa by the Department of Arts and Culture, with a plan to transform them into a vibrant music hub in partnership with private sector enterprises. In 2013 this plan was still wait- ing to be materialized, with the equipment in the studios quite outdated and the building deteriorating. 20. Allingham, interview by the author, 4 November 2013. 21. See Times Media Group: ‘Gallo’. However, a significant percentage of the recording copyrights that Gallo holds are not accessible to the company because of a lack of master tapes and library copies of the published records. The reasons for this situation are several: the master tapes were not always regarded as important and were thrown away (both at Gallo and some of the companies it acquired); in addition, some of the kept tapes went missing in fires and during moving to new premises; and some companies that Gallo acquired did not deliver all of their assets to Gallo (Allen 2007, p. 270). 22. With decreasing profitability, the fate of ELS has been unsure for several years. At the end of 2012, TMG announced a plan to merge CDT and ELS with a competitor (Times Media Group: ‘Financial Results’, 2012). This merger did not happen however. 198 Notes

23. An industry insider reflected on the reasons for Warner leaving the joint venture as follows: ‘It’s not working for Warners, it’s clearly not working for Gallo. I think from Warners’ perspective, whatever profits they’re making on the international side are being diluted by the losses on the local side. So this is not worth it. They got what they wanted out of the deal, which was the global digital rights to the entire Gallo catalogue, so they’re not interested in sitting around funding a loss-making organization or company’ (Harvey Roberts, interview by the author, 23 May 2013). 24. In June 2013 Gallo entered a deal with Content Connect Africa to have its catalogue made available on mobile digital platforms. 25. David Gresham, interview by the author, 11 November 2013. 26. Adrian King, interview by the author, 14 November 2013. 27. Stanley Nkosi, interview by the author, 5 March 2004. 28. Whereas in the mid-2000s, more or less all record company and label representatives stressed the importance of these two seasons, in 2013 several industry insiders maintained that this seasonal variation is not so pro- nounced any more. 29. Ivor Haarburger, the Acting Chief Executive Officer of Gallo Music Group, interview by the author, 9 March 2004. 30. Nhlanhla Sibisi, the Legal and Business Affairs Director of Sony Music Entertainment South Africa, interview by the author, 18 March 2004. 31. Lance McCormack, the Artist Development Manager of BMG Africa, interview by the author, 30 March 2004. 32. Manusha Sarawan, the Legal and Business Affairs Director at Universal Music South Africa, interview by the author, 17 March 2004. 33. For instance, Sean Watson, the MD of CCP (interview by the author, 18 March 2004), and Antos Stella, the former Gallo Executive Director (interview by the author, 29 April 2004). 34. Ivor Haarburger, at the time (at the start of the 1980s) working in A&R at Gallo, questioned the economic rationale of acquiring licenses for foreign labels and posed it foremost as an issue of cultural valuation and status: ‘Purchasing overseas labels is crazy when you think of it. Mostly it’s just a prestige thing … You pay the money up-front for a label, advance it. Then against those advances there are royalties between ten to twenty-four percent of the retail price’ (cited in Andersson 1981, p. 49). 35. For instance, according to Nhlanhla Sibisi at Sony Music, 5–10% of artists are profitable (interview by the author, 18 March 2004). Both Ken Haycock, at the time of the interview the owner of the Cool Spot Productions (interview by the author, 24 May 2013), and Faizel Dajee, the owner of Reliable Music Warehouse (interview by the author, 25 November 2011), estimated the success rate to be 10:1. 36. For instance, Sean Watson, the MD of CCP, maintained that the 80:20 rule applies to the music business (20% of the productions bringing in 80% of the net profits) (interview by the author, 29 April 2004). 37. The 80:20 rule is often believed to apply more generally in the business world (and even beyond), and is sometimes called the ‘Pareto principle’. 38. One can discern a strong underlying theme and debate concerning the relative value of international and local music running through the discussions Notes 199

of the producers and record label owners interviewed by Andersson (1981) at the start of the 1980s. 39. The Cool Spot Productions was founded in 1988. Initially it focused on releasing pantsula music and some reggae, later some house music and kwaito, eventually focusing on gospel and traditional music (Haycock, interview by the author, 24 May 2013). 40. This information comes from the RiSA and the IFPI statistics; the former does not report the international and domestic repertoire sales by units after 2010, only their trade values. The IFPI’s RIN statistics have never reported the unit sales by repertoire; the trade values of the international and local repertoires were reported until the end of 2011 but not after that. 41. These shares come from the RiSA statistics. According to the IFPI, in 2011 the share of the local music repertoire in South Africa was 48% (RIN 2012, p. 100). 42. Harvey Roberts, interview by the author, 16 March 2004. 43. Watson, interview by the author, 29 April 2004. 44. See more on the famous pop star Brenda Fassie in Chapter 6. 45. Watson, interview by the author, 29 April 2004. 46. McCormack, interview by the author, 30 March 2004. 47. McCormack, interview by the author, 30 March 2004. 48. Another reason for the relative abundance of compilation albums of South African music in the international markets is the fact that in offering a variety of music, often at lower than the normal record price, they are more attractive to a potential buyer who is not particularly familiar with the music. Therefore, for the foreign licensee, compilations are often less risky than licensing and distributing the full albums of individual artists (see Pietilä 2008). 49. The IFPI’s annual RIN reports have been compiled and published since 1994 (reporting the sales for 1992 and 1993). The first ones were on quite a rudimentary level, even though they contained information from six African countries, whereas today only South Africa is included from the continent. The earliest RiSA statistics available to me are from 1997. 50. This was the situation until 2008, after which the sales value has been declining. The statistics of the RiSA and the IFPI give a similar picture of the trend in the sales development; even though the exact figures and percentages for the change are not uniform (see Tables A.4 and A.3). The IFPI figures for the record sales in South Africa are annually somewhat higher than those given by the RiSA because of the weighting the IFPI adds to the data. 51. Again, the percentages of the shares of the two repertoires differ somewhat in the IFPI and the RiSA statistics for the reason given in the previous endnote. 52. In the global industry, the Compact Disc (CD) already became the dominant recorded music format during the 1980s. This led to a steady increase in record sales, as consumers were replacing vinyl albums with CDs. Record companies benefited not only from the increase in the sales volumes but also from the good profit margins of the format: CDs’ retail price was significantly higher than that of LPs, and the record companies managed to per- suade music publishers and many recording artists to accept lower royalty rates when launching the format (Laing 2013, pp. 44, 47). Largely because of the shift to CD format, global recorded music sales peaked from the mid- to 200 Notes

late-1990s, after which they have been declining until the year 2012. Even though the declining sales trend since 1999 is usually seen as marking the doom of the global recording industry, Marshall (2013a, p. 55) points out that the picture is not that gloomy when viewed in a longer historical time perspective: for instance, from 1984 to 2010 the retail value of recorded music slightly increased in real terms. 53. Faizel Dajee, interviews by the author, 8 April 2004 and 25 November 2011. See more on Reliable Music Warehouse in Chapter 4. 54. The shift from VHS video to DVD production was especially swift at this point. This came out in the interview by the author with Clive Stevens (30 May 2005), the Chief Operations Officer at CDT, and in an interview with Joe Azevedo (26 May 2005), the Director or RTG (Replication Technology Group), the leading cassette and video production plant in the country. 55. After 2010 the sales statistics of the RiSA have only distinguished physical and digital sales value, while the IFPI also lists synchronization revenues in addition to these (see Tables A.4 and A.1). 56. The rest of the sales value constituted of DVDs (13.6% of the international repertoire’s value, 16.8% of the value of the local repertoire), music videos (0.0017% in both international and local music), CD singles (0.37% in the international and 0.9% in the local music sales), and cassette singles (2% of the local repertoire’s sales value): see Table A.1. 57. Shaun Williams, the owner of the Jet Music retail chain, interview by the author, 28 May 2013. 58. Allan Nicoll, the Label Manager of Soul Candi, interview by the author, 28 November 2011. 59. Table A.7 derives from the data given in RiSA: Annual General Meeting (2007, p. 12). It should be noted that these are average prices. In 2004 Sean Watson, the MD of CCP, mentioned that they have 25 different price categories for physical formats (interview by the author, 29 April 2004). 60. The break-even point depends on the production expenses that are often genre-specific. In the mid-2000s, for traditional genres and popular music it was said to be around 5,000–6,000 units, and for more ‘sophisticated’ genres, such as jazz, it was said to be around 25,000 units. In 2013 Nick Matzukis, the industry advocate and educator, explained that he advises starting musicians on how to record on their own and break even at 586 units, ‘whereas under the old model [of a conventional artist contract with a label] you’d have to sell at least 6,000 units, and if you had received a big advance, maybe you had to sell up to 30,000 units before you broke even and got your first Rand of royalties’ (Nick Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013). 61. Kwaito emerged as a hugely popular music genre after democratization; see more in Pietilä (2013). 62. Sipho Sithole, the Deputy Chief Executive Officer of Gallo Music Group, interview by the author, 26 May 2005. 63. In South Africa some Sony and BMG employees, as well as artists, described the results of this merger as a ‘culture clash’. With a number of black execu- tives on the board and an active skills transfer and black development policy, Sony was at the time viewed as the most progressive company of the majors. 64. According to the RiSA website, in 2007 it had over 800 members. In 2011 the RiSA website listed 1,395 members. In March 2011 David du Plessis, Notes 201

Operations Director of the RiSA, said they have around 1,500 members (interview by the author, 30 March 2011). 65. The AIRCO was formed by the joint effort of the Department of Arts and Culture, Business and Arts South Africa, the Moshito Music Conference, and the collection society SAMRO (Music & Copyright 2010). The intention was to combat the dominant position of the RiSA and to offer an alternative to the independent labels. 66. Clive Hardwick, interview by the author, 29 May 2013. 67. There are also white-owned labels that concentrate on pop and rock or Afrikaans music. Some bigger independent labels have separate divisions for black-oriented music and white-oriented music, such as, for instance, the Sheer Group (with its Sheer Sound and 2Feet Music divisions) or the Soul Candi Records (with its F! Records division). 68. The key labels in the Afrikaans music sector are Select Music (sold in 2013 to Sony), Hoezit and Rhythm Records (all located in Cape Town), and Coleske Artists PTY in Pretoria. According to Coetzer (2007, p. 16), in 2006 the share of the domestic repertoire shipments by Select Music and its affiliate Select Music Distribution was as high as 21.4%, behind only EMI/CCP with its 27% share of the domestic shipments. 69. In 2011, Nick Motsatse, the CEO of SAMRO, estimated the AIRCO members’ market share to be around 5% (interview by the author, 28 March 2011). David du Plessis, Operations Director of the RiSA, considered it lower (interview by the author, 30 March 2011). No one from the AIRCO was available for an interview or to give comment. 70. According to a study (Primo et al. 2011, pp. 100–101), in South Africa text- book piracy has been more ubiquitous and caused larger losses than film or music piracy during the 1990s and 2000s. 71. Haycock, interview by the author, 24 May 2013. 72. Baboo Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 73. Sipho Sithole, the owner of the Native Rhythms label, interview by the author, 26 May 2013. 74. The data for the year 2008 provided by The View (2009) were virtually identical. 75. Clive Stevens, interview by the author, 30 May 2005. 76. All members have one primary vote in the general meeting, and the total number of votes is based on the amount of the levies. Much of the RiSA’s activities are funded by the levies (RiSA: Annual General Meeting (2007, p. 3). 77. There used to be three societies dealing with mechanical royalties. These were NORM (National Organization for Reproduction Rights in Music in Southern Africa Ltd.), SARRAL (South African Recording Rights Association Ltd.) and the SAMRO. In 2009 SARRAL was liquidated for mismanagement of funds after long legal battles. NORM and the SAMRO are currently in the process of merging and forming one society for the collection of mechanical royalties for composers and publishers (Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013). 78. Graeme Gilfillan (cited in Ansell 2004, p. 131), a legal adviser for musicians, explains the background for abolishing the neighbouring rights royalties as follows: ‘In the mid-60s, payments for needletime (payment per radio play) were removed. Up to 1963, one of the SABC’s largest costs was royalty payments. When they introduced Radio Bantu, they stood to spend even more 202 Notes

and make millionaires out of black artists. So at that point, the previous needletime provisions were removed.’ 79. SAMRO (2014); POSA (2014). 80. For the whole time of this research the long-stalled needletime issue has been a source of great frustration for the labels and the artists, because these royalties have been expected to constitute a substantial revenue stream. In 2013, the music industry legal adviser and educator Nick Matzukis estimated that the needletime royalties would be worth ZAR 400–500 million a year, that is, the biggest revenue stream in the music business in South Africa (interview by the author, 31 May 2013). When the first needletime royalties were distributed by the POSA in 2014, several artists were disappointed by their relative meagreness. In addition to the fact that the royalties from the broadcasters were still missing, the sharing of the distributed royalty payment among all the artists and musicians involved in a song often made the individual amounts small. At the time of this publication, it is too early to know and evaluate whether the administration and distribution of these royalties will function satisfactorily. 81. The International Telecoms Union reported in March 2013 that mobile broadband penetration in sub-Saharan Africa increased from 2% in 2010 to 11% in 2013 (IFPI: ‘Africa, Emerging Opportunity’). 82. Koranteng (2012). 83. IFPI: ‘Africa, Emerging Opportunity’. 84. Ibid. 85. King, interview by the author, 14 November 2013. 86. Andrew Rees, Merchandise Manager, Johnnic Communications Africa Ltd, Nu Metro Media Stores, interview by the author, 25 March 2004. 87. ‘Nigeria’, 2008. 88. Robert Hooijer, the Secretary of the SAMRO, interview by the author, 5 April 2004.

2 Recent Industry Developments

1. According to many researchers however, piracy cannot be held as the sole or even the major reason for the decreasing sales (e.g., Frith 2002; Marshall 2013a, p. 60; Marshall 2004). For instance, Marshall (2013b, p. 5) maintains that rather than a legal absolute, piracy is an ideological construction serving the interests of copyright holders. Consequently, what is posed by these stakeholders as the ‘crisis’ of the recording industry is actually a crisis of legitimation: consumers are not persuaded that copyright is an effective way of compensating the authors for their work. Furthermore, in some regions of the world, the concept of intellectual property rights is alien and the demand for them by the multinational companies seen as imperialistic. Williamson and Cloonan (2013, pp. 15–16) point out that the global decline in record sales had more to do with the record companies’ and labels’ inability and unwillingness to proactively embrace digital technology and that they instead used their money in litigation of peer-to-peer websites and file-sharers. 2. Television was introduced in South Africa in 1976. Notes 203

3. Ken Haycock, interview by the author, 24 May 2013. 4. In 2013, South African digital sales came from the following sources: 26% from the purchase of full albums, 21% from mobile use, 16% from single track purchases, 12% from ad-supported use, 6% from subscriptions, and 19% from other uses (RIN 2014, p. 103). 5. iTunes has certainly helped to boost the digital sales in South Africa. However, its arrival made some of the local download sites close, such as Rhythm Online (which had existed for about seven years and focused mostly on Afrikaans music) and boom.fm, a site where unsigned artists could upload their music for downloading (Nick Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013). 6. IFPI: ‘Africa, Emerging Opportunity’. 7. According to the IFPI statistics, on the global level, 2012 was the first year of industry growth since 1999. The physical format sales revenues continued declining (by 5% in 2012), but still accounted for 57% of music sales. All the other revenue streams increased, digital revenues being 35%, performance rights 6%, and synchronization revenues 2% of global recorded music sales. In five of the top 20 markets, digital sales accounted for more than 50% of recorded music revenues (RIN 2013; Smirke 2013; ‘UK digital Music Downloads’). In 2013 global recorded music trade revenues declined by 3.9%. This was heavily influenced by the 16.7% decline in Japan. Excluding Japan, global revenues were essentially flat. Europe saw growth for the first time in 12 years and the market also increased in value in North America and Latin America. Global physical sales value declined by 11.8%. In 2013, physical formats accounted for more than half (51.5%) of all the global revenues. Digital revenues increased by 4.3%, making for 39% of the total trade revenues. Performance rights revenues accounted for 7.3% and synchronization revenues 2.1% of the total revenues (RIN 2014). 8. Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013. 9. Haycock, interview by the author, 24 May 2013. 10. Some long-time industry insiders described the 1980s as the peak period for music sales. Among these were Benjy Mudie (interview by the author, 12 November 2013) and Ken Haycock (interview by the author, 24 May 2013). 11. Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013. 12. Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013. 13. Mudie, interview by the author, 12 November 2013. 14. The licensee usually pays a basic royalty rate to the licensor (the label of origin) based upon the retail price in the original country of manufacture or sale. The licensee always pays an advance on royalties. This guarantees the licensor with an immediate cash flow. It also ensures that the licensee will actively promote sales of the record to recoup their investment (Burnett 1996, p. 76). 15. Rob Cowling, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 16. These deals have become increasingly common in the global recording industry and in the major record companies in particular (Marshall 2013c). The most publicized of such deals have been initiated by other than the conventional record labels, namely by the Sanctuary Music Group (a management company that became an independent label) and the world’s largest 204 Notes

live music promoter, Live Nation (Williamson and Cloonan 2013, p. 11). As will be discussed in Chapters 6 and 7, in South Africa this kind of reaching out to the diverse income streams of an artist can be claimed to be an old practice, as it is comparable to the approach of the earlier decades’ talent- scouts-cum-producers and/or some record label owners. 17. In a conventional artist deal, in addition to the record revenues, the record label and the performing artist are entitled to the neighbouring right royalties, if such rights are acknowledged in the country in question. As was discussed in the previous chapter, in South Africa these are called the needletime royalties, some of which started to be distributed at the end of 2014. 18. For the majors’ strategies during the twentieth century, see, for instance, Burnett (1996), Gronow and Saunio (1998) and Negus (1999). 19. Allan Nicoll, interview by the author, 30 October 2013. 20. Sipho Sithole, interview by the author, 26 May 2013. 21. Cowling, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 22. Marshall (2013c, pp. 85–87) categorizes the existing justifications by the major record labels for 360 degree deals into two groups: the ‘just desserts’ argument and the ‘active partnership’ argument. The former emphasizes the role a record label has always played in building an artist’s career, while the latter is more a future-oriented promise by the label to work for the artist’s career holistically. In the justifications by South African label representatives, elements of both types of arguments can be heard. 23. Chris Ghelakis, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 24. Sergio Botelho, interview by the author, 30 October 2013. 25. Cowling, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 26. David Alexander, interview by the author, 14 November 2013. 27. Some other publishers have diversified their field or clientele as well. For instance, Geoff Paynter, who was for a long time the MD of Gallo Music Publishers, has opened his own publishing company. Furthermore, according to some industry insiders, the MD of Sony/ATV Music Publishing, Jay Savage, owns part of the label Zef Records, together with the band Die Antwoord (whose music the label releases), the Japanese Good Smile Company and Downtown Records N.Y.C. Die Antwoord is Afrikaans rave- rap-punk that has gathered worldwide popularity and audiences during recent years. 28. Lance Stehr, MD of Ghetto Ruff, interview by the author, 27 May 2013. 29. Harvey Roberts, interview by the author, 23 May 2013. 30. On the other hand, there are labels that would be happy for their artists finding and using an outside manager, but I have constantly heard music industry people saying that there is a serious lack of artist managers of any professional magnitude in South Africa. For instance, Damian Stephens, one of the owners of the label Pioneer Unit Records, explained as follows: ‘In Europe I have noticed that there’s a lot more ground level of things around music that one needs, like artist managers, promoters and booking agents. These things are still on a very rudimentary level here. We’ve been managing all our artists, not out of choice. We’d much rather see them having dedicated managers out there pushing them, but that just doesn’t exist. Notes 205

We’ve been trying for years; we found a few independent hustlers that did okayish, but they weren’t very reliable’ (Stephens, interview by the author, 21 November 2013). Clive Hardwick, one of the owners of the label Bula Music, maintained that in the 1980s and early 1990s there were some good artist managers, many of whom moved out of the country however (Hardwick, interview by the author, 29 May 2013). 31. Lindelani Mkhize, interview by the author, 23 May 2013. 32. Mudie, interview by the author, 12 November 2013. 33. According to Marshall (2013c, pp. 83–84), in the twenty-first century, all of the majors have been reorienting themselves towards the 360 deal structure in the US and in several European countries. 34. Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013. 35. See more on advances and the recouping of them in Chapters 6 and 7. 36. According to Marshall (2013c, p. 85), such cross-collateralization between the different revenue streams (and not only from recordings) is a fundamen- tal characteristic of the 360 degree deal. 37. Publishing has offered a reliable and increasing source of income for several decades. A publisher is entitled to a mechanical royalty (see more in note 39). The publisher and the writer/composer also gain royalties when a song is played or performed in public (on the radio or in a live performance), or when it is licensed for a synchronization deal (to be used in a film or an advertisement). The exploitation of intellectual property rights has become a significant part of the cultural industries, including the music industry, especially since the 1980s (Marshall 2013a, p. 63). 38. ‘Rethink Music’, 2013. 39. A mechanical royalty is to be paid to the owner of the copyright in the composition (often shared by the composer/songwriter and his or her publisher). The right for it arises when a song is reproduced on a record, when it is transferred from one format to another, or when it is copied. This hap- pens when, for instance, a CD with the song is pressed, or a video put onto a different format for broadcasting, or when a song is downloaded off iTunes or other sites. The right arises also when a song is licensed for broadcasting, commercial or private usage. In South Africa, the biggest source for mechanical royalties is still the pressing of CDs and DVDs (Matzukis 2013, pp. 39, 293–294). 40. Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013. 41. Alexander, interview by the author, 14 November 2013. 42. Yoel Kennan, interview by the author, 17 November 2009. 43. ‘Kennan: Africori on Buying South African Independent Record Label Cool Spot Records’. 44. In 2014 Africori was one of the seven companies chosen by Unilever to par- ticipate in their ‘Go Global’ campaign, which mentors companies on their digital marketing plans and gives them cash support (Ulloa 2014). 45. Simultaneously, the live music scene has become rather concentrated, the major player in the realm being Live Nation Entertainment. Live Nation has taken up the strategy of vertical integration by acquiring the leading ticket- ing company, Ticketmaster and a number of smaller promotion companies. In addition, Live Nation operates about 100 live music venues around the 206 Notes

world, and its annual turnover is equal or larger than that of some of the major record companies (‘Rethink Music’, p. 7; Williamson and Cloonan 2013, p. 17). 46. Ticket prices peaked in 2008, after which promoters lowered the prices but started to increase them again in 2012 (‘Concert Ticket prices’; ‘Rethink Music’, p. 7). 47. This has occurred, for instance, in the United Kingdom, where the number of festivals rose to the extent that some of them suffered from low attend- ance and had to cease (‘Rethink Music’). 48. Nearly every ‘homeland’ consisted of several fragments of land, separated by white-owned farms (Thompson 1995, p. 191). About the land areas and complications of defining racial division of land exactly, see Beinart (2001, pp. 10–11). 49. Among the notorious removals was the one from the musically prolific and racially mixed Sophiatown and the other Western Areas townships to Soweto, outside Johannesburg, as well as the relocation of the culturally diverse community, Marabastad, in Pretoria and that of the lively and mixed community, District Six, in Cape Town. 50. The Bantu Men’s Social Centre (BMSC) was founded for the recreational activities of black South Africans in 1924. It was a joint initiative by a black writer and campaigner Sol Plaatje, an early Ghanaian nationalist Dr. Abbey, white American missionaries (e.g., Reverend Ray Phillips) and some more liberal-minded mine magnates. Initially it was meant as an uplifting recreational centre with a reading room, educational films, lectures and ballroom dancing classes. Soon it became a key rehearsal and performance space for emerging popular music styles. In the 1950s the newly established Union of South African Artists bought Dorkay House, close to the BMSC. Dorkay House eventually came to run talent contests, small shows and concerts. In the beginning of the 1970s, after a rehearsal for a musical show that was to be played at the Dorkay House, the BMSC was shut down because the play was considered too political by the authorities. The Dorkay House also waned (Ansell 2004, pp. 23, 97, 145). 51. For more on these restrictions and musicians’ spatial strategies for evading them, see Drewett (2004, pp. 98–119, 241–259). 52. Mudie, interview by the author, 12 November 2013. 53. See more on the Soul Brothers in Chapter 6. 54. Mudie, interview by the author, 12 November 2013. 55. Government and police scrutiny, harassment and repression aimed at con- trolling musicians’ physical movement and lives in the 1980s are detailed by Drewett (2004, pp. 98–119). The most severe forms of intimidation included detention, imprisonment, torture as well as assassination and shooting attempts (ibid., 110). The physical restrictions were based on apartheid laws and were part of the overall structure of control that included the state censorship and the public broadcast censorship system as well (see Chapter 3). 56. Some blacks maintain that they would not like to live in the white-dominated suburbs, because they find them lifeless and sterile, in contrast to townships where people know and socialize with each other. For instance, a young woman, Nobuhle Keswa, asserted that she would not move out of Soweto because everything one needs is available there, explaining that in addition to neighbourliness there is ‘Maponya [a mall that was opened in Notes 207

2007], stadiums, theatres, facilities for swimming, netball, squash and other stuff’. She proudly maintained that ‘Soweto is the new Sandton [the most upmarket area in Johannesburg]’ (Keswa, interview by the author, 6 March 2011). 57. The city centre of Cape Town is somewhat more mixed (and thus more attractive to diverse people) than that of Johannesburg or Durban, for instance. This does not however make the Cape Town city centre live music club scene any more vibrant than that of the other cities. The capacity of the major regular live music clubs in the country vary from around 50–60 people (e.g., Straight No Chaser [formerly the Mahogany Room] in Cape Town or Lucky Bean in Melville, Johannesburg) to 100 (e.g., Zula Bar in Cape Town), or to 1,000 people (Bassline in Johannesburg). 58. For several years the Electronic Dance Music (EDM) market has been an important growth area in the global music industry. It is estimated to be worth over US$ 4.5 billion per year and shows large increases in ticket sales and radio airplay (Watson 2013). 59. The annual Cape Town International Jazz Festival gathers audiences of 33,000 and the Joy of Jazz Festival attracts around 20,000 visitors. The most important annual hip hop festival, called Back to the City, arranged in the Johannesburg city centre, attracts an audience of 15,000–17,000 people. The largest Afrikaans festival is the seven-night Huisgenoot Skouspel, held at the 6,000-capacity Sun City Superbowl. 60. To put these in a wider perspective, at the end of 2013, domestic workers’ minimum hourly wage was less than ZAR 10 and their minimum monthly wage ZAR 1,320. A common actual range for full-time domestic workers was ZAR 2,000–4,000 per month (Sibanda 2013). In 2014 farm workers’ minimum hourly wage was increased to ZAR 12.41, and their monthly minimum wage to ZAR 2,420 (‘Farms Workers Get Wage Increase’). In 2014 mine workers’ minimum monthly wage was increased to ZAR 8,000. On average, a sales assistant would earn ZAR 6,800 per month; a secondary school teacher ZAR 12,000 per month; and an MD ZAR 89,000 a month. According to a Bankserv Africa report, in August 2014, more than 55% of South Africa’s working population earned less than ZAR 10,000 per month (Kruger 2014). 61. Artists’ shares of digital media sales are currently small. Music industry adviser and educator, Nick Matzukis (interview by the author, 31 May 2013), reflected on the issue: ‘There was the Eminem case in America last year, which says an iTunes sale is not a sale, it’s a license [which means that the artist gets a larger share than the typical artist royalty]. If that law is applied in South Africa – which I’m not saying it will be, but it might happen – then you’ve gotta negotiate with your label to get half of the net receipts of licensing and so make more out of iTunes than your 15 percent of PPD or whatever.’

3 A Segmented Music Market and Attempts to Capture It

1. About the independent commercial stations before the creation of the SABC, see Hayman and Tomaselli (1989, pp. 24–30). 2. In the Sharpeville massacre in 1960, 69 blacks were killed and many more wounded by police during a protest against pass laws. In the aftermath, the government declared a state of emergency; it arrested thousands of blacks, 208 Notes

169 black leaders were put on trial for treason, and the African National Congress and the Pan-African Congress were outlawed. 3. In order to fully develop the segregated broadcasting system, the government actively harnessed and enhanced technological innovations. Among the important measures was the launching of the frequency modulation (FM) system that enabled the direction of different radio transmissions to specific, locally and ethnically defined audiences, roughly according to the government-designated ‘homeland’ areas. Simultaneously, the system isolated most of the black population from foreign short-wave broadcasts, some of which were hostile to apartheid policies. Furthermore, in order to improve the audience access to the carefully planned and segregated radio transmissions, the government began to manufacture cheap portable transis- tor radios that only received FM frequencies (Hayman and Tomaselli 1989, pp. 65–66). 4. Drewett (2008) has pointed out that there were several white bands and artists that made very vocal anti-apartheid protest music, which, however, suffered from lack of exposure because it was banned from airplay and sometimes also from retail sales. Due to the consequent lack of commercial prospects, the major record labels would not sign these white musicians either. The most important independent record labels releasing white (and also black) anti- establishment music during the apartheid era were the Shifty Records and the Third Ear Music. 5. Record companies were obliged to submit the written lyrics of all songs or singles seeking airplay to gain acceptance from the censorship board. In addition to the broadcast censorship, there was a state censorship board to inspect publications submitted by the members of the public, customs officials and the police. This board banned over a hundred music albums and singles (Drewett 2008, p. 289). 6. While some artists continued making overtly oppositional lyrics nevertheless, many others found a number of ways to avoid censorship. Among these strategies were different ways of camouflaging and obscuring the lyrics, the use of metaphoric or cryptic language, the use of vernacular or street languages, as well as the use of satire; all these strategies helped to imbue songs with meanings that the censors would not decipher. Resistant messages were also conveyed by using strains of tunes of struggle and freedom songs in music. Furthermore, some musicians managed to circumvent censorship by inserting controversial tracks in their albums that from the outset appeared innocently non-political (Drewett 2004, pp. 207–240). 7. In addition to resistance through textual and musical means in the songs, resistance to censorship and the political order took place in live performance and the use of visual imagery as well as through seeking alternative spaces and links to the political sphere (Drewett 2004, pp. 207–301). Moreover, merely performing music in a multiracial group in a time when racial mix- ing was banned was a political statement. In the mid-1980s, this was called ‘crossover music’; it was often made and performed by racially mixed bands and aimed at racially mixed audiences, and typically incorporated black musical elements within genres appreciated by white audiences, such as rock and jazz (Allen 2004, p. 92). Notes 209

8. The listenership figures are those given by the South African Audience Research Foundation (SAARF) (based on data collected in February 2014 and published in SAARF: RAMS February 2014 – except for the service Radio Sonder Grense [where data are based on SAARF: RAMS 2013]). 9. The South African Audience Research Foundation includes in its surveys the radio listening preferences of a population that is divided into 10 categories according to their affluence (1 used for the least affluent, and the categories 7–10 further divided into the ‘low’ and the ‘high’ fractions according to incomes and ownership of household assets). According to the survey, in mid-2013 Living Standards Measure (LSM) groups 1–5 mostly listened to African language services and community radio; LSM 6–9 (low fraction) listened to a wide range of commercial and community radio stations, while LSM 9–10 (high fraction) tuned into a wide range of commercial radio (see SAARF: LSM Descriptions, AMPS June 2013; Segmentation tools; LSM descriptions). See more on the LSM categories below in note 21. 10. Kevin Stuart, interview by the author, 30 March 2004. 11. Lindelani Mkhize, interview by the author, 23 May 2013. Mkhize is the former MD of the African Repertoire Division at Sony Music South Africa and he has his own firm, Lindelani Mkhize Entertainment (LME). Mkhize is a well-known and successful character in the industry, having been instru- mental in finding new talent and trends. When working at Sony Music, he made a deal with the label Kalawa Jazmee that became very successful in the field of kwaito and other youth music. Later he developed the gospel group Joyous Celebration that became hugely popular. His employment at Universal Music had to do with the company’s increased interest in the African markets, as discussed in Chapter 1. Mkhize’s main task at Universal was to develop and expand the company’s A&R portfolio, specifically for the South African and sub-Saharan African markets. 12. See more about Musica in the next chapter. 13. Sipho Sithole, interview by the author, 26 May 2013. 14. Adrian King, interview by the author, 14 November 2013. 15. Shaun Williams, interview by the author, 28 May 2013. 16. Duncan Gibbon, interview by the author, 20 May 2005. 17. At the end of 2013, 17.2% of the population was estimated to own or use a car (SAARF: AMPS Jan 2013 – Dec 2013 Presentation, p. 80). 18. Gibbon, interview by the author, 20 May 2005. 19. Sandton City is situated in a northern Johannesburg suburb and attracts middle- and upper-income customers in particular. 20. Williams, interview by the author, 28 May 2013. 21. The LSMs have become a widely used marketing research tool in South Africa, dividing the population into 10 groups on the basis of affluence. The consumer analysis is mostly based on an annual consumer survey (among a nationally representative sample of between 20,000 and 25,000 people), called the All Media and Products Survey, conducted by the South African Advertising Research Foundation. LSMs are calculated on the basis of ownership of household assets and a few other variables, and they range from the lowest, LSM 1 (including, e.g., rural inhabitants who do not have access to hot running water), to the highest, LSM 10 (people who are well employed 210 Notes

and own a house and a car). At the end of 2013, about 22.4% of the population was estimated to belong to LSM 1–4; 52.4% to LSM 5–7; and 25.2% to LSM 8–10. Of the households, 43.3% had an average income below ZAR 5000 per month, the average household income in the survey being ZAR 9,777 per month. (SAARF: LSM; SAARF: AMPS, Jan 2013 – Dec 2013 Presentation.) 22. Baboo Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 23. Lindelani Mkhize (at the time the Executive Director at Universal Music South Africa) described traditional gospel as follows: ‘It is the old, black women who still wear their uniform when they go to church’ (interview by the author, 23 May 2013). 24. In 2004 Kevin Stuart (interview by the author, 30 March 2004), at the time managing the label called Ready Rolled Records, described the position of jazz as follows: ‘Jazz was the protest music of this country, whereas kwaito is the voice of the new generation.’ Richard Woodin, the Label Manager at Sheer Sound (interview by the author, 5 November 2013), described the importance of jazz in the mid-2000s as follows: ‘With the political dispensa- tion of change, people were looking for something a little bit more sophisticated. And jazz actually became, to a large degree, that vehicle and it was bringing people together. Jazz was hugely successful for a period of time, until that bubble kind of burst.’ 25. Woodin, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 26. Ethnicity and class do not dictate musical taste in a blanket fashion: there are blacks and coloureds who perform and listen to classical music, whites who perform what is considered traditional or neo-traditional African music, and Asians who like to rave to European house music. Western pop music is listened to by all the ethnic and language groups, especially in the urban areas, and the local urban youth music genres and Afro-pop cross over the ethnic and racial boundaries to some extent. Nevertheless, to a large extent the musical tastes of the different population groups do follow a recogniz- able pattern, and the segmented market is not a fallacy. 27. Faizel Dajee, interview by the author, 8 April 2004. 28. Lindelani Mkhize, interview by the author, 14 June 2005. At the time of the interview, Mkhize was mainly concentrating on his own business, LME. See more on Mkhize in note 11. 29. Dajee, interview by the author, 8 April 2004. 30. Gibbon, interview by the author, 20 May 2005. 31. Ian Fuhr (owner of Great Value Music; interview by the author, 10 June 2005), and Raymond Fane (owner of Ring Records; interview by the author, 24 May 2005). 32. Rob Cowling, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 33. Allan Nicoll, interview by the author, 28 November 2011. 34. Elster Pieterse, interview by the author, 30 October 2013. Pieterse is the Digital Manager at Soul Candi and the Label Manager of F! Records, which concentrates on releasing dance music and is Soul Candi’s sister label. 35. At the end of 2013, 58.2% of households were estimated to have a DVD player and 5.4% a VCR. 88% were estimated to have a TV. (SAARF: AMPS Jan 2013–Dec 2013 Presentation, p. 55.) 36. Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. Notes 211

37. Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 38. Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 39. For instance, Ken Haycock, interview by the author, 24 May 2013. 40. Morgan Ross, interview by the author, 29 March 2011. 41. Cowling, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 42. Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 43. King, interview by the author, 14 November 2013. 44. Stuart, interview by the author, 30 March 2004 45. The best-selling foreign album before the Now! compilations is said to be by Céline Dion, with over 500,000 sold units. One of the international albums considered a good seller for an independent label (Sheer Sound) was Buena Vista Social Club, which sold somewhat over 20,000 units. 46. John (pseudonym), interview by the author, 4 April 2011. 47. See more on Brenda Fassie in Chapter 6. According to Baines (1998, p. 71), the reggae artist Lucky Dube’s album Slave also sold around 500,000 units. 48. Some artists who do not attain such big sales per album can still have consist- ently good sales over a long period of time. For instance, Rob Cowling, the GM at Sheer Sound, said that their label’s biggest seller is Oliver Mtukudzi (who blends several traditional African music styles with Afro-pop), with over 650,000 units sold across his whole catalogue (interview by the author, 5 November 2013). 49. See more on Zahara in Chapter 7. 50. Allan Nicoll, interview by the author, 30 October 2013. 51. Nicoll, interview by the author, 30 October 2013. 52. Sipho Sithole, interview by the author, 26 May 2013. 53. Cowling, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 54. Faizel Dajee, the owner of Reliable Music, also said that 20,000 units are considered good sales in 2011 (interview by the author, 8 April 2011). 55. The certification levels had remained the same, at least from 1996 until 2006 (RIN 1997, p. 105; RIN 2007, p. 73).

4 The Wholesaling and Retailing of Music

1. IRIS is an important player in the distribution sector. In addition to Sheer Sound records, it distributes several other important independent labels. According to David Alexander, the MD of Sheer Publishing, in 2013 the market share of IRIS was about 12% (David Alexander, interview by the author, 14 November 2013). 2. Soul Candi Distribution’s warehouse was closed when it became Mesh in 2011 (Sergio Botelho, the MD of Mesh, interview by the author, 30 October 2013). 3. Times Media Group: ‘ELS’. 4. Harvey Roberts, interview by the author, 23 May 2013. 5. Brian Olsen, interview by the author, 26 April 2004. See also ‘Goodbye, CD Wherehouse’. 6. Clicks Group Limited: ‘Integrated Annual Report, 2014’, p. 5. 7. Clicks Group Limited: ‘Integrated Annual Report, 2014’, p. 14. 8. Clicks Group Limited: ‘Corporate Overview’, p. 3. 212 Notes

9. Clicks Group Limited: ‘Corporate Overview’, p. 5. LSM means Living Standards Measure. See more about it in note 21 in the previous chapter. 10. Vestacor: ‘Look & Listen’. 11. Fash-up has since closed (Mark Bennett, interview by the author, 1 June 2005). 12. Rob Allingham, interview by the author, 4 November 2013. 13. Bennett, interview by the author, 1 June 2005. See also: ‘Johnnic, Annual Report 2003’, p. 88. 14. Marc Bennett (interview by the author, 1 June 2005) and Brian Olsen (interview by the author, 26 April 2004). 15. Faizel Dajee, interview by the author, 8 April 2004. 16. Super Mart started in 1976 as K-Mart. In 1988 the name was changed into Super Mart, because the American K-Mart sued the South African enterprise for the use of the same name (Ian Fuhr, interview by the author, 10 June 2005). 17. According to Ian Fuhr, Super Mart eventually became the biggest independent retailer of African music in the country (Fuhr, interview by the author, 10 June 2005). 18. Fuhr, interview by the author, 10 June 2005. 19. Edcon trades through a range of retail formats in 1505 stores in South Africa and several other African countries (Edcon: ‘First Quarter Results 2015’, p. 4). 20. Edcon: ‘About Edcon’. 21. Edcon: ‘About Edcon’. 22. Shaun Williams, interview by the author, 28 May 2013. 23. Face2Face distributed all kinds of minor products to the small informal spaza shops or kiosks in townships. Music was a new product for them to distrib- ute, and Electromode released compilation albums (of hip hop and gospel music) produced specifically for this market. In 2011 the retail price of these compilation records was ZAR 29.99, whereas the full price for a record at the time was ZAR 129 (Morgan Ross of the Electromode label, interview by the author, 29 March 2011). 24. Labels targeting the tourist market also found new outlets, such as clothing stores, cafeterias and handicraft and souvenir stores within and without air- ports. There are specific labels that service this market – such as, for instance, the African Cream – and the released records typically are compilations of diverse artists’ music (Alex Agulnik, CEO of African Cream, interview by the author, 10 June 2005). 25. Faizel Dajee, interview by the author, 8 April 2004. 26. Faizel Dajee, interview by the author, 25 November 2011. 27. An industry insider maintained that Reliable put pressure on the record companies for a low final price for the unsold records, saying that otherwise they will return them. For the bigger buyers it was not unusual, however, to negotiate with the record companies on whether they return the unsold records or sell them for a reduced price. 28. Dajee, interview by the author, 8 April 2004. 29. Dajee, interview by the author, 25 November 2011. 30. Dajee, interview by the author, 25 November 2011. 31. ‘Promotional copies’ feature often in the complaints and suspicions of the industry’s unfair practices, since no artist royalties are paid for them. Notes 213

32. Stanley Nkosi, interview by the author, 5 March 2004. 33. Fuhr, interview by the author, 10 June 2005. 34. Dajee, interview by the author, 8 April 2004. 35. ‘Reliable Music Warehouse Faces Liquidation’, 2009. 36. Dajee, interview by the author, 25 November 2011. 37. Dajee, interview by the author, 25 November 2011. 38. Williams, interview by the author, 28 May 2013. 39. Paul (pseudonym), interview by the author, 7 June 2013. 40. Lindelani Mkhize, interview by the author, 23 May 2013. 41. Rumours and suspicions about Reliable Music Warehouse and other major dealers being involved in producing and selling pirated copies are relatively common. To validate such rumours is difficult. 42. In 2005 Mark Bennett maintained that the ‘big five’ (Musica, Reliable, MFP, Look & Listen and Jive City) accounted for 80% of the market (Bennett, interview by the author, 1 June 2005). 43. Olsen, interview by the author, 26 April 2004. 44. According to Brian Olsen, some of the labels, such as BMG and Sony, did not accept their records being sold as a deletion but rather destroyed them or sold them not as cheaply as deletions but for a 30–40% reduced price (Olsen, interview by the author, 26 April 2004). 45. Fuhr, interview by the author, 10 June 2005. 46. Olsen, interview by the author, 26 April 2004. 47. Manager of Plum, interview by the author, 19 May 2005. 48. Bennett, interview by the author, 1 June 2005. 49. Fuhr, interview by the author, 10 June 2005. 50. Williams, interview by the author, 28 May 2013. 51. Botelho, interview by the author, 30 October 2013. 52. Gregory (pseudonym), interview by the author, 12 June 2013. 53. David Gresham, interview by the author, 11 November 2013. 54. Sipho Sithole, interview by the author, 26 May 2013. 55. Bennett, interview by the author, 1 June 2005. 56. Baboo Moola of the Dakota Music Warehouse, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 57. See more on the Group Areas Act in Chapter 2. 58. For the blacks who did not have access to the Indian trading network and whose mobility was restricted during the apartheid era, a common way to get records was to use a mail order system. Among these people were the migrant workers at mines and hostels as well as black farm workers in the rural areas, who were not allowed to travel to the city under the apartheid laws (Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013). 59. Much of the Indian population in South Africa is concentrated in the province on KwaZulu-Natal (earlier called ‘Natal’) and in particular in its largest city, Durban. From the start this population has been very stratified, stretching from Brahmins to Pariahs. Many of the indentured sugar workers were Hindus, often Tamils, and the few independent merchants were mainly Muslims from Gujarat, habituated to the Indian Ocean trade. Under the apartheid legislation the Indians residing in the province of Natal were not allowed to move across the provincial borders until that ban was revoked in 1972 (Hart and Padayachee 2000, pp. 687, 689). 214 Notes

5 Negotiating Value in the Music Chain

1. The rights of the copyright owners are ruled in the 1886 Berne Convention and its subsequent amendments and revisions. Neighbouring rights, that is, the rights for royalties on public performance, were ruled in the 1961 Rome Convention. The 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) extended copyright protection in digital media to authors, and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT) gave similar rights to performers and record companies (Laing 2004). By 2014, 167 countries had signed the Berne Convention, and 92 had signed the Rome Convention; the WCT had 92 signatories, and the WPPT had 93 (for the signatories and the contents of the treaties, see: ‘WIPO-Administered Treaties’). South Africa has signed the Berne Convention, the WCT, and the WPPT but not the Rome Convention. There have been attempts to incorporate the principles of the Rome Convention into the law (Matzukis 2013, pp. 367–368). The needletime law was passed in 2002, acknowledging the right for remuneration for the recording artist and the record company for the public performance of a recorded song. Enforcing the law has taken a long time; some of the first needletime royalties were distributed at the end of 2014 (see more in Chapter 1). 2. The Rome Convention, for instance, left open the issue of how exactly the performance royalties should be divided between the performer and the record company. Subsequently, in 1993, the European Union ruled a direc- tive that the royalties be divided equally (Laing 2004, p. 77). 3. A publisher is entitled to a royalty income each time a song is recorded and the record sold, when the song is played on the radio, and when licensed for synchronization or sampling, or transferred from one format to another. In countries that have signed the WCT, a publisher is additionally entitled to a share of downloads from the Internet and ringtones on cell phones. 4. In Germany, the artists’ position is better protected: they are legally entitled to receive a reasonable compensation for transferring the copyright to their work. Furthermore, the amount of the artists’ compensation can be renegoti- ated in the case where the work becomes especially successful and profitable (Lehtinen 2009). 5. For a meticulous history of the recording industry, see Gronow and Saunio (1998). For its more recent history see, for example, Burnett (1996) and Negus (1999). 6. The existing research tends to concentrate on the major companies’ development and strategies, while those of the smaller companies have been less studied. My short discussion here is likewise skewed towards a focus on the majors. For studies on small labels see, for instance, Gillet (1971), Shaw (1978), Wallis and Malm (1984) and Williamson, Cloonan and Frith (2003). The researchers do not have any shared understanding about the relationship between the independents and the majors. Some have described the market dominance of the small and large companies as cyclical (e.g., Peterson and Berger 1975). Others see the position of the independents as precarious and under constant threat from the predatory majors (e.g., Gillett 1971; Wallis and Malm 1992). Some researchers emphasize co-operation Notes 215

and symbiosis rather than competition between the two categories (e.g., Burnett 1996, pp. 61–62, 137; Frith 1989, p. 107). On the contrary, others suggest that the forces of oligopoly, reintegration and centralization have remained strong over time in the industry (e.g., Hesmondhalgh 1996, pp. 479, 483–485). 7. Universal Music Group’s share of this was 36.7%; Sony Music Entertainment’s 22.4%; and Warner Music Group’s 15.8% (Music & Copyright blog, 2014). 8. Sony/ATV Music Publishing’s share of the revenues was 29.4%, Universal Music Publishing Group’s was 22.6%, and Warner Chappell’s was 12.2% (Music & Copyright blog, 2014). 9. Hirsch’s (1969, p. 7) definition of ‘gatekeepers’ includes professionals within and without the industry structures – such as the talent scouts working in the companies and mass media professionals working outside them. 10. For a review of the other research along this line, as well as their critics, see Negus (1996, pp. 55–61). 11. A record label can sometimes help their artists on special occasions (for instance, at life cycle events such as funerals) and this is either considered an advance payment on royalties or aid for the artist or his/her family. The suc- cessfulness of the artist’s appeal and its definition (advance or aid) depend largely on the artist’s popularity. With the generally declining industry revenues, space for negotiating such extras has significantly decreased. 12. Koloi Lebona, interview by the author, 10 June 2005. Lebona has not, to my knowledge, signed his protégées’ compositions and royalties under his own name. 13. Darren (pseudonym), interview by the author, 17 March 2011. 14. Payola is a practice known all over the world. It became illegal in 1950 (Kretschmer, Klimis and Choi 1999b, p. 67), but presumably continues to be practiced. One of the widely publicized cases was the disclosure of Sony BMG Music Entertainment being involved in giving various kinds of induce- ments to radio stations and their employees in the United States in 2005 (Bordash 2005). 15. Payola is discussed in some of the existing research on creative industries (e.g., Caves 2000, pp. 286–296). 16. Artists and record labels sometimes complain that, as many contemporary radio DJs also release records, they tend to favour them in their playlists. 17. Faizel Dajee, the owner of Reliable Music Warehouse, interview by the author, 8 April 2004. 18. Brian Olsen, the former Director of Musica and Director of Merchandise of CD Wherehouse, interview by the author, 26 April 2004. 19. The retrenchments had partly to do with the legally sanctioned require- ment to make the leadership and the staff racially more representative. Such retrenchments have, in many cases, led to a lack of qualified or experienced staff and consequently to businesses re-employing white professionals as freelance consultants to fill in the skills shortage without falling foul of the law (‘Fool’s Gold’, 2013). 20. The social dimensions of music consumption are undergoing changes, as music is increasingly also used as a by-product in other entertainment products and situations (such as in films, in advertisements, on mobile 216 Notes

phones and as ambient background music). Furthermore, some researchers argue that in certain genres, such as the globally very popular club dance music, the socio-symbolic value has shifted from the artist and the product towards the collective experience of the audience in a venue (Leyshon et al. 2005, p. 183; Thornton 1995; Toynbe e 2000).

6 Organizing Relationships in the Recording Industry: Contracts and Patronage

1. The history of the song Mbube illustrates well the global rather than the local character of the forms of appropriation. Mbube is a song that was composed by a South African man named Solomon Linda but that eventually became world-famous, first as Wimoweh and later as The Lion Sleeps Tonight, creating a complicated and long battle over its ownership between several claimants. For an account of the circulation and the legal history of the song, see Pietilä (2009). 2. Mark Bennett (formerly working in the label Shifty Records and later in the Jive City retail chain), interview by the author, 1 June 2005. 3. After its incorporation with Gallo in 1985, the company was called Gallo- GRC until 1989, when the name was changed to Gallo Record Company (Gallo Record Company website, accessed 2003). 4. Some of Spokes’s music was composed by other musicians and at least some of these compositions were signed by producers as their own (Kid Moncho, interview by the author, 7 June 2005). 5. The history of the song Mbube mentioned in note 1 is a case-in-point in this issue. 6. Nick Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013. 7. According to Ansell (2004, p. 131) SAMRO also paid royalties at two different rates into the 1990s. The black rate was lower. 8. West Nkosi was initially affiliated with Mavuthela as part of a band; as a saxophonist. In 1972 Nkosi started to produce for Mavuthela and, in 1982, was promoted to the company’s board of directors. In 1987 he was one of the initiators of Shisa International, Gallo Africa’s international marketing subsidiary. He continued as an in-house producer at Gallo Music Productions until the company restructured itself and producers became freelancers in 1996 (Meintjes 2003, pp. 40–42). 9. In her book Meintjes (2003, p. 61) shortly mentions Albert Ralulimi’s recol- lection that possibly relates to this case or another similar event. Ralulimi explained that in 1990 he discovered West Nkosi giving an old tune a new title, falsely naming himself as its composer and owner. Ralulimi had the data corrected, commenting (upon telling the story to Meintjes): ‘West doesn’t care about getting the history right.’ 10. For an alternative version of West Nkosi’s early performance and recording history, based on his press biographies and information provided by the Gallo archivist Robert Allingham, see Meintjes (2003, pp. 40, 43). These texts present West Nkosi starting out as a rural herd boy who worked his way to Pretoria, where he started playing penny whistle in the streets while being employed as a domestic worker. Notes 217

11. See more about Mahlathini later in the chapter. 12. Kid Moncho, interview by the author, 7 June 2005. 13. Also Allingham (1999, p. 641) mentions that Bopape had a regular roster of female session singers that were fairly interchangeable in the studio and that the output of each group was released using a number of different names. 14. According to Meintjes (2003, pp. 40–42), at Mavuthela, Marks Mankwane was the producer for the Mahotella Queens after Rupert Bopape but, from the early 1980s until 1991, West Nkosi was the producer and the manager of Mahlathini and the Mahotella Queens. 15. Hilda Tloubatla, interview by the author, 15 June 2005. 16. Later Stella became the MD of Content Connect Africa. 17. Koloi Lebona, interviews by the author, 3 May 2004 and 10 June 2005. 18. Babsy Mlangeni, interview by the author, 6 June 2005. 19. Moses Ngwenya, interview by the author, 4 May 2004. 20. Moonshine Records became Priority Records when (in 1983) one of the former’s owners, Ian Fuhr, struck a 50–50 partnership deal with Clive Calder (Ian Fuhr, interview by the author, 10 June 2005). Calder was also the founder of the label CCP, which he sold to EMI and, later moved to London and eventually founded the Zomba Group and Jive Records. 21. Fuhr, interview by the author, 10 June 2005. 22. According to a Soul Brothers’ web biography, tensions erupted at GRC over the division of live show revenues and Moses Dlamini, who had been working for Nzimande as a publicity manager, took over control of Soul Brothers as their new producer (see ‘Soul Brothers’). Another Soul Brothers’ biography mentions Moses Dlamini becoming Soul Brothers’ manager and producer in the 1970s and remaining in that position for 13 years (Galane 2008, p. 61). In my conversation with Moses Ngwenya, he mentioned Dlamini only once, in relation to their move from GRC to Moonshine/ Priority Records. David Masondo did not mention him at all. 23. Currently Keith Lister is the chairman of SAMPRA (Southern African Music Rights Organisation). 24. David Masondo, interview by the author, 18 March 2004. 25. Steve Kekana, interview by the author, 1 June 2005. 26. Cool Spot Productions was founded when the former MD of CCP, Ken Haycock and the producer Malcom Watson left EMI/CCP to set up the label. 27. According to Ansell (2004, p. 91), Matumba’s recordings of predominantly msakazo (a derogatory term for watered-down mbaqanga) made the label Troubadour an important factor in the 1950s black music market. Singer Mary Thobei (cited in Ansell 2004, p. 91), believes that Troubadour’s success was partly due to their tolerance for songs with socio-political messages (as long as the songs were simultaneously commercial). 28. Lebona, interview by the author, 10 June 2005. 29. Kid Moncho, interview by the author, 7 June 2005. 30. Antos Stella, interview by the author, 29 April 2004. 31. Stella, interview by the author, 29 April 2004. 32. Baboo Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 33. Benjy Mudie, interview by the author, 3 May 2004. 34. Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 35. David Marks, interview by the author, 31 July 2006. 218 Notes

36. Moola, interview by the author, 20 May 2013. 37. Ibid. 38. Marks, interview by the author, 31 July 2006.

7 Continuities in Patronage Arrangements

1. Paledi Nathaniel Malatji, interview by the author, 12 March 2004. Later Malatji gained success with an album of his own (Alcock 2008). 2. In an artist contract, the copyright of the sound recording remains with the record company. In a license and a distribution deal, an artist or a record label gives a finalized record or a whole catalogue of records to a record company and retains the ownership of the recording. The composer or songwriter owns the copyright of the composition or song. He or she can transfer or assign the copyright to a publisher through a publishing contract, the publisher typically receiving a 50% share of the publishing royalties that accrue from the composition/song. Alternatively the composer/author can establish his or her publishing company and have only the publishing royalties administered by a publisher for a fee. 3. Since the 1960s to the end of 2014, an artist received royalties only from the record sales. 4. As discussed in Chapter 1, in South Africa, the legislation of neighbouring or needletime rights has been in place since 2002, but its implementation has been delayed, with some of the first royalties paid at the end of 2014. 5. Simon (pseudonym), interview by the author, 1 March 2004. 6. According to both the entertainment lawyer Marc Friedman and the advocate Nick Matzukis, confusions and disputes between an artist/composer and producer are very common. Nowadays they are particularly common in the production of dance and other electronic music, where a producer may add an element or sell a beat, without there being a clear mutual understanding, not to mention a written agreement, regarding if that counts as composing. The dispute concerning ownership typically arises when the composer finds the producer’s claim of ownership in SAMRO’s records or when the song becomes a minor hit. Matzukis said: ‘Honestly, that’s the most common problem in South African music’ (Nick Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013; and Marc Friedman, interview by the author, 30 May 2013). 7. Simphiwe Dana, interview by the author, 13 June 2005. 8. It is difficult to estimate whether the cross-collateralization clause is more or less common in South Africa than it is globally. Many South African recording industry representatives consider it self-evident that debts, if not recouped, as a rule run from one album to the next, whereas some of the European recording industry insiders have considered the opposite self- evident, that is, that such debts cannot carry over to the next recording. Indeed, a common piece of advice given for artists in books and websites that deal with global recording industry contracts is that they should try and negotiate as big an advance payment as possible, because that tends to be the only money that an artist gains from the recording (because often the record sales are not big enough to generate royalties). This implies and requires that Notes 219

there is no cross-collateralization clause in the contract (even though it is often not mentioned in these contexts). 9. The United Nations launched a cultural boycott against South Africa already in 1968, asking all member states and organisations to cut cultural, educational and sporting ties with South Africa. The boycott started affecting musicians only in the early 1980s. According to Drewett (2008, p. 289), in particular the South African musicians suffered from the boycott, as it pre- vented them from performing outside the country. The boycott also advised the overseas musicians not to perform in South Africa, but relatively few followed the advice. Furthermore, most multinational record companies continued selling their music in South Africa through licensing and other deals (as discussed in Chapter 1). Other international boycotts influenced the society at large. The United Nations adopted an arms embargo in the 1960s and the OPEC nations applied an oil embargo in 1973. Multilateral trade and financial sanctions were enforced by several countries between 1985 and 1987. With various contents, these were adopted by the European Community, the Commonwealth countries, the United States and Japan (Levy 1999). 10. Benjy Mudie, interview by the author, 12 November 2013. 11. Nhlanhla Sibisi, interview by the author, 18 March 2004. 12. The lawyer Mark Rosin maintained that the convention among the majors and the major independents in South Africa has been not to recoup. He said that confusions may arise from an artist not always understanding the distinction between recording costs (that by and large are not recouped) and an advance payment that is recouped. Eventually he did admit, however, that some companies do recoup some costs and that their way of doing it is not always logical (Mark Rosin, interview by the author, 2 June 2005). 13. Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013. 14. Rob Cowling, interview by the author, 5 November 2013. 15. Matzukis, interview by the author, 31 May 2013. 16. That there has been no closure to this case has come out in several conversa- tions with various recording industry insiders, for instance, with Lance Stehr (interview by the author, 27 May 2013). 17. Brown Dash’s real name is Simphiwe Mpamile. 18. Malatji, 2012. 19. See, for instance, ‘Exclusive Video’. 20. Mandoza’s real name is Mduduzi Tshabalala. 21. Malatji, 2013. 22. Zahara’s real name is Bulelwa Mkutukana. 23. See, for instance, MaBlerh 2012; Shuga 2012; ‘Zahara Denies Reports about Finances’; ‘Zahara’s Millions Fiasco and the Ncizas’. 24. About the black middle class’s inclination to relocate from townships to suburbs, see, for instance Donaldson and Kotze (2006) and Seekings (2000). However, some of the black middle class deliberately choose to live in a township, because they relate to the lifestyle and the people there as well as to the vibrant cultural life, whereas in a suburb they would feel isolated (see, for instance, Donaldson et al. 2013). See also note 56 in Chapter 2. 25. Damian Stephens, interview by the author, 21 November 2013. 220 Notes

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A&M Records, 21, 23, 52, 53, 117 authorship, 8–10, 114 A&R, 44, 52, 53, 117, 118, 198n34, social, 10, 123, 183 209n11 Avusa Limited, 24, 45, 57, 197n19 advance payment, 51, 59, 138, 139, Azevedo, Joe, 190, 197n12, 200n54 142, 145, 146, 152, 154, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 168, 198n34, Bantu Men’s Social Centre (BMSC), 205n35, 215n11, 218n8, 219n12 63, 206n50 Africa, as emerging market, 43–6 Beggs, Grahame, 29 African National Congress (ANC), 11, 13 Bennett, Mark, 106, 110, 190, 212n11, Africa Sings Music Publishing 212n13, 212n14, 213n42, 213n48, (ASM Publishing), 140 213n55, 216n2 Africori, 61, 205n43, 205n44 Berne Convention, 9, 214n1, 214n2 Afrikaans music, 20, 29, 35, 37, 39, Bertelsmann Music Group (BMG), 22, 49, 66, 69, 87, 89, 90, 94, 99, 128, 25, 26, 32, 40, 51, 105 194n5, 201n67, 201n68, 203n5, big man, 5, 178–80 207n59 Black Artist Management, 140 Afro-jazz, 37, 38, 49, 80 Black Coffee, 76 Afro-pop, 37, 38, 49, 77 black diamonds, 13, 85, 195n17 Afro-soul, 37, 49 Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) Alcock, Sam, 134 policies, 13 Alex, Agulnik, 190, 212n24 black market, 16, 34, 71, 77–9, 81, 82, Alexander, David, 57, 60, 190, 92–5, 99, 102, 106, 109–11 204n26, 205n41, 211n1 black middle class, 12–14, 81, 85, Allingham, Rob, 20–4, 27, 29, 129, 86, 195n12, 195n13, 195n17, 130, 148, 190, 196n2, 196n3, 219n24 196n5, 196n8, 197n9, 197n11, Black Moses Production, 143 197n15, 197n20, 212n12, 216n10, Bopape, Rupert, 129–31, 136, 138, 217n13 217n13, 217n14 All Rounders, 139 Botelho, Sergio, 56, 108, 190, apartheid, 6, 10, 11, 23, 24, 38, 62–4, 197–8n22, 204n24, 211n2 71–4, 76, 110, 128, 141, 150, Bothners, 22 151, 154, 156, 195n12, 196n22, Brigadiers, 22 206n55, 208n3, 208n4, 213n58, broadcast royalties, 37, 42, 43, 116, 213n59 160, 202n80 artist deal/contract, 35, 36, 38, 44, Broad-Based Black Economic 53, 55, 56, 115, 139, 143, 148, Empowerment (BBBEE), 13 158, 161–3, 172, 200n60, 204n17, Brothers Mackay, 20, 22, 197n8 218n2 Brown Dash, 165, 219n17 artist royalties, 59, 69, 115, 161, 162, Brunswick Gramophone House, 20 207n61 Brunswick Records, 20 Association of Independent Record budget price/range, 78, 82–5, Companies (AIRCO), 38, 39, 42, 97, 100 201n65 Bula Music, 31, 38, 58, 205n30

232 Index 233

Calder, Clive, 22, 139, 140, 197n10 Cowling, Rob, 51, 54, 56, 83, 85, 88, Cape Town International Jazz Festival, 163–4, 179, 190, 203n15, 204n21, 207n59 204n25, 210n32, 211n41, 211n48, capital 211n53, 219n14 cultural, 181 Crazy White Boy, 76 economic, 119, 125, 181 cross-collateralization clause, 59, 161, social, 5, 180–2 162, 164, 205n36, 218–19n8 symbolic, 5, 17, 112, 117, 119, 121, CTP Publishers and Printers Limited, 123, 125, 181, 182, 216n20 89, 197n22 Capital Radio, 74 cassette market, 78, 84 Dajee, Faizel, 16, 34, 81, 82, 93, cassette sales, 30, 34, 96, 102 95–103, 108, 122, 177, 190, catalogue music, 36, 82, 83, 92, 97 198n35, 200n53, 210n27, 210n29, Caxton, 89, 197–8n22 211n54, 212n15, 212n25, 212n26, CD market, 78, 91 212n28, 212n29, 212n30, 213n34, CD sales, 34, 35, 199–200n52 213n36, 213n37, 215n17 CD Wherehouse, 105, 122 see also Reliable Music Warehouse Classic FM, 76 Dakota Music Warehouse, 93–4, 102, Clegg, Johnny, 63, 64, 69, 73 103, 111 Clicks Group, 91, 211n6, 211n7, Dana, Simphiwe, 190, 218n7 211n8, 212n9 Dark City Sisters, 136 Clive Calder Productions (CCP), 22, Darren (pseudonym), 190, 215n13 25, 26, 36, 140 David Gresham Record Company, 66 CNA, 93, 94 debt, 99, 143, 145, 146, 150, 154, Coleske Artists PTY, 201n68 159, 161, 162, 165, 168, 177, Columbia-CBS, 23 218n8 Columbia Graphophone Company, Deezer, 48 21–2, 196n1 Die Antwoord, 69, 204n27 Columbia Records Group, 23 digital market, 43, 48, 56, 61, Compact Disc Technologies (CDT), 205n44 22, 24, 25, 41, 57 digital sales, 116, 200n55, 203n4, compilation records, 32, 57, 83, 86, 203n5, 203n7 88, 97, 131, 171, 199n48, 211n45, increasing, 47–51, 69 212n23, 212n24 distribution deal/contract, 38, 39, 52, CONCERTS SA, 68 53, 59, 123, 140, 169, 218n2 contract model, 2, 10, 126, 164, 168, distribution sector, diversification of, 169, 174, 175 89–90 Cool Spot Distribution, 89, 90 DJ Euphonik, 76 Cool Spot Productions, 29, 34, 144–5, DJ Fresh, 76 199n39, 217n26 Dlamini, Moses, 129, 141 copyright, 8–10, 50, 57, 114, 115, Dr Doctor Music, 57 126–8, 143, 159, 160, 174, dukawallahs, 110 197n21, 202n1, 205n35, 214n1, du Plessis, David, 190 214n4, 218n2 DVD market, 83–4, 91, 97 system, 127 DVD sales, 185, 187, 200n56 Copyright Treaty (WIPO), 9 corporate gigs, 61, 68 Edcon, 93, 106 corporate partnerships to live music 80:20 rule, 28, 198n37 scene, 68 Electromode, 55, 66, 84, 172 234 Index

Electronic Dance Music (EDM), Gramophone Company, 20, 21, 207n58 196n1 emergent market, 16, 78, 79, 98 Gramophone Record Company Ltd EMI (Electric and Musical Industries), (GRC), 20, 21, 130, 134 21–2, 23, 25, 26, 40, 41, 51, 92, Great Value Music, 83 99, 139, 140, 144 Gregory (pseudonym), 190, 213n52 Employment Equity Act, 13 Gresham, David, 190, 196n3, 198n25, Entertainment Logistics Services (ELS), 213n53 24, 25, 56, 57, 89–90 griots, 5, 194n2 Group Areas Act, 62, 64, 110 Face2Face, 212n23 Fane, Raymond, 190, 210n31 Haarburger, Ivor, 191, 198n29, 198n34 Fassie, Brenda, 32, 87, 149, 151–3 Hardwick, Clive, 38, 191, 201n66, Feelmyflo, 48 205n30 festival scene, 61, 66 Hassim, Aslam, 93, 102, 103 Fine, David, 130 see also Dakota Music Warehouse 5FM, 75, 77 Haycock, Ken, 27, 29, 40, 47, 48–9, Freshly Ground, 76 191, 197n10, 198n35, 201n71, Fresh Music, 172 203n3, 203n9, 203n10, 211n39, Friedman, Marc, 162, 190, 218n6 217n26 Fuhr, Ian, 93, 104, 106–7, 141, 190, Hillbrow Records, 91 210n31, 212n16, 212n17, 212n18, Hoezit, 201n68 213n33, 213n45, 213n49, 217n20, homelands, 62, 63, 72, 74, 134, 217n21 206n48, 208n3 full price, 83, 100, 212n23 Hooijer, Robert, 191, 202n88 house music, 34, 38, 49, 65, 76, 81, Gallo, Eric, 20, 24 88, 90, 199n39, 210n26 Gallo, Peter, 130, 134 Hughes, Llewelynn, 20 Gallo Music Group, 24, 25, 35, 36, 51, 92, 139, 197 Immorality Amendment Act, 62 Gallo Music International, 24 independent labels, 15, 16, 27, 32, 33, Gallo Records/Gallo Record Company, 35, 38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45, 50, 51, 20, 23–5, 27, 35, 36, 40, 41, 51, 53, 57, 82, 83, 88, 89, 95, 116, 57, 89, 92, 93, 100, 130, 138, 139, 120, 121, 126, 129, 166, 168, 170, 196n4, 196n6, 196n7, 197n14, 171, 172, 173, 176, 178, 196n23, 197n16, 197n17, 216n3 201n65, 201n67, 203n16, 211n45, Get Ahead Records, 140 211n1 Ghelakis, Chris, 55, 190, 204n23 Independent Music Distributors Ghetto Ruff, 57, 172, 192, 204n28 (IMD), 89, 90, 192 Gibbon, Duncan¸ 78, 79, 82–3, 190, Independent Record Industry 209n16, 209n18, 210n30 Solutions (IRIS), 25, 55, 57, gift, 122, 168, 177, 183 89, 90 Gilfillan, Graeme, 201n78 Indian traders, 17, 110 gold disc, 88, 136 in-house, 58, 116, 117 Golembo, Arnold, 21 producers, 127, 216n8 gospel, 37, 38, 142 services, 53, 57 contemporary, 80 intellectual property rights, 9, 52, traditional, 34, 36, 49, 76, 80, 81, 202n1, 205n37 90, 199n39, 210n23 International Federation of the government gigs, 140 Phonographic Industry (IFPI), 15, Index 235

33, 39, 40, 43, 199n40, 199n49, Lindelani Mkhize Entertainment 199n50, 199n51 (LME), 191, 209n11, 210n28 Isibaya Esikhulu, 130 The Lion Sleeps Tonight, 216n1 isicathamiya, 73 Liquideed, 76 iTunes, 15, 44, 48, 49, 57, 104, 203n5, Lira, 76 205n39, 207n61 Lister, Keith, 142, 143 live music, 16, 50, 117, 128, 167, 204 Jack (pseudonym), 191, 220n28 events, 2, 53, 71 Jet Mart, 93–5, 106 fees, 117 Jet Music, 34, 93–5, 107 scene, 51, 53, 61–70, 143, 205n45, jive, 73, 128, 133, 136 207n57 Jive City, 92, 95, 106, 110 Live Nation Entertainment, 204n16, John (pseudonym), 191, 211n46 205–6n45 Johncom (Johnnic Communications), Living Standards Measure (LSM), 24, 192, 202n86 80, 86, 91, 92, 93, 102, 209n9, Johnnic (Johnnic Holdings 209–10n21 Limited), 24 local music, 15, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 34, joint venture deal/contract, 54, 172 35, 42, 45, 47, 81, 83, 84, 85, 87, Joyous Celebration, 36 91, 92, 100, 102, 105, 122, 128, just in time (JIT), 107 176, 185, 192, 198n38, 199n41, 200n56 Kalawa Jazmee, 172 historical developments in, 25–30 Kaya FM, 75–6 in major companies’ structures, Kekana, Steve, 143–5, 147, 149, 30–3 150–1, 191, 217n25 rise of, 36–41 Kennan, Yoel, 61, 191, 205n42 Look & Listen Group, 91–2, 94, 95, Keswa, Nobuhle, 191, 206–7n56 101, 105, 109, 192, 212n10, Kid Moncho, Lazarus, 132, 133–6, 213n42 137, 146–8, 150, 151, 192, 216n4, Lotus FM, 75 217n12, 217n29 Lourenco Marques Radio (LM), 74 King, Adrian, 77, 86, 168, 191, see also Radio 5 198n26, 202n85, 209n14, 211n43 Lucky Dube, 69, 211n47 Klaasen, Thandi, 129 KLEEK, 44, 48 Mabaso, Lemmy Special, 134 Kohinoor, 110 Mafikizolo, 76 kula ring, 124, 183 Mahlasela, Vusi, 69 kwaito, 36, 38, 49, 93, 172, 199n39 ‘Mahlathini’ Nkabinde, Simon, 136, kwela, 73, 128, 134 138, 151, 152 Mahotella Queens, 69, 138, 151, 155 Ladysmith Black Mambazo, 69 major labels/ companies, 1, 15, 19, Land Act of 1913, 62 23, 25, 26, 30–3, 35, 36, 38, 41, Land Act of 1936, 62 42, 49, 50, 52, 60, 78, 82, 89, 107, Lebona, Koloi, 129, 138–40, 146–50, 116, 117, 121, 156, 178, 214n6 169, 191, 197n10, 215n12, Makeba, Miriam, 69 217n17, 217n28 Malatji, Nathaniel Paledi, 165, 166, Lerole, Aaron, 131 191, 218n1, 219n18, 219n21 Lesedi FM, 75 Malope, Rebecca, 87 license deal/contract, 23, 27, 32, 35, Mama Dance! Records, 171 36, 38, 39, 40, 45, 51, 116, 218n2, Manager of Plum, 191, 213n47 219n9 Mandoza, 165–6 236 Index

Mankwane, Marks, 129 minerals-energy complex (MEC), marabi, 73 196n22 market minerals-energy-finance complex adjusting to, 81–6 (MEFC), 196n22 black, 78 mini-taxis, 78–9 emergent, 16, 43–6, 78, 79, 95, 106 Mkhize, Lindelani, 58–9, 76–7, 81–2, middle-class, 77 102, 191, 205n31, 209n11, rural, 77 210n23, 210n28, 213n40 segmentation, 2, 77–81 Mlangeni, Babsy, 138–40, 144, 147, sophisticated, 77 148, 192, 217n18 traditional, 78 Mob Music, 83 white, 77–8 Mojapelo, Jimmy, 129 Marks, David, 154–5, 156, 171, 191, Monama, Lucky, 129 217n35, 220n26 Moncho, Lazarus Kidwell, see Kid Masekela, Hugh, 69 Moncho, Lazarus Mashiyane, Spokes, 129, 131, Moola, Baboo, 40, 80, 84, 86, 102, 133, 134 110, 152, 154–6, 192, 201n72, maskanda or maskandi, 81, 90 210n22, 210n36, 211n37, 211n38, Masondo, David, 141–3, 147, 191, 211n42, 213n56, 213n58, 217n32, 217n22, 217n24 217n34, 218n36, 218n37 Matumba, Cuthbert, 129, 148 Moonshine Records see Priority Matzukis, Nick, 38, 48, 49–50, 59, Records 131–2, 161, 163, 164, 172–3, 191, Motsatse, Nicholas, 192, 201n69 200n60, 201n77, 202n80, 203n7, Motsieloa, Griffith, 129 203n8, 203n11, 203n12, 205n34, Mudie, Benjy, 50, 63–4, 152, 162, 192, 205n39, 205n40, 207n61, 214n1, 197n13, 197n18, 203n10, 203n13, 216n6, 218n6, 219n13, 219n15 205n32, 206n52, 206n54, 217n33, Mavuthela, 130 219n10 mbaqanga, 73, 81, 128, 136, 138 multinational companies, 1, 15, 19, Mbube, 216n1, 216n5 23, 25, 26, 30–2, 33, 35, 36, 38, McCormack, Lance, 32, 191, 198n31, 41, 49, 50, 52, 60, 78, 82, 89, 107, 199n46 116, 117, 121, 156, 178, 214n6, McGahey, Craig, 171, 191, 220n27 202n1 ‘Meadowlands,’ 133 Musica, 91, 95, 99, 104, 105, 122 mechanical royalty, 60, 205n37, Music for Pleasure (MFP), 92, 99, 205n39 104, 105 mediation, 3–7 music value chain, 17, 22, 51, 54, Indian traders as mediators, 17, 56, 112–8, 121, 123, 183 110–11 agents and rewards, 118–22 music selling as, 109–11 negotiating, 122–5 Mesh, 34, 55–6, 89, 90, 108 Meteor Records, 21, 133, 134 National Association of Broadcasters Metro FM, 75, 77 (NAB), 46 MiCasa, 76, 87, 88 National Organization for mid-price, 82, 84, 97, 100 Reproduction Rights in Music middle class (NORM), 201n77 black middle class, 12–14, 81, 86, Native Rhythms, 54, 88, 109 195n12, 195n13, 195n17, needletime rights royalties, 42–3, 219n24 69, 202n80, 204n17, 214n1, market, 77 218n4 Index 237 neighbouring rights royalties, 9, 42, platinum disc, 88, 109 50, 114, 116, 201–2n78, 214n1 Plum CD, 105–6, 179 Ngwenya, Moses, 141–3, 147, 150, Polliack, Herman, 20, 22, 196–7n8 151, 192, 217n19, 217n22 Polygram, 21, 23 Nhlapo, Walter, 135 PolyGram South Africa, 23 Nicoll, Allan, 53–4, 83, 87–8, 192, PolyGram Universal, 23 200n58, 204n19, 210n33, 211n50, Powerhouse Studios, 22 211n51 Prime Circle, 69 999 record label, 172 Priority Records, 141, 143, 190, 192, Nkosi, Stanley, 26, 141, 192, 198n27, 217n20, 217n22 213n32 producers, 7, 15, 17, 29, 38, 53, 109, Nkosi, West, 129, 130, 135, 138, 146, 113, 114, 116–8, 120–1, 127, 129, 149, 155, 216n8, 216n9, 216n10, 130, 131, 133, 135, 136, 140, 145, 216n14 149–50, 151, 155, 156, 169, 177–8, Nzimande, Hamilton, 129, 130, 141 182, 198–9n38, 216n4, 216n8 Pro Helvetia, 68 Olsen, Brian, 104–5, 122, 192, 211n5, promotional copies, 212n31 212n14, 213n43, 213n44, 213n46, published price to dealers (PPD), 35 215n18 publishing deal/contract, 115, 144, ownership, 9, 10, 13, 14, 23, 38–40, 159, 160, 218n2 58, 72, 116, 126–7, 145–50, 157, publishing revenue, 117 160, 172, 174, 175, 179–80, 182, publishing rights royalties, 115, 144, 196n19, 209n9, 209n21, 216n1, 218n2 218n2, 218n6 of rights, 3, 50 Radio 5, 74 of a stable of artists, 146, 177 see also Lourenco Marques Radio Radio 702, 74 pantsula, 199n39 Radio Bantu, 63, 72–3, 74, 139, 201n78 patron-and-client relations, 4, 17, 119 radio quota system, 37 patronage, 3–7, 8, 14, 119, 126–57, radio broadcasting, 72–7 158–75, 177, 179, 182–3, 216–20 Radio Freedom, 74 model, 2, 10, 126, 174–5 Radio Good Hope, 72 relationships, 4, 17, 119, 146, 160, Radio Highveld, 72 164, 169, 172, 173, 175, 177, Radio Metro see Metro FM 179, 182 Radio Port Natal, 72 terms of and items under Radio SonderGrense, 75 negotiation, 164–70 Ralulimi, Albert, 135 and 360 degree deals, 172–4 Ready Rolled Records, 76, 86 Paul (pseudonym), 192, 213n39 Recording Industry in Numbers (RIN), Paynter, Geoff, 204n27 33, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, 48, 69, 88, payola, 121, 215n14 186–8, 199n40, 199n41, 199n49, performance rights royalties, 60, 69, 203n4, 203n7, 211n55 114, 116, 160, 214n2 Recording Industry of South Africa Performers’ Organisation of South (RiSA), 33, 38–43, 83, 184–5, Africa (POSA), 43, 202n79, 188–9, 190, 199n40, 199n41, 202n80 199n49, 199n50, 199n51, 200n55, Pieterse, Elster, 83, 192, 210n34 200n59, 200n64, 201n65, 201n69, Piliso, Shadrack, 136 201n76 piracy, 40, 42, 45, 102, 103, 108, recouping, 35–6, 59, 115, 162–3, 171–3, 201n70, 202n1 205n35 238 Index

Rees, Andrew, 192, 202n86 Sony BMG Music Entertainment, 25, Reliable Music Warehouse, 92–6, 103, 36 107–8, 111, 177 Sony Music Entertainment (SME), 15, Replication Technology Group (RTG), 23, 25, 36, 41, 44–5, 53, 59, 116 22, 190, 197n12, 197n19, 200n54 sophisticated market, 77 retailers, 1, 2, 6, 15–7, 34, 43, 49, 52, Soul Brothers, 64, 141–3, 147, 150, 56, 71, 79, 87, 89, 90–5, 97–9, 151, 191, 192, 206n53, 217n22 101–5, 107–9, 111, 113, 117–8, Soul Brothers record company, 141, 121, 122, 177, 183 142, 147, 192 Revolver Records, 90 Soul Candi (record label), 34, 53–7, Rhythm Records, 201n68 66, 83, 87, 88, 89, 90, 192, Ring Records, 83 200n58, 201n67, 210n34 RNA, 90, 197n22 Soul Candi Distribution, 54, 55, 89, Roberts, Harvey, 31, 58, 90, 192, 211n2 198n23, 199n42, 204n29, 211n4 see also Mesh Rome Convention, 9, 114 South African Audience Research Rosin, Mark, 158, 162, 163, 192, Foundation (SAARF), 209n8, 219n12 209n9 Ross, Morgan, 84–5, 192, 211n40, South African Broadcasting 212n23 Corporation (SABC), 42, 64, 72–6, RPM Record Company, 21, 24, 134, 129, 139, 140, 201n78, 207n1 139, 148 censorship board, 73, 208n5 rural market, 77 South African Department of Arts and Culture, 68, 140, 197n19, SAfm, 75 201n65 sale or return (SOR), 97–8, 108 South African Music Performance SAmp3.com, 48 Rights Association (SAMPRA), 43, Sarawan, Manusha, 192, 198n32 190, 217n23 segmented market, 71, 72, 76, 90, South African Recording Rights 183, 210n26 Association Ltd. (SARRAL), Select Music, 89, 90, 201n68 201n77 Select Music Distribution, 90, 201n68 Southern African Music Rights Separate Amenities Act, 64 Organisation (SAMRO), 43, 46, Separate Development, 62, 63, 72, 132, 134, 138, 139, 140, 161, 74–5, 128 201n77 Sharpeville massacre, 72, 207–8n2 CONCERTS SA, 68 Sheer Group, 55–7, 89, 201n67 spatial segregation, and live music Sheer Publishing, 57, 60, 190, 211n1 scene, 62–4 Sheer Sound, 57, 60, 66 sponsorship, 5, 53, 55, 68, 173 Sibia, Mandla, 139 Springbok Radio, 72, 74 Sibisi, Nhlanhla, 162, 192, 198n30, Stehr, Lance, 172, 192, 204n28, 198n35, 219n11 219n16, 220n30 Simfy, 48 Stella, Antos, 27, 138, 151, 193, Simon (pseudonym), 192, 218n5 198n33, 217n16, 217n30, 217n31 Sithole, Sipho, 40, 54–5, 77, 88, 109, Stephens, Damian, 170, 193, 192, 200n62, 201n73, 204n20, 204–5n30, 219n25 209n13, 211n52, 213n54 Stevens, Clive, 193, 200n54, 201n75 Solomon Linda, 216n1 Stuart, Kevin, 76, 86, 193, 209n10, Sonopress, 22 210n24, 211n44 Index 239

‘suits’, 118, 120, 124, 125, 181 VexiWave, 100 Super CD, 94 Vilakazi, Strike, 129, 134, 139, 148 Super Mart, 93 Vuma, Tom, 140, 143–4, 145 synchronization deals, 54, 55, 57, 60, 68, 113 Wal-Mart, 94, 104 synchronization revenues, 60–1, Warner Elektra Atlantic (WEA), 23, 200n55, 203n7 24, 63–4, 134 Warner Music Gallo Africa (WMGA), talent scouts, 122, 127, 129, 130, 132, 24, 25 134, 139, 143, 146, 147, 149, 154, Warner Music Group (WMG), 15, 25, 215n9 41, 45, 96, 116 taxi-rank customers, 78–9, 80 Warner Music International (WMI), Teal Records, 21, 134 24, 25 Teal-Trutone, 21, 23 Warner Music South Africa, 25, 77, 191 Thekwane, David, 129, 155 Watson, Malcom, 140, 144, 217n26 Third Ear Music, 154, 171, 191, Watson, Sean, 27, 28, 31–2, 44, 193, 208n4 198n33, 198n36, 199n43, 199n45, ‘360 degree deal’, 53–9, 70, 115, 117, 200n59, 207n58 163, 164, 169, 178, 204n22, wealth-in-people, 5, 178 205n33, 205n36 wholesalers, 1, 2, 6, 15–17, 49, 71, 79, patronage issue and, 172–4 83, 89–91, 95, 103, 104, 108, 111, Times Media Group Limited (TMG), 113, 183 24, 25, 56, 89 white market, 49, 77–8, 99 Tloubatla, Hilda, 136, 138, 151, 193, Williams, Robbie, 172, 173 217n15 Williams, Shaun, 77, 79–80, 93, Top CD, 94 107, 108, 193, 200n57, 209n15, Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual 209n20, 212n22, 213n38, 213n50 Property Rights (TRIPS) Wimoweh, 216n1 agreement, 9 Woodin, Richard, 81, 193, 210n24, transcription records, 74, 138 210n25 Troubadour Records, 21, 133, 134 World Intellectual Property Trutone Industries, 20, 134, 148 Organization (WIPO) Tusk Music Company, 24, 142 Copyright Treaty (WCT), 9, 214n1, 214n3 Ukhozi FM, 75 Performances and Phonograms UmhloboWenene, 75 Treaty (WPPT), 9, 114, 214n1 Union of South African Artists world music, 32, 39, 60, 69, 81, 90, (USAA), 128, 206n50 138 United Nations World Trade Organisation (WTO) cultural boycott against South TRIPS agreement, 9 Africa, 219n9 Universal Music Group (UMG), 15, Xbox Music, 48 23, 25, 40, 41, 44, 116 X-K FM, 75 Universal Music South Africa, 23 YFM, 75 USA record company, 21 Zahara, 76, 87, 166, 167 Vally, Rashid, 110 Zenzele Music, 140 Verwoerd, Hendrik, 72 Zomba Music Group, 197n10, 217n20 Vestacor Limited, 92, 212n10 Zonophone, 20