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Home , Abu Isa, Ammar ibn Yasir, Islamic eschatology, Martyrdom in Judaism, Shahid (Islam)

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MartyrdomMartyrdom 1fl in ChristianityChristianity andand

MAHMOUDMAHMOTJD M. M. AYOUBAYOUB nneue ofof methe most important marks of a person's faith faith oror commitmentcommitment toto OV a religiousa religious ideology ideology i.sis hishis readinessreadiness to to defenddefend thatthat faithfaith with life itself ifif necessary. Examples Examples of of such such heroic heroic sacrifice sacrifice or or martyrdom martyrdom abound abound in in bornboth ancientancient and contemporary society.society, InIn ancientancient times, the heroicheroic indifference of suchsuch menmen asas thethe StoicStoic philosopher, philosopher, Epktetus, Epictetus, to to torrure torture and and death death inin thethe affirmation of aa noblenoble idealideal earnedearned them the honor of ; their example and ideal of total indifference to passionspassions and worldlyworldly life provided a model for earlyearly ChristianChristian martyrs. InIn ourour own time,time, such menmen as Che Guaverra andand his legendary comrade Tanya havehave beenbeen regardedregarded asas martyrsmartyrs andand even by somesome CatholicCatholic leftistleftist priests.priests. MartyrdomMartyrdom hashas beenbeen oneone of the most power-power­ ful instruments in thethe establishmentestablishment andand propagationpropagation ofof a a faithfaith oror ideology,ideology, and hencehence ofof aa newnew socialsocial order. In thisthis essay wewe shallshall examineexamine thethe philosophyphilosophy of of martyrdom martyrdom andand the role of martyrs inin and Islam. We shallshall firstfirst consider consider this this phenomenon phenomenon in eacheach ofof thethe twotwo traditionstraditions separately,separately. and thenthen brieflybriefly discussdiscuss similaritiessimilarities and differencesdifferences of concept andand attitude towardstowards thethe marcyrmartyr in thethe twotWO com-com­ munities. OurOur aimaim isis essentiallyessentially to appreciateappreciate the contribution whichwhich this phenomenon hashas mademade toto the the religio-political religio-political situationsituation ofof today's today's world.world. The term as used in the NewNew TestamentTesramcm means "witness.""witness," A martyr isis a witness notnot toto an idea butbur toto anan event,event, toto thethe faithfaith inin therhe crucifiedcrucified andand risenrisen . Thus thethe authorauthor ofof 1 I JohnJohn writes, ""...... thatthat which which we we havehave seenseen withwith ourour eyes,eyes, which we havehave looked looked upon upon andand [Duchedtouched wirhwith ourour hands.hands . ., .. wewe proclaim also to you. .., ..."1"1 TheThe firstfirst , Stephen, isis reported toro havehave seen the heavensheavens open and thethe Son of se"oltedseated on the rightright handhand ofof God. 22 NeitherNeither in in the the Old Old nor nor the the New , Testament, however, however, do do we we see see anyany significantsignificant developmentdevelopment ofof the the conceptconcept beyondbeyond anan almostalmost juridicaljuridical meaningmeaning ofof witness. witnen. InIn biblical biblical andand post-biblical post-biblical , Judaism. martyrdom martyrdom was was consideredconsidered toto bebe anan individualindividual workwork ofof piety piety and and tesissance resistance toto evil.evil. TheThe casescases ofof thethe womanwoman andand herher sevenseven sonssons in IVIV MaccabeesMaccabees (8:3ff)(8;3ff) and the threethree youngyoung menmen inin DanielDaniel (ch.(ch. 3)3) have have survived survived asas powerfulpowerful symbolssymbols inin thethe liturgyIirurgy andand hagiography hagiography ofof 6767

ACLURM002820 68 MAHMOUDMAHMOUD M. M. AYOUB AYOUB ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANG!! 69 68 ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE 69 the Church. The aim of martyrdom in Judaism was essentially to perfect the the Church. The aim of martyrdom in Judaism wa.1 essentially to perfect the fiedfied Christ Christ beforebefore his his death, death, was usedused asas aa proof proof case. case. The The lelters letters vehemently vehemently victim and edify the people. Since martyrdom, as a religious and moral con- victim and edify the people. Since martyrdom, as a reEgious and moral con­ protestprotest the the use use of of the the epithet epithet martYrI martyrs for for confessors confessors who who endured endured persecution persecution cept, can best develop within an eschatological framework, it is significant cept, call best develop widlin an eschatological framework, it is significant butbut diddid not seal their testimony with their blood."blood.9 InIn TheThe Shepherd Shepherd of of Her·Her- that in Judaism this concept appears only in late Biblical and apocryphal that in Judaism this concept appears only in late Biblical and apocryphal mas.mas, thisthis imitatorimitator ofof ChristChrist through martyrdommanyrdom earnscarns the martyr's salvation writingswritings in in anan eschatologicaleschatological context. context. The The earlyearly Church Church fellfell heir heir toto both ­Jew- andand aa shareshare inin the glory of Christ. "Those whowho suffered suffered for for the the name name of of dIedie ish and its moral implications. ish escharology and irs moral implications. SonSon ofof GodGod are glorious. All their sinssins havehave beenbeen takentaken away."11 away."" The The mar.tyrsmartyrs In Acts 22:20, St. Paul acknowledges his role in the martyrdom of early In Acts 22:20, St. Paul acknowledges his role in the manyrdom of early areare alsoalso pictured pictured asas sitting sitting Oilon thronesthrones withwith CroWIIScrowns on on thdr their h~ads,heads, withwith ChristChrist Christians, "when the blood of Thy servant Stephen was shed."3 The book Christians, "when the blood of Thy servant Stephen was shed."3 The book engagedengaged inin judgingjudging the worlds'world." SuchSuch gloryglory belongsbelongs only to those who have of Revelation, the of the early Church, presents a vivid image of of Revelation, the apocalypse of the early Church, presents a vivid image of sufferedsuffered stripes, stripes, imprisonment.imprisonment, crucifixion,crucifixion, and wild beasts forfor Chrisr'sChrist's name,name, the martyrs: "I saw the woman drunk with the blood . . . of the martyrs." the martyrs: "I saw the woman drunk with (he blood ... of the martyrs."44 insistsinsists thethe authorauthor ofof TheThe Shepherd.Shepherd During the apostolic age, the concept of martyrdom took on new meaning During the apostolic age. the concept of martyrdom took on new meaning AA richrich andand elaborateelaborate cultus evolved outout of thisthis greatgreat regard forfor martyrdom as the number of martyrs increased and their memory lived on. Yet the two as the number of martyrs increased and their memory lived on. Yet the two alldand the veneration accorded martyrs. We can discussdiscuss only only rhethe beginnings of elements of witnessing to one's faith and stoic indifference to pain continued elements of witnessing to one's faith and stoic indifference to pain continued thisthis cultus,cultus, andand some of its salientsalient reatutes.features. Apparently,Apparently, tllethe authoritiesauthorities rcspon­respon- to dominate the thinking of the early Church. Thus we read in I Clement to dominate the thinking of the early Church. Thus we read in I Clement sible forfor thethe execution by burning of Polycarp sought sought toto prevent the Chris-Chris­ 5:4-7 (written about A.D. 96): 5:4-7 (written about A.D. 96): tianstians fromfrom gatheringgathering his remains which, they feared, would be venerated more than Christ. The faithful protestedprotested thisthis accusationaccusation vehemently, arguingarguing tharthat the veneration accorded toto martyrsmatlyrs forfur theirtheir sacrificesacrifice isis not thethe samesame asas wor-wor­ Peter, who because ofof unrighte.ousunrightenus jealowyjealousy suff.m:d suffered not not oneone oror ~otwo butbut many ship which belongs toto God alone. The classic difference herehere staredstated and greatly trials, and having thus given his testimonytestimony went to thethe glotiousglotious placeplace whichwhich was his due. Through jealousy and strife Paul showed the way to the prize of elaborated in thethe EasternEastern ChurchChurch isis betweenbetween honorhonor oror venerationveneration andand wor-wor· was hi5 due. Through jealousy and suife Paul showed the way co the prize of ship. The parishioners of the bishop did gather the bones of the for endurance; seven5cven times he was in bonds, hehe waswas exiled, hehe was stoned, hehe waswas ship. The parishioners of the bishop did gather the bones of the saint for burial. considering them "to be more valuable than precious stones and finer a heraldherald bothDoth inin therhe EastEast and inin thethe West,West, hehe gainedgained thethe noblenoble: famefame ofof hishis burial, considering them "to be more valuable than precious stones and finer than relined .... [They] laid them in a suitable place. There the lord faith,f.irh, hehe taughttaught righteousnessrighteousness to all the world, and when he had reachedteached the than refined gold. . . [They] laid them in a suitable place. There the Lord limitslimits of the West he gave his testimonytestimony beforebefore thethe rulers, and thusrhus passed from will permit us [they said] ...... toto gathergather togethertogether inin joyjoy and gladnessgladness and toto thethe worldworld andand waswa> taken~akcn upup intointo thethe Holy Holy Place—the Pla{e-~he greatestgreatest exampleexample ofof celebrate therhe dayday of his martyrdommartyrdom asas aa birthday,birthday, in memorymemory ofof thosethose ath-arh­ endurance.' endurance.' . letesletes who have gone before.before...... "12"12 TheThe "birrhday"birthday of the martyr" as nnan :l[JIlUalannual memorialmemorial wasW3S a Christian adaptation ofof pagan pagan customcustOm thatthat played played a a crucial crucial rolerole inin thethe growthgrowth of the cultcult ofof martyrs.*martyrs. 13 OneOne ofof the the earliest earliest andand mostmost eagereager martyrsmartyrs ofof the the Church Church was was Ignatius,Ignatius, OthersOthers amongamong the the early early Church Church fathers fathers advocated advocated greatgreat veneration veneration for for mar-mar­ Bishop of Antioch, who died in A.D. Bishop of Antioch, who died in A.D. 108,108. ForFoc Ignatius,Ignatius, thethe martyrmanyr was was "he"he tyrsryrs whom theythey consideredconsidercd toto bebe thethe treasures treasures ofof the rhe Church.Church. Martyrdom Martyrdom was was who imitated Christ in His sufferings."6 He therefore used the term who imirated Christ in His sufferings."6 He therefore used the term discipledisciple consideredconsidered to bebc a second baptism, the baptismbaptism ofof blood,blood, grantinggranting thethe mar- mar· rather than witness. His view was fully theological, and he insisted on bodily rather than wit71eH. His view was fully theological, and he insisted on bodily tyrtvr immediateimmediate remission remission of of sin and and entry entry into inro . Paradise. Martyrs Martyrs who who were were im-im· suffering as a proof that Christ, the crucified Son of God, was clothed in a suffering as a proof that Christ, the crucified Son of God. was clothed in a prisonedprisoned awaitingawaiting death, theirtheir families,families, andand eveneve~ thethe townstowns inin whichwhich theyt~cy real body. Ignatius wished his own body to be crushed between the teeth of real body. Ignatius wished his own body to be crushed berweell the teeth of residedresided werewete held inin high honor. honor. ThoseThose whowho remainedremamcd steadfaststeadfast throughthrough im- Jm­ wild beasts, to become a perfect loaf for Christ, whose own body is repre- wild beasts, to become a perfect loaf for Christ, whose own body is repre· prisonmentprisonment andand torturetorture (although (although escaping e5caping death)death) gained gained positions positions amongamong sented in the bread and of the Eucharist—regarded by Ignatius as "the 14 sented in the bread and wine of the Eucharist-regarded by Ignatius as "the thethe elite elite of of society. society. ThisThis honor honor gave gave themthem the the privilege privilege of of episcopal episcopal office. ofncc.14 medicine of immortality."7 medicine of immortality."7 FromFrom anan early early period,period, martyrs martyrs who who were were imprisonedimprisoned were were askedasked to~o pray pray In the account of the martyrdom of Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, written III the account of the martyrdom ofPolycarp. bishop of Smyrna, written forfor thethe health, health, well-being, well· being, and and salvation salvation of of the the pious. pious. It It was was a a natural natural develop- develop· about A.D. about A.b. 155,155, witnessingwimessing faith toto thethe humanityhumanity and and suffering sufferillg of of the the Son Son mentment that thar such such requests requests for for prayers prayers camecame toto bebe renewed renewed afterafter the the martyr's martyr's of God was fully developed as a concept." In the Leonine letters of about of God was fully developed as a concept." In the leonine letters of abour death.death. This This controversial controversial point nono doubtdou bt led led to to an all even even greater greater tension tensioll be- ,be­ A.D. 170 the term martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of A.o. 170 the tcrm martyr signified persecution leading to the shedding of tweentween worship worship ofof the the dead—a dead -a common common practice pracrice in in pre-Christian pre-Christian pagan pagan society SOCIety blood for Christ. Here, the example of Stephen, who saw (witnessed) the glori- blood for Christ. Here, the example of Stephen, who saw (wimcssed) the glori· —and-and the the veneration veneration of of martyrs. martyrs. The The cuI oft of martyrs martyrs with with its its relics relies and and shrines shrines

ACLURM002821 7070 MAHMOIJDMAHMOUD M. M. AYOUB ENABLlNGENABLING FACTORSfACTORS FOR CHANGE 7171

becamebecame thethe objcaobject of scornscorn to to the the ProtestantProtestant Reformation;Reformation; asas aa resultresult the the Camo.Catho- acceptaccept aa deeddeed unlessunless it it isis donedone sincerelysincerely for for Him Him and and thatthat the doer seekseell: by lielic ChurchChurch waswas forced forced to to define define its its theology of of marryrdom martyrdom againagain andand again.again. misthis only His (God's) face.""face."20 In the words of the Council of Trent, which met in part to answer the criti- III me words of rhe Council of 'frent, which met in pan (0 answer the criti­ At leastleast inin earlyearly Islam, Islam, the the application application ofof thethe termterm martyr was not not limitedlimited cismscisms ofof thethe Reformation:Reformation: "The"The holyholy bodiesbodies ofof holyholy manyrs,martyrs, andand ofof omersothers toto thethe person who isis killedkilled inin thethe way ofof GodGod onon thethe battldidd.battlefield. Martyrdom now living with Christ—which bodies were the living members of Christ now living with Christ-which bodies were the living members of Christ isis anan act of jihadjihad (striving)(striving) inin the way of God. .Jihad, however,however, contratycontrary toto and the temple of the Holy Ghost (I Corinthians 3:16), and which are by a~d the temple of the Holy Ghost (I Corinthians 3:16), and which are by thethe common view heldheld inin the West, is not simplysimply militance: more basicbasic is HImHim to be raisedraiscd unto eternaleternaIlifC, life, and to be~ glorified—areglorified-arc wto be venerated theji»adagainscthefihadagainst the the evil evil in in one's oo~'s ownown soulsoul andand inin society.society. ItIt isis thisthis innerinner pu­pu- by the faithful through whichwhich bodiesbodies manymwy benefitsbenefits are bestowedbestowed by God rityrity resultingresulting fromfrom thethe Jihadjihad of thethe soul thatthat creates thethe rightright intemionintention of I on menmen.,3' serving thethe causecause ofof [ruthtruth in whatever way possible.possible. In In additionaddition to dying in While in ChristiaoicyChristianity a rich cultus arose aroundaround the shrines and relics of deferuedefense ofof one'sone's faith,faith, property, or life, therefore,cllerefore, the act ofof falling off one's the martyrs, inin IslamIslam thisthis phenomenonphenomenon remainedremained limitedlimited to Shi'jShi'i Islam,Islam, and mount, dying of snakebite, or drowning is also regardedregarded as martyrdom. Like-Like­ even therethere tooktook aa differentdifferent formform andand meaning,meaning, TheThe "friend"friend of God" or sainrsaint wise, hehe who dies fromfrom a stray arrow oror bullet,bullet, or from his house collapsing in Islam, whose shrineshrine became aa placeplace of pilgrimage furfor thethe pious.pious, was not down uponupon him, isis considered a martyr. Even thosethose whowho die ofof the plague required toto be a martyr. In fact, the recommendedrecommended that, wheneverwhenever or a stomachstomach ailment,ailment, or a woman whowho diesdies inin childbirth,childbirth, arcare considered mar­mar- possible, manyrsmartyrs shouldshould bebe buriedburied atat the spot where they fellfell inin batcle.battle."'6 ToTo tyrs. The famousfamous tradiciomst,traditionist, , isis saidsaid toto havehave declared:declared: "A'~ man m~my kn~wledge,knowledge, therethere arcare no shrines in the except those of the dies in hisbis bed inin thethe way way ofof God, God, yet yet he he is is a a martyr?"11 martyr."" Nevertheless,Nevertheless, in spite.:spite Shiah imams in and Shlah Imams 10 Iraq and Iran;; specificallyspecificaUy erectederected asas memorials for martyrs. of all this, the truetrue martyrmartyr isis he whowho isis slainslain in thethe wayway of God. Yet Yet even here the imam'simam's role is far greater thmthan simply that ofof martyr.martyr. Early traditionisrstraditionists maymay havehave usedused the term martyr very broadly andand with The word shahid The word shahid ("witness"), with itsirs derivatives,deIivatives, occursOCcurs over fifty times caution becausebecause they feared thethe riserise of a special cultcult of martyrs. 'Dms,Thus, in rela-rela­ in thethe .Quean. InIn most most of of these these references,references, thethe emphasisemphasis isis on itsits linguisticlinguistic tionship to the authorityauthoricy ofof Abu Hurayrah, thethe ProphetProphet isis saidsaid toto havehave de-de· meaningmea~ing and usage as witness herehere onon earthearth to the oneness of God, the apos-apos­ clared: "Whoever has faithfaith in God andand in in His His apostle,apostle, observesobserves regular prayersprayers tleshIptleship of , andand thethe truth of thethe faith.faith. WitnessesWitnesses areare notnot inin a and fasts the month of Ramadan.Ramadan, it shall be incumbemincumbent upon God toto makemake category by themselvesthemselves butbut areare classedclassed with with dIe the , prophets, thethe righteous, and him enterenter Paradise, whether he fights in the way ofof GodGod or remains in the therhe: truthful—truthful-mat that is, with thosethose who havehave found favorfavor with God.God.IT17 land of his birth."birth:' YetYet when thethe peoplepeople askedasked ifif they Lhey shouldshould conveyconvey this glad The first question of concern to us is: Who The first question of concern to us is; Who isis a martyr? TheThe answer,answer, asas tidingtiding toto others,others, thethe ProphetProphet did did not not answer answer directly.directly. Instead,Instead, hehe describeddescribed we shall see,see, isis inin thethe end legally determined.determined. A man, we ateare told, said to the highhigh stationstation ofof thethe martyrs martyrs in in Paradise.s! Paradise. 12 PerhapsPerhaps forfor thistills reasonreason itit waswas therhe Prophet:Prophet: "A'''A man maymay fight inin quest ofofboory.Anomer booty. Another maymay fight forfor fame thethe juristjurist rather than thethe oratororator oror theologiantheologian who derermineddetermined thethe principleprinciple and stillstill anotheranother forfur aa showshow of status. Who among these would bebe fighting according toto which aa man or womanwoman may be considered to bebe aa martyr.martyr. inin thethe wayway of God?" The ProphetProphet answered,answered, "Whoever fightsfights inin order that We cannot enter in detaildetail intointo thisthi~ technicaltethnical topictopic ofof the the qualificationsqualifications the wordword of God be uppermost,uppermost, would be lightingfighting inin the way ofof God."18God."" of aa martyr;martyr; aa fewfew generalgeneral remarksremarks mustmust suffice. suffice. ThreeThree categoriescategories ofof martyrsmartyrs The famous traditionist, Ibn HajarRajar al-Asqalani,al-Asqalani, comments on this hadithhat/jth may be distinguished:distinguished: martyr of this world, martyr of this and the worldworld toto ("Tradition("'Ihdition of the Prophet"):Prophet"): "One"One may may fight fight forfur oneone of of five five reasons:reaso~: booty;booty; come,come, and martyrmartyr ofof thethe worldworld toto comecome only.only. TheThe firstfirst isis hehe whowho diesdies forfor aa aa showshow of bravery;braveI)'; or a show before others; in defensedefense of wealth, family,family, oror worldly cause otherother thanthan thatthat ofof faith. faith. TheThe second secood isis hehe who who isis slainslain forfor nono land;land; andand outOut of of anger. anger. AnyAnyone one ofof these rhese couldcould inin itselfitself be be praiseworthy praiseworthy oror otherother reasonreason but thatthat "the"the word word ofof God God bebe uppermost."uppermost." SuchSuch aa martyrmartyt isis toto the opposite. So long the opposite. So long asas thethe mainmain purposepurpose remainsremains thatthat thethe 'word'word ofof God God bebe buriedburied inin hishis clothes, without washing or shrouding-ordinarily,shrouding—ordinarily, necessarynecessary bebe uppermost'uppermost' (which(which isis here defined asas defending thethe causecause of Islam), irit mat-mat­ ritesrites forfor the dead.dead. TheThe martyr martyr of of this this world world isis likewiselikewise buried inin hishis clothes,clothes. tersters notnot whatwhat other other reasons reasons may may exist exist as as secondary secondal)' causes."t9 causes."" sincesince in thethe endend his his motives motives areare knownknown onlyonly toto God,God, who who will will rewardreward eachea(h InIn yetyet another tradition,tradition, thethe ProphetProphet was was askedasked whether a man fightingfighting person accordingaccording- toto his acts and intentions. Umar Ibn al-Khattaba1-Khattab andand AllAli forfur materialmllterial rewardsrewards would also have aa rewardreward withwith GodGod on thethe dayday ofof resur- resur­ 1bnIbn Abi Talib, the second andmd fourth ofof the the fourfour tightlyrightly guidedguided caliphs caliphs whowho rection.rection. The Prophet answered,answered. "Nothing.""Nothing." He continued,continued, "God"God wouldwould not werewere stabbed and dieddied laterlater of of their their wounds, wounds, werewere given regular burial. While

ACLURM002822 72 lIIIU1MOUDman:stoma M. AYOUB ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE 73 both were considered martyrs in the way of God, such burial indicates that hmh wen: considered martyrs in the way of God, 5uch burial indicates that principle of their faith andand piety. piety. EveryEvery year duringduring the firstlim ten days of Mu­Mu- theythey werewere nor, not, technicallytechnically speaking, speaking, martyrs. martyrs. The The third third caliph, caliph, , Uthman, who harram (the first month ofof thethe MuslimMuslim calendar),calendar). theythey reliverelive the experience Z was slain slain in in hishis house,house, waswas also also not not washed washed or or shrouded. shrouded.") of Husayn IbnIbn , thethe thirdthird imam,imam. who throughthrough his death at pro-pro· Finally, thethe Quran counsels to make peace among themselves.themselves. vided for all Muslims the supreme exampleexample ofof self-sacrifice self-sacrifice inin thethe way of God. YctYet ifif oneone group group transgressestransgresses against against another, another, that that group group must must bebe foughtfought un:un- InIn the tragedy of Karbala in A.D. 680, the ideal of martyrdom took on new til itit rerurnsreturns to the rightright path.24path." Thus,Thus, wewe are are told, told, afterafter thethe battle of Nahra­Nahra- theological andand pietisticpietisric significance.significance, Thus Husayn, "the"the Prince of MartyrsMartyrs"" wan against thethe KharijitesKharijites (A.D. (Aro. 659), 659), Ali All had had the the deaddead onon his side buriedbuned and "Master"Master of the Youths of the PeoplePeople ofof Paradise,Paradise."" was saidsaid toto have heenbeen as martyrs. ThisThis principle principle has has continued continued toto bebe observed (and(and oftenoften abused) destined for this sacrifice fromfrom thethe beginning of creation,creation. History was read to the presentpresent day.day. backward from from himhim toto Adam.Adam, and beyond and forwardfurward toto the end of the world. As in Christianity,Chri5tianity. thethe blood of the martyrmartyr in IslamIslam washeswashes away his or As in DefOreBefore him,him, history waswas a a long long prelude prelude toto the drama of suffering andand death her . It is important to observe that even though women are exempted her sins. is important ob5erve that even though women arc exempted of which he.he, his friends.friends, and immediateimmediate relativesrelatives were the centralcemral characters,characters. from actual fighting for religious and juristic reasons,reasons, the first martyr inin Islam MterAfter him.him, history is a period of intenseintense hopehope inin thethe anticipationanticipation of thethe returnreturn was aa woman-woman—Sumayya. Sumayya, the the mother mother ofof AmmarAmmar Ibn Yasir, whowho waswas torturedtortured of thethe MahdiMandi (his(his ninthninth descendant and twelfth imam ofof thethe ShiahShish ~omcnu­commu- to death with hcrher husbandhusband and son by the Mcccan ArabsArabs hefurebefore thethe conquest nity) to avenge thethe deathdeath ofofHusayn Husayn andand vindicate thethe fairhfulfaithful for rhelftheir actual of the city. The The injunction injunction toto letlet thethe blood of thethe martyrs bebe their purificationpurification and vicarious sharingsharing inin the sufferings ofof rheholythe holy familyfamily ofof thethe Prophet Mu-M~­ is saidsaid toto have beenbeen givengiven byby thethe PropherProphet regarding those slain in the battle hammad. Yet Husayn himself was said roto have:have beenbeen roldtold by thethe Prophet ~nin of 'Mud."1' Ile said: "Shroud them in their blood and do not wash them. of Uhud. He said: "Shroud them in their blood and do not wash them. a dream that "he"he hashas anan exaltedexalred stationstation withwith God which he cannot attain ForPor nono manman whowho isis injuredinjured inin thethe way of of God God butbut that he shall come on the except throughthrough mattyrdom.mattyrdom."31"" day of with hishis blood gushing OUtout of his veins. The colorcolor shall The death ofof Husayn, Husayn, moreover,moreover. becamebecame for Shiah MuslimsMuslims a source of be that of blood and thethe odor thatthat ofof musk.musk.":!6"26 redemption and healing.healing. AccordingAccording toto aa well-knownwell-known uadit~on,tradition, justjust beforebe~ore The martyrsmartyrs-"those —"those who areate slain inin thethe way of God"-theGod"— the QuranQuran tells his deathdeath the Prophet said: "I am leaving with you (the [the MushmMuslim commUulty)community] us ""areare not to bebe reckonedreckoned as dead; rather,ratner, theythey areare alivealive with their Lord sus-sus­ the twotwo weights onto which if you hold fast,fast, you shallshall never go astray: the mince"rained."z1 Islamic e5clutology has has always always been expressed in the language and Book ofof God and my family, the people ofof my household. They shall nevernever the social framework ofof thisthis life.life. Hence,Hence, tradition veryvery earlyeady displayed great be separated until they come to me at the spring.spring."'3"" ThisThis paradisiacalparadisiacal spring imagination inin depictingdepicring thethe greatgreat pleasurespleasures of the martyrs in Paradise."Paradise.'· YetYer shall be given toto thethe ProphetProphet on thethe day of judgmentjudgment toto quenchquench the thirst .ofof therhe truetlUe martyrmartyr forfur God retainsretains hishis desiredesire forfor martyrdommartyrdom eveneven inin Paradise.Paradise. the piouspiau:; "on"on the day of the great thirst:'thirst."34" BothBoth thethe QuranQuran andand thethe familyfamdy Malik IbnIbn Anas relatedrelated thatthat tbethe Prophet said: ""NoNo one who entersenters ParadiseParadise of Muhammad will judge and intercede before God and his Prophet for those would wishwish toto rerumreturn [Qto this world, even if he were to possess allall that is in of the MuslimsMuslims who honored thethe twotwo weightsweights orOf neglected and mistreatedmistreared it,ie, exceptexcepr the martyr.manyr. He would desire roto returnreturn toto the world toto be killed ten them. HusaynHusayo willwill also standstand before God on the day of resurrectionrcsurrection as a head­head- timesrimes because ofof thethe greatgreat honor (with[with God]God) which he sees in this act.act,"29"29 "The"The less body to contendmotend with his murderers and intercede forti)r his followers." For door ofof Paradise,Paradise,"" we are told in another tradition,tradition, ""isis under the glittering Shiah piety it is Fatmah.Patmah, the daughter of Muhammad and mother ofofHusayn, Husayn, swools.swords:']·'30 who has in this world embodied thethe sufferingsuffering of her descendants and whowho Tradition records numerousnumerous examples ofof marryrsmartyrs who who sensedsensed thethe odor of l6 continues to shed tearsrears of anguish even in Paradise.Paradise." ParadiseParadisc onon thethe battlefield andand thus gladly metmet their death. OneOne suchsuch exam-exam­ This ethos of suffering stands in sharp contrast to the quick and spectacu-spectacu· ple is that ofof aa man calledcalled AbdallahAbdallah IbrtIbnJahsh _latish who who prayed prayed onon thethe morning lar success ofofthe the earlyearly generarionsgenerations ofof Muslims. YetYet it it isis itselfitself thethe prod~c~product of of the battle ofofUhud. Uhud, saying:saying: ""00 God, God. letlet me me today[Oday meetmeet a a strongsrrong andand bravebrave that militarymilitary andand economiccconomic success,success, coming as i~it does~oes. ou~out of thethe convictioncon~lwon knight whowho will kill me and cutcur off my nose andand two ears. Thus when I shall that politicalpolitical justicejustice must, inin thethe end,end. reflect reflect divinedIVIne justice.JustIce. GodGo~ Himself,Himself. meet youyou tomorrow,tomorrow, youyou willwill say,say. ''MyMy servant,servant, furfor what.what were your nose and in ShahShiah theology,theology, isis boundbound only only byby HisHis ownown justice.justic.e, Hence,Hencc, Shiites repeatrepeat earscars cut off?off?'' II willwill thenthen answer,answer. 'It·It was in You [for[for youryour sake],sake], my Lord.Lord, and daily in theirtheir worship the prayer.prayer: ""00 God, God. wewe desiredeSlfe ofo~ Youyou an honorableho~orable in your apostle.'""31 in your apostle ... • state5tate in which You honor Islam andand irsits people, and humiliatehumlhate hypocrisyhypoCflsy and Shiah Muslims have made the ethos of martyrdom and suffering a basic Shiall Muslims have made the ethos of martyrdom and suffering a basic its people. [We pray)pray] thatthat inin itir youyou renderrender usus amongamong thosethose whowho callcall [others]lothers)

ACLURM002823 74 MAHMOUDNAHMOUD M. AYOUBAYOUB BNABUNGENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGECHANGE 75

[Qto obedience toto you,you, andand thatthat you you makemake usus leadersleaders toto your your way." way." This ideal in Christianity martyrdom waswas a glorious strugglestruggle before ChristendomChristendom became order will comecome onlyonly whenwhen humanhuman justice will approx.imateapproximate divine jUlit!cejustice most a world powerpower under under Constantine.Constantine, in Islam the Jihadjihad or struggle of the mar-mar· closely,closely. which which can can only only be be achil:ved achieved uuder under the the leadershipleadership ofof anan imam pro-pro­ tyrs waswas instituted instituted after Islam became a religious,religious. social.social, andand political order. tected by God fromfrom error. InIn this hope-orhope—or rather.rather, humanly unrealized goal Thus, when the symbol of supreme martyrdom, the cross, became thethe banner -polirical— political idealism idealism and and theology meet. under which political wars were waged.waged, the significance of of methe principle alto·alto- It isis noteworthy tharthat Shiites, more than the SunniSuoni majoritymajority ofof Muslims, Muslims, gether became subjecrsubject toto question and doubt. The most intense protest against have riskedtisked lifelife andand Muslim uniryunity inin this quest. They have,have. moreover, main­main- this "distonion""distortion" may be seen in the radicalradical Reformation aruland thethe rich and tainedtuined a longlong andand recognizablerecognizable list of martyrs. The listlist beginsbegins withwith AbelAbel (QabiI)(Qabil) moving martyrologies thatthat Mennonites and Anabaptists havehave left as their leg-leg­ and includes the Prophet Muhammad and all the imams but one. The twelfth acy forfor posterity.posterity. TheThe idealideal martyr in Christianity was therefore he "who suf-suf­ imam,imam. thethe HiddenHidden Imam,Imam. willwill returnreturn toto closeclose thisrhis longlong chapterchaprer ofof wrong- wrong­ fered stripes, imprisonment, crucifixioncrucifixion and wild beasts ...... "" IsIs it becausebecause of doing and martyrdom, and establish justice inin the earth. Thus the Prophet this loss ofof thethe original meaning of rhisthis ideal thatthar eveneven amongamong committedcommitted is said [Qto have declared: "Even"Even ifif therethere remainsremains [only[only] lone one dayday of the life of fundamentalist ChristiansChristians martyrdom is no longer thethe impimpetus ems it was for the the world,world. God will prolong tharthat day llntiluntil aa man ofof my progeny shall appear, early Church? whose name is my name and whose agnomen is my agnomen. He shallshall fill In Islam, the idealideal martyrmarEyr isis hehe whowho strivesstrives inin the way of God "with his thedie earth with equity and justice as itit has been filled withwith inequityinequity and in­in- haud.,hand, with his tongue,tongue. andand. withwith hishis heart."heart." YetYet striving only withwith the hearthcatt justice.""justice."” This rradition,tradition, with minor variations,variations, is accepted by both Shiah is considered toto be "the weakestweakest of faith."41faith."41 This emphasis 011on outward strug­strug- and SunniSunni traclitionists,traditiollists. Thus thethe ideal ideal it it expresses expresses hashas gainedgained officialofficial accep-accep­ gle does not imply wildwild andand uncontrolleduncontrolled warfare, warfare. however;however; rather, itit advo-advo· tance among Muslims ofof both groups.groups. cates aa regulated struggle for the good and againstagainst evil.evil. (At(At anyany rate, suchsuch This ideal of greatgreat justice waswas realized realized for for a a brief brief timetime onlyonly byby thethe Prophet,Prophet, is enjoined inin the Quran and rtadition.)tradition.) This strugglestruggle has definitedefinite Muhammad, in . The Quran refers toto the realization of the ideal of priorities of concern;concern: "If afflictionaffii~tion befalls you,"you," advisedadvised AbdallahAbdallah Ibnlbn Jun-'Jun-- a good society in in aa statementstatement comingcoming shortlyshortly beforebefore the the Prophec'sProphet's deathdeath and dub, theme son son ofof a a well-knownwell-known Companion,Companion. "ransom"ransom your your soulssouls byby your wealth. after all the obligations of Islam had been instituted: "Today"Today have I perfected But if afflictionalHiction increases, putput your souls before youryour faith.faith. forPot aa truly de­de- your religion for you; I have completed mymy favor towards you and havehave ac-ac­ prived man is he whose religion is taken away fromfrom him.him. This is because there cepted IslamIslam asas a religion for you."38yoU."38 Martyrs Martyrs throughout throughout Islamic history have is no poverty afterafter Paradise, nornor isis therethere anyany wealthwealth after after the the PireFire." ... ·', been an affirmationaffirmation of this hope, and aa recognitionrecognition that thisthis hope remainsremains In spite of this lmimportant portant difference, difference, however,however. bothboth IslamIslam andand Christianity an idealideal unfulfilledunfulfilled becausebecause of human folly.folly. Hence,Hence. thethe challengechallenge remainsremains agree on the basicbasic concept of martyrdom asas witnesswitness to to the the truth.truth. The true as powerfulpowerful today today in in Iran. Iran, Afghanistan, Afghanistan, thethe ArabianArabian peninsula.,peninsula, and even here martyr, the twotWo religions also agree, is he who is freefree from any ocherother motive in thethe NewNew World as itit waswas when it waswas first uttered. but that witness.wimess. While thethe idealideal martyrmartyr inin IslamIslam is the one who falls on the "Surely God has exchanged withwith the people of faith their liveslives and wealth battlefield, actual fightingfighting is not an absoluteabsolure requirementrequirement forfur martyrdom.martyrdom. so that theythey shall have Paradise: theythey fightfight inin thethe way {)f of God,God, they kill and Islam, moreover,.hasmoreover, has itsits marqrsmartyrs whowho silentlysilently and and bravelybravely endure endure tortu[etorture and are killed.killed.. , . .:'39"39 This verse continues, continues, "It"Jr is is a a promise promise incumbent incumbent uponupon Him death. Finally, both uaditiol15traditions are in agreement regarding the exaltedexalted station in truth,truth. inin thethe TorahTorah and thethe ."Gospel." Thus Islam has fromfrom thethe beginning of the martyr with God and thethe beliefbelief that thar the the martyr martyr will will carrycarry the marksmarks recognized dlethe place and value ofof martyrdommartyrdom inin the major scriptures revealedrevealed of his sacrifice with with himhim to be displayeddisplayed even in .heaven. ~~45 befurebefore it.it. In artan earlier surahsurah ofof thethe Quean,Quran, revealed before the principle of In more recent Christian developments,developments. thethe twotwo idealsideals maymay yetyet havehave more jihadjihad was establishedestablished for for the the Muslim Muslim community, community, the the QuranQuran alludesalludes toto the in common thanthan ever ever before,before. LiberationLiberation theology—theology- the productproduct ofof poverty, poverty, famous Christian martyISmartyrs ofof NajranNajtano40 who became the subject ofof much exe-exe· piety, and political awareness—mayawateness-may yetyet prove prove to to be be the the mostmost importantimportant phe­phe- getical and hadith scholarship. ItIt isis thereforetherefore important important toto ask,ask, inin conclusion,condusion, nomenon in modern Christian Christian history. history. AsA:; a Muslim, I believe that piety with­with- about thethe similaritiessimilarities and differences inin thethe view ofof andand attitudeattitude towardtowatd mar­mar- OUtout political involvementinvulvemem is at best all theory and no practice. It shall be those tyrs in thethe twotwo religiousreligious traditions.[[aditions. who feed the hungry, clothe the naked, care for the sick, and defend the Perhaps the most obvious andand important historical differencediffereuce is thatthat while wronged in prison who will inheritinherit the kingdom of God.

ACLURM002824 76 MAHMUUD M. AYOUB 76 MAHMUUD M. AYOUB ENABLING FACTOIlS POl! CHIINGB 77 ENABLING FACTORS FOR CHANGE 77 NotesNotes 3B.38. Quran Quran 5:3. 5:3. 39. QUl:l!!1 9:111. 1. 1 John 1:1. (All Biblical quotations are taken from the Revised Standard Version.) 39- QuEaa 9:111. t.2. I JohnActs 7:55-56.1:1. (All Biblical quotations are taken from the Re.ised Stand:ml Version.) 40.40. Quran Quran 85:4--B. 85:4-8. 2. Acts 7:5S--%. 41. Abu Is. Muhammad bin Iso bin Sawrah .1· Tirmidhi, SUM" al·T;rm;ahi, Abdul Rahman 3. Sec also Acts 1:8, Luke 21:13, John 15:27, and Matt. 10:28, where the 41. Abu Isa Muhammad bin Isa bin Sawrah al-Tirmidbi, 3. See also Acts 1:8. Luke 21:I3.John 15:27. and Matt. 10:28, whete the termterm ma'lyr martyr is is also also Muhammad Utlurum, 3d ed., (Beiru~ Dar aj·Fikr, 1398(1978)Sunan vol. al-Tirraldbr;}, p. 318. Abdul Rahman used in the sense of witness. Muhammad 1.1thinan, 3d ed., (Beirut. Dar al-Fikr, 1398/1978) vol. 3, p. 318. usr:d in the sense of wjtnC!i5. 42. Khalid, (ll-Shahiti ft al·iI/am, p. 138. 4. Rev. 17:6. See also Rev. 6:9-11, 20:4. 42. Khalid, al-Shabia'fi al-Lrlata, p. 138. 4. Re •. 17;6. See also Rev. U:9-I1. 20:4. • 43. [h•• e already cited Muslim tradition in support of this idea. For the Christian lI"dilion, 5. Cyril C. Richardson as al, cds., Early Christian Fathers, 43. have already cited Muslim tradition S. Cyril C. Riehatdoon e, aI .• cds .• EoT/y Ch,iJlian Fathers. TheThe Library Library ofChristiao of Christian ClassiC. Classics See Ayoub, Redemptive SuiferiTlg ;n l!llZm, pp.in support199, 282 of (n.7). this idea. For the Christian tradition, (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1953), vol. 1, p. 46. see Ayoub, Redemptive Suffering in Mom, (Philadelphia: The Westminster Pc .... 19B). vol. I. p. 46. pp. 199, 282 (n.7). 6. See Rom. 6:3, and the entire epistle that revolves around this concept. 6.7. Se. See Rom. Eph. 6:3.20:2, and the eotire epistle that revolves around this concept 7. Se. Eph. 20:2. 8. See Richardson, Early Chrinian Fathers, B. Se. Richardson, Edrly Chrislia11 Rtlhe,... pp.pp. 149tf.149ff. 9. New Catholic Encyclopaedia, vol. 11. 1967, p. 312. 10.9. NewIbid. Co2tI",I;" EI1"yelopaedi", vol. 11. 1967. p. 312. 10.11. Ihid. Ibid. II. Ibid. 12. Richardson, Early Christian Fathers, p. 156. 12. Rich.rdson. Ea'/, ChTiJtio2n liztherJ. p. 156. 13. On the development of the cult of the martyrs and 13. On the development of [he cult of [be manYQ and irsits rclatiomhips relationships roto Gracco·RomlUlGraeco-Roman antecedents, see James Hastings, ed., Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (New ameteden".Scribner's Sons, see James n.d.), Ha"ings.vol. 9, pp. cd 52ff„ .• Encyclapuaw a/Religion ana EtM.. (New Yack:York: Chari., Charles Scribner's14. Ibid., Sons. p. n.d.). 53. vol. 9. pp. )llf.. 15.14. IbidIbid., .• p. 51.'3. 15.16. HasanIbid., />. Khalid, 51. al-Shabidfi (Beirut: Dar al-11m 61-malayin, 1971), p. 75. 17.16. SecHasan Quran Kh.lid. 4:69, a/·Shahid 57:19. ji 111·1Jlam. (Beirut: Dar aI·lim liI.malayin. 1971). p. n. 18.17. AhmadSoc QUCln ibn All4:69. bin H:19. Hajar al-Asqllani, Rath fi sharh Atha al-bukhari(lieintt: al-marifah,18. Ahwad n.d.) ibn vol. Ali 6, bin p. 28.Hajaral·Asq.llani. l'I1lhal·b..,iji.r!;arhJahihlZ/·b"khari(Bcirut: Dar ~1.marif.Jh.19. Ibid., n.d.) p. 28.vol. 6. p. 28. 20.19, Ibid.lhid., p. 2B. 20. Ibid. 21. Khalid, al-Shahid fi al-Islam, p. 57. Scc also pp. 55-57. 21. K1,.Jid, aI-ShaM" ji ul·l;/am, p. n Sec also pp. ~ ~-57. 22. Ibn Hajar, Fath al-hari fi tharh sahib al-bukhan; p. 22. Jbn Haiar. Fath a/.hari ft Jharh 1i1I;ih q(·bllkhari, p. IL11. 23. Scc Khalid, al-Shahitlfi al-Is/am, pp. 69-72. 24,23. SeeSec: Quran Khalid. 49:9. aI·Shahid fi al·1JIam. pp. 69-72. 24. See Qutan 49:9. 25. See Khalid, ft al-Islam, p. 70. 26.25. Ibid.Sec KhaIid. al·ShalJj" ji a/-klam, p. 70. 27.26. Quran[bid. 3:169. 27. Qu ... n 3:169. 28. See Imad al-Din Abi al-Fida Ismail Bin Kathir, Eefrjr ~B. Sr.e [mad .1.Din Abi al·Fid. Ism.iI Bin Kalhir.1iI[riral-Quran 1I/·QU1lJR gAAzim, llI.Azim. 2d2d ed. cd. (Beirut: (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1389/1970), vol. 2, pp. 153-60. Dac29. a)·Pike. 1bn Hajar, 13891197U). vol. 2,/>p. 1~3~60. Each al-hari ft tharb tahih d-bukhan; p, 31. 30.29. Ibid. Ibn Haj.t. Nih aI·bari Ii JMr!; JtiTh;h aI,oIlAhan; p. 31. 30. Ibid. 31. Khalid, al-Shahid fi aarlam, p. 138. 32.31. Khalid, fl/·Shahiti Ii a/.TJ/am, p. BU. Akhtab al-Muvraffaq al-Khawarizmi, Maqtal al-Husayn (Najaf: 1367/1947),32. t\kht~b vol. 1,a1·MuwaJF..q p. 187. .1·K.hawarizmi. MdqIl1I aI·HUlayn (Naja!;Muhammad Mubammad al-Samavvi, a1·Samawi, 136711947).33. vol. I. p. 187. Abu Jafar al-Saduq lbn Babawayh !korai al-Din Ilaydariyyah,33. Abu 1389/1970),Jaf.r .I..s.duq p. 62. Ibn Dabaw.yb aI·Qummi, Ihnal d·Dm(Najaf: (Naja!: al-Mathaah al·Marbaab al- aI· Uaydatiyy.h. 13B911970). p. 62. 34. Mahmoud M. Ayoub, Redemptive Suffering In Islam 1978),34. pp. Mahmoud 205ff. M. Ayoub. Retiempli.e Suffering In lilam(The (The Hague: Hague: Mouton Mournn Publishers, Publishers. 197B).35. [bid., pp. 20sff. p. 214. 36.35. Ibid., Ibid., pp. p. 144-45.214. 37.36. Ibid., Ibid p. .• 217.pp. 144-45. 37. Ibid .• p. 217.

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