Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies,No.4 July 2002,pp.331-400 College of Humanities and Social Sciences National Dong Hwa University Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 including the and the liturgical register in the lexicon are decreasing. This implies that the religious impact from the Prebysterian The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Church on language in Taiwan is rather little. This also implies that Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: Taiwanese identity of the language and culture has been emerging by A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis making distinction from the Amoy in .

Chin-an Li* Keywords: church register, Taiwanese novel, corpus analysis, Taiwanese Romanization, Bible translation Abstract

In 1916, Rev. Thomas Barclay (1874-1935) published the New Testament Taiwanese Romanization (Peh-oe-ji) and then the Old Testament in 1933. This version of the Bible has been used in Taiwanese Presbyterian Church in Taiwan as well as overseas. The so-called "Taiwanese Han-ji edition" of the Bible was published late to 1996 with replacement of the Romanization only. The lexis and syntax remain the same. Many lexical items in the Bible translation are the Amoy dialect or liturgical register which are not familiar to the present-day Taiwanese. Using computer-aided segmentation supplemented by manual segmentation, I found 112,964 word tokens with 12,941 word types in this corpus. I also collected a second corpus with 92,539 word tokens and 12,969 word types consisting of the short stories of Tan5 Lui5 and Tan5 Beng5-jin5 written in the 1990's. Comparing these two corpora, I found that the lexical influence of the Bible translation on Taiwanese novel writing is reducing. The loanwords of the non-local lexical layer

* Taiwanese Preceptor, Department of East Asian Languages & Civilizations, Harvard University.

331 332 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 stimulated by the translation of Scripture into Chinese." In spite of the The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on distinction of the Biblical Hebrew and Chinese in terms of lexical devices, Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: e.g., lexical items for expressing verbal moods, rhetorical questions, some A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis verbal forms of "to be," pronouns, and proper names, Yariv-Laor concluded that meanings inherent in the original Bible version have also 1 Bible Translation as a Factor in Lexical and Cultural Change been conveyed in the two Chinese Bible translations through rendering the Bible translation produces a kind of artificial contact between two meaning mainly by devices of a lexical nature sharing typological affinity languages which may differ from each other in many respects. It also in the Chinese and Hebrew. With respect to the culture and thoughts in inevitably creates a confrontation between two different cultures and the Bible, "the story contains a didactic message and this message which thoughts because "your thoughts are compelled to leave the tracks made fully complies with Confucian values seems to satisfy the expectations of familiar to you by your own language." (Karlgren 1949, cited by the Chinese reader." (Yariv-Laor 1999:120) Yariv-Laor). Many concepts which are related to or thoughts After the May Fourth colloquial literature movement in 1919, many belonging to the foreign countries of the source languages might become writers in China viewed China as being in a state of moral crisis, and chose neologisms through loan translation or semantic loans. Those neologisms to hold up the Bible translation as a mirror reflecting the evil human carrying biblical concepts will add to the speakers of the target language behaviors. The Bible translation "found its way into an impressive from the source language and evoke lexical change and cultural change variety of stories by many of China's most famous writer3 of the era," the according to their acceptability and adaptability in the target language. pre-1949 Republican Period (Robinson 1999:275). The translation Yariv-Laor (1999:102) investigated the first chapter of the Book of greatly influenced their works of fiction which employed biblical themes Ruth of the Old Testament of the Mandarin Bible1 translated by Samuel for allegorical purposes both political and spiritual. The writers Isaac Joseph Schereschewsky (施約瑟) from Hebrew, and the Mandarin approached the religious material from the viewpoint of humanists Union Version2, which was published in 1919 and used in government concerned with the fate of China (Robinson 1999). schools as part of a standardized national language curriculum. He found Taiwanese novel writings also show the influence of the Bible that "many observations concerning the nature of the language were in fact translation, whereas the degree varies in the different eras. In the 1920s, our data show a salient impact, but the impact is not that great in the 90's.

1 The Mandarin Bible was completed in 1874, and was the Bible used in the greater part of China for many years. 3 Those writers of two groups: the romantics Chuangzhaoshe 'Creation Society' (e.g., Yu 2 The basis of the Union Version was established by the 1890 conference at Dafu, Guo Moruo), and the realists Wenxue Yanjiushe 'Literary Research Society' (e.g., Shanghai (Yariv-Laor 1999:102) Xu Dishan, Mao Dun, Lu Xun, Hu Yepin, Xiao Qian and Ba Jin).

333 334 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4

Huang 1986:47). 2 Bible Translation in Taiwan The Taiwan Presbyterian Church, hereafter TPC or Church, has been The first version of the Bible translation appeared in Taiwan is the using this Barclay's version of Bible translation for over thirty years6. Austronesian one4, the Sinkang version. The first publication of the According to Lin C. (1999:51), even though these versions of the Sinkang Bible in Romanization including St. Matthew's and St. John's Bible were in Amoy and not Taiwanese, the had translated it Gospels, was in 1661; it was translated by Daniel Gravius (倪但理) of the specifically for the Taiwanese people, not the Amoy-speaking people in Dutch reformed Church (North 1938:133). Although the missionaries China. There is a separate Bible translation history for the people in had finished translating the other books of the Bible into the Sinkang . In Nida's Book of a Thousand Tongues, translations for Fujian language in Romanization, Koxinga drove out the Dutch while the people are classified as a dialect of Chinese while Taiwanese is listed as a translated works were at the printing press, and those except St. Matthew's language of its own ("Taiwanese"), and is not considered a Chinese dialect. and St. John's Gospels were never published (Lin C. 1999:50). An authentic Taiwanese version of the Bible's translation did not In 1852, a Dutch Reformed missionary, Elihu Doty, translated the appear until 1972. In 1966, two Taiwanese Christians, Ko Gospel of John into Romanized Amoy. In 1884, under James Laidlaw Chek-hoan7 (高積煥) and Tan5 Pang-tin3 (陳邦鎮) began to translate the Maxwell's (馬雅各) supervision, the British and Foreign Bible Society Bible into Taiwanese with the combined help of the Catholic Church and published the completed translation of the Bible in the Amoy language (Lai the Protestant Church in Taiwan. This translation is called the Ko-Tan5 1990; Lin C.1999). colloquial Taiwanese version (the K.T.V. version) or the Kerymatic[sic.]7 Not satisfied with the contemporary Amoy translation of the Bible and Taiwanese version8. The publisher, Maryknoll Language School, claimed mindful of the need of the Taiwanese followers, Rev. Thomas Barclay (巴 that it was a Bible version which used Taiwanese to evangelize the good 克禮) undertook a revision of the New Testament in Romanized Amoy news (Eng7 Tai5-gi2 thoan5-pou3 ho2-siau-sit e5 Seng3-keng ek8-pun3). using the Greek version of 1915 as reference. This new version was The preface of this version of the Bible translation states that the published in 1916. pronunciation of the translation of the K.T.V.version was rendered in the In 1930, Barclay finished translating and revising the Old Testament Chiang-chiu rather than the Choan5-chiu dialect. "This was judged to be based on the Hebrew version, and published it in 19355 (Lin C. 1999:55;

6 An equivalent Chinese character edition of this Bible was published in 1996. 7 The Greek word Kerygma means to proclaim. In the primitive Church it meant the 4 It is under the name Formosan in "The Book of a Thousand Tongues," both in the 1938 proclamation of the Gospel as the good news of salvation (in the preface of the K.T.V and 1972 versions. Sin-Iok 1972). 5 Huang said that it was published in 1933; Cheng (1987) adopted this. I adopt Lin's 8 It was called the Maryknoll Taiwanese Gospels in The Book of a Thousand Tongues, 1935 here. and was known as the Ang5-poe5 Seng3-keng (The Red Cover Bible).

335 336 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 the proper thing to do since the Catholics who would be using this from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and his translation are mostly foreigners, while the Protestants are mostly colleagues, F. Doty and W. Young, developed a Romanized phonetic Taiwanese, for whom it would be easier to make any necessary system for colloquial Taiwanese in 1851 (Murakami, Yoshihide (村上 嘉 adaptation." Cheng (1987) called it Tai5-tiong dialect instead. 英) 1966:60, cited by Ong S. 1995). The Catholic Church in Taiwan published the Four Gospels in Barclay was one of the great Presbyterian contributors to the Taiwanese between 1968 and 1969, and both the Catholic Church and the Romanized Taiwanese language and devoted the majority of his life to Presbyterian Church published the Taiwanese New Testament in 1972. A promoting Peh8-oe7-ji7. Besides the Bible translation, he also initiated revised version of the Taiwanese New Testament was published in 1975. the publication of the first newspaper ever in Taiwan "Tai5-oan5 However, the KMT confiscated it immediately after its publication (Lin C. Hu2-siaN5 Kau3-hoe7-po3"9 'Taiwan Perpetual City Church News' in 1999:56). 1885, which was printed totally in Taiwanese Romanization. It is this Another Taiwanese version was published in 1987. Cheng et al. system which was applied to the entire Bible translation mentioned above, translated the Gospel of St. Luke in a mixed script with Chinese characters and was used by the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan and, was used by and Taiwanese Romanization. Cheng et al. called it "Han3-lo5 many writers in the 1920's and 1990's. chhi3-sia2" version, meaning a trial manuscript of a mixed script. It was given the subtitle, "a study of written Taiwanese." 3 The Church Register: Liturgical Register And Amoy Dialect Register 2.1 Peh8-oe7-ji7: The Colloquial Written Taiwanese It is common and normal for a culture to have two languages or two language registers in the same language, one of which may be reserved for The written form used in translating both the Amoy and the Taiwanese use by a select few on a sacred occasion such as the sermon. This is a versions of the Bible is called Peh8-oe7-ji7, literally 'colloquial words.' formally marked kind of language or language register which one does not Barclay's version has therefore been called "Peh8-oe7-ji7 Seng3-keng" 'the normally use or expect, and in its unfamiliarity lies its value, for it attracts Colloquial Bible" (hereafter POJ version or Amoy version). attention to the exceptional purpose of its function (Crystal 1965:151). When Presbyterian missionaries first arrived in Taiwan in 1865, they The church register includes liturgical language, a particular set of forms found that the majority of Taiwan's inhabitants were illiterate. They felt that it was important for the Taiwanese people to be able to read and 9 This is the previous version of the present-day Taiwan Church Press (台灣教會公報). understand the Word of God in their native language, so they developed a It was published in the Taiwanese Romanization until 1970, and after that in Mandarin (Lai 1990:17-19). However, there is still a page specifically kept for Taiwanese Romanized written form for Taiwanese. John Van Nest Talmage (打馬字) writing entitled "Pe7-bo2-oe7 Choan-khan" (Special Page for Mother Tongue).

337 338 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 used in official public worship on behalf of a religion, e.g., in a prayer, or a chhim-sin3 hia e su7." (2 Timothy 3:14) sermon. Because the language used for translating the Bible for the 'But as for you, continue in the truths that you were taught Presbyterian Church was not Taiwanese, but Amoy, some Christians, and firmly believe.'10 pastors or believers, switched to the church register for church activities. The conjunction "na7-si7" means "but" in Amoy but "if" in Taiwanese. As a result, some lexical items in the church register are very familiar to "Toa3 ti7...su7", literally 'live in things' would be linguistically them and have become a part of their lexicon, and hence they carry these unacceptable in Taiwan. "Tng5-tng5 toa3 ti7..." cannot be understood by items into the daily life and into the discourse with non-church people. a native speaker of Taiwanese. The adverb "tng5" can't be put in front of These lexical items are felt to be strange by the non-church people. Some the verbs. The Taiwanese K.T.V version is: writers, consciously or unconsciously, also carry this register, particular if they are constant churchgoers. "M7-ku2 li2 sou2 hak8-sip8 e5, li2 sou2 sin3 e5 tioh8-ai3 The present writer was not a church member fourteen years ago. kian-siu2." When I first went to the Church I felt the language used in the church was "Kian-siu2" means to 'keep it consistently' and hence expresses the somewhat different from that used in my daily life. Many lexical items meaning of "ku2" 'long time.' This sentence in the K.T.V. version of the were foreign to me, a native Taiwanese speaker. I call them church Bible translation is a well-formed, grammatical Taiwanese sentence; the register. This will include liturgical register and the Amoy dialect register. last one in the POJ version is not. The Amoy dialect register is the register of the Amoy language used in the Some lexical items in the church register are foreign to Taiwanese and Taiwan Presbyterian Church, in the Bible translation and the church have become markers of Church membership. They sometimes cause activities. It is lexically almost the same as Amoy, however syntactically misunderstandings. For example, the primary greeting used in TPC is somewhat different from Amoy. It was probably partly because the "peng5-an," which means "peace," and this greeting is not used outside the translators were not native speakers of Amoy and hence influenced by their Church. For daily greetings, the older generations used "chiah8 pa2 own mother tongues, and partly because the principle of the Bible boe7?" 'Did you eat or are you full?' to greet each other, due to the shortage translation then was to be loyal to the original text but not the cultural of the food supply in the early days. Now Taiwanese use "li2 ho2" 'how background of the readers (Cheng 1987). are you' to greet each other, a greeting which is believed to be a borrowing A newcomer to a Presbyterian Church will find the sentence below in from Mandarin. Therefore when a person uses the greeting "peng5-an," the Scripture Reading during the sermon hard to understand:

"Na7-si7 li2 tioh8 tng5-tng5 toa3 ti7 sou2 hak8-sip8 sou2 10 This translation is from the Good News Bible: Today's English Version, published by United Bible Society, 1976.

339 340 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 people know he or she is a church member. translation mentioned above, Cheng (1987) also named other reasons in I heard from two persons about their misunderstandings when they explaining why the language used in the POJ version of Bible translaton is first came to church. One heard the pastor say "Tai7-pit8 e5 hou7-e3" so different from the present-day Taiwanese: 'David's descendant' in the sermon and wondered what kind of "rain shoes" 1) The differences between the two languages. Although both Amoy it meant. To a newcomer, the biblical proper name Tai7-pit8 'David' is and Taiwanese are mixtures of Chiang and Choan5, the Taiwanese totally alien, and not recongnized to be a person's name. "Hou7-e3" is language did not derive from Amoy. Most of the Han Taiwanese masses also not in the newcomer's lexicon, but a similar one "hou7-e5" is retrieved immigrated from Chiang and Choan5 beginning at the end of the 17th to match it phonetically. 'David's descendant' becomes 'some kind of rain century, but Amoy did not began to develop until 1842. The "non-Chiong shoes.' The second misunderstanding concerned "saN-kap" 'together' non-Choan5" Taiwanese language was formed about two hundreds years which is used frequently in sermons. A newcomer was wondering why earlier than the "non-Chiong non-Choan5" Amoy language. Throughout the pastor was always mentioning 'three dimes.' "SaN-kap" is not in a the last two hundred years, the time range in which Taiwanese and Amoy Taiwanese lexicon, but 'saN-kak' is there to be retrieved instead. people were allowed to travel to each other region was less than twenty "Together" becomes "three dimes' to be misunderstood as a hint referring years. Therefore the impact that the Amoy language could make on to the offering Taiwanese was very limited. In fact, Taiwan was more modern than Ngou (1995) also mentioned his personal misunderstanding when he Amoy in its economic, scientific, cultural and educational development first went to church and heard the pastor read the seventh commandment. before 1842. Taiwanese people didn't take Amoy as their standard When he heard "m7-thang kiaN5 kan-im5" 'don't commit adultery,' he language. thought it was "don't be afraid of adultery," and felt very embarrassed. 2) The Taiwanese language has changed a lot since the first He believed that verb "kiaN5" (行) should be read in the literary reading publication of the POJ version in 1916. (Since the first version of the "heng5," but not colloquial one "kiaN5," otherwise it is pronounced the Amoy translation in 1884, it has been more than one hundred years.) same as "kiaN" (驚) 'fear' after the tone sandhi11. As a matter of fact, in Taiwanese has had language contact with Hakka; many of the last Taiwanese, another colloquial variant "hoan7" 'to commit' is used instead generation were educated in Japanese and all of this generation in when expressing the meaning of 'committing.' In Taiwanese, kiaN5 as a Mandarin; English is so popular in Taiwan that most Taiwanese have verb only means 'walk,' not 'do' or 'commit.' studied English for many years. These language contacts have become Besides the reason regarding the translator and the principle of factors in the innovations of Taiwanese phonetics, syntax, vocabulary and

rhetoric. The rapid development of industry, commerce, transportation 11 In Taiwanese tone sandhi both tone 5 and 1 are changed into 7.

341 342 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 and mass communication in Taiwan has expedited the language's change. English: They found him in the temple12. The language's culture is quite different from the cultural background of V. LC. the era of the Amoy Bible translation. Amoy: chhe7 tioh8 i7 ti7 seng3-tian7 lin 3) The influence of the Literary Chinese version (the wenli version). find aspect him at holy temple in Most of the missionaries who devoted themselves to the translating task V. LC. not only learned Amoy but also learned the literary Chinese (wenyan or K.T.V.: ti7 seng3-tian3 lai5 chhe7-tioh8 i7. wenli). The missionaries were from English speaking countries, England, at holy temple inside find aspect him United States, and Canada. Since much classical Chinese syntax is closer LC. V. to English than to Amoy or Taiwanese, the translators were easily Cheng's: Ti7 seng3-tian7 chhe7-tioh8 i7. influenced by the wenli version of the Bible translation then available. At holy temple find aspect him Cheng (1987) mentioned four differences between Amoy and Taiwanese in LC. V. five syntactic aspects, namely, the location of the locational prepositional B. The antecedent is omitted if it follows a transitive verb, and can't phrase, the omission of the antecedent, the condition for a transitive verb to be substituted with "i7" 'it' in Taiwanese. But "it" is both needed in take both object and compliment, the distinction of a stative preposition English and in wenli Chinese. "ti7," and a motive preposition "tiam3" (tam3/toa3). Interestingly, he The following Amoy sentence is not acceptable to a native speaker of found that the syntax of wenli Chinese is closer to English rather than to Taiwanese: modern Amoy and Taiwanese. It is likely the advantage of the syntactic similarity made the translators take the closeness for granted and resulted Wenli: xun xu shu zhi (Luke 1:3). in the syntax of the Amoy version being so different from the Taiwanese follow order write it language. Here are some examples to illustrate this phenomenon: English: to write it out for you in consecutive order. A. The location of the locational prepositional phrase: Wenli, Amoy Amoy: chiu7 siuN7 tioh8 chiau3 chhu3-su7 sia2 i7. and English locate it behind the verb, but in Taiwanese it precedes the then think aspect follow order write it verb: K.T.V.: boeh chiau3 sun7-si7 sia2 chhut-lai5. want follow order write out Wenli: Yu zhi yu shengdian (Luke 2:46).

Meet him at holy temple V. LC. 12 When the place is emphasized, "In the temple they found him" will be used instead of the regular order.

343 344 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4

Cheng's: chiu7 siuN7 tioh8 beh chiau3 sun7-su7 sia2 situation to describe the realized situation, but "tiam3" is used in an irrealis chhut-lai5. situation, to describe the not-realized future. "Ti7" was probably a newer then think aspect want follow order write out preposition than "tiam3," therefore there was a functional distinction between these two competent coexistent prepositions. However, the C. In Taiwanese, a transitive verb can't have both an object and a distinction is not made in the Amoy Bible translation. The Amoy complement following it, but that is the case both in English and wenli sentence is not a Taiwanese sentence although some members of young Chinese. In Taiwanese, if a transitive verb needs to take an object and a generation may accept it because of the influence of the Mandarin. The complement at the same time, the user must either repeat the verb or K.T.V. sentence is a local Taiwanese sentence. reverse the location of the object. Amoy: Khia7 ti7 tiong-ng! (Luke 6:8). Wenli: Yesu yiyi an shou qishang (Luke 4:40) stand in center Jesus one one lay hand his on V. P. V. O. C. English: Stand in the center! English: Jesus lays his hands on every one of them. V. P. V. O. C. K.T.V.: Lai5 khia7 toa3 tiong-ng!. K.T.V.: Ia5-sou iong7 chhiu2 ka7 in chit8-e5 chit8-e5 come stand in center bong. V. P. Jesus use hand dis. them one cl. one cl. ? ChhiaN2 khia7 ti7 tiong-ng. (Taiwanese) touch please stand in center O. C. V. V. P. Cheng's: Ia5-sou hoaN7 chhiu2 hoaN7 ti7 in mui2-lang5 e5 sin-chiuN7. There is no use of "tiam3" as a preposition in the Amoy POJ version. Jesus lay hand lay on them each person's. That the only time "tiam3" appears is to use as a verb, e.g., body ? U7 lang5 tiam3 ti7 chhu3-lin3 bo5? 'Is anybody home?' V. V. O. C. (Amoy) D. The distinction between prepositions "ti7" and "tiam3" (also have person locate in home in no variation "tam3" or "toa3"). Cheng claimed that "ti7" is used in a realis V. P.

345 346 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 E. The language attitude toward the Bible. Generally speaking, purpose. I include Loa7 Jin5-seng's "Beloved Enemy"15 in this corpus, people always believe that the Bible is a sacred text and therefore the and add up four volumes, three of Loa5 Jin5-seng's and one of TeN difficulty of the intelligibility has merit. To understand the Bible, Khe-phoan's, totally 112,764 word tokens and 12,941 word types in the assistance in interpretation from a churchman is necessary. If it is too vocabulary. This is not all of the Taiwanese literary work written in the easy for common believers to understand, the language must be too vulgar Japanese era, but is almost all of it. As far as I know there were only two to be sacred. Taiwanese novels written in Chinese characters after the First Taiwanese 16 Literature Movement . 4 Methodology for Data Collection and Data Analysis The data in the 90's includes Tan5 Lui5's17 novels in "Eng2-oan2 e5 4.1 Data Collection Kou3-hiong" 'Hometown Forever' and "Tan5 Lui5 Bun5-hak8 Soan2-chip8" 'An anthology of Tan5 Lui5's Literature,' and Tan5 In the 1920's there were some novelists who wrote in Peh8-oe7-ji7, Beng5-jin18's short story collection "A-chhun5" 'A Girl called A-chhun5.' the Taiwanese Romanization. This fact was not known by most of the These novels have been keyed in by the authors, Tan5 Lui5 and Tan5 Taiwanese until the summer of 1994. In August of 1994, the First World Beng5-jin5. After collecting these texts, I used TMLAP to segment and Taiwanese Literature and Culture Conference was held in Houston, where to tag them. After the segmentation improvement, the corpus ends up Mr. John Yung-hsiang Lai (a.k.a. Loa7 Eng2-siong5), the librarian of the with 92,539 tokens, 12,969 word types in the vocabulary. This is also not Yenching Library at Harvard University, presented four volumes of all of the Taiwanese novels in the 90', there are still several novels written xeroxed novels written in Taiwanese Romanization during the Japanese in Chinese characters, e.g., Song3 Tek8-lai5's "Khong3-pok8 e5 era which he had personally collected. They are TeN7 Khe-phoan3's TaN2-niau-chhi7" 'The Revolutionary TaN2-niau City,"and Ou5 "Chhut-si2-soaN3" 'Beyond the deadline'13, Loa7 Jin5-seng's "A-nia5 e5 Bin5-siong5's "Hoa5-hu2 khan-kau5" 'Leading a monkey in Washintong bak8-sai2" 'Mother's tears', and "Chhi3-a2-lai7 e5 pek-hap-hoe" 'A lily in a thorn bush.' developed it with my cooperation. 15 I spent two years keying in and transliterating them into Dr. Cheng has already had the typed text ready. 16 Historically the first Taiwanese literature and language movement was called Sino-Romanization mixed texts with the assistance of the new developed "Tai5-oan5 oe7-bun5 un7-tong7" (literally 'Taiwanese language and literature movement') initiated by Koeh Chhiu-seng in 1930 and was ended in 1938 when the 14 feature called "R2Z" in TMLAP, which is particularly designed for this Pacific War started and the Japanese government prohibited all Taiwanese and Chinese writings. 17 Tan5 Lui5's "official" name is Ngou5 keng2-ju7 (吳景裕). He chooses Tan5 Lui5 as 13 This is the first volume of the two in all. The second volume was nearly finished, but his pen name because it is very typically Taiwanese, meaning 'thundering'. the manuscript was destroyed in an air attack by the U.S. Air Force in the WWII. 18 This is his "official" name. He published this volume with his Austronesian name 14 It means from Romanization to Chinese character. I owe thanks to Mr. Gammon who Babuja A. Siraya. He claimed that he is a sinicized Plains tribe aboriginal.

347 348 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 DC' as well as Han3-Lo5 script, e.g., TiuN Chhong-bin2's "A-Eng--a2" 'A grammatical function. For example, "ho2-chiah8" 'tasty' is an adjective, Girl called A-Eng-a2' and Ong5 Cheng-bun5's Christianity novels. but "chiah8" is a transitive verb and "ho2" 'good' is an adverb. B) The combination is not grammatically composed. For example, "siu5" 'swim' 4.2 Segmentation is an intransitive verb which is not supposed to take an object "chui2" The segmentation TMLAP performed is based on the on-line 'water,' therefore the combination "siu5-chui2" 'swim' as a verb should be dictionary TMT (i.e., Taiwan Mandarin Tian2 'Dictionary'). After the treated as a word. machine segmentation, those not in the TMT were segmented by hand to After the segmentation and segmentation improvement, the corpora of perform segmentation improvement. In this process the definition of a word types in the vocabulary in the two eras are 12,941 and 12,969 Taiwanese word and the segmentation principles proposed by Tseng et al. separately. They are almost the same size. (1997:47-73), which were, in turn, based on "Suowen Jieji" 'Words searching and defining' published by CKIP (Chinese Knowledge 5 The Balancing Approach: Information Processing Group), Academia Sinica in 1996. According to Combining Symbolic and Statistical Approaches this article, a word "contains independent meaning, and plays a role of some particular grammatical function." This definition is similar to Li Klavans & Resnik (1996), in the preface of "The Balancing Act", and Thompson's: a word is "characterized by syntactic and semantic proposed a balancing approach to study language. They held that there is independence and integrity." (Li & Thompson 1981:13). Besides, I also in fact no contradiction involved in combining approaches. Combining take Bloomfield's definition of word as a criterion in the process of "symbolic" and "statistical" approaches to language is a kind of balancing segmentation. "Word, then, is a free form which does not consist entirely act in which the symbolic and the statistical are properly thought of as part, of (two or more) lesser free forms; in brief, a word is a minimum free both essentials, of a unified whole. They believed that taking the form.' (Bloomfield 1933:178). qualitative approach at one extreme or at the other extreme, the Tseng et al. proposed two basic principles of segmentation. The quantitative approach, is defective. Because, "for language, in particular, basic principles include two combining principles: 1) The combination gets the natural units of manipulation in any statistical model are discrete a new meaning. For example, "tiau3-tiaN2" means 'unemployment', constructs such as phoneme, morpheme, word, and so forth, as well which can't be derived from "tiau3" 'hang' and "tiaN2" 'pot.' 2) If the part discrete relationships among these constructs such as surface adjacency or of speech can't be derived from the combination, should be segmented as a predicate-argument relationships. Regardless of the details of the model, word. Two possibilities for this principle: a) The combination gets a new "the numerical probabilities are simply meaningless except in the context of the model's symbolic underpinnings." On this view, therefore, they

349 350 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 don't think there is a "purely statistical" method. Conversely, symbolic The fourth column is the script type of the token. There are three kinds of underpinnings alone are not enough to capture the variability inherent in script type incuding HAN3-JI7 (Chinese character), LO5-MA2-JI7 naturally occurring linguistic data, its resistance to inflexible, terse (Romanization) and HAN-LO5 (Sino-Romanization mixed script). characterizations (Klavans & Resnik 1996:x). The procedures of analyzing loanwords in the layers of lexicon of the For the purpose of studying lexical change in the domain of data are: 1) Comparing with the present author's personal lexicon to the borrowing, the basic statistical method is applied in the study. The personal lexicons of the data, and the lexicon of the Bible translation. 2) computational application software TMLAP is used to make a statistical Consulting the questionable items with the Amoy dictionaries, and the analysis of the text of data for the frequency, the accumulated percentage, Taiwanese dictionaries. After sorting out the layers, I compare the and the rank of each word type. frequency count and percentage, together with their frequency rankings and accumulated percentage of each layer. The qualitative results are Figure 1.1. presented in the tables below. Then, the qualitative analysis will apply to Sample of the Computational Statistical Analysis from Applying TMLAP categorize the loanwords in each layer, to analyze the phenomena of the Rank Cum% Frequency Word Count Script Type 1 4.731 4.731 e5 5388 LO5-MA2-JI7 change and, to discuss the socio-cultural significance of the change. The 2 7.271 2.54 伊 2893 HAN3-JI7 lexical distribution of the loanwords is illustrated in the table below: 3 8.877 1.606 就 1829 HAN3-JI7 4 10.46 1.583 是 1803 HAN3-JI7 5 11.95 1.493 講 1700 HAN3-JI7 6 Loanwords in the Corpus of the Japanese Era Statistical Analysis 6 13.13 1.178 無 1342 HAN3-JI7 7 14.25 1.114 有 1269 HAN3-JI7 There is a total of 12,941 word types, in the corpus JP from the 8 15.35 1.102 真 1255 HAN3-JI7 9 16.39 1.044 ti7 1189 LO5-MA2-JI7 Japanese era. 10 17.42 1.026 我 1168 HAN3-JI7 Total tokens:112,764 ∣ Total types: 12,941 Table 1.1 Lexical Distribution Rate of Loanwords in the Layers in the Novels of the Japanese Era The first column is the frequency ranking of vocabulary items, and Layers Loanword Size Ratio to the Whole Corpus* Ratio to the Total Loanwords this table shows the 10 highest ranking lexical items in the corpus of the Amoy Dialect Register 201 1.3% 25.67% Japanese era. The second column list the cumulative frequency of this Liturgical Register 362 2.4% 46.23% and that all previous tokens combined. The third column is the frequency Church Register 563 3.7% 71.9% percentage of the individual token within the whole corpus of tokens. Japanese Loanwords 184 1.2% 23.49% Mandarin Loanwords 27 0.2% 3.45%

351 352 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 English Loanwords 9 0.06% 1.15% Total Loanwords 783 5.16% *The corpus JP in the Japanese era has 12,941 word types in total.

7 Loanwords in The Chinese Era Statistical Analysis

Table 1.2 Loanword Size of Each Layer in the Chinese Era

Layers Loanword Size Ratio to the Corpus* Ratio to the Total Loanwords Amoy Dialect Register 61 0.47% 9.47% If one compares the word types, or vocabulary size, and not the tokens, Liturgical Register 36 0.28% 5.59% Church Register 97 0.75% 15.06% there is a 3.6 % decrease in the vocabulary of the corpus, and a 57 % Japanese Loanwords 239 1.85% 37.11% decrease in the loanwords. It shows that among various layers of the Mandarin Loanwords 202 1.56% 31.36% loanwords, the church register became less significant in the second era, English Loanwords 99 0.77% 15.37% Hakka 7 0.05% 1.08% than as in the first era in which it played the most salient role among Total Loanwords 644 4.77% loanwords. The next table compares the Amoy dialect register to the *The corpus CH in the Chinese era has 12,969 word types in total. liturgical register. The rate of decrease of the liturgical register is even more than that of the Amoy dialect register. The background of the 8 Comparing the Church Register in the ChineseE ra to the JapaneseE ra writers in two eras played a role in it because the writers in the first era were pastors while Tan5 Lui5 and Tan5 Beng5-jin5 are not. This 8.1 Comparing theL oanword Size ofC hurch Register in the Two Eras accounts for the big decrease in impact of the liturgical register.

Table 1.3. The Loanword Size of Church Register in the Two Eras Table 1.4. Comparison of Amoy Dialect Register and Liturgical Register in the Two Era Loanword Size Ratio to the Vocabulary in the Corpus Ratio to the Total Loanwords Eras

Japanese era 563 12,941 4.35% 783 71.9% Era Japanese Era Chinese Era Comparison Chinese era 97 12,969 0.75% 644 15..06% Word type/rate Word type Ratio Word type Ratio Word type Ratio Comparison -466 -3.6% -56.84% Amoy Dialect Register 201 1.55% 61 0.47% -140 -1.08% Liturgical Register 362 2.80% 36 0.28% -326 -2.52% Total (Church Register) 563 4.35% 97 0.75% -466 -3.60% Figure 1.2. Percentage of Church Register to the Corpus in the Two Eras *The corpus JP in the Japanese era has 12,941 word types in total. The corpus CH in the Chinese era has 12,969 word types in total.

5.00%

4.00% 3.00% 353 354 2.00%

1.00%

0.00% Japanese era Chinese era The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 8.2 Lexical Categorization and Analysis to tell which local layer or loanword layer a lexical item belongs to, I sort it The Process and Principles of Sorting Layers into a loanword layer if there is still a borrowing behavior remaining in even just a part of the word, a stem, an affix or a morpheme; if no trace of The layers in Taiwanese can be separated into two: local layer and borrowing behavior can be seen, it means that the lexical item has already loanword layer. The loanword layer can be further divided into the relexified into Taiwanese lexicon, and then I sort it into the local layer. Church Register, which includes the Amoy dialect register and the For example, "cheng-sin5-tek" 'spiritually' is a Japanese loanword because liturgical register, Japanese loanwords, Mandarin loanwords, English the morpheme "-tek" is a Japanese suffix. Although we also know that it loanwords, and Hakka loanwords. For the purpose of this study, the was a second borrowing from the English morpheme "-ic" using Chinese church register, Japanese loanwords and Mandarin loanwords were the character "的" (di/de) for its phonetic value "teki." Many Japanese main layers selected for analysis. loanwords are actually return loans19 from classical Chinese, but I sort The first step was to judge these lexical items by my personal them into Japanese loanwords because the borrowing happened during the linguistic instinct as a native Taiwanese speaker. I compared the two Japanese era, and the source was from Japanese. In other words, a corpora, the corpus in the Japanese era and the one in the Chinese era with Taiwanese speaker knew the new concepts and their words through the my personal lexicon, and I marked these lexical items which I don't have in Japanese not the classical Chinese. For example, "hu-hu3" 'husband and my lexicon.. The second step was to consult a Taiwanese linguist, Dr. wife' is a Japanese loanword because a Taiwanese speaker in Japanese era Cheng. As a native speaker he checked those words I didn't recognize in knew it basically because it was Japanese. If a Taiwanese speaker uses it his personal lexicon and sorted them into the layers to which they should in the Chinese era, it should be a Mandarin loanword for the same reason I belong. give above. Some independent lexical items are difficult to recognize without the Sometimes the phonetic composition of a word helps to make the context. Thanks to the digitalized texts in the computer, it is always decision. For example, "ke2-ko2" 'change manuscript' is Amoy not convenient to consult the corpus of a running text. I checked those lexical Taiwanese, because it is composed of a colloquial reading20 (i.e., ke2, not items which Dr Cheng had marked in the corpus again before going to kai2) plus a reading undifferentiated between the colloquial and literary consult an Amoy or Taiwanese dictionary.

Some lexical items are shared by two or more layers, which Cheng 19 Return loans are originally borrowed from classical Chinese by Japanese and then Taiwanese and Chinese borrowed them back. Liu (1995) called them "round-trip (1997b) called "kiong7-thong-su5" (sharing vocabulary). He called this diffusion via Japanese." Masini (1993) called them return loans. 20 layer "kiong7-thong-chan5" (sharing layer). In this study, when it is hard Colloquial reading is also called "colloquial pronunciation (白話音)." Literary reading is also called "literary pronunciation (文言音)." Some Chinese characters can have both, some just have one.

355 356 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 reading (i.e., ko2). In contrast Taiwanese "kai2-ko2" is a combination of A Dictionary of 27(Embree) literary reading and a sharing reading of colloquial and literary ones. [If it says Bib28, it could be Amoy, then go to left]

An on-line personal lexicon like TeN Khe-phoan's TKP lexicon

21 sometimes also helps because he was not educated in Mandarin at all Table 1.5. Examples of Practicing the Process of Determing Source of Borrowing: and died before the Chinese era. Therefore none of his vocabulary includes Mandarin loanwords, and his personal lexicon can serve as an Lex\Dic Bib TMT TKP Tan Cheng Ong Embree Zhou Douglas Amoy Outcome 后裔 yes no no no no no yes no yes yes AM indication of a non-Mandarin source. ian5-siah8 yes ian5-sek yes no no no yes no yes yes AM Of course, there is not a clear call for each lexical item. The last hang5-ngou2 yes no no no no no yes no yes no AM 著觸 yes no no no no yes no yes no no AM resort is to consult dictionaries. The chart below describes the consulting 艱苦心 no yes no no no no no no no no TW process.

22 Figure 1.3. The Flow Chart for Determining Source of Borrowing 8.2.1 Categories of the Church Register BibleTranslation*23 Amoy Dialect Register and Liturgical Register [If yes, it could be Amoy, go to left; if no, go to right] Amoy Dialect Register:

Amoy Dialect Dictionary (Zhou)*24 TMT*(Cheng1)25 a. Japanese Era Table 1.6. Amoy Dialect Register in the Japanese Era Dictionary of Amoy (Douglas) TKP Lexicon*26 # Fq Lex Rom Gloss Variation R Mandarin Southern Min Dictionary (Amoy University) Taiwanese Big Dictionary*(Tan) 185婦人人 hu7-jin5-lang5 women/wife cha-bou2-lang5/bou2 257幫贊 pang-chan7 help pang-chou7 Frequently-used Function Words (Cheng2) 342致到 ti3-kau3 lead to ti3-su2

441備辦 pi7-pan7 prepare chun2-pi7 The Basic Vocabulary (Ong) 5 35 ti7-teh ti7-teh together cho3-hoe2/tong5-chai7

631saN-疼 saN-thiaN3 love each other siong-ai3 729疼情 thiaN3-chiaN5 love ai3-cheng5 21 I interviewed his son, Rev. TeN Choan-seng about TeN Khe-phoan and wrote an 829無拍算 bo5-phah-sng3 beyond expectation siun7-be7-kau3 interview in Taiwanese published in Taiwanese Writing Forum 52 (1998/5/1). The Taiwan Church Press also published it on 1999/2/28. 22 When the arrows coverage at Mandarin Southern Min Dictionary, the word is Amoy. 27 When this Hong Kong edition was first published in 1973, it was confiscated in Taiwan 23 * means on-line version, available in the computer. by KMT. 24 All the names of the dictionaries used in this chart are only simplified names. For the 28 Bib means Bible usage. Embree's Dictionary of Southern Min was particularly edited complete names refer to the References of the dissertation. for Taiwanese. It includes words in the Bible translation. This is very similar to the 25 TMT has 73,434 lexical items. It is the lexicon base of the TMLAP. categorization in this paper-to include the Amoy words used in the Bible translation as 26 It is TeN7 Khe-phoan3's personal lexicon made from his novel. Amoy loanwords in the Taiwanese church register.

357 358 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 9 28 細囝 se3-kiaN2 children se3-han3-kian2/gin2-a2 43 5 mih8-使 mih8-sai2 can't be7-sai2/m7-thang 10 27 啥事 siaN2-su7 why ui7-sian2-mih8 44 5 saN-bat saN-bat know each other sio-bat 11 26 參及 saN-kap together cho3-hoe2 45 5 引-chhoa7 in2-chhoe7 lead chhoa7 12 22 雖罔 sui-bong2 although sui-jian5 46 5 打算 taN2-sng3 plan phah-sng3 bo5-tian7/ 47 5 見若 kiN3-na7 whatever hoan7-na7/na7 13 18 kiam2-采 kiam2-chhai2 maybe bo5-tek-khak 48 5 咒詛 chiu3-chou2 curse le2 14 18 saN-chim saN-chim kiss sio-chim 49 5 恬靜 tiam7-cheng7 silent an-cheng7/cheng7-cheng7 15 16 餒志 loe2-chi3 frustrated sit-chi3 50 5 面帕 bin7-phe3 handkerchief chhiu2-kin-a2 16 15 驚了 kiaN-liau2 fear kiaN 51 5 無呣 bo5-m7 no one bo5 17 14 be7禁得 be7-kim3-chit0 can't help tong3-be7-tiau5 52 5 敬虔 keng3-khian5 pious khian5-seng5 sio-siang5/ 53 5 對重 tui3-tiong7 value khoaN3-tang7 18 13 一樣 chit8-iuN7 same kang7-khoan2 siaN-lang5/ 54 4 chi7-chui7 chi7-chui7 who 19 13 啼哭 thi5-khau3 cry khau3/hau2 siang2/chia5 20 12 ke2 ke2 change kai2 55 4 khiN5-tiau5 khiN5-tiau5 cling to giu2-tiau5 21 12 莫得 boh8-tit8 mustn't m7-thang 56 4 poaN5--過 poaN5—ke3 climb over poaN5-koe3 22 12 獨獨 tok8-tok8 only kan-taN/kan-na 57 4 saN-尊敬 saN-chun-keng3 respect each other [hou7-siong] chun-keng3 23 11 chai2-iuN7 chai2-iuN7 what choaN2-iuN7 the3-oan7/ 58 4 saN-替 saN-the3 take turns 24 11 事事 su7-su7 every thing tak8-hang7 tai7-chi3 lun5-liu5 25 11 無-khoa3 bo5-khoa3 despite bo5-kou3 an3-choan2/ 59 4 thai3-tho2 thai3-tho2 why bother 26 11 贏過 iaN5-koe3 win iaN5/khah iaN5 choan2-iun7 27 10 be7顧得 be7-kou3-chit0 despite bo5-kou3 60 4 叨落 to2-loh8 where to2-ui7/to2/toe2 28 9 saN-見 saN-kiN3 meet sio-kiN3 61 4 在早 chai7-cha2 before chin3-cheng5/i2-cheng5 su-bio2/ 62 4 受掠 siu7-liah8 be arrested hong5 liah8—khi3 29 9 先生娘 sian-siN-niu5 teacheror doctor's wife i-seng-niu5 63 4 圍-lui5 ui5-lui5 sit around ui5 30 9 安歇 an-hioh rest hioh-khun3 64 4 富人 pu3-lang5 the rich ho2-giah8-lang5 31 9 情節 cheng5-chiat aestheticsenti ment cheng5-chho 65 4 無意神 bo5-i3-sin5 accidentally bo5-chu3-i3 32 8 交纏 kau-tiN5 bother ko-ko-tiN5 66 4 對嘴 tui3-chhui3 sass in3-chhui3 33 7 迎接 ngia5-chih welcome geng5-chiap/chiap 67 4 be7免得 boe7-bian2=tit can'ta void bian2-put-liau2 34 7 若-tiaN7 nia7-tiaN7 only nia5/nia7-nia7 siaN2-lang5/ 68 3 chi7-chui5 chi7-chui5 who 35 7 著磨 tioh8-boa5 suffer sin-khou2/ma5-hoan5 siang2/chia5 36 7 暗靜 am3-chiN7 silently am3-tiong 69 3 ke2-piN3 ke2-piN3 change kai2-pian3 37 7 be7會 be7-e7 don't be7/boe7 70 3 saN-勉勵 saN-bian2-le7 encourage each other [hou7-siong] bian2-le7 38 6 saN-安慰 saN-an-ui3 comfort [hou7-siong] an-ui3 71 3 saN-幫贊 saN-pang-chan7 help each other [hou7-siong] pang-chou7 39 6 紐帶 liu2-toa3 center tiong-sim 72 3 主母 chu2-bio2 wife of the lord thau5-ke-niu5 40 6 掠叫 liah8-kio3 thought liah8-chun2/kio3-si7 73 3 未-bat boe7-bat never m7-bat 41 6 暗-cheN7 am3-cheN7 silently am3-cheng7/am3-tiong bak8-chit-nih/ 74 3 目一-choah8 bak8-chit-choah8 soon ang/tiong7-hu/thau5-ke/ sun3-kan 42 5 a-夫 a-hu husband thau5--e5 75 3 參離 saN-li5 say good-bye hun-khui

359 360 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 76 3 筵席 ian5-siah8 feast ian5-sek/chiah-toh choaN2-iuN7/ 108 1 che-iuN7 che-iuN7 why toa7-siaN-khau3/ an3-choaN 77 3 嚎叫 au5-kio3 cry loud hau2 109 1 chhoe7-求 chhoe7-kiu5 seek chhoe7 78 3 警醒 keng2-seng2 alert keng2-kat choaN2-iuN7/ 110 1 chiaN2-iuN7 chiaN2-iuN7 why 79 2 a-官 a-koaN husband thau5--e5 an3-choaN2 80 2 chham2-chheh chham2-chheh miserable chhi-chham2 111 1 chiau2-chng5 chiau2-chng5 completely oan5-choan5 81 2 chhi3-phe3-仔 chhi3-phe5-a2 thorn-bush chhi3-a2 112 1 chih-來 chih-lai5 receive chiap-lai5 82 2 gong5-ngiah8 gong5-ngiah8 surprised gang7-gang7 113 1 hang5-ngou2 hang5-ngou2 glorious chhiaN5-iaN7 83 2 ke2-換 ke2-oaN7 change kai2-oan7 114 1 iam3-chian7 iam3-chian7 hate tho2-ia3 84 2 ke3-送 ke3-sang3 sent with guard ah/ah-sang3 chiap-siu7/ 115 1 kam3-lap8 kam3-lap8 admit, accept lah-sap/thai2-ko/kiaN-lan chhai2-iong7 85 2 la5-sam5 la5-sam5 dirty g5 116 1 khun2-pek khun2-pek oppress pek-hai7/ap-pek 86 2 saN2-theng5 saN2-theng5 wait for a second khah-theng5 117 1 khun2-tiok8 khun2-tiok8 oppress pek-hai7/ap-pek 87 2 saN-chhoa7 saN-chhoa7 lead each other sio-chhoe7 118 1 la5-poah8 la5-poah8 brasswind instr ument lap-pah pi2/pi2-kau3/ 119 1 saN2-疼 saN2-thiaN3 love each other siong-ai3 88 2 saN-比 saN-pi2 compare pi2-pheng7 120 1 saN3-見 saN2-kiN3 meet sio-kin3 89 2 saN-和 saN-ho5 make peace ho5-ho2/siong-ho2 121 1 saN7-kap saN7-kap together cho3-hoe2 90 2 saN-意愛 saN-i3-ai3 adore each other [hou7-siong] i2-ai3/kah-i3 122 1 saN-chhoe7 saN-chhoe7 visit each other chhoe7 91 2 saN-愛 saN-ai3 love each other siong-ai3 123 1 saN-chiN saN-chiN compete sio-chiN 92 2 saN-說謝 saN-seh-sia7 thank each other [hou7-siong] soeh-sia7 sio-siang7/ 124 1 saN-kang7 saN-kang7 same 93 2 saN-親 saN-chhin love each other siong-ai3 kang7-khoan2 94 2 saN-戀 saN-loan5 love each other loan5-ai3/siong-ai3 125 1 saN-o-lo2 saN-o-lo2 compliment sio-po/[hou7-siong] o-lo2 95 2 thang3-疼 thang3-thiaN3 love thiaN3 sio-siang7/ 126 1 saN-siang7 saN-siang7 same 96 2 切切 chhiat-chhiat urge pek-chhiat kang-khoan2 thian-kok/ 127 1 saN-thiaN3 saN-thiaN3 love each other siong-ai3 97 2 天鄉 thian-hiong heaven thian-tong5 128 1 saN-分開 saN-hun-khai leave [hou7-siong] hun-khui 98 2 世人 se3-jin5 where se3-kang-lang5 129 1 saN-匹配 saN-phit-phe3 match su3-phoe3 99 2 后裔 hou7-e3 offspring au7-tai7/hio7-tai7 130 1 saN-交陪 saN-kau-poe5 make friends [hou7-siong] kau-poe5 100 2 死蔭 si2-im3 death shadow [hou7-siong] 131 1 saN-同情 saN-tang5-chiaN5 sympathize 101 2 疼人 thiaN3-lang5 love people ai3-lang5 tong5-cheng5 102 2 無同 bo5-tang5 different bo5-kang7/bo5-siang5 132 1 saN-向 saN-hiaN3 face each other sio-ng3 poah8-to2/ 133 1 saN-扶助 saN-hu5-chou7 help each other [hou7-siong] hu5-chhi5 103 2 著觸 tioh8-tak get trouble bo5 ho2-se3/ 134 1 saN-見面 saN-kiN3-bin7 meet eacho ther sio-kiN3 long3-tioh8 135 1 saN-奉事 saN-hong7-su7 serve each other [hou7-siong] su7-hau7 104 2 暗-chiN7 am3-chiN7 silently am3-tiong 136 1 saN-抵著 saN-tu2-tioh8 meet eacho ther sio-tu2 105 2 精英 cheng-eng energetic cheng-sin5 ho2 137 1 saN-爭 saN-cheN compete sio-cheN 106 2 灌沃 koan3-ak pour ak 138 1 saN-知 saN-chai know each other sio-bat 107 1 boe7-bat boe7-bat never m7-bat 139 1 saN-保護 saN-po2-hou7 protect each other [hou7-siong] po2-hou7

361 362 The Lexical Influence of the Bible Translation on Taiwanese Novel Writing, 1916-1998: A Computer-Assisted Corpus Analysis Dong Hwa Journal of Humanistic Studies.No.4 140 1 saN-背 saN-poe7 against each other [hou7-siong] poe7-phan3 pang3-ka2/ 176 1 放假 pang3-ke3 take vocation 141 1 saN-借問 saN-chioh-mng7 greet each other sio-chioh-mng7 hong3-ka2 142 1 saN-凌辱 saN-leng5-jiok8 insult each other [hou7-siong] bu2-jiok8 177 1 知-bat chai-bat knowledge ti3-sek 143 1 saN-問 saN-mng7 ask each other sio-mng7 178 1 侮慢 bu2-ban7 insult bu2-jiok8 144 1 saN-得意 saN-tit-i3 complacent [hou7-siong] hoaN-hi2 179 1 建-chiaN5 kian3-chiaN5 build as kian3-seng5 145 1 saN-探 saN-tham visite ach other sio-chhoe7 180 1 勤快 khin5-khoai3 diligent kut-lat8 146 1 saN-接近 saN-chiap-kin7 approache ach other poa7-noa2 181 1 相排 siong3-pai5 pile up pai5 cho3-hoe2 147 1 saN-混雜 saN-hun7-chap8 mix up [hou7-siong] lam7-chham 182 1 美鈔票 bi2-chhau-phio3 US bill bi2-kim/bi2-chhau 148 1 saN-牽 saN-khan hand in hand sio-khan 183 1 夏天 he7-thiN summer joah—lang5 149 1 saN-理解 saN-li2-kai2 understand eachother hou7-siong li2-kai2 184 1 家庭疼 ka--thiaN3 family love 150 1 saN-連 saN-lian5 connect to each other sio-lian5 185 1 悖逆 poe7-gek8 violate ui5-poe7 151 1 saN-尊存 saN-chun-chhun5 respect each other hou7-siong chun-tiong7 186 1 參-chim saN-chim kiss each other sio-chim 152 1 saN-款待 saN-khoaN2-tai7 serve each other [hou7-siong] khoan2-tai7 187 1 帳房 tiuN3-pang5 cashier siau3-pang5 153 1 saN-結連 saN-kat-lian5 connect to each other sio-lian5 188 1 棄-sak khi3-sak Give up pang3-sak 154 1 saN-敬 saN-keng3 respect each other hou7-siong chun-keng3 189 1 紳商 sin-siong gentleb usinessman 155 1 saN-請安 saN-chheng2-an greet each other sio chioh-mng7 190 1 報揚 po3-iong5 publicize po3-siong2 156 1 saN-禮讓 saN-le2-niu7 yield to each other sio-niu7 191 1 無窮盡 bo5-khiong5-chin7 immense bo5-han7 157 1 saN-戀慕 saN--bou7 love each other siong-ai3 192 1 跛-sui7 pai2-sui7 cripple pai2-kha 158 1 saN-體貼 saN-thai2-thiap consider to each other sio the2-thiap 193 1 愚戇 gu5-gong7 stupid gong7 sio-siang7/ 194 1 愛疼 thiaN3-thang3 Love thian3-sioh/thian3 159 1 相同 sio-tang5 same kang7-khoan2 195 1 會-chiaN5 e7-chiaN5 May succeed e5-seng5 160 1 sio-寶貝 sio-po2-poe3 value each other [hou7-siong] tin-sioh 196 1 算來記 sng3-lai5-ki3 count ki3-chheng-chho2 161 1 tai7-oh8 tai7-oh8 university tai7-hak8 197 1 算著數 sng3-tioh8-siau3 count it right sng3-chheng-chho2 162 1 thiam5-靜 thiam5-cheng7 silent tiam7-tiam7 198 1 精神疼 cheng-sin5-thiaN3 spiritual love 163 1 大公用 toa7-kang-iong7 great use toa7-lou7-iong7 199 1 審判司 sim2-phan3-si judge phoaN3-koan 164 1 干證 kan-cheng3 witness cho3-cheng3 200 1 擒-tiau5 khiN5-tiau5 Cling to giu2-tiau5 165 1 分聲 hun-siaN percentage pha-sou3 201 1 贖回 siok8-he5 redeem Be2--tng2-lai5 166 1 火-chhat-lok hoe2-chhat-lok match box hoan-a2-hoe2-kheh-a2 *r stands for "Romanized script." Some Taiwanese syllables don't have 167 1 同向望 tang5-ng3-bang7 share the opeh sio-siang5 ng3-bang7 168 1 同信 tang5-sin3 share the eblief Chinese characters to write or are originally not Sinitic. 169 1 同學 tang5-oh8 classmates tong5-oh8 170 1 同學 tong5-hak8 classmates tong5-oh8 Most of the Amoy dialect registers have one to three variations and lah-sap/thai2-ko/ 171 1 污穢 u3-oe3 dirt kiaN-lang5 none of them are relexified. It is very obvious that the Taiwanese always 改稿 172 1 ke2-ko2 change manuscript kai2-ko2 have variations to express themselves and there is no need to use Amoy 173 1 受-tam5 siu7-tam5 be wet ak-tam5 174 1 受揀 siu7-keng2 be selected hong5-keng2 dialect register except in the church where it becomes a higher register. 175 1 拍-la-sam5 phah-la-sam5 Make dirty ko7-lah-sap

363 364