Lipid Composition of Afromomum Melegueta, Zingiber Officinale, Afromomum Melegueta & Xylopic Aethiopica

Home , Alligator pepper, Grains of Selim

Year: 2014; Volume: 1; Issue: 1 Article ID: FNR14 04; Pages: 1-16

Research Article Lipid Composition of Afromomum melegueta, Zingiber officinale, Afromomum melegueta & Xylopic aethiopica

Emmanuel Ilesanmi Adeyeye1*, Adeolu Jonathan Adesina1, Emmanuel Dayo Fagbohun2

1Department of Chemistry (Analytical Unit), Ekiti State University,P.M.B. 5363, Ado –Ekiti, Nigeria 2Department of Micobiology, Ekiti State University,P.M.B. 5363, Ado –Ekiti, Nigeria

Correspondence should be addressed to Emmanuel Ilesanmi Adeyeye

Received 28 May 2014; Accepted 11 August 2014; Published 27 August 2014

Copyright: © 2014 Emmanuel Ilesanmi Adeyeye et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

Lipid composition of four different plant products used as spices: Afromomum melegueta (small and big alligator peppers), Zingiber officinale (ginger) and Xylopic aethiopica (Ehiopian pepper) were analyzed for lipid composition. Crude fat levels ranged between 0.42 – 8.92 g/100g. SFA levels ranged from 17.5 – 50.0 % of total fatty acids. The most concentrated SFA in all the samples was C16:0 (12.0 – 26.1 %), with the highest level occurring in Afromomum melegueta. MUFA values were in the range of 17.3 – 33.6 %, highest MUFA was petroselinic fatty acid in big and small alligator peppers (17.2 and 16.5 % respectively). Among the PUFAs, C18:2 cis - 9, 12 (LA) had the highest concentrations in all the samples with a range of 27.5 – 52.7 %. In all the samples, n-6 PUFA constituted the largest group: 27.8 – 56.3 %. Phytosterol levels showed sitosterol as the most concentrated in all the samples (19.3 – 351 mg/100g). Phosphatidylcholine constituted the highest concentrated phospholipid in all the samples with values ranging between 2.60 – 27.4 mg/100g. Chi-square (X2) analysis showed that significant differences occurred at α = 0.05 among the quality parameters from the fatty acids except in MUFA/SFA, EPSI and PUFA/SFA ratios. The plant samples were generally low in total fatty acids, hence their consumption, as food sources may not result in the consumers consuming fats above the recommended healthy guidelines.

Keywords: Afromomum melegueta, Zingiber officinale, Afromomum melegueta , Xylopic aethiopica, Lipid composition.

Introduction stem, roots, flowers, seeds, fruits, bulbs, tubers and fungi [2, 3]. They have also been reported to be Vegetables are known to be important sources of good sources of oil, carbohydrates, minerals as well protective foods [1]. A vegetable includes leaves, as vitamins [4]. Edible oils from plant sources are of

interest in various food and application industries. whole pod is pounded in a pestle and mortar before They provide characteristic flavours and textures to half of it is added (along with black pepper) as a food as integral diet components [5] and can also flavouring to West African soups or boiled rice. The serve as a source of oleochemicals [6]. Since spice can also be substituted in any recipe using antiquity, man has used plants to treat common grains of paradise or black cardamom to provide a infectious diseases even long before mankind hotter and more pungent flavour. When babies are discovered the existence of microbes; the idea that born in Yoruba cultures, they are given a small taste certain plants had healing potential was well of alligator pepper shortly after birth as part of the accepted [7]. routine baby-welcoming process, and it is also used as an ingredient at traditional meet-and-greets. In Peppers (chillies) are widely used in tropical Igbo land in Nigeria alligator pepper with kola nuts countries as soup thickeners, hotness inducers are used in naming ceremonies, as presents to (pungency), colour and flavour enhancers in foods, visiting guests and for other social events. thus promoting appetite and aiding consumption. In many tropical countries the basic staple is smooth Grains of Selim refers to the seeds of a shrubby tree, in texture and bland flavour, a highly-spiced sauce Xylopia aethiopica, found in Africa. It is also known is therefore an essential accompaniment to most as Kimba pepper, Afrcan pepper, Moor pepper, meals. They are also used in local and modern Negro pepper, Kani pepper, Kili pepper, Senegal pharmaceutical preparations by food industries for pepper, Ethiopian pepper, Hwentia and Guniea the seasoning of processed foods, e.g. biscuits and pepper. The seeds have a musky flavour and are ginger soft drinks [8, 9], and in the preparation of used as a pepper substitute. It is sometimes curry powder, tabasco sauce etc. The four pungent confused with grains of paradise. By far the most flavoured plant varieties considered in this report common name in Wolof is djar in Senegal, and this are: two cultivars of Aframomum melegueta (big is how it is listed on most, if not all, café Touba and small alligator peppers), Zingiber officinale packages. As a spice the whole fruit is used as a hull (ginger) and Xylopic aethiopica (Ethiopian pepper). of the fruit lends an aromatic note (with the taste being described as an admixture of cubed pepper Aframomum melegueta is a tropical herbaceous and nutmeg with overtones of resin) whilst the perennial plant of the genus Aframomum belonging seeds lend pungency. Typically the dried fruit is to the family Zingiberaceae (Ginger family) of the lightly crushed before being tied in a bouquet garni angiosperms in the kingdom plantae. The main and added to West African soups. In Senegal the difference between the two cultivars of alligator spice is often sold smoked in markets as Poiv-re de pepper used is in the size of both the fruit and Senegal (the whole green fruit is smoked giving the seeds. Aframomum melegueta is a plant with both spice a sticky consistency) and when pounded in a medicinal and nutritive values, found commonly in pestle and mortar it makes an excellent fish rub. the rain forest of Nigeria. The seeds have pungent peppery taste due to aromatic ketones [10]. It is Ginger consists of the fresh or dried roots of widely spread across tropical Africa including Zingiber officinale. The English botanist William Nigeria, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Cameroon, Roscoe (1753-1831) gave the plant the name Cote D ivoire and Togo [11]. According to Oyegade Zingiber officinale in an 1807 publication. The et al. [12], the phytochemicals obtained from the ginger family is a tropical group especially seeds of Aframomum melegueta has been used for abundant in Indo-Malaysia, consisting of more than years in the treatment of infectious diseases. The 1200 plant species in 53 general. The genus grains possess active ingredients that may be Zingiber includes about 85 species of aromatic exploited for local development of antimicrobials. herbs from East Asia and tropical Australia. The Even in West Africa, alligator pepper is an name of the genus, Zingiber was derived from a expensive spice, so is used sparingly. Often, a single Sanskrit word denoting “horn shaped” in reference

to the protrusions on the rhizomes [13, 14]. Ginger extractor arrangement that has been assembled belongs to the family Zingiberaceae and it is [19]. The lipid was extracted for 5 h. The extraction cultivated commercially in India, China, South East flask was removed from the heating mantle Asia, West Indies, Mexico and other parts of the arrangement when it was almost free of petroleum world. It is consumed as a spice and flavouring ether. The extraction flask with the crude oil was agent and is attributed to have many medicinal oven dried at 105oC for the period of 1 h. The flask properties. Ginger has been used as a spice and as containing the dried oil was cooled in the desiccator natural additives for more than 2000 years [15, 16]. and the weight of the cooled flask with the dried oil Studies have shown that, the long term dietary was taken. intake of ginger has hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic effect [17]. Ginger has been Preparation of methyl esters and analysis identified as an herbal medicinal product with The extracted fat (50 mg) was saponified for 5 min pharmacological effect. Ginger suppresses at 95 oC with 3.4 ml of 0.5 M KOH in dry methanol. prostaglanding synthesis through inhibition of The mixture was neutralized by 0.7 M HCl. A cycloxygenase-1 and cycloxygenase-2. In traditional volume of 3 ml of 14 % boron trifluoride (BF3) in Chinese and Indian medicine, ginger has been used methanol (Supelco Inc., Bellefonte, PA, USA) was to treat a wide range of ailments including stomach added [19]. The mixture was heated for 5 min at aches, diarrhea, nausea, asthma, respiratory 90oC to achieve complete methylation. All the fatty disorders [18]. As these plants spices are used both acid methyl esters (FAME) were extracted into as a spice and for their medicinal properties, the redistilled n-hexane (2x3 ml). The content was present study was undertaken to determine the concentrated to 1 ml for analysis and 1µl was fatty acids, phytosterols and phospholipids contents injected into the injection port of the GC. The FAME in a bit to expand its 0nutritional application. was analyzed using these GC conditions: (GC; HP Materials and Methods 5890 Series II, autosampler 7673, powered with HP 3365 ChemStation rev. A09.01 [1206] software; Collection and treatment of samples Hewlett-Packard Co., Avondale, PA, USA) fitted with a flame ionization detector. Injection type was The four different plant products used as spices: split injection, split ratio was 20:1 and carrier gas Afromomum melegueta (small and big alligator was nitrogen. The inlet temperature was 250oC, peppers, OO2 and FK1 respectively), Zingiber column type was HP INNOWAX) capillary column officinale (ginger, AT1) and Xylopic aethiopica (30 m, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 µm film thickness) (Ehiopian pepper, FK3) samples were collected (Supelco, Inc. Bellefonte, PA, USA). The oven from an Ado- Ekiti market, Ekiti State, Nigeria. They programme was: initial temperature at 60oC, first were carefully sorted, washed to remove earthen ramping at 10oC/min for 20 min (260oC), materials and air-dried, after which the dried maintained for 4 min; second ramping at 15 oC/min samples were ground into fine powder using pestle for 4 min (320 oC), maintained for 10 min. Flame and mortar and stored in screw capped plastic ionization detector (FID) was used and the detector containers prior to analysis. temperature was 320 oC. Hydrogen pressure was 22 psi and compressed air was 35 psi. The peaks were Extraction of lipid identified by comparison of their retention times with authentic standards of FAME. Each sample (0.25 g) was weighed into the extraction thimble. A volume of 200 ml of Sterol analysis petroleum ether (40-60oC boiling range) was For the analysis of sterols, the gas chromatographic measured and added to the dried 250 ml capacity conditions of analysis were similar to the GC flask. The covered porous thimble with the sample conditions for the methyl esters analysis. was placed in the condenser of the Soxhlet 3

same for sterols (7) and phospholipids (5). Correlation coefficient should be ≥0.95 for the Phospholipid analysis result to be acceptable. It is a statistical index that Modified method of Raheja et al. [20] was employed shows the quality assurance of the calibration curve in the analysis of phospholipids. A weight of 0.01 g performed. It was performed with the Hewlett of the extracted fat was added to each test tube. To Packard Chemistry (HPCHEM) software. Fatty acids ensure complete dryness of the oil for were listed with the chain length and double bond phospholipids analysis, the solvent was completely numbers. At the data source and reference database removed by passing a stream of nitrogen gas on the levels, values for individual fatty acids are usually oil. A volume of 0.40 ml of chloroform was added to expressed as percentages of total fatty acids since the tube followed by the addition of 0.10 ml of this is the most common form of analytical chromogenic solution. The tube was heated at presentation. (It was used here.) At the user data 100oC in water bath for about 1 min and 20 sec. The base level, values per 100 g of food are required. content was allowed to cool to the laboratory (Value of each fatty acid present in 100 g of fish temperature and 5 ml of hexane was added and the muscle was calculated.) At all levels of data tube shaken gently several times. The solvent and management both modes of expression are useful the aqueous layers were allowed to separate. The for comparative evaluation. A conversion factor hexane layer was recovered and concentrated to 1.0 derived from the proportion of the total lipids ml for analysis. The phospholipids were analysed present as fatty acids is required [21] for converting using an HP 5890 powered with HP gas percentages of total fatty acids to fatty acids per chromatograph (HP 5890 powered with HP 100 g of food. (Crude fat level was multiplied by a ChemStation rev. AO9.01 [1206] software [GMI, Inc, conversion factor of 0.80 to convert it to total fatty Minnesota, USA]) fitted with a pulse flame acids [21].) For fatty acids expressed in g per 100 g photometric detector. Nitrogen was used as the total fatty acids, precision is best limited to the 0.1 carrier gas with a flow rate of 20-60 ml/min. The g/100 g level, with trace being set at <0.06 g/100 g oven programme was: initial temperature at 50oC, of fatty acids [22]. first ramping at 10oC/min for 20 min (250oC), maintained for 4 min, second ramping at 15oC/min Statistical analysis for 4 min (310oC) and maintained for 5 min. The Statistical analysis [23] was carried out to injection temperature was 250oC whilst the determine the mean, standard deviation, coefficient detector temperature was 320oC. A polar (HP5) of variation in per cent. Also calculated were the 2 2 capillary column (30 m, 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25µm film chi-square (X ). The X values were subjected to the thickness) was used to separate the phospholipids. Table (critical) value at α = 0.05 to see if significant Split injection type was used having a split ratio of differences existed in the values of fatty acids 20:1. Hydrogen pressure was 20 psi and between the samples. compressed air was 30 psi.The peaks were Results identified by comparison with standard phospholipids. Table 1 depicts total lipid and calculated total lipid fatty acid levels of the samples on dry weight basis. For the purpose of ensuring the accuracy of the The values of crude fat ranged between 0.42 - results obtained, the followings were carried out: 8.92g/100g while the calculated total fatty acid standard chromatograms were prepared for sterols, levels ranged between 0.34-7.14g/100g. These phospholipids and fatty acids methyl esters which values were averagely widely varied with the CV% were then compared with respective analytical of 87.3. Table 2 shows the saturated fatty acids results; calibration curves were prepared for all the (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and standard mixtures and correlation coefficient polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of the samples. determination for each fatty acid parameter (36), 4

In all the samples, the following SFA recorded among the SFAs, however the contribution from the 0.00% value: C6:0, C8:0 and C10:0. Table 2 also total SFA ranged between 6.22-46.2 kJ/100g. contains polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) Among the MUFA values were: C18:1 cis-6 (1.14- composition of n-6 and n-3 in the samples. Among 17.4) and C18:1 cis-9 (1.47-34.4) whereas total the n-6 family, C20:4 n-6 (arachidonic acid, AA) had MUFAs contribution ranged between 2.64-45.6 a value 0.00% in all the samples while C18:2 (cis -9, kJ/100g. In the PUFA category, C18:3 (n-3), (0.12- 12) (linoleic acid) had the highest concentration in 21.5), C18:2 (n-6), (3.42-139) and the total PUFA all the samples with values ranging from 27.5- gave between 3.59-173kJ/100g. 52.7% with a CV% of 29.0. Some calculated parameters and ratios were shown in Table 3. The phytosterol levels of the samples are depicted in Table 6. All the predominant animal sterols were Table 4 contains fatty acid profiles (g/100g) of the in traces, they included (mg/100g): cholesterol samples as food sources. It showed the level of fatty (9.2e-5 to 1.99e-3), cholesterol (5.03e-6 to 4.88e-5), acids when a particular quantity (g/100g) of ergosterol (9.14e-4 – 1.44e-3), except 5-avenasterol sample oil is consumed as food. This type of with values higher than the adjudged trace (0.63- information is required to be a able to calculate the 1.77). On the other hand plant sterols were fairly energy contribution by each type of fatty acid. As highly concentrated in the samples (mg/100g): expected, the concentration of the fatty as food campesterol (2.35-15.7), stigmasterol (1.54-4.59) went as (g/100g): SFA (0.17-1.25) > MUFA (cis) and sitosterol (19.3-351). Various concentrations of (0.07-1.18) > MUFA (trans) (3.4e-4 to 0.15) < PUFA phospholipids in our samples are depicted in Table (0.10 to 4.67). Table 5 shows the energy 7. The values ranged as follows: PE (1.13-2.53 contribution of the fatty acids in the samples some mg/100g), PC (2.60-27.4 mg/100g), PS (1.45-4.52 notable energy contributions (kJ/100g) were as mg/100g), LPC (1.00 1.89mg/100g) and PI (1.01- follows C16:0 (2.85-31.7), C18:0 (0.37 – 10.9) 9.18mg/100g) in the four samples.

Table 1. Crude fat, total fatty acids (%) and energy (kJ/100g) levels of A. melegueta, Zingiber officinale, A. melegueta Xylopic aethiopica

Parameter OO2 AT1 FK1 FK3 Mean SD CV% X2 REMARK

Crudefat 3.41 8.92 3.48 0.42 4.06 3.54 87.3 9.27 S Total fatty acids* 2.73 7.14 2.78 0.34 3.25 2.83 87.3 7.42 NS Energy (kJ/100g) 101 264 103 12.4 120 105 87.3 274 S

OO2 = Afromomum melegueta (big alligator pepper), AT1 = Zingiber officinale (ginger), FK1 = Afromomum melegueta (small alligator pepper), FK3 = Xylopic aethiopica (Ethiopian pepper), X2=Chi - square at α=0.05, CV = coefficient of variation, S = significant, NS = not significant, *Crude fat x 0.80

Table 2. Fatty acids composition of A. melegueta, Z. officinale, A. melegueta X. aethiopica (%total fatty acid)

FA OO2 AT1 FK1 FK3 Mean SD CV% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C6:0 C8:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C10:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C12:0 0.00 0.26 0.00 6.65 1.73 3.28 190 C14:0 0.00 0.27 0.00 17.4 4.42 8.66 196 C16:0 26.1 12.0 25.0 22.9 21.5 6.47 30.1 C18:0 3.29 4.14 5.75 2.99 4.04 1.24 30.6 C20:0 0.15 0.40 0.14 0.05 0.19 0.15 79.1 C22:0 0.141 0.363 0.126 0.048 0.17 0.135 79.8 C24:0 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 57.7 TOTAL (SFA) 29.7 17.5 31.0 50.0 32.1 13.4 41.9 C14:1(cis-9) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C16:1(cis-9) 0.20 0.51 0.18 0.07 0.24 0.19 78.7 C18:1(cis-6) 17.2 2.38 16.5 9.16 11.3 6.98 61.7 C18:1(cis-9) 15.7 13.0 15.1 11.8 13.9 1.81 13.0 C20:1 (cis-11) 0.16 0.40 0.14 0.05 0.19 0.15 78.7 C22:1(cis-13) 0.05 0.13 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.05 80.5 C24:1(cis-15) 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 57.7 TOTAL (MUFA cis) 33.3 16.5 34.0 21.1 26.2 8.78 33.5 C18:1 (trans-6) 0.06 0.14 5.05 0.02 1.32 2.49 189 C18:1 (trans-9) 0.16 0.40 0.14 0.05 0.19 0.15 78.7 C18:1 (trans-11) 0.09 0.23 0.08 0.03 0.11 0.09 78.0 TOTAL Trans 0.30 0.77 5.27 0.10 1.61 2.46 153 TOTAL(cis &trans) 33.6 17.3 37.2 21.2 27.3 9.60 35.1 C18:3 (cis-9,12, 15) 1.56 8.16 1.47 0.96 3.04 3.42 113 C20:2 (cis-11,14) 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 66.7 C20:3 (cis-11,14,17) 0.09 0.15 0.08 0.03 0.09 0.05 54.7 C20:5 (cis-5,8,11,14,17) 0.07 0.18 0.06 0.02 0.08 0.07 85.6 C22:6 (4,7,10,13,16,19) - 0.48 - - - - - TOTAL (n-3 PUFA) 1.74 9.03 1.63 1.09 3.37 3.78 113 C18:2 (cis-9,12) 34.3 52.7 34.5 27.5 37.3 10.8 29.0 C18: 2 (trans-9,11) 0.07 0.17 0.04 0.02 0.08 0.07 83.2 C18:3 (cis-6,9,12) 0.50 3.05 0.06 0.24 0.96 1.40 146 C20:3 (cis-8,11,14) 0.06 0.15 0.05 0.02 0.07 0.06 80.0 C20:3 (cis-11,14,17) 0.09 0.24 0.08 0.03 0.11 0.09 82.3 C20:4 (cis-5,8,11,14) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C22:2 (cis-13,16) 0.02 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.02 66.7 TOTAL (n-6 PUFA) 35.0 56.3 34.7 27.8 38.5 12.3 37.9 PUFA total 36.7 65.4 36.4 28.9 41.9 16.1 38.4

Table 3. Calculated parameters from fatty acids of A. melegueta, Z. officinale, A. melegueta, X. aethiopica

Fatty acid OO2 AT1 FK1 FK3 Mean SD CV% X2 Remark 29.7 17.5 31.0 50.0 32.1 13.4 41.9 16.8 SFA S MUFA cis 33.3 16.5 32.0 21.1 25.7 8.23 32.0 7.91 S MUFA Trans 0.30 0.27 5.27 0.10 1.49 2.52 169 11.5 S MUFA Total 33.6 17.3 37.2 21.2 27.3 9.60 35.1 10.1 S n-3 PUFA 1.74 9.03 1.63 1.09 3.37 3.78 113 12.7 S n-6 PUFA 35.0 56.3 34.7 27.8 38.5 12.3 37.9 11.9 S PUFA total 36.7 65.4 36.4 28.9 41.9 16.1 38.4 18.6 S n-6/n-3 20.1 6.23 21.3 25.5 18.3 7.24 39.6 11.5 S MUFA/SFA 1.13 0.99 1.20 0.42 0.94 0.35 37.7 0.40 NS EPSI 1.09 3.78 0.98 1.36 1.79 1.33 71.6 2.95 NS PUFA/SFA 1.24 3.74 1.17 0.58 1.68 1.40 83.5 3.60 NS LA/ALA 22.0 6.46 23.5 28.6 20.1 8.27 41.1 13.6 S

OO2 = Afromomum melegueta (big alligator pepper), AT1 = Zingiber officinale (ginger), FK1 = Afromomum melegueta (small alligator pepper), FK3 = Xylopic aethiopica (Ethiopian pepper), X2=Chi -square at α=0.05, CV = coefficient of variation, S = significant, NS = not significant

Discussion dietary fat. The total fatty acid (TFA) profiles showed that Zingiber officinale (ginger) had the The crude fat results in Table 1 were better than highest level of TFA (7.14g/100g) and the lowest in the values in sorghum (1.83g/100g), millet Ethopian pepper (Xylopic aethiopica) with a value of (1.10g/100g), maize (1.72g/100g) and rice 0.34g/100g dry weight. Both crude fat and energy (0.63g/100g) [24] but comparably lower than (kJ/100g) were significantly different in their levels reported for three types of chillies consumed groups when subjected to X² (chi-square) analysis in Nigeria (10.8-12.1g/100g) [25]. The crude fat at α=0-05 (Table 1). However, at the same level of levels were relatively low and so the seeds as well confidence significant different also occurred in the as ginger could not be said to be major sources of total fatty acids of the examples.

Table 4. Fatty acid composition of A. melegueta, Z. officinale, A. melegueta , X. aethiopica (% total fatty acid)

Fatty acid OO2 AT1 FK1 FK3 Mean SD CV% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C6:0 C8:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C10:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C12:0 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.011 115 C14:0 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.06 0.02 0.03 141 C16:0 0.71 0.86 0.70 0.08 0.59 0.35 58.6 C18:0 0.09 0.30 0.16 0.01 0.14 0.12 87.9 C20:0 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.002 0.02 0.02 100 C22:0 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.002 0.02 0.02 100 C24:0 0.00 0.03 0.005 0.00 0.01 0.02 200 TOTAL (SFA) 0.81 1.25 0.86 0.17 0.76 0.47 62.1 C14:1(cis-9) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C16:1(cis-9) 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.00 0.04 0.03 65.7 C18:1(cis-6) 0.47 0.17 0.46 0.03 0.28 0.22 78.0 C18:1(cis-9) 0.43 0.93 0.42 0.04 0.46 0.37 80.4 C20:1 (cis-11) 0.00 0.03 0.04 0.00 0.02 0.02 100 C22:1(cis-13) 0.01 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.03 0.04 140 C24:1(cis-15) 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.02 200 TOTAL (MUFA cis) 0.91 1.18 0.890 0.89 0.07 0.48 63.2 C18:1 (trans-6) 0.02 0.01 0.14 0.00 0.29 0.48 165 C18:1 (trans-9) 4.2e-3 0.028 3.8e-3 1.8e-4 9.2e-3 0.013 142 C18:1 (trans-11) 2.4e-3 0.016 2.2e-3 1.0e-4 5.2e-3 7.3e-3 141 TOTAL Trans 8.1e-3 0.055 0.147 3.4e-4 0.052 0.067 128 TOTAL(cis &trans) 0.917 1.23 1.04 0.071 0.814 0.512 62.9 C18:3 (cis-9,12, 15) 0.043 0.582 0.041 3.2e-3 0.167 0.277 166 C20:2 (cis-11,14) 5.9e-4 4.0e-3 5.3e-4 2.5e-5 1.3e-3 1.8e-3 142 C20:3 (cis-11,14,17) 2.6e-3 0.011 2.3e-3 1.1e-4 4.0e-3 4.8e-3 120 C20:5 (cis-5,8,11,14,17) 1.9e-3 0.013 1.7e-3 7.7e-5 4.0e-3 5.7e-3 142 C22:6 (4,7,10,13,16,19) - 0.034 - - - - - TOTAL (n-3 PUFA) 0.048 0.644 0.046 3.62e-3 0.185 0.306 163 C18:2 (cis-9,12) 0.936 3.76 0.960 0.092 1.44 1.60 111 C18: 2 (trans-9,11) 1.8e-3 0.012 1.1e-3 7.4e-5 3.7e-3 5.5e-3 149 C18:3 (cis-6,9,12) 0.014 0.218 1.7-3 8.2e-4 0.058 0.106 182 C20:3 (cis-8,11,14) 1.6e-3 0.011 1.5e-3 6.7e-5 3.5e-3 5.0e-3 141 C20:3 (cis-11,14,17) 2.6e-3 0.017 2.3e-3 1.1e-4 5.5e-3 7.8e-3 142 C20:4 (cis-5,8,11,14) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C22:2 (cis-13,16) 4.8e-4 3.2e-3 4.5e-4 2.0e-5 1.0e-3 1.5e-3 141 TOTAL (n-6 PUFA) 0.955 4.02 0.969 0.094 1.51 1.72 119 PUFA total 1.00 4.67 1.01 0.097 1.69 2.03 120

Table 5. Energy distribution as contributed by the fatty acids of A. melegueta, Z. officinale, A. melegueta, X. aethiopica (values in kJ/100g)

Fatty acid OO2 AT1 FK1 FK3 Mean SD CV% 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C6:0 C8:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C10:0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C12:0 0.00 0.692 0.00 0.83 0.38 0.44 116 C14:0 0.00 0.72 0.00 2.16 0.72 1.02 141 C16:0 26.3 31.7 25.8 2.85 21.7 12.8 59.2 C18:0 3.32 10.9 5.92 0.37 5.14 4.48 87.2 C20:0 0.16 1.05 0.14 0.01 0.34 0.48 141 C22:0 0.142 0.958 0.130 6.0e-3 0.309 0.437 141 C24:0 0.018 0.119 0.016 7.5e-4 0.038 0.054 141 TOTAL (SFA) 30.0 46.2 32.0 6.22 28.6 16.6 58.0 C14:1(cis-9) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C16:1(cis-9) 0.202 1.36 0.18 8.5e-3 0.438 0.619 141 C18:1(cis-6) 17.4 6.28 17.0 1.14 10.4 8.06 77.1 C18:1(cis-9) 15.8 34.4 15.6 1.47 16.8 13.5 80.4 C20:1 (cis-11) 0.158 1.06 0.14 6.6e-3 0.343 0.485 141 C22:1(cis-13) 0.049 0.33 0.04 2.1e-3 0.106 0.151 141 C24:1(cis-15) 0.018 0.12 0.02 7.5e-4 0.038 0.054 141 TOTAL (MUFA cis) 33.6 43.6 32.9 2.62 28.2 17.7 62.9 C18:1 (trans-6) 0.056 0.375 5.20 2.4e-3 1.41 2.53 180 C18:1 (trans-9) 0.156 1.05 0.142 6.6e-3 0.340 0.481 142 C18:1 (trans-11) 0.089 0.594 0.080 3.7e-3 0.192 0.271 141 TOTAL Trans 0.301 2.02 5.42 0.013 1.94 2.49 128 TOTAL(cis &trans) 33.9 45.6 38.4 2.64 30.1 19.0 62.9 C18:3 (cis-9,12, 15) 1.57 21.5 1.51 0.12 6.19 10.3 166 C20:2 (cis-11,14) 0.022 0.148 0.020 0.001 0.048 0.068 142 C20:3 (cis-11,14,17) 0.095 0.404 0.085 0.004 0.147 0.176 120 C20:5 (cis-5,8,11,14,17) 0.069 0.465 0.063 0.003 0.150 0.212 142 C22:6 (4,7,10,13,16,19) - 1.27 - - - - - TOTAL (n-3 PUFA) 1.76 23.8 1.68 0.136 6.85 11.4 163 C18:2 (cis-9,12) 34.6 139 35.5 3.42 53.2 59.2 111 C18: 2 (trans-9,11) 0.066 0.438 0.039 2.7e-3 0.136 0.203 149 C18:3 (cis-6,9,12) 0.51 8.05 0.06 0.03 2.16 3.93 182 C20:3 (cis-8,11,14) 0.061 0.404 0.055 2.5e-3 0.130 0.184 141 C20:3 (cis-11,14,17) 0.095 0.636 0.085 4.0e-3 0.205 0.290 142 C20:4 (cis-5,8,11,14) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 C22:2 (cis-13,16) 0.018 0.119 0.016 7.5e-4 0.038 0.054 141 TOTAL (n-6 PUFA) 35.3 149 35.8 3.46 55.8 63.6 119 PUFA total 37.1 173 37.5 3.59 62.7 75.0 120

Table 6. Phytosterol levels (mg/100g) of A. melegueta, Z. officinale, A. melegueta, X. aethiopica

Phytosterol OO2 AT1 FK1 FK3 Mean SD CV% 1.99e-3 9.78e-5 9.20e-5 3.05e-4 6.21e-4 9.18e-4 148 Cholesterol Cholestanol 4.68e-5 5.03e-6 4.88e-5 3.46e-5 3.38e-5 2.02e-5 59.7 Ergosterol 1.14e-3 1.44e-3 1.15e-3 9.14e-4 1.16e-3 2.16e-4 18.6 Campesterol 12.2 15.7 3.91 2.35 8.54 6.44 75.4 Stigmasterol 4.59 4.38 2.76 1.54 3.32 1.44 43.4 5-avenasterol 1.55 1.64 1.77 0.63 1.40 0.519 37.1 Sitosterol 351 268 155 19.3 198 144 72.5 Total 369 290 163 23.8 211 151 71.5

Table 7. Phospholipids levels (mg/100g) of A. melegueta, Z. officinale, A. melegueta, X. aethiopica

Phospholipids OO2 AT1 FK1 FK3 Mean SD CV% 1.30 2.53 1.13 1.16 1.53 0.67 43.8 Phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) Phosphatidylcholine (PC) 18.3 27.4 17.9 2.60 16.6 10.3 62.1 Phosphatidylserine (PS) 1.82 3.82 4.52 1.45 2.90 1.50 51.6 Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) 1.16 1.89 1.05 1.00 1.27 0.42 33.1 Phosphatidylinositol (PI) 1.01 1.04 9.18 7.99 4.81 4.39 91.4 Total 23.6 36.7 22.9 7.01 22.6 12.2 53.9

The most abundant fatty acid (FA) in nature is values ranged between 2.99-5.75% as second most usually the palmitic acid (C16:0) and it is found in concentrated SFA of importance, it occurs in the appreciable amounts in the lipids of animals, plants highest concentrations in ruminant fats (milk fat and lower organisms. It is present in amounts that and tallow) or in vegetable oils such as cocoa butter vary from 10-40% in seed oils; in all the samples and of course in industrially hydrogenated fats. It C16:0 was the highest concentrated SFA and the can comprise 80% of the total fatty acids in values varied from 12.0 - 26.1%. This observation gangliosides. Relatively high proportions of stearic was also similar to what was seen in chillies acid can be subjected to enzymatic desaturation reported by Adeyeye et al. [25]. The C22:0 and (forming oleic acid), in comparison to other SFA C24:0 have not been implicated in enhancing the [27]. C20:0 (eicosanoic acid) can be detected at low level of low density lypoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels in most lipids of animals, and often in those of unlike myristic (C14:0) and palmitic acid (C16:0). plants and micro-organisms (Christie, 2011). The C14:0 recorded 0.00% in small alligator pepper. levels of C20:0 in our present samples ranged The values of 17.5-50.0% (total SFA) were between 0.05- 0.40% comparatively higher than the values of 16.6-18.3% reported for the grains of treated sorghum bicolour While saturated fatty acids obviously provide [26]. Stearic acid (C18:0) was the second most desirable properties to lipids in membranes by abundant SFA in nature, and again it is found in the conferring rigidity where it is required, their lipids of most living organisms; this observation nutritional value is a matter for debate, especially corroborated our present report where C18:0 for those of medium chain-length. Most 10

nutritionists recommend keeping dietary intakes of elaidic values were negligible. The levels of total saturated fats as low as possible regardless of MUFAs in our present samples ranged between chain-length. However some benefits have been 17.3-37.2% with a CV% of 35.1. The averagely low attributed to SFA. They include: SFA constitute at CV% shows their closeness in values. Current least 50% of cell membranes, they give our cells nutritional thinking appears to be that dietary necessary stiffness and integrity; they play a vital trans-monoenoic fatty acids, both from ruminant role in the health of our bones, for calcium to be and from industrial hydrogenation processes, effectively incorporated into the skeletal structure, should be considered as potentially harmful and in at least 50% of the dietary fats should be saturated the same light as SFA. [28]. they lower lipoprotein (a), a substance in the blood that indicates proneness to heart disease The PUFA values were comparably higher than the [29], they protect the liver from alcohols and other values reported for types of chillies consumed in toxins, such as Tylenol [30]; they enhance the Nigeria. [25] On the other hand the values in the immune system [31]; they are needed for proper present report favourably compared to the levels utilization of essential fatty acids (EFA’s) elongated reported for some Nigeria citrus seed oils (29.0- omega-3, FAs are better retained in the tissue when 37.8%) [35] and in some cereals [24]. Among the n- the diet is rich in SFA [26]; C16:0 and C18: are the 3 PUFAs only ALA (C18:3, n-3, alpha linolenic acid) preferred food for the heart, which is why the fat had a fairly high level ranging between 0,96-8.16%. around the heart muscle is highly saturated [32], In all the samples, the rest FAs of the group were of the heart draws on this reserve of fat in times of very low levels (0.01-0.18%). Mammals lack the stress; short and medium-chain SFA have important ability to introduce double bonds in fatty acids antimicrobial properties, they protect us against beyond carbon 9 and 10, hence both n-6 and n-3 harmful micro-organism in the digestive tract. FAs are essential for man in the diet. In humans, arachidonic acid (C20:4,5,8,11,14) can be The total MUFA (trans) levels in the samples ranged synthesized from LA by desaturation and chain as 0.10-5.27%. Tissues of ruminant animals, such as elongation ( though some carnivores like cats, cows, sheep and goats, can contain a number of cannot do this, and require arachadonate in the different 18:1 isomers. With the cis-isomers, 9- and diet) [36]. 11-18:1 predominates as might be expected. 11t- 18:1 makes up 50% of the trans-monoenes (which The total PUFA levels in the samples ranged comprises) 10-15% of the total monoenes or 3-4% between 28.9 – 65.4% with a CV% of 38.4. The of the total fatty acids, but there are appreciable highest value was in AT1 (Zingiber officinale). While amounts of other isomers from 7t- to 16t- 18:1. the levels in the other three samples were lower Trans fatty acids (TFA) are generated when than what was reported for some Nigerian seeds vegetable oils are partially hardened by oils, the value in ginger was comparably close [35]. hydrogenation to replace naturally occurring PUFAs Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a constituent of in the diet [33]. Because TFA are typically ruminant animals and exists as a general mixture of monounsaturated, it was thought they exerted a conjugated isomers of linoleic acid (LA). The cis-9, neutral effect on cholesterol metabolism and other trans-11 CLA isomer (rumenic acid or RA) accounts biological functions. However, more recent research for up to 80-90% of the total CLA in ruminant had revealed a negative influence on lipoproteins products [32]. The levels of CLA in our present and possibly other functions as well. As opined by samples ranged between 0.02 – 0.17% with a CV% Sundram et al. [34], to examine this point more of 88.9. In the consideration of balance among the directly, trans 18:1 n-9 ( elaidic acid) was compared PUFA, the issue of whether to include linoleic acid head-to head with the most cholesterol – raising (18:2, n-6), linolenic acid (18:3, n-3) or longer n-3 saturated fat and the neutral cis 18:1 n-9 (oleic fatty acids like eicosapentaenoic acid and acid) in humans. However in these results the docosapentaenoic acid must be considered. Both n-

6 and n-3 families are essential fatty acids and both chillies grown in Nigeria with values 5.16-5.91% are important to health. The linoleic acid levels has [25] and for raw and heat processed groundnut the greatest impact on regulating the LDL/HDL seeds (8.28-12.0%) [41]. There is epidemiological ratio, whereas linolenic acid and its longer evidence that dietary MUFAs have been shown by derivatives have a major influence over clotting controlled clinical studies to favourably affect a mechanism, as well as stability of the heart against number of risk factors for CHD, including plasma abnormal beating (arrhythmia) that can lead to lipids and lipoproteins, factors released to sudden death. Diets enriched in 18:3 n-3 or 22:6 n- thrombogensis invitro LDL oxidative susceptibility 3 have been shown to exert a significant anti-CHD (when compared with PUFA), and insulin effect on human both in clinical and epidemiological sensitivity. In addition, Kris –Etherton [42] had studies [37]. The human brains need a high earlier reported that compared with SFAs, MUFAs requirement for DHA, low DHA levels have been lower total and LDL cholesterol levels, and relative linked to low brain serotonin levels, which are to carbohydrate, they increase HDL cholesterol connected to an increased tendency for depression levels and decrease plasma triglyceride levels. and suicide. Several studies have established a However, additional research is needed in humans correlation between low levels of n-3 fatty acids and appropriate animal models to gain a better and depression. High consumption of n-3 PUFA is understanding of the effects of high –MUFA diets on typically associated with a lower incidence of antherogenesis [42]. A diet high in MUFA (versus a depression, a decreased prevalence of age-related high-carbohydrate diet) improves glycemic control memory loss and a lower risk of developing in individuals with NIDDM who maintain normal Alzheimer’s disease [38]. DHA was only present in body weight. Individuals with elevated triglycerides two of the samples (ginger (ATI) with a value of or insulin also may benefit from a high-MUFA diet 0.48% while not being detected in the other three [42]. Petroselinic acid (C-18:1) occurs up to a level samples. The relative proportion of SFA to MUFA of 50% or more in seed oils of the Umbelliferae has been shown to be an important aspect of family, including carrot, parsely and coriander. It is phospholipid compositions and changes to this of interest to note that the levels of petroselinic acid ratio have been claimed to have effects on such in our present samples are almost at par with oleic disease states as cardiovascular disease, obesity acid. diabetes, neuropathological conditions and cancer [39]. For example, they have been shown to have MUFA/SFA range was 1.13 (big alligator pepper), cytoprotective action in pancreatic β-cells. Cis- 0.99 (ginger), 1.20 (small alligator peppers) and monoenoic acids have desirable physical properties 0.424 (Ethiopian pepper). The range being 0.42 – for membrane lipids in that they are liquid at body 1.20. The ratios recorded in our present samples temperature, yet are relatively resistant to were comparably lower than those of raw and oxidation. They are now recognized by nutritionist processed groundnut seeds [41]. as being beneficial in human diet. For example, oleic The n-6/n-3 range in all the samples were very acid comprises a high proportion of the fatty acids much in favour of n-6 as can be seen in the range of of olive oil, a major fat component of the values 6.23 - 25.5. Similar observations have also ‘Mediterranean diet’. The exception is erucic acid as been made in the raw and processed groundnut there is evidence from studies with laboratory rats seeds [41] and raw and processed Terminalia that it may adversely affect the metabolism of the catappa [43]. According to Kinsella [44], problems heart [40]. Oleic acid (C18:1 cis-9), from Table 2 associated with an excess of PUFA are exacerbated made up between 47.1-56.2% among the MUFA by the fact that most polyunsaturated fatty acids in (cis) in the samples. The actual levels ranged commercial vegetable oil are in the form of double between 11.8-15.7% when considered on unsaturated (DUFA) omega-6 linoleic acid, with individual basis. The values were comparably very little vital triple (TUFA) unsaturated omega-3 higher than the levels reported for three types of 12

linolenic acid. Recent research has revealed that too samples when subjected to X2 (Chi-square) analysis much omega-6 in the diet creates an imbalance that of α = 0.05 (Table 4). can interfere with production of important prostaglandins. This destruption can result in In the samples, total energy intake from these increased tendency to form blood clots, samples as contributed from SFA was greater than inflammation, high blood pressure, irritation of the 10% E but the recommended range (acceptable digestive tract, depressed immune function, macronutrient distribution range) for PUFA is sterility, cell proliferation, cancer and weight gain 6.11% E [49] which is less than our values, the [45]. The present report showed that n-6/n-3 ratio indication therefore is that our sample could lead to fell within the range given for the most Western the replacement of SFA with PUFA (n-3 and n-6) in diets (15:1 and 20:1) [46]. the diet.

The LA/ALA values in the samples were 22.0:1 (big The cholesterol lowering effect of dietary plant alligator pepper), 6.46:1 (ginger), 23.5:1 (small sterols (phytosterols) has been studied since the alligator pepper) and 28.6:1 (Ethiopian pepper). 1950’s and is well known [50]. Earlier studies Our LA/ALA results within a range of 22.0-28.6 showed that large amounts of sitosterol (≥10g/d) indicated a high degree of deviation from 7:1 as lowered serum cholesterol levels by 10-20%. The recommended normal ratio [37]. The ratio of dosage and chalky taste of sitosterol limited its uses PUFA/SFA (PS ratio) is important in determining especially with the advent of the more powerful, the detrimental effects of dietary fats. The higher well tolerated, lipid lowering 3-hydoxy-3- the P/S ratio the more nutritionally useful is the oil. methylglutanyl enzyme A reductase inhibitors. This is because the severity of atherosclerosis is Grundy and Mok [51] subsequently demonstrated closely associated with the proportion of the total that 3g/d of sitosterol was sufficient to lower serum energy supplied by SFA and PUFA fats [47]. The cholesterol levels. They suggested that plant sterol PUFA/SFA levels in our present report ranged could be considered a form of dietary treatment between 0.58-3.74. These levels tended towards rather than a drug to lower cholesterol because PUFA far more than SFA with the exception of plant sterols are naturally present in plant based Ethiopian pepper in which the concentration foods. The major plant dietary sterols are sitosterol shifted to SFA more than PUFA. The values listed (C-29), sampesterol (C-28) and stigmasterol (C-29). above were much in favour of LA. The available These represent less than 50% of the total intake of tissue composition of AA can be lowered by sterols in the Western diets; the remainder is reducing dietary intakes of the 18-carbon cholesterol [52]. Plants sterols have been reported precursor, LA. Conversely, it has been known since to interfere with the uptake of both dietary and the early 1960s that greater dietary intakes of LA biliary cholesterol from the intestinal tract in increase tissue concentrations of AA, thereby humans [53]. The reason for this is not fully reducing tissue concentration of EPA and DHA [48]. understood, however plant sterols appear to The essential PUFA status index (EPSI) values in the decrease the solubility of cholesterol in the oil and samples ranged between 1.0 – 3.78. The values micellar phases, thus displacing cholesterol from were shown to be good in three of the samples with bile salt micelles and interfering with its absorption the exception of small alligator pepper with a value [54]. The level of sitosterol in our present samples lower than one and the reason for the lower value compared favourably with the levels reported for was due to higher value of MUFA than PUFA in the three types of chillies consumed in Nigeria [25] and sample. in raw and processed groundnut seeds flour [41].

With respect to the calculated parameter ratio, Phospholipids intervene in prostaglandin signal except MUFA (IFA, ESPI and PUFA/SFA all other pathways as raw material used by lipase enzymes parameters were significantly different among the to produce the prostaglandin precursors. In plants they serve as the raw material to produce jasmonic 13

acid, a plant hormone similar in structure to that they might promote hearts diseases. SFA and prostaglandins that mediate defensive responses MUFA values were close but generally lower than against pathogens. The quantities of phospholipids PUFA in the samples. Phospholipids were generally in the human diet are not fully known. The total low in all the samples. Sitosterol was highly phospholipids intake of eight healthy Swedish concentrated in the samples, this sterol had been women ranged from 1.5-2.5 mmol/day. Of the total found to be very good in the prevention of the dietary fatty acids, 13-33mg/g were consumed as absorption of cholesterol. phospholipids [55]. Further research has been carried out on the consumption of References phosphatidylcholine and its group chlorine. Zeisel 1. Nanmani CV, Oselebe HO, Agbatutu A: Assessment of et al. [56] estimated that the adult population in the Nutritional Values of three underutilized Indigenous United States consumed about 6g of Leafy vegetables of Ebonyi State, NigAfri. Biotechnol, phosphatidylcholine per day. Phosphatidylcholine 2009, 5(9): 234-2329. in our present report ranged between 2.60- 2. Uzo JO: Tropical vegetables production. In: Food Crops 27.4mg/100g. In all the samples Production.Dotan Publishers Ltd, Ibadan, 1989, 45-49. phosphatidylcholine had the highest concentration. 3. Uwagbute AC: Vegtables: Nutrition and utilization. In: There is evidence that phospholipids influence the Food Crops Production. Dotan Publishers Ltd, Ibadan, course of liver disease that occurs in connection 1989, 39-49. 4. Adenipekun CO, Oyetunji OJ: Nutritional values of some with excessive alcohol corruption. tropical vegetables. J. Appl. Biosci, 2010, 35:2294-2300. Phosphatidylcholine is effective in ameliorating or 5. Odolomelam SA: Proximate composition and selected even curing liver diseases. The second most physiochemical properties of seeds of African oil bean concentrated phospholipids in our sample is (Pentacletti remacrophyla). Pak J. Nutr, 2005, 4:382-383. phosphatidylserine ranging between 1.45-4.52 6. Morrison WH, Hamitton RJ, Kalu C: Sunflower seed oils. mg/100g. There is better evidence that In: R.J Hamilton (ed.), Development in oils and fat. phosphatidylserine influences cognition. Blackie Academic and Professionals, Glasgow, 1995, 32- Phosphatidylserine plays an important role in the 152. function and homeostasis of neuronal cell 7. Rios JL, Recio MC: Medicinal plants and antimicrobial membranes. Phosphatidylserine is able to improve activity J. of Enthopharmacology, 2005, 100:80. 8. Matthew AG, Shakaracharyam NG: Oleoresin from age associated behavioural alteration in animal Indian chillies, Flavour Industry, 1971, 2:63. models, so it was thought that it may also have a 9. Ogbadu GH, Aina MA, Olarewaju JD: Total capsaicinoid positive impact on cognition in humans, particularly content of some capsicum species grown in Northern on those functions that are impaired during aging, Nigeria. Tropical Science, 1989, 28: 151-155. such as memory and language achievement, as well 10. Galal AM : Antimicrobial activity of 6-paradol and related as learning and concentrative [57, 58]. Therefore it compounds. Int J. of Pharmacognogy, 1996, 31: 37-43. was assumed that phosphatidylserine may be useful 11. Doherty VF, Olaniran OO, Kanife UC: Antimicrobial in the prevention and treatment of age related Activities of Afromum melegueta (alligator pepper). Int. J. cognitive decline such as Alzheimer’s disease, and of Biology, 2010, 2(2): 126-131. in depression and other cognitive disorders [59]. 12. Oyegade JO, Awotoye OO, Adewumi JT, Thorpe HT: Antimcrobial activity of some Nigerian medicinal plants, screening for antibacterial activities. J. of Bioscience Research Communication, 1999, 11:193-197. Conclusion 13. Awang DVC: Ginger. Canadian Pharm J. 1992, 309. 14. Bisset NG, Wichtl M: Herbal drugs and The plant samples (big and small alligator pepper, phytopharmaceuticals, Medpharm Scientific Pub., 1994. ginger and Ethiopian pepper) were low in total fatty 15. Bartley J, Jacobs A: Effects of drying on flavour acids, hence their consumption as food sources may compounds in Australian grown ginger (Zingiber not load the body with high fat. C12:0 and C14:0 officinale) J.Sci Food Agric. 2000, 80(2): 209-215. were low (0.00 – 0.27%), thereby removing the fear 14

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