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Structural Diagenesis in Carbonate Rocks As Identified in Fault

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Structural Diagenesis in Carbonate Rocks As Identified in Fault minerals Article Structural Diagenesis in Carbonate Rocks as Identified in Fault Damage Zones in the Northern Tarim Basin, NW China Guanghui Wu 1,2,*, En Xie 3, Yunfeng Zhang 1, Hairuo Qing 2, Xinsheng Luo 3 and Chong Sun 3 1 School of Geoscience and Technology, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China; [email protected] 2 Department of Geology, University of Regina, Regina, SK S4S 0A2, Canada; [email protected] 3 PetroChina Tarim Oilfield Company, Korla 841000, China; [email protected] (E.X.); [email protected] (X.L.); [email protected] (C.S.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 5 May 2019; Accepted: 22 May 2019; Published: 13 June 2019 Abstract: The identification of structural diagenesis and the reconstruction of diagenetic paragenesis in fault damage zones is important for understanding fault mechanisms and fluid flow in the subsurface. Based on the examination of core and sample thin section data, we deciphered the diagenetic parasequence and their fault controls for Ordovician carbonates in the northern Tarim intracratonic basin in NW China (Halahatang area). In contrast to the uniform nature of diagenesis observed in country rocks, there is a relatively complicated style of compaction and pressure solution, multiple fracturing, and cementation and dissolution history along the carbonate fault damage zones. The relative paragenetic sequence of the structure related diagenesis suggests three cycles of fracture activities, following varied fracture enlargement and dissolution, and progressively weaker calcite cementation. These processes of structure related diagenesis are constrained to the fault damage zones, and their variation is affected by the fault activities. The results of this study suggest that the carbonate reservoir and productivity could be impacted by the structure related diagenesis locally along the fault damage zones. Keywords: fault damage zone; carbonate; fracture; structural diagenesis; diagenetic sequence 1. Introduction Brittle deformation (e.g., faulting) in the upper crust is a common phenomenon that can strongly influence any subsequent geological processes and indeed the hydraulic properties of the rocks affected by this type of deformation [1–3]. The generally complicated deformation structures, typical of large faults [1–6], may impart a complex diagenesis to these faulted zones [7–9]. For example, structures related to diagenesis can be pervasive and may alter mineralization pathways and cementation in a fault zone, especially in the case of carbonate rocks [8–10]. While the structure and microstructure of fault zones have been widely studied to better understand the process of faulting, by contrast, the diagenesis of and its integration with fault processes have been mostly neglected [1,2,9]. Structural diagenesis is the study of the relationships between deformation or deformational structures and chemical changes to sediments [9]. Whereas fault architecture and process can constrain the diagenesis along a fault zone, diagenetic processes can significantly influence the fault architecture, rock properties and mechanisms of brittle deformation leading to fracture or faulting [9–15]. Studies on the integration of fault process and structural diagenesis are helpful to understand not only the mechanisms of faulting, but also petrophysical properties and fluid flow along fault zones, promoting efforts in multidisciplinary studies of structure, reservoir characterization and diagenesis [9,16–22]. However, the fault elements and Minerals 2019, 9, 360; doi:10.3390/min9060360 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals Minerals 2019, 9, 360 2 of 15 Minerals 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15 diagenesisinteraction and are their demonstrably interaction arecomplicated demonstrably and complicatedvaried in fault and zones, varied particularly in fault zones, in the particularly presence of inmulti-stage the presence structural of multi-stage and diagenetic structural processes and diagenetic [15,19,23,24]. processes [15,19,23,24]. InIn this this paper, paper, we we present present data data from from and and discuss discus as carbonatea carbonate fault fault system system with with three three distinct distinct phasesphases of faultof fault activity activity in the in intracratonic the intracratonic Tarim Basin,Tarim China.Basin, GeologicalChina. Geological rock cores rock and cores thin sections and thin weresections studied were and studied used to and determine used to determine the fault-related the fault-related diagenesis diagenesis of the carbonate of the carbonate “damage zones”.“damage Moreover,zones”. Moreover, we examine we the examine fracture the cross-cutting fracture cross-cutting and abutting and relationships abutting relationships and orientations and orientations of veins to understandof veins to understand the parasequence the parasequence of the structural of the diagenesis. structural In diagenesis. addition, we In discuss addition, the influenceswe discuss of the faultinfluences activities of on fault the activities carbonate on diagenesis the carbonate in the diagenesis deep subsurface. in the deep subsurface. 2. Geological2. Geological Setting Setting 2 TheThe Tarim Tarim Basin Basin is theis the largest largest petroliferous petroliferous basin basi inn NWin NW China, China, with with an an area area of 560,000of 560,000 km km[252 [25]] (Figure(Figure1a). 1a). It hasIt has an an Archean-Early Archean-Early Neoproterozoic Neoproterozoic crystalline crystalline basement basement that that is coveredis covered by by thick thick sequencesequence of lateof Neoproterozoic-Quaternary late Neoproterozoic-Quatern sedimentaryary stratasedimentary with multi-stage strata sedimentary-tectonic with multi-stage evolutionsedimentary-tectonic (Figure1b) [ 25 evolution]. Key events (Figure include 1b) [25]. supercontinent Key events include breakup supercontinent in the late Neoproterozoic, breakup in the thelate opening Neoproterozoic, and closure the of opening Tethys in and the closure Palaeozoic of Te andthys the in Mesozoic,the Palaeozoic and theand Indo-Asian the Mesozoic, collision and the duringIndo-Asian the Cenozoic collision [25 during–27]. Thethe Cenozoic Tarim Basin [25–2 developed7]. The Tarim from Basin the Cenozoic developed foreland from the basin Cenozoic and theforeland Palaeozoic-Mesozoic basin and the intracratonicPalaeozoic-Mesozoic basin [25 intracratonic], following multi-phase basin [25], following tectonic movements, multi-phase which tectonic involvedmovements, various which faults involved [25,27–30 various], developed faults in[25,27–30], the intracratonic developed basin. in the intracratonic basin. Figure 1. (a) The tectonic division of the Tarim Basin (the lower right inset map shows its location inFigure China) 1. (after (a) The [30 tectonic]); (b) Geological division of profilethe Tarim across Basin the (the study lower area right (the inset upper map strata shows of its ~3000 location m in Cretaceous-QuaternaryChina) (after [30]); are(b) omittedGeological in the profile cross-section; across the modified study fromarea [ 30(the]). єupper: Cambrian; strata O of3l: Upper~3000 m OrdovicianCretaceous-Quaternary Lianglitage Formation; are omitted O3s: in Upper the cross-section; Ordovician Samgtamu modified Formation;from [30]). S:є: Silurian;Cambrian; C-P: O3l: Carboniferous-Permian;Upper Ordovician Lianglitage T: Triassic; Formation; J: Jurassic; O K:3s: Cretaceous; Upper Ordovician E-Q: Eocene-Quaternary. Samgtamu Formation; S: Silurian; C-P: Carboniferous-Permian; T: Triassic; J: Jurassic; K: Cretaceous; E-Q: Eocene-Quaternary. The Halahatang area investigated in this study, covering about 8000 km2, is located in the southern slope of the Northern Uplift, Tarim Basin (Figure 1a). At this site, the Phanerozoic strata Minerals 2019, 9, 360 3 of 15 The Halahatang area investigated in this study, covering about 8000 km2, is located in the southern Mineralsslope of 2018 the, 8 Northern, x FOR PEER Uplift, REVIEW Tarim Basin (Figure1a). At this site, the Phanerozoic strata are relatively3 of 15 complete, consisting of Cambrian-Ordovician carbonates, with a Silurian to Cretaceous sequence are relatively complete, consisting of Cambrian-Ordovician carbonates, with a Silurian to Cretaceous containing multiple unconformities, and a Cenozoic sequence representing rapid subsidence [25,29] sequence containing multiple unconformities, and a Cenozoic sequence representing rapid (Figures1b,2a and3a). Regional structural interpretation and fault mapping reveals a network of subsidence [25,29] (Figures 1b, 2a and 3a). Regional structural interpretation and fault mapping conjugate strike-slip fault systems that developed in the Cambrian–Ordovician, followed by some reveals a network of conjugate strike-slip fault systems that developed in the Cambrian–Ordovician, reactivation, in Silurian–Permian and Mesozoic-Eocene times by the process of faulting inheritance, followed by some reactivation, in Silurian–Permian and Mesozoic-Eocene times by the process of with multi-layer flower structures (Figure2)[ 29,30]. Many faults terminate at the top of the Upper faulting inheritance, with multi-layer flower structures (Figure 2) [29,30]. Many faults terminate at Ordovician carbonate rocks; these generally show positive flower structures in Lower Palaeozoic the top of the Upper Ordovician carbonate rocks; these generally show positive flower structures in strata, which resulted in horst blocks in the overlapping zones (Figure2a) [ 29]. Fault zones in the
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