Special Section: September 11, Background and Consequences for the Middle East

THE ISLAMIC FUNDAMENTALIST VIEW OF LIFE AS A PERENNIAL BATTLE By David Zeidan*

This article analyzes how radical Islamist movements have altered traditional Islamic concepts to justify their worldview. Based on the writings of prominent radical Islamist leaders across a wide spectrum, it analyzes the ideas of a cosmic struggle between good and evil as reflected in the individual and in society. It traces the reinterpretation of traditional Islamic concepts such as jahiliyya, takfir, hijra, mufassala, jihad and istishad to justify indiscriminate violence. Bin-Laden and his al-Qai’da group use these reinterpretations to justify terrorism, while these ideas also mobilize support for their deeds among a far broader sector among Muslims.

Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist secularism which had reduced its power during attack on the World Trade Center in New-York, recent decades.(1) there is a growing general public interest in Islamist fundamentalism is composed of a Islamist “fundamentalism” as the perceived wide variety of movements and views that offer breeding ground for contemporary international Islam as a total way of life and as a viable terrorism, and a growing confusion in alternative to Western secular ideologies. It explaining its ideas and in categorizing its aims at bringing all of contemporary society various components. This article discusses under God’s sovereignty, rule and law as some basic views of Islamist movements, many revealed in scripture. The restoration of Islamic of them reflected and amplified in the thinking glory will be achieved by purifying society of Usama Bin Ladin and those involved in the from un-Islamic teachings and practices, by a attack on the World Trade Center and other return to Islam’s original pure sources (the targets in the United States. Quran--God’s written revelation through The radical Islamist movement is a fairly Muhammad, and Hadith, the divinely inspired modern phenomenon, part of a wider traditions of the Prophet’s sayings and deeds) resurgence of religion sweeping across the as the only authority, and by the establishment Muslim world, and existing in a symbiotic of an ideal Islamic state modeled on that of the relationship with other trends. It is rooted in the Prophet and his Companions. recurring cycles of revivals characteristic of Most fundamentalist movements are united Muslim history and is also a reaction to the in these goals of Islamizing the total social and severe crisis of modernity converging with the political system of their societies and of rise of charismatic prophetic leaders. It establishing a revived authentic world-wide constitutes a religious reform movement and a Islamic state based on Sharia (the all- political ideology that includes a social element encompassing law ordained by God for humans of protest and a search for identity by the have- and based on Quran and Hadith). The nots of the Muslim world against an oppressive differences between movements stem from world order. Fundamentalism is the spearhead arguments on how best to achieve these goals of religion engaging in a counterattack on the and on whether to emphasize an internationalist

Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 26 David Zeidan program or focus on achieving power in a ideologies.(5) However, the manipulation of the specific state as a first step. There is a debate concept of warfare to mobilize followers into between moderate gradualists willing to work activism can easily blur the distinctions within the constraints of a local political system between terms that symbolize moral and and the radical revolutionaries willing to use spiritual battle, such as Jihad, and their force to achieve their aims. reinterpretation in specific contexts to Fundamentalists contrast sharply with legitimize violent struggle excused by an “ends traditionalists in many areas, but especially in justifies the means” ideology.(6) their ideological emphasis on the state. The Islamic fundamentalism offers a radical state is seen as the main instrument for reinterpretation of traditional Islamic concepts, implementing the fundamentalist vision of a and its discourse on the subject of battle serves God-pleasing state under Sharia and as the to mobilize believers, warn them against those guarantor of its survival. Fundamentalists identified as enemies, and encourage them to therefore concentrate their efforts on capturing train, organize, and actively participate in the the state and its centers of power--either legally battle. Tactics differ as some fundamentalists within the democratic framework, or violently tend to withdraw from society temporarily into by revolution or coup d’etat.(2) isolationist separatism, while others actively While fundamentalists are a minority in engage in socio-political affairs to transform most Muslim societies and states, their insistent society.(7) Both responses are forms of battle, and vehement discourse has had much effect on whether they are seen as defensive action the Muslim world, moving into the vacuum left against attacking evil forces or offensive by the failure of secular regimes, redefining campaigns to conquer enemies and transform orthodoxy, reconstituting the boundaries of the world. political power relations, limiting the borders of the permissible, resonating in the hearts of the VARIOUS ASPECTS OF THE BATTLE impoverished masses, and appealing to a new Fundamentalisms view history in dialectical strata of literate people with modern technical terms as a permanent spiritual battle, part of a education.(3) great cosmic and spiritual confrontation This article tries to explain the concept of between God’s forces of good and Satan’s battle, common to most religions, as forces of evil. Some stress the supernatural appropriated by Islamic fundamentalists, and nature of the battle, asserting that invisible evil the different interpretations given to it by powers, fighting to control individuals and various streams across the fundamentalist whole cultures, have infiltrated all societies. spectrum. Every believer who takes a stand for truth is The concept of the world as a battlefield under attack and involved in the fight. It is where the forces of good and evil are fighting therefore imperative to be forewarned and against each other, of a perennial universal forearmed so as not to be taken by surprise. The battle going on everywhere and at all times, is seemingly mundane struggles of believers in common to most prophetic religions, but is this world are seen as reflections of higher especially characteristic of the fundamentalist struggles in the spiritual and heavenly realms. groups within them. Fundamentalists view history as a cosmic struggle between good and Reality of the Battle evil using stark binary dichotomies to describe Sayyid Qutb (1906-1966) was the ideologue the opposing camps.(4) This rhetoric stresses of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood in the that the main battle is spiritual, but nonetheless 1950s and 1960s who was tortured and real, being fought in the realms of personal executed by President Nasser for his book spiritual and moral development, as well as in Milestones (ma‘alim fil tariq) which the sphere of ideas, worldviews and reinterpreted traditional Islamic concepts to Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 27 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle justify a violent takeover of the state. His holy sources of Quran and Hadith and not reinterpretation of traditional Islamic concepts operating under Sharia. Qutb also reinterpreted was the catalyst for the rise of radical Islamic jihad to mean the permanent conflict between groups. Qutb posits a real battle taking place in the Islamic system and all contemporary jahili this world between the forces of good and those paradigms. The concepts of the two systems are of evil, between faith and unbelief. True totally incompatible, so there is no possibility believers are to fight and suffer patiently, not of compromise or coexistence between them. for the reward, but because it is their duty Truth is one and indivisible: all that is not true toward God. This world is a battlefield, with is inevitably false, and the mixing of truth with angels looking on to see how believers fight, falsehood is impossible. Islam means total and the struggle is not limited to this earth, but submission to God and his law, while jahili extends into all of space and time. While in this systems are “a deviation from the worship of world there are only partial victories, the final One God and the divinely ordained way of victory of good is assured. While believers do life.”(9) not always win and often suffer defeat and According to Israr Ahmad (1932-), martyrdom, there is no cause for despair as God fundamentalist preacher, writer and Amir of the comforts and encourages them. From God’s Pakistani Tanzim-i-Islami movement which is perspective this world and its affairs are tiny in an offshoot of the better known jama’at-i- comparison with the world to come. Worldly Islami, Islam is actively fighting all types of success does not carry much weight in God’s jahiliyya, both the superstitious jahiliyya of un- scales: Islamic folk-religion and the jahiliyya of secular-materialistic atheism with its moral Real triumph is not limited to permissiveness. In this battle the most powerful immediate victory…in Allah’s market weapon is the Quran, and the challenge is to the only commodity in demand is the cleanse the ideological realm from all atheistic commodity of faith. The highest form of elements, reconstructing Islamic thought in triumph is the victory of soul over contemporary idiom. While the Quran is the matter, the victory of belief over pain, true guide and motivator, its teaching can only and the victory of faith over be effective when coupled to Islamic persecution.(8) activism.(10)

The Battle in the Realm of Ideas, Worldviews True Religion as Radical and Revolutionary and Ideologies Fundamentalist writers stress the Fundamentalisms stress the importance of revolutionary character of Islam, viewed as a the battle in the realm of ideas. Two revolt against the status quo and its corrupting incompatible worldviews are fighting over the influences while aiming at establishing a new hearts and minds of people for the leadership of social and political order. The Prophet is humanity: one is the Islamic fundamentalist pictured as a revolutionary leader, and his paradigm centered on God and his perfect message is interpreted as a revolutionary revelation, the other is the Western secularist- ideology still potent to destroy evil and achieve humanist view centered on man and his reason drastic change in the modern world. and passions. This conflict permeates every Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi (1914-1999), a great level of society. fundamentalist scholar, writer and lecturer, who Islamists emphasize the battle against was rector of the Nadwatul ’Ulama Seminary in jahiliyya, traditionally understood as the pagan Pakistan and chairman of the Board of Trustees state of ignorance in pre-Islamic Arabia, but of the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, sees reinterpreted by Qutb to mean any Islam as a revolutionary ideology with the contemporary system not based on the original power to change contemporary society and 28 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan culture just as it had transformed seventh everything in the modern West, as well as non- century society.(11) Qutb states that true Islam fundamentalist regimes and society in Muslim can never accept the status quo but must always states as satanic and evil, extremists turn them struggle to oppose and change it by stimulating into legitimate targets for violent attacks.(15) renewal. The purpose of the Islamic program Qutb divides the world into two camps: (manhaj) is to propel humanity toward greater God’s party versus Satan’s. Man faces a moral freedom and creativity, while destroying all choice he cannot evade, and he must voluntarily bondage and suffering.(12) submit to God’s moral laws in Sharia. There is Abul A’la Mawdudi (1903-1979), one of the only one God and one truth. All else is error. greatest founding figures and ideologues of There is only one law, Sharia. All other law is contemporary Islamic fundamentalism, founder mere human caprice. There is only one true of the Pakistani Jama’at i-Islami, pictures true system, Islam. All other systems are jahiliyya. Islam and its past and present leaders as a Qutb lays much stress on the either/or nature of modern-style revolutionary party engaged in a the conflict between Islam and jahiliyya: revolutionary struggle (jihad) to reshape the world: Islam cannot accept any compromise with jahiliyya, either in its concept or in Islam is a revolutionary ideology which its modes of living derived from this seeks to alter the social order of the concept. Either Islam will remain, or entire world and rebuild it in jahiliyya; Islam cannot accept or agree conformity with its own tenets and to a situation which is half-Islam and ideals. ‘Muslims’ is the title of that half-jahiliyya. In this respect Islam’s ‘International Revolutionary Party’ stand is very clear. It says that truth is organized by Islam to carry out its one and cannot be divided; if it is not revolutionary program. ‘Jihad’ refers to the truth, than it must be falsehood. The that revolutionary struggle and utmost mixing and coexistence of the truth and exertion which the Islamic Nation/Party falsehood is impossible. Command brings into play in order to achieve this belongs to Allah, or else to jahiliyya. objective….There is no doubt that all The Shari‘ah of Allah will prevail, or the Prophets of Allah, without else people’s desires.(16) exception, were Revolutionary Leaders, and the illustrious Prophet Muhammad Mawdudi argues that as Islam means was the greatest Revolutionary Leader submission to God, kufr means disobedience to of all.(13) God. God loves Muslims but dislikes kafirs. Muslims find God’s forgiveness, kafirs do not. BINARY DICHOTOMIES Muslims will go to jannah (paradise), kafirs to Fundamentalists tend to use absolute hell (jahannum). Both camps consist of human Manichaean binary dichotomies such as God beings, but Muslims recognize and obey their vs. Satan; truth vs. falsehood; light vs. Lord, while kafirs neither recognize him nor darkness; and good vs. evil.(14) They see obey him. That is the basic difference.(17) humanity as divided into two opposing camps Ibrahim, Abdul Maajid, & Darbaalah are of believers and unbelievers with no neutrality disciples of the Egyptian Sheikh Umar Abdul- possible for anyone. While all fundamentalist Rahman (imprisoned in America for discourse is dominated by a cosmology of the involvement in the first bombing of the World battle of good against evil, extreme groups Trade Center), and linked to the radical concentrate on conspiracy theories, eliciting a Egyptian Islamist group al-jama’a al-Islamiyya. hatred for specific perceived enemies which can They state that Islam clearly describes “The legitimize outbursts of violence. By labeling position of the party of Allah as opposed to the Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 29 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle party of Satan.” It commands total hatred, charismatic preachers and those influenced by animosity and roughness towards disbelievers Shia and Sufi teachings, do. Qutb states with whom there can be no compromise.(18) categorically that man possesses two natures. Bin-Laden (1956-), the Saudi leader of the Every individual is obliged “to deny his lower al-Qa’ida radical Islamist group, believed to be self and its unlawful desires and to cleanse and behind most of the anti-American terrorist acts purify it and carry it on the road to spiritual of the last decade, including the bombing of the health and salvation; otherwise it will carry him American embassies in Nairobi and Dar as- to destruction.” The individual is responsible to Salaam in 1998 and the September 11, 2001 watch his lower self, calling it to account when attacks on the Twin Towers of the World Trade it errs.(21) Center in New York and the Pentagon in Ayatolah Ruhollah Khomeini (1902-1989), Washington, sees the world divided into two leader of the Iranian Islamic revolution and camps--“one of faith where there is no founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, stresses hypocrisy and one of infidelity from which we that man’s worst enemy is the lower self within hope God will protect us”. The camp of faith is him, an idol that hinders him from developing the Muslim camp, and the camp of unbelief is in godliness. It is imperative to smash this idol led by the United States under the banner of and get rid of selfishness which is the root Christianity.(19) cause of human depravity. The major jihad is On the more moderate side, Rached the fight against one’s lower self – it is useless Ghannouchi (1941-), exiled leader of the to engage in other jihads before succeeding in Tunisian fundamentalist Al-Nahda movement, this one. Khomeini highlights the early sees the real conflict in the contemporary world Muslims who fought first against their lower not as that between civilizations or religions, selves before going out in jihad against but as the multidimensional conflict between unbelievers, and he calls contemporary Truth and Falsehood, between oppressed and believers to emulate them in fighting to the oppressor. These conflicts are often packaged utmost against worldly desires within, trusting in appealing humanistic and religious slogans Allah for success.(22) so as to deceive the masses.(20) Sheikh ’Abd al-Hamid Kishk (1933-), an extremely popular and charismatic Egyptian THE MORAL STRUGGLE IN THE preacher whose books and sermons on cassette INDIVIDUAL SELF are widely distributed all over Egypt and the Fundamentalisms stress individual Arab world, restates traditional themes when he responsibility and the importance of the internal pictures the believer in this world as surrounded battle within each believer against sin and on every side and at all times by “fearsome temptation. They highlight the ennobling results waves of materialism” from which only faith of this struggle as the believer overcomes his can save him. Everyone must persevere in this lower nature and develops in purity, God- struggle against the world, the devil, and his consciousness and devotion. lower self, trusting in God’s mercy and As in traditional Islam, the concept of jihad forgiveness.(23) among Muslim fundamentalists is divided into Kishk views man as a dichotomy of body two: the greater jihad and the lesser jihad. The and spirit, lower self and intellect. The spirit greater jihad is the moral struggle in the strives to elevate man to the sublime heights of individual soul, a continuous struggle aimed at fulfilling God’s requirements while the lower subduing man’s baser nature and attuning him self distracts him from this lofty goal by to God’s moral standards revealed in Sharia. tempting him to be preoccupied with lusts. The The lesser jihad is the one by the sword. lower self was created in order to test men by While not all Muslim fundamentalists constantly tempting them “from the path of ascribe to the two-nature doctrine of man, the good, love and duty.” However, Allah who 30 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan created man for this struggle against his lower self has also given him the inner strength to Islamist Views on Separation – Development in confront it. Kishk stresses that in order to Stages escape hell-fire, attain freedom from For most Islamist fundamentalists, enslavement to self, and receive Allah’s peace separation is a stage in the political quest for and certainty, believers must continually the establishment of the Islamic state modeled struggle against the appetites of the lower self on Muhammad’s practice. by disciplining it. This involves giving up Qutb started the contemporary Islamic things it craves and learning to be content with debate on separation by his re-interpretation of just enough material things to “keep the body separation (mufassala) and migration (hijra). straight.” Self discipline, obedience to Sharia, He argued that the first Muslim community meditating on God, and affirming His developed in clearly defined stages that must be greatness, are the means provided for emulated today. First was the proclamation of overcoming evil. The greater jihad is a the message (da’wa), then the separation continuous struggle aimed at subduing one’s (mufassala) from unbelievers, and finally the baser nature and attuning oneself to God’s fight to implement God’s new society on earth moral standards. It is the basis for personal (jihad). Separation from jahili society is a moral development, creating pious and necessary step for establishing boundaries and philanthropic activism, promoting justice and identity. It is not conceived of as total physical prosperity in society, while combating separation, but as a spiritual separation whilst ignorance, injustice and oppression. As a result staying on in society to proclaim and recruit. In of this greater jihad, says Kishk, Islam “heals the Islamic golden age, when a person became those societies which follows its guidance and a Muslim he made a clean break with his past, are built on consciences which have been separating himself totally from the jahili awakened and hearts which have been environment, and starting a new life with the illuminated by the light of belief.”(24) Quran as his only guide. Qutb concludes that this characteristic of the FUNDAMENTALIST SEPARATISM first unique generation is a necessary condition All fundamentalists are separatists in the for any modern renewal: “In the early stages of moral and behavioral spheres, stressing the the new Islamic movement, we must remove importance of personal moral separation from ourselves from all the influences of the evil and of the struggle against it. Most go jahiliyyah in which we live and from which we further by setting visible boundaries and derive our benefits.” The first step for true demanding some degree of separation from Muslims is separation from jahili society, worldly society and its corrupting influences, transforming themselves by immersion in the evidenced by norms of conduct, dress and Quran, so as to radically change society as they behavior. Some demand institutional separation follow in the footsteps of the first Muslims.(25) not only from the world, but also from erring In the process of replacing all other human believers in order to ensure doctrinal and systems with the God-given revolutionary institutional purity. A few demand total ideology and system of Islam, total separation separation from all aspects of the surrounding is however not possible--Qutb here adopts a evil society and the corrupt state. It is the stand somewhat similar to the Christian degree of separation from jahili society that principle of “in the world, but not of it”: fuels the discourse. This cannot come about by going along even a few steps with jahiliyyah, nor by severing relations with it and removing ourselves to a separate corner; never. Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 31 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle

The correct procedure is to mix with Takfir aimed at winning over a large portion discretion, give and take with dignity; of the total population before it would deem speak the truth with love, and show the itself strong enough for the final assault on superiority of the Faith with humility. jahili society. However, it did not reach its But we must always bear in mind that phase of power--it was still in its phase of we live in the midst of jahiliyyah, that weakness when it was destroyed. It also our way of life is nobler than that of interpreted separation as meaning that in case jahiliyya, and that the change from of war members must not fight in the ranks of jahiliyyah to Islam is vast and far- the Egyptian Army, but flee to secure positions. reaching. The chasm between Islam Society members refused to be conscripted to and jahiliyyah is great, and a bridge is the army and felt no allegiance to the state, not to be built across it so that the rejecting anything that might serve its interests. people on the two sides may mix with They did not recognize state education, each other, but only so that the people uniforms, marriage, or legal system--since all of jahiliyyah may come over to Islam, was jahili. They were not allowed to be state whether they reside in a so-called employees, and those who were changed jobs Islamic country and consider on entering the society.(27) themselves Muslims or are outside the Such comprehensive and extensive Muslim world so they may come out of separation as a group, however, is rare among darkness into light, get rid of their Islamist movements. miserable conditions, and enjoy the blessings that we have tasted--we who Spiritual Separation have understood Islam and live in its A more common interpretation, as practiced atmosphere. If they do not respond to by another Egyptian radical Islamist group, al- our call, then we shall say to them what Jihad, responsible for Sadat’s assassination in Allah commanded His Messenger, 1981, rejected the notion of total separation peace on him, to say: ‘For you your from society advocated by Takfir, interpreting way, for me mine’.(26) Qutb’s concept of separation as purely spiritual and moral, with a duty laid on true believers to Physical Separation penetrate jahili society and structures in order The Egyptian extremist movement Takfir to bring about a radical change as soon as wal-Hijra developed Qutb’s ideas on separation possible. Al-Jihad tried to infiltrate the military, to mean that all true Muslims in all generations security services and government institutions so must emulate Muhammad’s model of hijra as to wage immediate jihad which it initiated by (migration) from Mecca to Medina: there must the assassination of President Anwar Sadat.(28) be physical separation from unbelieving Several leaders of al-Jihad (especially Ayman society, withdrawal to a new location to al-Zawahiri) have in recent years cooperated establish a new alternative society, and prepare with Usama bin-Ladin and his attacks on for the stage of tamakkun (strength) and United States targets. ultimate victory. Total separation (mufassala kamila) is a must in the temporary stage of IMPACT OF ESCHATOLOGY weakness which ends when the alternative Eschatology, messianism, and ’umma becomes strong enough to challenge the millenarianism play an important part in the regime. Until then, passive separation, non- worldview of most fundamentalists, violence, and escape to safe areas to reduce encouraging separatism and justifying contact with the apostate world were conspiracy theories and violence.(29) recommended. Eschatological views affect the interpretation of the relations between God’s Kingdom, state and 32 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan society, helping believers identify enemies and student at the Islamic University in Riyad, see themselves as engaged in the final battle of whose mahdi status had been revealed in the end time. dreams to his wife and sister and coincided with Most fundamentalists accept the traditional the beginning of the 15th Islamic hijri century. Sunni or Shi’i eschatological teachings on the His followers claimed that al-Qahtani fulfilled signs of the end times: the appearance of the the Hadith that the mahdi would appear at the Antichrist (ad-dajjal), the coming of the mahdi ka‘ba at the turn of the Islamic century, as well (the awaited end-time deliverer of Muslim as other Hadiths that state he will have the same tradition) or the return of the Hidden Imam of name as the Prophet and exhibit similar Shia expectation to set up a righteous rule on physical attributes. The movement’s ideology earth(30). However, some groups are more taught that after a long period of deviation from heavily influenced by Islamic eschatology than true Islam the mahdi had now appeared to put others, perceiving their activities as part of the an end to tyrannical kingship and set up God’s end-time scenario. reign of justice and peace. The movement was The Egyptian Takfir wal-Hijra organization convinced that once their mahdi had revealed was a mahdist movement with an himself, all Muslims would pay him allegiance, eschatological worldview similar to Christian helping him defeat the forces of the corrupt premillennialism. The world was close to its regimes who would be swallowed up by the end time as indicated by the signs of disbelief, earth.(34) oppression, immorality, famine, wars, It would seem that for many impoverished earthquakes and hurricanes. Their charismatic and oppressed Muslims today, awaiting a leader, Shukri Mustafa (1942-1978), a disciple messianic Savior figure to restore both their of Sayyid Qutb, was seen as the promised fortunes and Islamic pride and glory, Usama mahdi who would found the new Muslim bin-Laden is a mahdi-like figure who has community, conquer the world, and usher in achieved mythical proportions. His austere and God’s final reign on earth.(31) devout life-style, zeal for Islam, reported ’Abd al-Salam Faraj (1952-1982), the exploits, legendary riches, and international founder and theorist of al-Jihad, who in his renown have exaggerated his popular appeal to popular booklet “The Neglected Duty” had Muslim masses around the world.(35) raised violent Jihad to the status of a sixth pillar In the Shia world, the rise of Khomeini to of Islam, accepted the traditions of the mahdi power in the Islamic Revolution resonated with who will reveal himself at the end of time and Shia eschatological symbols and inspired many establish justice in the whole world. This Iranians to see him either as the promised however, should not lead to passivity, as in the “Hidden Imam” himself, or at least as some meantime true Muslims are duty bound to eschatological manifestation and representative actively fulfill God’s original mandate of of the Hidden Imam sent to prepare the way for spreading Islam to the whole world before the the end times. ’Ali Shariati (1933-1977), the end-time and the appearance of the mahdi. Lack main ideologue of the Iranian revolution, a of messianic leadership is no excuse for radical social and political thinker, reinterpreted postponing the struggle, as leadership in the the Shia concept of intizar, the waiting for the meantime can be given to the best Muslim in return of the Hidden Imam, as an active waiting the community.(32) for and accelerating of his coming--a In Saudi-Arabia, Juhayman al-’Utaybi progressive struggle toward the goal of (1943-1979), a strict Wahhabi disillusioned by revolution. All roads lead to the inevitable the profligate lifestyle of the royal family, led a climax when equality and unity are realized failed revolt against the Saudi regime in worldwide--this will be utopia, the end of 1979(33) in the name of a proclaimed mahdi, history, the return of the Mahdi, the Muhammad ibn-’Abdullah al-Qahtani, a culmination of the dialectical struggle.(36) Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 33 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle

Zionism, and secularism as three forces CONSPIRACY THEORIES combining to corrupt, divide and destroy Islam. Scapegoating thrives in many diverse social Rulers in Muslim states are viewed as puppets and political groupings that feel the need to of these forces, betraying their countries into blame external forces for their perceived dependence and secularization. intolerable situation. It is however especially Qutb senses a worldwide conspiracy of the typical of religious fundamentalisms, with the Crusading Christian West, Marxist more radical groups having a special affinity to Communism, and World Jewry against true harboring bizarre conspiracy theories. Islamists Islam. These three forces are jahiliyya at its identify secularism in all its forms, the worst, enemies of God always plotting the Christian West, Judaism (especially Zionism), destruction of Islam. Modern imperialism is a and Freemasonry as part of a satanic worldwide masked Crusade by the Christian West aided by evil plot to exterminate true Islam. While the Jews to attain world domination. Atheistic Usama bin-Ladin has been especially explicit in Marxists, who replaced God with materialistic- calling for battle against a Christian-Jewish dialectic determinism, joined this attack on conspiracy against Islam, this basic view is a Islam.(38) Qutb sees hostility to Islam as common one among radical Islamists. inherited, inherent, and latent in the West since Islamic conspiracy theories are rooted in the Crusader days. Orientalism transmitted the frustration arising out of several centuries of distorted versions of Islam absorbed during the colonialism and dependency. Against the views Crusades, the Reconquista, the fall of held by traditionalists of Jews and Christians as Constantinople, and the Reformation. Secular protected “dhimmis” and “people of the Book,” Europe inherited the contempt for all things fundamentalists link contemporary Western Islamic from religious Europe, and in spite of supremacy to the historic opposition of Jews its rationalism, these irrational prejudices and Christians to Muhammad in the 7th survive, strengthened by Western Imperialism century, and also to texts in Quran and Hadith which saw Islam as the main obstacle to with anti-Christian and anti-Jewish achieving world domination. This anti-Islamic implications. They then develop a modern spirit unites all Western states and cultures.(39) concept of uninterrupted Christian and Jewish Taqiuddin an-Nabhani (1909-1977), hatred for Islam since its inception, expressed Palestinian founder of the radical Hizb al- in continual efforts throughout history to Tahrir, an extremist offshoot from the Muslim divide, weaken, and destroy Islam. The Jews Brotherhood, also sees the Western animosity and Christians of the 7th century are seen as to Islam as a constant ever since the Crusades. identical with the Jews and Christians of today, It is fuelled by a wish for revenge and manifests so the “Christian Crusading West” in its various itself in “oppression, humiliation, colonization contemporary post-colonialist forms, together and exploitation.” In colonial times it revealed with the Jews, are deemed to be perennial itself in Orientalism and missionary work, both enemies plotting the destruction of Islam. backed by Western states. This deep-rooted Secularism is the other favorite enemy of Crusader animosity to Islam resulted in the Islamic fundamentalists. Recent decades have military conquest of Arab lands during WWI. seen the rise of a Muslim anti-secularist Modern Europe is engaged in a cultural discourse that accuses secularism in its various Crusade against Islam aiming at poisoning the forms of being part of a sinister plot to minds of young Muslims by distorting Islamic undermine Islam. Muslims who are also history and values. This cultural venom is far secularists are viewed as being anti-Islamic more dangerous than the Crusades, portraying foreign agents.(37) Most Islamic Islam as a “bogey of humanity, or this demon fundamentalists accept the prevalent conspiracy which would destroy the progress of theories that see the Christian West, Jewish humanity.” Orientalists and Christian clergy 34 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan continue to support all anti-Islamic activities in religion, so they can isolate Islam from the world, conspiring against Islam, slandering the affairs of society and keep the its history, and degrading Muhammad and his ulama’ away from the people. When Companions.(40) they have separated and isolated us Khomeini, too, has much to say about the they can take away our resources and conspiracies of Jews and Christians against rule us.(41) Islam: Since its inception, Islam was afflicted Ayatollah Ali Khamenei (1939-), former with the Jews who distorted the president of Iran and Khomeini’s successor as reputation of Islam by assaulting and Supreme Guardian of the Islamic republic of slandering it, and this has continued to Iran, labels the United States and Israel as our present day. The Crusades made enemies of Iran and of Islam. Iran has the Christian West realize that Islam demolished the American superpower’s myth with its laws and beliefs was the of invincibility by standing up to its threats and biggest obstacle to their control and not bowing to its demands. Following Iran’s domination of the world. That is why example, Muslims all over the world have they harbored resentment and treated it started fighting and expressing their Islamic unjustly. Then more than three feelings. Khamenei posits a struggle during the centuries ago, came the evil colonists last twenty years between two competitive who found in the Muslim world their camps on the world political scene--the camp of long sought object. To achieve their arrogance led by America and the Islamic camp ambitions they labored to create the led by the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Islamic conditions that would lead to the camp has advanced and gained victories with annihilation of Islam. Missionaries, Islamic movements coming to power in various Orientalists, the information media--all states. Khamenei goes on to review the history are in the service of the colonialist of United States interference in Iran--a history countries and all are guilty of distorting of “America delivering blows to us, betraying Islam in a way that has caused many us, stabbing us in the back by plotting coups Muslims to steer away from it and not d’etat….” In the Iraq-Iran war, America find their way back to it. Whilst Islam supported Iraq against Iran. America has is the religion of struggle for right, harmed Iran more than anyone else, and it fully justice, freedom and independence, deserves the title “The Great Satan” because “it those enemies have portrayed it in a engages in evil, in treachery, in murder and distorted manner, even in the academic because it is arrogant.” America is also “the world, aiming at extinguishing its flame greatest supporter of the Zionist regime which and robbing it of its revolutionary has thrown out an Islamic nation from its character. They teach that Islam has no homeland.”(42) relevance to society and government Iranian revolutionary hate discourse against and is only concerned with private America also affected Sunni fundamentalist rituals. These enemies have implanted groups. The World Islamic Front in its their falsehoods in the minds of the gathering in London on February 23, 1998, Muslim people with the help of their which included among others Usama bin-Laden agents, and have managed to eliminate (al-Qa‘ida), Ayman al-Zawahiri (al-Jihad), Islam’s judiciary and political laws Abu-Yasir Taha (Jama‘at Islamiyya), Mir from the sphere of application, Hamza (Jamiatul Ulama-e-Pakistan), and Fazlul replacing them by European laws. The Rahman (Jihad Movement Bangladesh), issued colonialists and their lackeys claim a statement: “Jihad Against Jews and there is a separation between state and Crusaders” in which the United States was Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 35 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle identified as the main enemy of Islam for and the south for the Shia), and that they plot a occupying Islamic holy land in the Arabian similar partition in Saudi-Arabia: one mini-state Peninsula, and for fighting against the Iraqi around the Holy cities of Mecca and Medina, and Palestinian peoples. In this endeavor the one in the middle, and one in the oil-rich Americans have forged an alliance with the Eastern region.(46) other great enemy of Islam, the Zionists and the Jews: “All these crimes and sins committed by Anti-Semitism the Americans are a clear declaration of war on Compared to Christian Europe, Islam has a God, his messenger, and Muslims.” The Front good record of treating Jews with tolerance issued a fatwa declaring it an individual duty over many centuries, seeing them as protected (fard ’ayn) on all Muslims to kill the Americans dhimmis and as legitimate “people of the book” and their allies wherever possible in order to (ahl al-kitab). Traditional Muslims did not see liberate al-Aqsa in Jerusalem and the Holy the Jews who had resisted Muhammad as Mosque in Mecca from their grip, and in order representative of all Jews in all times and to drive out their armies from all Muslim places. In contrast, modern Islamic lands.(43) fundamentalists, reacting to the Israel- Usama bin-Laden sees two parties battling Palestinian conflict, have developed a virulent each other: on the one hand is World new form of anti-Semitism that see Jews Christianity allied to Zionist Jewry and led by everywhere and at all times involved in a the United States, Britain and Israel; on the sinister plot to destroy Islam. Selectively using other hand there is the Muslim world.(44) The the same anti-Jewish sources of Quran and conspiracy led by America, Britain and Israel is Hadith as the traditionalists, they blur the the great enemy, an infidel Crusader-Jewish distinctions between anti-Semitism and anti- alliance under the cover of the United Nations Zionism, and propagate the view of all Jews fighting against the people of Islam. This everywhere and at all times as the enemies of alliance is said to have spilt Muslim blood in God and as conspirators against Islam. Islamists massacres perpetrated in Palestine, Iraq, have imbibed much of modern Western Lebanon, Tajikistan, Burma, Kashmir, Assam, irrational fascist and Nazi ideologies, with their Philippines, Somalia, Eritrea, Chechnya and racist anti-Semitism. In order to excuse modern Bosnia.(45) Muslim weakness and the sense of shame and The greatest outrage of all is the stationing humiliation it engenders, they target all Jews as of American troops in Saudi Arabia, which is convenient scapegoats.(47) an outright infidel occupation of the “land of It was mainly as a result of Qutb’s invective the two Holy Places the foundation of the house that Anti-Semitism has become a marker of of Islam, the place of the revelation, the source fundamentalist movements while also infecting of the message and the place of the noble the mainstream of Muslim society, especially in Ka’ba, the Qiblah of all Muslims.” Some the Arab world. Qutb used racist stereotypes regimes in Muslim states, including the Saudi and forgeries of Western anti-Semitism such as government, have joined this evil alliance, the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (translated becoming mere puppets of the Americans and into Arabic and widely distributed in the suppressing faithful ulama who would reveal Muslim world).(48) As a result, Islamic the truth to their people. Westerners living in fundamentalism today sees itself involved in a the Arabian Peninsula are not people of the cosmic struggle against “the Jews” and has book, but infidels occupying Muslim Holy developed a comprehensive new doctrine of Land and must be expelled by violent jihad. Muslim-Jewish relations.(49) Bin-Laden also accuses the Western powers of For Qutb, modern-day Jews are identical to plotting to divide Iraq into three mini-states (the their ancient forefathers at the time of north for the Kurds, the middle for the Sunni, Muhammad, who “confronted Islam with 36 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan

Enmity from the moment that the Islamic state guise of political leaders who betray their own was established in Medina. They plotted against people: “Therefore the struggle between Islam the Muslim Community from the first day it and the Jews continues in force and will became a Community.”(50) Since then, all Jews continue, because the Jews will be satisfied have always been wicked enemies of Islam, and only with the destruction of this religion the contemporary Muslim ’umma continues to (Islam).”(55) be attacked by the very same Jews and their: Usama bin-Laden’s views reveal the mixture “Machinations and double dealings which of traditional and modern anti-Jewish discomfited the Early Muslims....The Jews sentiments. He states that the Jews want to continue–through their wickedness and double- divide the Muslim world, enslave it and loot its dealing–to lead this (Muslim) community away wealth, and that they use Western powers to from its religion and to alienate it from its achieve these aims.(56) The Jews in the past Qur’an.…Anyone who leads this Community attacked the Prophets and accused Mary the away from its Religion and its Qur’an can only mother of Jesus, who is revered in Muslim be a Jewish agent ....”(51) tradition, of a great sin. They believe all other Qutb accuses the Jews of having conspired humans were created to be exploited by them, to poison the Islamic heritage, including and engage in killing, raping and stealing. They Quranic exegesis, by inserting falsehoods in the have managed to install governments in “Islamic Oral Heritage” in order to confuse America that serve as their agents and do their Muslims.(52) Jews are inherently evil because bidding.(57) all through the ages they have rebelled against Some of these views are reflected in sources God. As a result, “From such creatures who using the modern innovation of the internet to kill, massacre and defame prophets one can combine radical Islamic views on politics and only expect the spilling of human blood and power with blatant anti-Semitism of the modern dirty means which would further their Western racial sort. One example is the “al- machinations and evilness.” They are Bayan” site whose chief editor is Jamaaluddin characterized by ingratitude, selfishness, al-Haidar, an American Islamist writer and fanaticism, isolationism, and hatred for all activist based in Houston, Texas. When dealing others, always fomenting dissension in their with Jews it combines references to Quranic host societies, exploiting all disasters to profit and Hadith sources derogatory of Jews with from the misery of others. They utilize usury to modern Western anti-Jewish discourse such as accumulate wealth, infiltrate societies, and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion and articles dominate the whole world.(53) obviously gleaned from the Christian neo-Nazi Qutb states that Jews have been behind hard right fringe such as: “The Truth About the every misfortune that befell the Muslims Talmud: An Expose on the Roots of Zionism” through the ages, Zionism being but the latest and “EXPOSED!: The AIPAC Tapes Revisited: in the long line of Jewish plots against Islam. Evidence of Zionist stranglehold over Clinton He identifies modern secular philosophy as a White House and US Congress.”(58) In an trap laid by world-wide Judaism in order to article in which Haidar calls on Muslims of destroy barriers of creed, weaken society, and various convictions to drop their petty internal enable Jews to penetrate every country with quarrels (the lesser kufr) in order to unite in their “satanic usurious activity” which will fighting the “greater kufr”, he names the Jews finally “deliver the proceeds of all human toil as the common enemy, stating: into the hands of the great usurious Jewish financial institutions.”(54) He also claims that They [the Jews] are vampires, and Orientalism has been infiltrated by Jews who vampires do not live on vampires. They poison Western academic studies of Islam. cannot live only among themselves. Jews have even infiltrated Muslim states in the They must subsist on Christians and Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 37 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle

other people not of their race. If you do who regularly blamed Jews for every not exclude them, in less than 200 years catastrophe and crisis. It was modern Zionism our descendants will be working in the and the creation of the State of Israel that fields to furnish them sustenance while changed this perception, he says, turning Jews they will be in the counting houses into enemies of Arabs and Muslims. However, rubbing their hands. (i.e., Jewish- Tamimi warns against the shift in Muslim dominated Wall Street in New York perceptions, created by a re-reading of history City).(59) and a re-interpretation of the sacred texts, which views all Jews everywhere as always Another example is Ahmed Rami, a former corrupt and scheming against Islam. He lieutenant in the Moroccan army who fled to recognizes the primary contribution of modern Sweden following his involvement with Western-Christian anti-Jewish writings military coups in Morocco in the early 1970s, including the “Protocols of the Elders of Zion” and has set up a radio station called Radio to the emerging Islamist anti-Semitism that Islam which broadcasts and publishes virulent concludes that Jews have hatched a global ant-Semitic material, targeting Zionism and the conspiracy aiming at imposing their control Jews as the “only one enemy” of Islam and of over the whole world. Tamimi also accepts that mankind, and includes excerpts from the hostility to the Zionist project has blurred the “Protocols of the Elders of Zion” and American traditional distinction between the Quranic extreme right wing racist and anti-Semitic condemnation of some Jews for their bad supremacist material. He has forged links with conduct, and the Quranic injunction to give both American and Russian anti-Semitic Jews and Christians covenant rights, the groups. He sees Jewish conspiracies behind all violation of which is a grave sin(62). Western regimes and some Arab regimes like Tamimi warns fellow Muslims against Morocco, which he terms “Judaeocracies”. He failing to make distinctions between Zionist and claims that a “Zionist Mafia” and Jewish anti-Zionist Jews, and he calls for a revision intellectual terrorism have overpowered and a re-interpretation of sources and an Western systems (as in Sweden), and that “the elimination of false concepts that do not power over banks, mass media and commercial distinguish between them. This revision calls and industrial life is in the hands of a small for a restoration of the contextual interpretation group of ‘the chosen people’. All education in of Quranic texts which clearly distinguish schools and universities is carried on in a way between evil and righteous Jews, and will which is favorable to the ‘master race’. ”(60) prepare the Muslim world for the post-Israel Ahmad also published a letter to his station in period when, due to the retreat of the West which the writer urges that “it is time for coinciding with the Muslim political revival, Muslims and Christians to stop fighting each the state of Israel will disappear–but Jews will other and see the REAL enemy!”(61) remain.(63) Azzam Tamimi, a disciple of Ghannouchi Some fundamentalists further away from the and Director of the Institute of Islamic Political Middle East take a more moderate stand on the Thought in London, represents a more Jewish question. Khurram Murad (1932-1996), moderate Islamist fundamentalist viewpoint a highly respected scholar and leader of the when he recognizes that during the first thirteen Pakistani Jama‘at-i Islami argues that the centuries of Islam the Muslim perception of primary purpose of Quranic accounts of the Jews as protected people of the book alongside failings of the Jews was not to condemn the Christians never changed. They were accorded Jews of the Prophet’s time, but to provide a a safe haven in Muslim lands from Christian case study of what may go wrong with any persecution and allowed to participate in the individual believer or believing community. Islamic State. It was Christians, not Muslims, The Jews had been the “Muslim Ummah of 38 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan their times” and the history of their deviation is citizen stereotype, moral conflicts imposed by given as a warning, a mirror placed before secular authorities stir their conscience and shift Muslims of all times to see a true reflection of them to passive civil disobedience that can themselves in their response to God’s move on to activist violent modes.(68) revelation: “This ‘mirror’ shows Muslims what The fundamentalist tendency to continually can go wrong, where, and why, and the stress issues that evoke deep emotional consequences.” Muslims, says Murad, “are no resonance can eventually wear down different...As the Prophet said: ‘You will follow psychological barriers to violent action. the ways of Bani Israel, step by step’.” Murad Religious issues evoke primordial concepts of sees great similarities between the history of the identity and values lending added ferocity to Jews and the Muslim ‘umma’s later deviation conflicts. While state violence might destroy from Sharia, both leading to similar some organizations, new radical groups always consequences of subjugation by alien emerge to continue the fight. Religions are not powers.(64) inherently more prone to violence than other ideologies, but they do contain the potential for LEGITIMATION OF RESISTANCE AND violence alongside their potential for peace and VIOLENCE reconciliation. Religions generally subject Radical fundamentalists see militancy as a violence to detailed ethical regulations that defense against modern secularizing tendencies define the legitimacy of their targets and threatening to destroy religion. In response, methods. But religious groups and their they are willing to break state laws in the name guidelines can be easily manipulated by of a higher sacred law.(65) As bearers of a unscrupulous leaders.(69) revolutionary ideology, fundamentalists are actively engaged in recruiting, mobilizing and Fundamentalist Views on Jahiliyya and Takfir organizing for the showdown with the hostile In traditional Islam the term jahiliyya systems. denotes the historic condition of immoral Not all states are innocent victims of terror. paganism and crude ignorance in pre-Islamic States enforce conformity to their own Arabia. It has always had a pejorative sense, worldview, labeling groups that deny their and ignorance of the jahiliyya period still legitimacy or use violence as terrorists against prevails in most Muslim societies, while studies whom state violence is legitimate.(66) As many of jahiliyya that do not fit Islamic perspectives observers point out, in the Muslim world the are branded anti-Islamic. For most Muslims, state is often as culpable as the fundamentalist traditional and fundamentalist, real history groups in this vicious cycle of repression and began with Islam–anything before it is jahiliyya violence.(67) and therefore of no value except as a Fundamentalisms tend to see contemporary counterpoint Islamic greatness.(70) modern and post-modern society as essentially Fundamentalists have however reinterpreted neo-pagan, reverting to the immorality and jahiliyya, applying it to present day societies, antinomianism of the pre-Islamic polytheistic rulers, and regimes. Viewing only Sharia-based heathen civilizations (jahiliyya). This reversion regimes as really legitimate, some have to paganism serves as a main legitimization for reinterpreted the traditional concepts of concepts of civil disobedience and resistance to jahiliyya and takfir in their attempts to justify immoral and evil government regulations. the use of force against other Muslims and Fundamentalist civil disobedience is rooted in against state-regimes. situations where mere men command what God Radical and mainline movements differ over explicitly forbids in revealed scripture. While the application of jahiliyya to Muslim society most fundamentalists have an affinity to the and states. The central question for Islamists is model of the conservative, law-abiding, good the extent of jahiliyya: does it apply to society Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 39 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle as a whole or only to the regime? Does it Arab nationalist regime of Egyptian President include the bureaucracy and the military? The Gamal Abdel Nasser and granted asylum to ‘ulama’ establishment? If the entire society, not many of them, there has been a process of just the government, is jahili, then this cross-fertilization and integration between legitimizes attacks on civilians who are Wahhabism and contemporary fundamentalism. effectively apostates. There is no neutral Radical Saudi opposition figures such as ground.(71) For extreme Muslim Muhammad al-Mas‘ari and Usama bin-Laden fundamentalists, jahiliyya is the present carry this integrated Wahhabi-fundamentalist condition of a society that by its non- legacy.(75) The Afghan jihad against the implementation of full Sharia reveals its Soviets saw these concepts, pushed both by rebellion against God’s sovereignty. All Wahhabi and fundamentalist mujahidin, Western society and the international radicalizing Pakistani and Afghani traditional organizations dominated by it are jahili as are reform movements of the Deobandi school like all Muslim regimes. Jamiat-e Ulema-i Islam, which eventually gave Since the violent seventh-century khariji birth to the Taliban movement.(76) rebellions the ‘ulama’ have recognized the The large mainline fundamentalist dangers of takfir (official labeling as movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood, apostate),(72) ruling that it cannot be used although using the jahili concept in their against professing Muslims. The Wahhabis of discourse, follow the tradition of not Arabia were the first to re-introduce the khariji pronouncing takfir on any Muslim, accepting concept of takfir into their doctrinal worldview. claims of belonging to the faith at face value, Muhammad Ibn ’Abd al-Wahhab (1691-1787), while leaving the judgment of intentions to founder of the Wahhabi movement that later God. gave birth to the Saudi-Arabian state, used Qutb taught that the main cause of the loss takfir both against non-Muslims and against of moral values affecting Christian and Muslim Muslims he defined as hypocrites or infidels. societies is the return of humanity to paganism He was also the first to expand the concept of (jahiliyya) and the dethroning of God from His jahiliyya to include Muslim societies of his rightful sovereignty and rule (hakimiyya). In his time that had diverted from the pure path of view, jahiliyya is not a pre-Islamic historical Quran and Sunna by their sins of shirk (the era of paganism but rather an ever-present great sin of associating others with God), condition of denying God’s rule, usurping His especially in the veneration of saints and their authority, and living by man-made laws that tombs.(73) Designating Muslims as jahilis and enslave men to their rulers, engendering kafirs opened the way for proclaiming jihad oppression. Qutb identifies the enemy as all against them.(74) Early Wahhabism influenced jahili societies, thus supplying a specific focus contemporary fundamentalist movements in for revolutionary action. Jahiliyya is always Egypt via Rashid Rida (1865-1935), who evil in whatever form it manifests itself, always accepted many of their ideas in formulating the seeking to crush true Islam. Jihad by force (bil contemporary salafi worldview. saif) must be used to annihilate jahili regimes The Saudi government, while battling a and replace them by true Muslim ones.(77) homegrown radical Islamist opposition that Qutb claimed that the first step towards included bin-Ladin, has encouraged and Islamic renewal is to judge all societies, financed modern Wahhabi movements across institutions, and regimes by the criteria of true the Muslim world as well as every variety of tawhid and hakimiyya. All those that do not radical Islamist movement abroad, thus fulfill these criteria are to be proclaimed jahili. spreading these concepts in contemporary All Western societies, Christian, Jewish, Muslim societies. Since the 1950s, when Saudi Communist, and all contemporary Muslim Arabia supported Egyptian Islamists against the societies are denounced as jahili, and no truly 40 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan

Islamic state exists in the world today. This ’Abdessalam Faraj, the founder of al-Jihad, pronouncement of individuals and communities did not see all of society as jahili, nor did he as apostate (takfir) made them into legitimate reject the four madhabs. Rather, each individual targets for active jihad. Qutb’s reinterpretation in society is to be treated according to whether of jahiliyya and takfir unsheathed a tempting he is a true Muslim or a jahil. Faraj interpreted weapon for radicals: the possibility of Ibn-Taymiyya as teaching that while the masses pronouncing all rival groups and individuals as are composed of both Muslims and jahilis kuffar–thus paving the way for indiscriminate intermixed, the rulers are all jahili because terror as practiced by al-Jama‘at al-Islamiyya in while claiming to be Islamic they rule Egypt or by the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) in according to their own whims.(82) Algeria.(78) Following Qutb’s reinterpretations, radical Discourse on jihad movements use the concepts of jahiliyya and The other concept used to legitimize takfir to legitimize their actions. They are violence is jihad, which is a very popular willing to denounce as kuffar whole societies notion in Islamic heroic folklore and myth. (including Muslim ones) and regimes as well as Traditional Islam allowed only competent individuals. According to the radicals, the ‘ulama’ to declare jihad after due deliberation, failure to implement Sharia in any state makes and it was hedged in by elaborate conditions. In that state a jahili state under takfir, and all true contrast, Islamic fundamentalists have Muslims are duty-bound to wage jihad against popularized jihad as an effective tool against all its regime. Radical movements, such as al- enemies in their struggle for an Islamic state, Jama‘at al-Islamiyya and al-Jihad in Egypt, with lay leaders arrogating to themselves the claim that gradualist attempts at reform are un- authority to issue declarations of jihad. Some Quranic, and view most regimes in Muslim indeed turn it into a sixth pillar of Islam–the countries as in a state of jahiliyya resembling missing or forgotten obligation. the Arabs in pre-Islamic times. However, for While accepting that the individual internal contemporary radicals modern jahiliyya is far struggle is important, many fundamentalists see worse as it includes the rejection of the message jihad, striving in God’s way, as mainly an of Islam: “It is not a jahiliyya of ignorance, but external struggle against societal evil, a defense a jahiliyya of conscious rejection.”(79) against enemies, and as a strategy for spreading Shukri Mustafa, leader of the Egyptian Islam so as to establish a true Islamic system Takfir wal-Hijra, for example, declared both based on Sharia. The only question is whether regime and society as in a state of jahiliyya and the goal is to be achieved by a peaceful struggle under takfir, and ordered true Muslims to or by a violent effort. Radicals go beyond the separate from them all.(80) He viewed all concept accepted by mainline movements of a Islamic communities since Muhammad and the gradual struggle to improve society (reserving Rashidun Caliphs as jahili. All traditions the use of force for defense against aggressors), following Quran and Sunna (including the four to include aggressive violent action aimed at main judicial schools of thought, the madhabs) taking over power in the state. Some justify are mere traditions of men and therefore jahili. attacks on other Muslim and non-Muslim jahili They are unnecessary as the Quran was given in states, seen as dar-al-harb (the house of war), plain Arabic and is absolutely clear for every in order to impose the Islamic system and Muslim. By closing the door of ijtihad, i.e., Sharia on the whole world. individual initiative in reinterpreting Islamic Hasan al-Banna (1906-1949), a main early principles, the four imams who founded those leader of the contemporary Islamic resurgence, schools had made themselves into tawaghit, founder of the mainline Muslim Brotherhood in pagan idols, interposing themselves as Egypt, saw jihad as a God-ordained defensive mediators between God and the believer.(81) strategy, stating that most Islamic scholars, Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 41 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle

“Agree unanimously that jihad is a communal to God, legal and social justice is practiced, defensive obligation imposed upon the Islamic greed and usury are eliminated. ummah in order to broadcast the summons (to When there is no such freedom, it becomes embrace Islam), and that it is an individual incumbent upon Muslims to launch a struggle, obligation to repulse the attack of unbelievers initiating an activist movement committed to upon it.” However, as a result of unbelievers restoring their freedom and destroying the ruling Muslim lands and humbling Muslim regimes that deny people the freedom to listen honor, “It has become an individual obligation, to the message of Islam and force them to bow which there is no evading, on every Muslim to to their own sovereignty rather than to that of prepare his equipment, to make up his mind to Allah. Having annihilated the tyranny, Islam engage in jihad, and to get ready for it until the then establishes a new social, economic and opportunity is ripe and God decrees a matter political system, in which all men and women which is sure to be accomplished.”(83) enjoy real freedom. The purpose of jihad bil- Banna does not accept as sound the Hadith saif is to introduce true freedom for mankind that claims the jihad of the spirit is the greater and prepare the way for a free preaching of jihad, and the jihad of the sword the lesser Islam to all humanity. This it accomplishes by jihad, and he glorifies active defensive jihad: using all resources practically available in any “The supreme martyrdom is only conferred on given human situation, and developing in those who slay or are slain in the way of God. definite stages, in each of which it utilizes As death is inevitable and can happen only appropriate new methods.(86) once, partaking in jihad is profitable in this Mawdudi seems to go a step further, world and the next.”(84) explaining jihad as the revolutionary struggle to Ghannouchi promotes the defensive nature establish God’s just order on earth “To bring of jihad. The Quran “condemns aggression and about a revolution and establish a new order in oppression and recognizes the legitimate right conformity with the ideology of Islam.” This of an oppressed to resist and even fight in order struggle is undertaken not for selfish reasons, to deter oppression.” The Quran accepts the fact but to earn God’s pleasure, the aim being not to of conflict as a natural feature of human “replace Caesar with Caesar” but to establish a development: as evil spreads so the fight “just and equitable social order among human against it must intensify. The Quran calls for beings.” In this struggle Muslims are to expend the establishment of truth and justice both by all their possessions including their lives in the peaceful means and by jihad.(85) fight against evil “so that evil and contumacy Qutb views jihad as both defensive and may be eradicated and Allah’s Law enforced on offensive, stating that jahiliyya is always evil in earth”. Mawdudi explains that it is the duty of whatever form it manifests itself and jihad by true believers to “wipe out oppression, force (bil saif) must be used to annihilate evil wrongdoing, strife, immorality, arrogance and jahili regimes, replacing them by Islamic unlawful exploitation from the world by force systems. Jihad bil-saif is not aimed at of arms. It is their objective to shatter the myth individuals – “there is no compulsion in of the divinity of ‘demi-gods’ and false deities, religion” defines Islam’s attitude to individuals. and to reinstate good in the place of evil.” However, to guarantee the free choice of Under an evil government evil systems takes accepting true Islam, individuals must live in a root and flourish and no pious order can ever be Muslim environment where no impediment is established. This is why the Islamic party has placed on the implementation of Sharia. The no option but to wrest the authority of goal of jihad is to free people from enslavement government from wicked hands and transfer it to other men so that they might serve God alone to the hands of true Muslims.(87) in a society where all can see Islam operating as The radicals view jihad as both aggressive God intended: all are free, all are equally slaves and imperative. Shukri Mustafa claimed that as 42 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan both society and regime in Egypt are under God for dealing with the world and applicable takfir, both are the first enemy to be dealt with in all times and places.(90) Jihad is aimed at by jihad. Israel, the enemy far away would unbelievers against whom war must be waged come later. Open jihad however is not to be at all times, and it is the means by which to initiated until Takfir reaches its phase of establish khilafa, after removing the strength.(88) disbelieving rulers who have usurped God’s Faraj of al-Jihad declared both regime and position, and of establishing God’s law as its employees as jahili and under takfir, supreme. Jihad is also the only way by which to therefore jihad against them is justified and recover lost Muslim lands. Jihad is an imperative. Active jihad was God’s solution to obligation on all Muslims and it is an the problem of dealing with apostate rulers. unforgivable crime to abandon it. Faraj was Faraj taught that violent jihad against all right to label it “The Forgotten Obligation”. unbelievers is the suppressed sixth pillar of However, jihad must be waged only in the Islam, the main religious duty of true Muslims, framework of a jama’a based on Sharia.(91) superior to all other forms of struggle, which ’Abdullah Azzam, (1941-1989), a prominent must be given top priority. True Islam means Palestinian jihad fighter in Afghanistan, immediate and continuous jihad against considered by many to be bin-Laden’s mentor, Egypt’s atheist ruler and state. Focusing on repudiated the Hadith about the “greater jihad” achieving political power, Faraj gave priority to as inauthentic. He saw jihad as the greatest an immediate coup against the regime, seizure religious obligation after faith (Iman). It is of political power, and the assassination of the God’s ordained method for establishing Islam “evil prince.” The first target had to be the in the world, a “battle…for the reformation of enemy at home–external enemies would be mankind, that the truth may be made dominant dealt with later. There was no excuse for and good propagated.”(92) ’Azzam claimed postponing the confrontation that was to be that jihad is the apex of a staged process that waged by violence and the mobilization of the includes hijra (migration), preparation, and masses. Killing true Muslims enlisted by the ribat (defensive living on the frontline). Only regime was justified by reference to prophetic the ill, the crippled, children, women who example and famous commentators, as was the cannot emigrate, and the aged are excused from infiltration of the enemy camp and the use of this duty, which is an act of communal worship deception in overthrowing the regime. Faraj of God conducted under a recognized criticized other groups for their gradualist leader.(93) strategy of involvement in the political system Following Faraj, ’Azzam claims that this as only strengthening the regime. He dealt with obligation has been forgotten, and its neglect is various excuses put forward for postponing the cause of contemporary Muslim humiliation. active jihad or interpreting it as defensive or When not under direct attack by unbelievers, non-violent and concluded that they were all jihad is a communal obligation (fard kifaya) wrong and that active and immediate jihad is where it is sufficient that the armed forces the only strategy for achieving an Islamic protect the borders and the Imam sends out an state.(89) army at least once a year “to terrorize the Ibrahim, Abdul-Majid, and Darbaalah, who enemies of Allah”. However, when kuffar are close to al-jama’a al-Islamiyya, criticize occupy Muslim land, jihad becomes a Muslims who believe that jihad is only compulsory individual obligation on every permitted in self-defense, or that jihad should single Muslim (fard ‘ayn) and remains so until be postponed for various reasons. They state the liberation of the last occupied piece of that jihad is one of the three practices, da’wa Muslim land. ’Azzam offers quotes from the (the call to Islam), hisba (public order in four madhabs to support this view. As infidels accordance with Sharia), and jihad, ordained by today occupy Muslim lands in Palestine, Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 43 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle

Afghanistan (in the 1980s), Kashmir, and other jihad.(98) This is especially true of Shia places, it is clear that the obligation is a fundamentalists,(99) but has also motivated personal one on all Muslims. ’Azzam Sunni groups to encourage and organize acts of recommends concentrating first on Afghanistan violent martyrdom.(100) and Palestine “because they have become our Shari’ati lays great stress on martyrdom as a foremost problems.”(94) revolutionary weapon. Its utility lies in its being ’Azzam also calls for Muslims to give up an integral part of Shi’ite ideology motivating narrow nationalism and let their vision extend men to become the martyrs who are the beyond national borders “that have been drawn heartbeat of history. The martyrdom of up for us by the Kuffar.” He repudiates all Hussein, Muhammad’s grandson and a role arguments against the immediate prosecution of model for Shia Muslims, is the great paradigm, jihad, such as the lack of a qualified Amir a protest against tyranny and a witness to the (princely leader), internal squabbles among true values of Islam, guaranteeing that faith Muslims, or the lack of manpower. Nothing would survive. Martyrdom is a legitimate annuls the obligation of fighting in the defense deliberate choice which will strengthen future of Muslim lands. Indeed, the conduction of generations whilst shaming the evil powers of jihad is part of the process of uniting Muslims the enemy. It is a true jihad that guarantees and establishing a real Caliphate.(95) honor, faith, and the future of the powerless. It Usama bin-Laden does not theorize about transforms Shi’ites from passive "guardians of jihad, but simply claims that it is part of the the cemeteries" to active followers of Ali and Islamic religion, especially relevant in the case Hussein, fighting for truth on every front. of repelling infidel invaders. The stationing of Referring to the place and date of Hussein’s Western military bases on the soil of Muslim death, he states : states constitutes an occupation by infidels, a “In the permanent battle of history – clear cause for jihad.(96) In his notorious everywhere and everyplace, all fields are “Ladinese Epistle” in which he declared jihad Karbala, all months are Moharram, all days are against America, he bases himself on Ibn- Ashura....” Taymiyya who stressed the importance of Shari’ati argues that when false religion is dealing with the “greater kufr” before dealing established, when all avenues of protest are with other, lesser kufrs based on the principle of closed, when potential revolutionaries are necessity. It is a religious duty to repel the bribed, co-opted or killed, then Hussein's model greatest danger even if it means ignoring teaches man to be a martyr, and by his death smaller enemies for a while. He identifies the become a witness to the truth and a shaker of greater kufr as America, because of its the evil empire: “It is an invitation to all ages occupation of the Arabian Peninsula and its and generations that if you cannot kill, support of Israel.(97) die”.(101) The utility of the martyr motive to the The Discourse on Martyrdom and Suicide revolution was later demonstrated by the Missions myriads of idealistic young Iranians who found Active martyrdom is another area of their death on the killing fields of the Iraq-Iran reinterpretation and implementation. war when volunteering for duty as human Martyrdom (istishad) is being actively assault waves or living land-mine detonators, as encouraged and glorified by fundamentalists, well as by Hizballah activists in Southern and its rewards in the afterlife stressed to Lebanon. induce many to court it. Extreme The concept and the discourse around fundamentalists have revived the khariji and martyrdom and suicide missions was adopted assassin (Isma‘ili) traditions of suicide-killings by Sunni radicals and has become an important as a legitimate weapon in their contemporary component in their arsenal of weapons as 44 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan demonstrated by Palestinian Hamas and Jihad forbidden. A group of al-Azhar scholars suicide bombings in Israel and the suicidal published a fatwa supporting suicide attacks in attacks on the Twin Towers in New York by al- which people sacrifice themselves to protect the Qa’ida members. rights, honor and land of Muslims.(105) Traditional Islam forbids suicide (intihar), Following the attack on the Twin Towers, stressing that it is not part of the jihad discourse the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, Sheikh Abdul in Sharia and that it is a major sin. In addition, Aziz ibn-Abdullah ibn-Muhammed Al el it forbids the killing of non-combatants, Sheikh issued a statement that condemned the women, children and the elderly.(102) Most act as criminal on the grounds that Islam radicals agree that suicide is a major sin forbids hijacking of planes, the terrorizing of forbidden in Islam. However, they use Quranic innocent people, and the shedding of blood. verses, Hadith and cases from the early history This is representative of many regime scholars of Islam to prove either that the voluntary issuing statements justifying their government’s sacrifice of oneself in the cause of Islam support of the United States. However he did (including blowing oneself up as a living bomb) not touch on the question of martyrdom or with the objective of defending Muslims and suicide--a significant omission.(106) hurting their enemies, is not considered suicide but is a legitimate fight to the death.(103) Other SHIFT TO INTERNATIONALISM approaches are to claim that it is martyrdom, In the 1970s and 1980s, most radical Islamic which is different to suicide and legitimate in groups tended to focus their violent activities Islam or simply to affirm that suicide bombings on destabilizing and destroying the infidel are permissible as a form of fulfilling the regimes in their own states, following the individual duty (fard ‘ayn) of jihad. Feldner injunction of fighting the enemies at hand quotes Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi (1926-), before dealing with enemies further afield. The prominent Egyptian cleric and scholar, Head of 1990s saw a shift due to the catalytic effect of the Department of Sunna Studies at the the Afghan war against the Soviet occupation. University of Qatar, considered a moderate Thousands of volunteers from across the Muslim Brotherhood member, as arguing that Muslim world joined the jihad against the suicide bombings are “heroic operations of Soviets, and a measure of cooperation was martyrdom,” have nothing to do with suicide, forged between the widely divergent groups in and “are the supreme form of Jihad for the sake spite of many internal conflicts.(107) Their of Allah, and a type of terrorism that is allowed victory over the superpower, coupled to the by the Shari‘a”.(104) interchange of ideas and the links forged The intent behind the attempt fuels the between groups, helped internationalize the discussion. All agree that someone attempting movement. to end his life for personal reasons is Many Afghan veterans returning home after committing a forbidden act of suicide. the Soviet withdrawal instigated a Muhammad Sayyed Tantawi, Sheikh of al- radicalization of Islamist groups and a marked Azhar, argues that suicide operations are to be increase in violence in their home countries, regarded as martyrdom if the intention is to kill especially in Algeria and Egypt. Others enemy soldiers but not women or children. Al- however found new sponsors and moved to Qaradawi argued that they are legal even if other flashpoints where they sensed infidel women and children are killed because Israeli attacks on Muslim communities, such as society is militaristic by nature and women Kashmir, Bosnia, Chechnya, Kosovo and the serve in its army. However children and the Philippines. They have been instrumental in elderly should not be targeted, though if they intensifying the militancy of Islamist are killed accidentally this can be excused by movements in Indonesia and in sub-Saharan the principle of necessity which justifies the Africa.(108) Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 45 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle

Another interesting development of the 1990s was the relocation of the centers of many WHERE DOES USAMA BIN-LADEN FIT extremist movements from their countries of IN? origin to the West due to the repression of Bin-Laden is not an impassioned radical fundamentalists in their home countries. revolutionary radical like Qutb or Shariati, Many leaders and activists were exiled or went seeking social justice for the poor and into voluntary exile to Western Europe, the oppressed. Nor is he the product of harassment, United States and Canada, where they utilized imprisonment and torture at the hand of Muslim the relative freedom of operation granted them regimes as are the leaders of the Egyptian jihad in the secular-liberal democracies to set up their and jama’a groups. Rather, bin-Laden is a bases and networks. From the West they could product of traditional Saudi Wahhabism, more effectively oversee their networks, link up enjoying riches and a privileged position until with each other and propagate their doctrines his radicalization in the Afghan wars. However, back into their home countries using the he is impacted by his close association with modern globalizing technologies of fax, e-mail radical ideological Egyptian fundamentalist and the world-wide-web, while recruiting new groups such as al-jihad. members in the Western Muslim communities Bin-Laden does not mention the concepts of and raising the necessary finance for increased jahiliyya and takfir in his interviews, fatwas activities.(109) and statements. He focuses on jihad, as The Gulf War further radicalized these understood by the more traditionalist ulama--a groups by endorsing their perception of the defensive struggle against enemies who attack West as aiming to re-colonize Muslim states. and occupy Muslim lands. It was not Qutb’s Their sensibilities were especially enraged by theories and reinterpretations that mobilized the permanent stationing of American troops in him, but the Soviet invasion of Muslim Saudi Arabia. The presence of kafir soldiers Afghanistan and the stationing of American polluting the Holy Land of the two Holy troops in Saudi-Arabia. His focus is not on Shrines was perceived as an aggressive act of replacing the corrupt Saudi regime (though he infidels aimed at dominating the Muslim does label it as an American stooge whose turn heartland. will eventually come), but on fighting the The USA thus became an enemy near at external foes of Islam whoever they may hand and the major focus of attention for some be.(110) groups like al-Jihad and al-jama‘at al- What characterizes him is his pan-Islamic Islamiyya.. Usama bin-Laden’s al-Qa’ida was stance that does not recognize internal divisions in the forefront of those who encouraged in the umma and his sense of grievance at the interaction and networking between a large weakness of the whole umma and its continued variety of such movements around the world, humiliation at the hands of the West. His preparing for assaults that would really hurt and capabilities in administration and technical humiliate America. Petty squabbles and the matters as well as his charisma and motivating enmity to corrupt regimes in Muslim lands power and ability to form alliances across a became secondary in light of this jihad against wide spectrum of ideologies, have placed him the greater kufr. The results of this shift have in the forefront of radical Islamists using terror now been seen, among others, in the bombings to further their cause. He is not a shadowy of the American embassies in Nairobi and Dar secretive figure like other leaders of radical al-Salaam and in the dramatic attacks on the groups, but rather courts publicity, giving Twin Towers in New York using hijacked interviews and appearing on videos and TV civilian planes. programs. The staggering magnitude of his exploits in terms of victims and destruction, and his gift for public relations have made him the 46 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan darling of Muslim masses worldwide, appealing Islamic fundamentalists separation usually to their popular views of jihad, articulating their means emulating the Prophet’s hijra from sense of wounded pride and wish for revenge, Mecca to Medina interpreted as a temporary and identifying a highly visible scapegoat, the separation from the jahili environment in order United States, as the root of all evil and to consolidate the community’s strength and corruption. eventually return in power to destroy the evil system and establish God’s rule. While the CONCLUSION personal aspect of this separation is stressed by A main marker of fundamentalisms is the some, most Islamic discourse is on its political view of life as a constant battle between God’s expression, discussing whether it means total powers of good ranged against Satanic evil non-involvement with present regimes and powers. Fundamentalists call on believers to societies, or only partial separation as true fight and suffer patiently in God’s cause, Muslims seek to impact individuals in society stressing the militant attitude expected of and influence the general culture. believers in light of this emergency situation. Another interesting hallmark of Fundamentalists view history as a dialectical fundamentalisms is the thriving of conspiracy spiritual battle in which a stand for God’s truth theories. There is a tendency to identify will always involve confrontation. They use perceived enemies and unmask secret binary dichotomies to describe the world, conspirators. For Islamists, the perennial stressing that there can be no neutrality or enemies of Islam are the Crusading Christians, compromise, and that the opponents of God are the Jews, and secularism in its manifold totally corrupt and evil. They stress the manifestations. In contemporary Islamic supernatural aspects of this battle, as well as the fundamentalism, anti-Semitic rhetoric plays a fight in the realm of ideas, worldviews and dominant role. ideologies. In this battle two diametrically Fundamentalisms view contemporary opposed camps are battling for supremacy, the society as neo-pagan (jahili) in its repudiation central issue being that of God’s authority and of moral absolutes, its sexual permissiveness rule. Fundamentalists state that the Prophet and secular-atheistic worldview. They stress the Muhammad as well as the early Caliphs and need to resist the ungodly and evil dictates of Imams were radical revolutionaries who had such systems. Mainline groups view the initiated a new system that destroyed the struggle mainly in ideological terms and corrupt status quo, and that contemporary advocate involvement in civil society, Muslims must emulate that system. charitable work, and democratic politics to Some fundamentalists dedicate much change the evil system. Among radicals, discourse to the issue of the personal moral jahiliyya, takfir, and jihad, are the concepts struggle within the individual, stressing man’s used to justify armed resistance and violent dual nature and the importance of the struggle takeovers of government from corrupt and against temptation and evil in the development apostate regimes as well as indiscriminate acts of a godly and pious character. They use the of terrorism against all perceived enemies using metaphor of the lower evil self which has to be suicide missions as legitimate tools. While conquered and subdued in the greater jihad as a some see all of contemporary society as preparation for participation in the lesser jihad apostate and legitimate targets of violence, as against external enemies. there are no innocent neutrals, others claim it is Fundamentalisms advocate separatism to only the rulers, regimes and active helpers that varying degrees. This includes separation from may be targeted. personal evil and heretical teachings and More recently, following the war against the systems, leading many to set up their own Soviet Union in Afghanistan and the Gulf War, independent movements and institutions. For the focus of jihad has shifted to the United Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 47 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle

States as the main enemy of Islam. The main 1999); “Radical Islam in Egypt: A Comparison reason given is its permanent stationing of of Two Groups,” MERIA Journal, Vol. 3, No. 3 American troops in Saudi-Arabia, the Holy (September, 1999); and “The Copts–Equal, Land of Islam and its sanctions against Iraq that Protected or Persecuted? The Impact of have caused the death of hundreds of thousands Islamization on Muslim-Christian Relations in of children, in addition to its older sins of Modern Egypt,” Islam and Christian-Muslim supporting Israel against the Palestinians, and Relations, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1999. of exporting decadent immoral culture into Muslim societies. Radical groups have used NOTES modern technologies to build up loose web-like 1. Ameer Ali, "Islamism: Emancipation, Protest international organizational structures as well and Identity", Journal of Muslim Minority as to multiply the magnitude of damage caused Affairs, Vol. 20, No. 1 (2000), pp. 11-28; For a by their acts of terrorism especially against very thorough discussion of fundamentalisms American targets. across various religions, the reader is directed The concept of battle seems to have come to the 5-volume The Fundamentalist Project, full circle. Beginning with the desire to reform edited by Martin E. Marty & Scott Appleby Islam itself in an activist spiritual and published by the University of Chicago Press intellectual battle to remove inherent internal between 1991 and 1995. causes of the umma’s weakness and decadence, 2. Laura Guazzone, "Islamism and Islamists in it has developed an escapist version of the Contemporary Arab World", in Laura searching for scapegoats which were first Guazzone, ed., The Islamist Dilemma: The defined as corrupt regimes and institutions in Political Role of Islamist Movements in the Muslim states and societies and later identified Contemporary Arab World (Reading: Ithaca as external Western powers and especially the Press, 1995), pp. 10-12. United States and Israel. Reformist energies are 3. Salwa Isma‘il, Discourse and Ideology in being subverted and dissipated by venting all Contemporary Egypt, unpublished PhD thesis, the frustrations of the past few centuries of Department of Political Science, McGill dependency and humiliation on those identified University (1992), pp. 1-2, 89-92,112-116. as scapegoats. This appeal to populist notions 4. Lionel Caplan in Caplan, ed., Studies in of shame, wounded pride, and loss of honor Religious Fundamentalisms (Albany, NY: State being redeemable only by the shedding of University of New York Press, 1987), pp. 18- blood. The indiscriminate shedding of blood 19. has become the hallmark of radical movements 5. Mark Juergensmeyer, The New Cold War? from the Maghreb to the Pacific, its latest Religious Nationalism Confronts the Secular manifestation so vividly experienced in New State (Berkeley, CA: University of California York and Washington. Press, 1993), pp. 156-160. 6. The manipulation isn’t a monopoly of *David Zeidan is a research consultant in fundamentalists. Clever politicians happily Middle Eastern and Islamic Affairs. He has an manipulate these concepts to further their MA from the School of Oriental and African interests. Sometimes these manipulations Studies (University of London) in Middle East boomerang. A good example is Pakistan’s Area Studies, and a PhD in comparative support of various extremist groups in religions from the university of London for his Aghanistan and Kashmir to further its regional thesis: The Resurgence of Religion: A interests, which are now destabilizing the state. Comparative Study of Selected Themes in See Selig S. Harrison, "Pakistan: The Christian and Islamic Fundamentalisms. His Destabilisation Game", Le Monde publications include: “The Alevi of Anatolia”, diplomatique, October 2001. MERIA Journal, Vol. 3, No. 4 (December 48 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan

7. David C. Rapoport, "Comparing Militant people condemning Pakistan’s support for the Fundamentalist Groups," in Marty & Appleby, U.S. campaign against Afghanistan, Internet, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State (Chicago: . 431. 20. Rached Ghannouchi, "The Conflict 8. Sayyid Qutb, Milestones (Ma‘alim fil Tariq), Between the West and Islam: The Tunisian English Translation (Indianapolis: American Case: Reality and Prospects", a lecture Trust Publications, 1990), pp. 130-137. delivered at the Royal Institute of International 9. Qutb 1990, pp. 111-113. Affairs, Chatham House, London, May 9, 1995, 10. Israr Ahmad, "Atheistic Ideologies can be Internet, defeated only through the Qur’an", Tanzeem-e- , pp. 2-3; 7. Internet, . 21. Qutb, "Social Justice in Islam," pp. 70-71. 11. Abul Hasan Ali Nadwi. 1983. Muslims in 22. Ruhollah Khomeini, "Difference Between the West: The Message and Mission, edited by Bismillah of each Surah", in Mutahhari, Khurram Murad (Leicester: The Islamic Tabatabai, & Khumayni, Light Within Me Foundation, 1983), p. 94. (Qum: Ansariyan Publications, nd), pp. 139-44. 12. Sayyid Qutb, "Social Justice in Islam" in 23. ‘Abd al-Hamid Kishk, Dealing With Lust Shepard, W. ed., Sayyid Qutb and Islamic and Greed According to Islam (London: Dar Al Activism: A Translation and Critical Analysis Taqwa, 1995), pp. 143-145. of ‘Social Justice in Islam’ (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 24. Ibid., pp. 2-9, 133. 1996), pp. 309-311. 25. Qutb, Milestones, pp. 14-16. 13. Abul A‘la Mawdudi, Jihad fi Sabilillah 26. Ibid., pp. 113-114, 120. (Jihad in Islam), translated by Khurshid Ahmad 27. Nabeel T. Jabbour, The Rumbling Volcano: (Birmingham: UK Islamic Dawah Centre, Islamic Fundamentalism In Egypt (Pasadena, 1997), pp. 3, 8-9. CA: William Carey Library, 1993), pp. 143- 14. William Shepard, "Fundamentalism, 157; See also Gilles Kepel, The Prophet and Christian and Islamic", Religion, No 17 (1987), The Pharaoh: Muslim Extremism in Egypt p. 362. (London: al-Saqi, 1985), pp. 95-96, 150. 15. Nader Saiedi, "What is Fundamentalism?" 28. Hrair R. Dekmejian, 1985. Islam In in Hadden & Shupe, eds., Prophetic Religions Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World and Politics (New York: Paragon Press, 1986), (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, pp. 173-195. 1985), pp. 92-96, 101. 16. Qutb. 1990. pp. 101-102, 112. 29. Rapoport, "Comparing Militant 17. Abul A‘la Mawdudi, Let Us Be Muslims, Fundamentalist Groups," pp. 447, 450. edited by Khurram Murad (Leicester: The 30. Ibrahim, Abdul-Maajid, & Darbaalah, In Islamic Foundation, 1982), pp. 53-54. Pursuit of Allah’s Pleasure, pp. 30-31. The 18. Naahah Ibrahim, Asim Abdul Maajid, & authors, who are members of the Egyptian Esaam-ud-Deen Darbaalah, In Pursuit of Jama‘at Islamiyya movement, include in their Allah’s Pleasure (London: Al-Firdous, 1997), declaration of faith (‘aqeedah) the following pp. 199-201. items: "We have no doubt that the awaited 19. Usama bin-Laden, "Bin Laden’s Warning: Mahdee (or rightly-guided Imam) will come Full Text", Full text of a recorded statement forth from among the Ummah of the Prophet at broadcast on al-Jazeera television. BBC News, the end of time (on earth). We believe in the South Asia, Sunday, October 7, 2001, Internet: Signs of the Hour. The appearance of ad-Dajjal Messiah, or Antichrist). The descent from ewsid_1585000/1585636.stm>. See also CNN heaven of ‘Isa, son of Mary. The sun rising report on a letter by bin-Laden to the Pakistani from the West. The emergence of the Beast Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 49 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle from the earth. And other signs mentioned in 40. Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, The Islamic State the Qur’an and the authentic Hadeeth of the (London: Al-Khilafah Publications, nd), pp. Prophet". 188-192. 31. Walid M. Abdelnasser, The Islamic 41. Ruhollah Khomeini, "Islamic Government," Movement in Egypt (London: Kegan Paul in Donohue & Esposito, eds., Islam in International, 1994), p. 216. See also Derek Transition: Muslim Perspectives, pp. 314-315. Hopwood,. 1991. Egypt: Politics and Society 42. Ali Khamenei, "No Need for Iran-US 1945-1990 (London: Harper Collins Academic, Negotiations," excerpts from a khutbah 1991), p. 118. addressed to Tehran’s Friday worshippers on 32. Muhammad Abdessalam Faraj, Al-farida January 16, 1998. MSANEWS, January 27, al-gha’iba, translated, in Jansen, G.H., 1986. 1998. The Neglected Duty: The Creed of Sadat’s 43. World Islamic Front Statement, "Jihad Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle Against Jews and Crusaders," Internet, East (New York: Macmillan, 1986), pp. 163- . This fatwa was based on the 33. Juhayman and his followers seized the Quranic verses: "And fight the pagans all Grand Mosque in 1979 and had to be dislodged together as they fight you all together", and by the security forces in a violent siege. "fight them until there is no more tumult or 34. Ayman Al-Yassini, Religion and State in oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Boulder, CO: God." Westview Press, 1985), pp.124-129. 44. "Usamah Bin-Laden, the Destruction of the 35. Khaled Dawoud, "America’s Most Base", an Interview with Usama bin-Laden Wanted", Al-Ahram Weekly Online, Issue No. conducted by Jamal Isma‘il and aired 552, September 20-26, 2001. Dawoud states 10,June,1999. Published by The Terrorism that "For his followers, Bin Laden is not just a Research Centre, Internet, political figure, but has a status almost akin to . Laden’s ascetic lifestyle living in harsh 45. Usama bin-Laden, "Declaration of War surroundings in the mountains and caves of Against the Americans Occupying the Land of Afghanistan and surviving on a simple diet of the Two Holy Places" (1996), Internet, cheese, milk and dates. See also Daniel Pipes, ; See also "Terror Suspect", an ABC October 22, 2001. News interview with Usama bin-Laden 36. Ali Shariati. 1982. "Intizar: The Religion of conducted by Rahimullah Yousafsai in Protest and the Return to Self", in Donohue & December 1998, Internet, Esposito, eds., Islam in Transition: Muslim . Press, 1982), pp. 298-304; See also Ali 46. Ibid. Shariati, On the Sociology of Islam, tr. by 47. Martin Kramer, "The Salience of Islamic Hamid Algar (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1979), p. Antisemitism", Full text of a lecture delivered 124. by Prof. Kramer at the Institute of Jewish 37. Kate Zebiri, "Muslim Anti-Secularist Affairs in London and published in its Discourse in the Context of Muslim-Christian "Reports" series (no. 2, October 1995). Internet, Relations", Islam and Christian-Muslim 38. Qutb, Milestones, pp. 94-96. 48. Qutb, Milestones, pp. 94-96. 39. Qutb, "Social Justice in Islam," pp. 284- 49. Ronald L. Nettler, Past Trials and Present 288. Tribulations: A Muslim Fundamentalist’s View 50 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan of the Jews (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1987), 65. Rapoport, "Comparing Militant Foreword & p. x. Fundamentalist Groups," pp. 429-430. 50. Qutb, "Our Struggle With the Jews", in 66. William Herbrecht, "Religious Authenticity Nettler, Past Trials and Present Tribulations: A as a Function of State Power", in Bromley & Muslim Fundamentalist’s View of the Jews, p. Carter, eds., Religion and the Social Order, 81. vol.6, 1996: The Issue of Authenticity in the 51. Ibid., p. 72. Study of Religions (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 52. Qutb is here evidently referring to the 1996), pp. 20-21. Isra’iliyat. 67. Ahmad S. Moussalli,. "Modern Islamic 53. Qutb, "Our Struggles with the Jews"; See Fundamentalist Discourses on Civil Society, also Qutb, Milestones, pp. 94-96. Pluralism and Democracy", in Augustus R. 54. Qutb, "Social Justice in Islam", p. 303. Norton, ed., Civil Society in the Middle East 55. Qutb, "Our Struggles with the Jews", pp. (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1995), pp. 16-17. 75-85. 68. John H. Garvey, "Fundamentalism and 56. "Conversation with Terror", Interview with American Law", in Marty & Appleby, eds., Usama bin-Laden, TIME, January 11, 1999, pp. Fundamentalisms and the State, pp. 35-36. 34-35. 69. Rapoport, "Comparing Militant 57. "Talking with Terror’s Banker", an Fundamentalist Groups," pp. 439-440, 446-447. ABCNews interview with Usama bin-Laden 70. As‘ad Abu-Khalil, "The Incoherence of conducted by John Miller, May 28, 1998. Islamic Fundamentalism: Arab Islamic Thought Internet, at the End of the 20th Century", Middle East . 71. Strawson, John, "Encountering Islamic 58. Al-Bayan Homepage, Internet, Law," Essay presented at the Critical Legal . Conference, New College, Oxford, September 9 59. Jamaaluddin al-Haidar, "Sufi-vs-Salafi: The – 12, 1993. The World Wide Web Virtual Pot Calls the Kettle Black," Internet, Library: Islamic and Middle Eastern Law, . . p. 11. interview with Ahmad Rami, Radio Islam, July 72. The Kharijis seceded from ‘Ali’s camp in 15, 1997, Internet, 659AD because of his compromise with . committed sins to have become non-Muslim 61. "Right On!" by Jessie, Radio Islam, apostates worthy of death, and instigated many Internet, rebellions in the first centuries of Islam until . 73. Ende & Steinbach, eds., Der Islam in der 62. Azzam Tamimi, "Jews and Muslims in Gegenwart (Munchen: C.H.Beck, 1984), pp. Post-Israel Middle East", MSANEWS, 96-98. 30,June,1999, Internet, 74. al-Yasini, Religion and State in the . 75. Joseph Kostiner, "State, Islam and 63. Ibid. Opposition in Saudi Arabia", in Bruce Maddy- 64. Khurram Murad, 1996. Key to al-Baqarah: Wizman & Efraim Inbar, eds., Religious The Longest Surah of the Qur’an (Leicester: Radicalism in the Greater Middle East The Islamic foundation, 1996), pp. 15-19. (London: Frank Cass, 1997), pp. 75-89. Kostiner characterizes some opposition figures Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) 51 The Islamic Fundamentalist View of Life as a Perennial Battle as Wahabbis who are modern-educated and Eastern Studies, Vol. 16 (1984), pp. 136-137; influenced by ideas of the Muslim Brotherhood also Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or and radical revivalist groups in Egypt (p. 81). Reality? pp. 134-135. 76. On the rise of the Taliban, and on whether 90. Da‘wa is the missionary call to all people to they are traditionalists or fundamentalists, see submit to Islam, while hisba entails all the William Maley, "Interpreting the Taliban", in practical means of commanding the right and William Maley, ed., Fundamentalism Reborn? forbidding the wrong in society. Afghanistan and the Taliban (London: Hurst & 91. Ibrahim, Abdul-Maajid, & Darbaalah., Company, 1998), pp. 1-28.. Seeking Allah’s Pleasure, pp. 48-51, 76-77, 77. Qutb, Milestones, pp. 5-10, 15-17, 45-50, 115, 123. 66-67, 101, 123. 92. ‘Abdullah ‘Azzam, Defence of the Muslim 78. Ibid., pp. 64-68, 91-92, Lands (Ahle Sunnah Wal Jama‘at, nd), pp. 4-6. 79. Strawson, "Encountering Islamic Law," p. 93. ‘Abdullah ‘Azzam, Join the Caravan 11. (London: Azzam Publications, 1996), pp. 36- 80. Jabbour, The Rumbling Volcano: Islamic 38. Fundamentalism in Egypt, pp. 194-212; See 94. ‘Azzam, Defence of the Muslim Lands, pp. also Abdelnasser, The Islamic Movement in 7-17. Egypt, pp. 204-205. 95. ‘Azzam, Defence of the Muslim Lands, pp. 81. Dekmejian, Islam in Revolution: 29-33. Fundamentalism in the Arab World, pp. 92-96. 96. "Conversation with Terror", Interview with 82. Faraj, "al-Farida al-Gha’ibah", pp. 169-175; Usama bin-Laden in TIME, January 11, 1999, See also Kepel, The Prophet and the Pharaoh: pp. 34-35. See also "Terror Suspect", an ABC Muslim Extremism in Egypt, pp. 191-222; Also News interview with Usama bin-Laden Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? conducted by Rahimullah Yousafsai in (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), December 1998, Internet, pp. 134-135. . al-Banna (1906-1949): A Selection from the 97. Usama bin-Laden, 1996. "Declaration of Majmu‘at Rasa’il al-Imam al-Shahid (Bekeley, War Against the Americans Occupying the CA: University of California Press, 1978), pp. Land of the Two Holy Places", Internet, 150-151. . Qutb, Milestones, pp. 94-96. (1906-1949): A Selection from the Majmu‘at 98. Ziauddin Sardar, "Clinton Provokes a Jihad: Rasa’il al-Imam al-Shahid, pp. 155-156. Bin Laden vs Hasan-e Sabah", New Statesman, 85. Ghannouchi, "The Conflict Between the August 28, 1998. The assassins were an West and Islam: The Tunisian Case: Reality extreme Shia group of Nizari Ismailis who used and Prospects". suicide missions and political assassinations to 86. Qutb, Milestones, pp. 43-50. further their goals of establishing a worldwide 87. Mawdudi, Jihad fi-Sabil Allah, pp. 4-6, 10- Ismaili state. 11. 99. For a good introduction to contemporary 88. Jabbour, The Rumbling Volcano: Islamic Shia thought on martyrdom, see: Ali Shariati, Fundamentalism in Egypt, pp. 194-212; See Martyrdom: Arise and Bear Witness (Teheran: also Abdelnasser, The Islamic Movement in Ministry of Islamic Guidance, 1981), in which Egypt, pp. 204-205. Shariati stresses the importance of martyrdom 89. Faraj, "al-Farida al-Gha’ibah", pp. 159-179, as a revolutionary weapon. 186-189, 192-193, 207-213; See also Hamid 100. Olivier Roy, The Failure of Political Islam Ansari, "The Islamic Militants in Egyptian (London: I.B. Tauris, 1994), pp. 65-67; See Politics", International Journal of Middle also: Gabriel Ben-Dor, "The Uniqueness of 52 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 4 (December 2001) David Zeidan

Islamic Fundamentalism", in Maddy-Weizman 108. Richard Engel, "Inside Al-Qaeda: A & Inbar, eds., Islamic Radicalism in the Window into the World of Militant Islam and Greater Middle East, pp. 246-247; Shia the Afghani Alumni", Jane’s International martyrdom has a long pedigree beginning with Security News (28 September, 2001), Internet: that of ‘Ali and Hussein, which are annually ; See also political and military tool has been especially Simon Reeves, The New Jackals: Ramzi cultivated by Shia groups in Iran (Fedayin-i- Yousef, Osama bin Laden and the Future of Islam) and Lebanon (Hizbullah), and the Terrorism (London : Andre Deutsch, 2000,), Palestinian Hamas and Islamic Jihad groups, pp. 172-189; Also Shaul Shay & Yoram though it appears also in other arenas of Islamic Schweitzer, "The ‘Afghan Alumni’ Terrorism: struggle against perceived enemies as in Islamic Militants Against the Rest of the Afghanistan, Chechnya, etc. World", The International Policy Institute for 101. Shari‘ati, Martyrdom: Arise and Bear Counter Terrorism (November 6, 2000), Witness, pp. 12, 50-51,70-76, 89-91,94. Internet: 102. On the discussions between ulama’ on the the Palestinian uprising, see Yotam Feldner, 109. See Reeves, The New Jackals: Ramzi "Debating the Religious, Political and Moral Yousef, Osama bin Laden and the Future of Legitimacy of Suicide Bombings", The Middle Terrorism, p. 232, on the radical groups East Media & Research Institute Inquiry & establishing themselves in the USA. Analysis, No. 53 (May 2, 2001), Internet, 110. Diaa Rashwan, "A War over Resources, . Al-Ahram Weekly Online, September 20-26, 103. Abu Ruqaiyah. "The Islamic Legitimacy 2001. Rashwan makes a clear distinction of the ‘Martyrdom Operations’", Nida’ul Islam, between Islamist groups like Jihad and al-jamaa December/January 1996-7, Internet, al-slamiyya, who espouse internal jihad against . Islamic states, and groups like al-Qa’ida who 104. Yotam Feldner, "Debating the Religious, espouse external jihad against non-Muslim Political and Moral Legitimacy of Suicide enemies. Of course the co-operation between Bombings", The Middle East Media & the various groups in the Afghan war has led to Research Institute Inquiry & Analysis, No. 53, a shift of the first in the direction of the second. May 2, 2001, Internet: . 105. Feldner, "Debating the Religious, Political and Moral Legitimacy of Suicide Bombings"; See also No. 65, July 26, 2001, Internet, . 106. Article 6, Ain-al-Yaqeen (September 21, 2001), Internet: . 107. Differences were based on confessional Sunni-Shia lines, on ethnic and tribal rivalries as well as on ideological nuances and on the backing of outside Muslim powers such as Pakistan, Iran, and Saudi-Arabia.

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