“It’s just a matter of time”: African American Musicians and the Cultural Boycott in South Africa, 1968-1983 by Ashrudeen Waggie Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (History) in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Dr. L. Lambrechts Co-supervisor: Dr. C. J. P. Fransch March 2020 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third-party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Ashrudeen Waggie March 2020 Copyright © 2020 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract In 1968 the United Nations General Assembly instituted a cultural boycott against apartheid South Africa. The cultural boycott prevented South Africa from having cultural, educational and sporting ties with the rest of the world, and it was an attempt by the international community to sever ties with South Africa. A culmination of this strategy was the publication of an annual registry by the United Nations of all international entertainers, actors, and others who performed in South Africa from 1983. Based on this registry a number of academic studies have been conducted, but very few studies have investigated those who came to perform in South Africa before the publication of the registry even though renowned artists such as Percy Sledge (1970), Brook Benton (1971 & 1982), Jimmy Smith (1978 & 1982) and Isaac Hayes (1978) performed in South Africa during this time. This study will investigate a selection of African American musicians who came to perform in South Africa before the publication of the registry. Specific attention will be paid to the reception of these musicians in South Africa, the promoters that brought them and their accompanying musicians. Based on close readings of their tours, this study will argue that the cultural boycott was not as successful in deterring musicians from performing in South Africa. In fact, in some instances their careers regained renewed relevance after their return to America. Keywords: African American musicians, Music and politics, Cultural Boycott ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming In 1968 het die Algemene vergadering van die Verenigde Nasies ‘n kulturele boikot teen apartheid Suid-Afrika ingestel. Die kulturele boikot het verhoed dat Suid-Afrika kulturele, opvoedkundige en sportbande met die res van die wêreld het. Dit was ook ‘n poging van die wêreld gemeenskap om bande met Suid-Afrika te verbreek. ‘n Hoogtepunt van hierdie strategie was die publikasie van ‘n jaarlikse register deur die Verenigde Nasies van al die internasionale vermaaklikheidsterre, akteurs en ander wat sedert 1983 in Suid-Afrika opgetree het. Op grond van hierdie register is ‘n aantal akademiese studies gedoen, maar baie min studies het diegene ondersoek wat voor die publikasie van die register in Suid-Afrika opgetree het. Selfs het bekende kunstenaars soos Percy Sledge (1970), Brook Benton (1971 & 1982), Jimmy Smith (1978 en 1982) and Isaac Hayes (1978) gedurende hierdie tyd in Suid-Afrika opgetree. Hierdei studie ondersoek ‘n uitgesoekte groep Afro-Amerikaanse musikante wat voor die publikasie in Suid- Afrika opgetree het. Spesiale aandag word geskenk aan die ontvangs van hierdie musikante in Suid-Afrika, die bemarkers wat hulle gebring het en hul gepaardgaande musikante. Hierdie studie is gebasseer op noukeurige bestuderings van hul toere en sal argumenteer dat die kulturele boiket nie suksesvol was om musikante te keer om in Suid-Afrika op te tree nie. Inteendeel, in sommige gevalle het hul loopbane hernude belangstelling gekry nadat hulle teruggekeer het na Amerika. Sleutelwoorde: Afro-Amerikaanse musikante, Musiek en politiek, Kulturele Boikot iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to express my profound gratitude towards my mother Bashrah and my sister Salmaa for always motivating me to do my research and most importantly write my dissertation. Moreover, for being an ear to listen even when they do not understand what I ramble about, day after day. Secondly, I wish to express my deep appreciation for the time that my supervisors, Dr Lizabé Lambrechts and Dr Chet Fransch, devoted to this project. Your insights, knowledge and experiences have been essential for the completion of this dissertation. Thank you for always looking for the relevance of the statements made within my dissertation. Thirdly, I would like to thank the Volkswagen Foundation and the Africa Open Institute for Music, Research, and Innovation (Stellenbosch University) for the scholarship provided. This generous grant made my study possible in the first place. Sincere thanks to the staff of the South African National Library for providing me with countless newspaper and magazine articles for this study. Secondly, to the staff at the Stellenbosch University Library and Music Library, who assisted me with numerous requests for a variety of sources required for this study. Additionally, I would like to thank my colleagues from the Africa Open Institute and the History Department for the countless conversations about my academic work and exchanges of ideas beneficial to the completion of this study. A special thanks to Chante Jephta who was instrumental in motivating me to apply for a master’s degree in the first place as well as continued support throughout these two years. I would also like to thank her for the time spent proof reading some of my chapters, constructive comments and assistance with the footnotes. Thank you also to Elmarie Jephta for translating my abstract into Afrikaans. Each one of these individuals have played an influential role in the writing of this dissertation, and I am deeply appreciative of them. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Table of Contents Declaration i Abstract ii Opsomming iii Acknowledgements iv List of Figures viii Chapter One 1 Introduction 1 Literature Review and Theoretical points of departure 2 Methodology 21 Chapter Outline 23 Chapter Two: Breaking the Boycott 25 Introduction 25 Tours, reception of musicians, and the cultural boycott 26 Reception of musicians 31 Breaking the Boycott 38 Promoters 41 Supporting Musicians 43 Conclusion 45 Chapter Three: “The Soulman”: Percy Sledge, 1970 and 1972 48 Introduction 48 Sledge’s Rise to Fame 49 Percy Sledge’s 1970 tour of South Africa 55 v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za The Cape Town leg of the tour, 1970 57 The Johannesburg leg of the tour, 1970 63 Reception of the 1970 tour in South Africa 69 Percy Sledge’s 1972 tour of Southern Africa 72 Performances in southern Africa 78 Conclusion 87 Chapter Four: “Soul Santa”: Brook Benton 1971, 1980 and 1982 91 Introduction 91 Benton’s Rise to Fame 92 Brook Benton’s 1971 tour of South Africa 99 Brook Benton’s 1980 tour of South Africa 116 Brook Benton’s 1982 tour of South Africa 118 Conclusion 121 Chapter Five: “Got My Mojo Workin”: Jimmy Smith 1978 and 1982 125 Introduction 125 Smith’s Rise to Fame 126 Jimmy Smith’s 1978 tour of South Africa 136 Jimmy Smith’s 1982 tour of South Africa 143 Conclusion 148 Chapter Six: “Hot Buttered Soul”: Isaac Hayes 1978 151 Introduction 151 Hayes’ Rise of Fame 152 Isaac Hayes’ 1978 tour of South Africa 170 vi Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Conclusion 180 Chapter Seven: Conclusion 182 Appendix 191 Appendix A: Itinerary of Percy Sledge Tour, 1972 192 Appendix B: Itinerary of Brook Benton Tour, 1971 193 Appendix C: Itinerary of Isaac Hayes Tour, 1978 195 Reference List 199 vii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za List of Figures Figure 1: Bill Hanley Sound System at Jabulani Amphitheatre, Soweto, 1971 - Photograph taken by David Marks. Figure 2: Percy Sledge Album - Percy Sledge in South Africa (1970). Figure 3: Auditorium of Eyethu Cinema – Photograph taken by Katlego Bogatsu (2012). Figure 4: Benton mobbed upon arrival at O.R. Tambo Airport 1971. Figure 5: Brook Benton performing at Jabulani Amphitheatre in 1971 – Photograph taken by David Marks. Figure 6: Audience of school children at the Brook Benton performance, Jabulani Amphitheatre 1971. Figure 7: Brook Benton supporting orchestra at Jabulani Amphitheatre 1971. Figure 8: Jimmy Smith with fans behind him at O.R. Tambo Airport in 1978. Figure 9: Advertisement for Jimmy Smith's performance at the Colosseum Theatre 1978. Figure 10: Jimmy Smith Album - Jimmy Smith Trio - Jimmy Smith Plays for the People Featuring Holly Maxwell (1978). Figure 11: Programme of Jimmy Smith’s performance in 1982. Figure 13: Photograph of Hayes and frenzied crowd at O.R. Tambo Airport 1978. Figure 14: Isaac Hayes performing in Atteridgeville Soweto 1978. viii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Chapter One Introduction In 1968 the United Nations General Assembly instituted a cultural boycott against apartheid South Africa.1 The cultural boycott theoretically prevented South Africa from having cultural, educational and sporting ties with the rest of the world, and it was an attempt by the international community to cut ties with South Africa. One of the foremost scholars on music censorship