Yellowstone Science A quarterly publication devoted to the natural and cultural sciences

Soda Butte Creek Pollution The View from Tasmania 1988: Five Years After Large Lakes and Fire ·

Volume 2 Number 1 Change

The old saying that "the only thing months ago, "if we were wearing mood Grant Meyer reveals yet another im­ worse than change is sudden change" is rings, they'd all be black." pressive (if dismaying) way in which perhaps never more true than when ap­ Then, early in I 993, the Secretary of the Yellowstone landscape has recorded plied to an institution. Bureaucracies · the Interior included himself in this pro­ its own past for our consideration. Ri­ exist, as Yellowstone Superintendent cess by announcing a massive reorgani­ chard Lathrop concludes that Bob Barbee has put it, "to police the zation of science throughout the De­ Yellowstone's large lakes have an ad­ status quo," not to go adventuring in partment of the Interior, to create a mirable durability in the face of wide­ their own evolution. The science bu­ whole new agency, the National Bio­ spread watershed disturbance. A Tas­ reaucracy of Yellowstone, however, has logical Survey. The NBS, like the Cen­ manian ecologist reminds us that what­ experienced a double whammy of ter, sounds like a good idea to a Jot of ever Ye1lowstone is up against, it's no change in the past year. people, and not such a good idea to worse (and maybe better) than what the More than a year ago, the park staff others, but in any case it's pretty sud­ rest of the world faces. And Dennis started deliberations that resulted in the den. As the new fiscal year begins and Knight summarizes dozens of recent new and very promising Yellowstone the new agency materializes, many fire-related studies, offering hope and Center for Resources. The potential Yellowstone personnel, and thousands enthusiasm for all we have yet to learn. benefits for the park's resources, and of other federal employees, might con­ So whatever your position, if any, in for science, still seem significant, if not servatively be described as curious about all the current turmoil (lately, my own extraordinary. In fact, those benefits are how it's all going to work out. bewilderment has focused on just how now appearing, as a finer systen1 for In this charged and nebulous _at1110- long sudden change can drag on), take taking care of pressing resource issues sphere. Yello~vstone Science offers the heart that Yellowstone will still be there, en1erges. But changing a bureaucracy 111odest consolation of Stuff That Can exercising its amazing dual capacity for is enonnously disruptive of whatever Be Quantified. It provides son1e inter­ resilience and change, when we again that bureaucracy happens to have going esting lessons in the nature of ch:.in~e turn all of our attention to it. at the ti111e. As one observer put it a few too, whether sudden or gradual. PS Yellowstone Science A quarterly publication devoted to the natural and cultural sciences Volume 2 Number I Fall 1993 NPS Table of Contents

A Polluted Flash Flood and Its Consequences 2 A new twist in the saga of Soda Butte Creek by Grant Meyer

The 1988 Fires and Yellowstone's Large Lakes 7 Monitoring the impacts of landscape-scale fires on large watersheds in Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks by Richard G. Lathrop

Seepage2 Tasmania and Yellowstone 11 A conversation on parallel administrative evolution interview with Steven Smith

Editor Paul Schullery Effects of the 1988 Fires 15 Art Director How accurate were the predications? What Renee Evanoff cOmes next? A summary and synthesis of the Associate Editor September fire conference Sarah Broadbent by Dennis Knight Research Mark Johnson Printing News and Notes 19 Artcraft Inc. Second Biennial Scientific Conference presents five years of Bozeman, Montana fire research• Aubrey Haines Workshop honors historian while educating staff• National Biological Survey almost exists• Yellowstone Science funded for another year

Yellowstone Science is published quarterly, and submissions are welcome from all investigators On the cover: "Valley ofSoda Butte conducting formal research in the Yellowstone area. Editorial correspondence should be seht to Creek, showing stratified conglom- the Editor, Yellowstone Science, Yellowstone Center for Resources, P.O. Box 168, Yellowstone . erates," an illustration in F. V. National Park, WY 82190. Hayden's U.S. Geological and Geo­ The opinions expressed in Yellowstone Science are the author's, and may not reflect either graphical Survey of the Territories, National Park Service policy or the views of the Yellowstone Center for Resources. Part II ( 1878). See Grant Meyer's Copyright © 1993, the Yellowstone Association for Natural Science, History & Education. article about Soda Butte Creek and its pollution history, beginning on Support for Yellowstone Science is provided by the Yellowstone Association for Natural Science, History & Education, a non-profit educational organization dedicated to serving the page 2. park and its visitors. For more information about the Yellowstone Associatipn, including membership, write to P.O. Box 117, Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190. A new twist in the saga of Soda Butte Creek

A Polluted Flash Flood and Its Consequences

by Grant Meyer

Soda Butte Creek, flowing through mine, active from 1933 to 1953, was many ways its effects must be measured, the spectacular scenery ofnortheastern primarily a gold mine, but also took and how long such abuses may outlast Yellowstone National Park, is a rarity silver and copper; it was said to be the the activity that caused them. a1nong the park's streams-it is pol­ largest gold mine in Montana at the While working on his Ph.D. research luted. Once as productive and admired time. Both cyanide and arsenic were project (University ofNew Mexico), on by fishermen and naturalists as many used in the extraction of gold from the the subject of sedimentation caused by other park streams, the creek was con­ ore. forest fires, Grant Meyer conducted a sidered a lost fishery by the mid-f 900s, The mine tailings have long been study of how the Soda Butte "alluvial and has only slowly and partly recov­ identified as a source of pollution in system" has been affected by major ered since then. Soda Butte Creek, and nunierous stud­ fires and climatic changes over post­ The creek has been under scientific ies have been undertaken to determine glacial time. Incidental to that study, he scrutiny in recent decade.\· because <~f the effects on the creek's ecology. The discovered that some of the McLaren pollution source.\' on its heatfwaters Soda Butte Creek situation is often seen tailings had been washed down the outside <~/'the park. The tailings i1n­ as an instructive example of the co1n.­ floodplain of the creek, greatly compli­ poundn1e111 associated i-vith the Mclaren plexitiesof1na11aging a wild river across cating the nature offuture pollution and 111ine was located on Soda Bulte Creek ad1ninistrative boundaries when the adding a new dimension to our under­ near itsjunction \1'ith Mif !er Creek, just 1nandates oj' the nzanaging agencies standing of the Soda Butte Creek prob­ east <~(Cooke City. Monta11a,f<1ur 1ni/es conflict, but it is also instructive as a lem. 11pstrean1.fi·o111 the park boundat)'- Tiu! case study

2 Yello'r'VStone Scien£'e by the National Science Foundation; Montana, downstrea1n 1nore than 15 the.funding Barronette Peak deposited bars. The oxidized sediments are generally found above the lowest,. most frequently flooded surfaces, but below the highest flood bars. The ages of trees on these highest flood bars suggest that the bars were formed by several large floods between about 1880 and 1920. A Yellowstone Park Superintendent's Report documents a flood inJuneof 1918, which washed out the Lamar River Bridge, downstream of the Soda Butte confluence. With this background, I suspected that the or­ ange-red deposits were deposited within the last 70 years.

Tracking the Sediments

I mapped the oxidized overbank sedi­ ments at a number of locations, ex­ tending from just below Cooke City, Bra11ch of Resource Tech11ology, Yellowstone Ce11ter for Resources/Renee El'Cmoff Fall 1993 3 Renee Evanoff Tailings Sediment - Soda Butte Floodplain Elemental Concentrations McLaren Soda Lamar Butte River tailings confluence pile Sin;ing Sample site numbers@ @ @ @ @ @ 1600 .

1400

1200 ,...... 8 1000 ~ ~ 800 0 ·.i:i b"' 600 ..,~ 0 ~ 400- u0 200 =~=-~~~~~:__-=~====-=-=---~-=---~--g~~­ Copper(C~ O -J"i'i1~i'i:il~fi'i.'i~~~~~'i:i'l~~~~~"'f'"'t"~~~~~~~~~ Lead (Pb} 0 5 10 15 20 25 - Arsenic (As) Copper (Cu) backgronnd (29-37 ppm) Lead (Pb) background (11-13 ppm} Distance Downvalley (km) ..... Arsenic (As) background (

Table showing the relative abundance of three key contaminants. Sample site locations are shown on the map on page 3. "Background" levels of the three elements refer to naturally occurring levels in soils near the floodplain. For geochemical comparison with Verifying the Source background samples I collected. These other sediments from the same area, I elements are also 4 to 20 times more took two "background samples" from The results of the sediment and tail­ abundant in the oxidized floodplain unoxidized overbank sediments on other ings chemical analyses strongly sup­ sediments than in the background Soda Butte Creek terraces. These sedi­ ported my hypothesis of a McLaren samples. · ments were deposited hundreds to tailings origin for the oxidized flood­ Copper leaching directly from the thousands of years before modern times plain sediments. According to past McLaren tailings pile has been previ­ and therefore are regarded as non-pol­ analyses and my own, the McLaren ously identified as a serious detriment luted. tailings have high levels of iron (1 l.7 to to water quality in Soda Butte Creek. I also sampled from two locations in 26.1 percent), copper (841 to 12,600 Copper is particularly elevated in the unoxidized overbank sediments that parts per million, hereafter abbreviated oxidized floodplain samples (3 l 0 to were deposited by small floods within as ppm), lead (7 l to 672 ppm) and l 200 ppm, well in excess of the typical the last several years. Although not arsenic (35 to 97 ppm). The concentra­ range of 1 to 150ppm in uncontaminated visibly oxidized, these sediments post­ tion of iron is two to five times higher in surface soils of the United States). date the time of dumping of the McLaren the tailings, and two to three times higher Zinc in the tailings is about one and a tailings, and thus may contain small in the oxidized floodplain sediments, half to two times greater than in the quantities of tailings material. All of than in the background floodplain background samples, and all of the oxi­ these samples were analyzed for selected sediment samples. dized sediment samples except those 111ajor, minor, and trace elen1ent co1n­ Similarly, concentrations of ~opper collected at site SI show slightly el­ position by D.L. Fey, Branch of Geo­ and lead are higher by one to three evated zinc levels. chemistry, U.S. Geological Survey. orders of magnitude (that is, !Oto l ,000 Interestingly, each of the above met­ L1kewood, Colorado. times higher) in the tailings than in the als was also more abundant in the two 4 Yellowstone Science NPS Photo An·hil·es post-tailings background sa1nples than in the pre-tailings background samples. Copper and lead values were twice as large in the post-tailings background samples (although still well within the typical range for uncontaminated soils in the United States). These results suggest that low-level pollution of fine •. --· ... ..,_ sediment continues to occur in Soda Butte Creek through reworking of ma­ terials previously released from the tailings pile. Arsenic was measured at 47 ppm in ':if;zJ the tailings and was found in generally similar concentrations in the oxidized sediment. However, arsenic in each of the background samples. was less than the detection limit of IO ppm, again suggesting that the source of arsenic in the oxidized sediments is the McLaren tailings. As might be expected given their appearance, both the tailings and the oxidized sediment were high in iron (21 percent and 8.3 to 16 percent, re­ spectively), whereas the background samples all contained about 5 percent iron. Copper, lead, and iron each declined The McLaren Mine tailings site, just east of Cooke City, Montana, as it appeared in concentration fairly consistently a few years prior to the flash flood that released tailings materials into the Soda downstream from the McLaren tailings Butte Creek drainage. pile as might be expected given dilution of the tailings sediment with Causes and Consequences the break was being repaired on June uncontaminated sediments during 28, 1950. Given the time of year, it is downstream transport. The McLaren tailings pile is the only likely that snowmelt runoff also con­ On the other hand, some elements in reasonable source for the metals-laden tributed to the fiood event. the oxidized sediments, including cal­ oxidized sediments on the Soda Butte Although studies of the water quality cium, manganese, barium, strontium, Creek floodplain. The flood event de­ degradation caused by leaching of metals and nickel, tended to increase in con­ positing these sediments must have oc­ from the main tailings pile have been centration downstream. These elements curred during or after dumping of the conducted, the specific environmental are found in much lower concentrations tailings between 1933 and 1953. effects of the tailings sediments on in the McLaren tailings than in the Long-time Cooke City residents (in­ downstream floodplain areas need more background samples, thus the effect of terviewed by local historian Ralph investigation. Concentrations of cop­ tailings pollution is to reduce their con­ Glidden in 1992) recalled a failure of per in the tailings sediments substan­ centrations. After deposition, the acidic the McLaren tailings impoundmentdam tially exceed the 100 to 125 ppm level tailings may also promote removal of during the summer of 1950 or 1951. considered to be toxic to plants, and rriore mobile elements such as calcium They believed that the dam break oc­ lead is near the toxic threshold of 100 to from the polluted overbank sediments. curred due to a series of heavy rain­ 400 ppm. This may explain why, in a floodplain storms and flash floods in the upper Informal observation suggests that area about 1.9 miles (3 km) downstream Soda Butte basin. Possibly, failure of a vegetation has not responded consis­ from Cooke City, I observed an accu­ small tailings pond on Miller Creek also te"ntly to the oxidized sediments. Some mulation of calcium carbonate in added to the flood flow that breached of the drier sites where the oxidized unoxidized sediments a few centime­ the dam. sediment is at the surface are very ters below a thick deposit of the oxi­ Indeed, a search of National Park sparsely vegetated with grass or dized sedimenrn. Calcium dissolved Service records uncovered mention of a unvegetated, whereas nearby sites on within the acidic tailings-polluted sedi­ major dam break and tailings spill from unoxidized sediment have greater grass ment was apparently moved downward the McLaren impoundment in June cover. However, other sites on the by percolating water and reprecipitated 1950. Although no specific date for the oxidized sediment are heavily vegetated in the sediments below. dam break is given, the report states that with grass, forbs, willows, and conifers Fall 1993 s. Renee Evano

The area just northeast of Yellowstone Park, including the headwaters of Soda Butte Creek and the site of the McLaren tailings, are currently the focus ofdebate surrounding a new mine, whose proposed site and tailing impoundment are shown above, north of Cooke City, Montana.

(including site S6, with l,200ppm cop­ City has been well known for many Typically, tailings remain hazardous per). years. This study suggests that a second long after mine operation ceases, at Copper is highly toxic to aquatic life; source of pollution, in the form of con­ least for hundreds of years. Even where indeed, copper sulfate has long been taminated sediments spread down the drainage systems have been properly used to kill off unwanted plants and drainage, may pose an additional threat. engineered to prevent erosion, contin­ fishes in ponds. However, the amount Contamin3.tion from eroded tailings ued maintenance is required. Present of copper that may be entering Soda exists within many streams in historic mining laws do not provide for mitiga­ Butte Creek through the floodplain mini~g areas of the western United tion of such long-term problems. The tailings deposits is unknown. Never­ States; the upper Clarks Fork of the Soda Butte Creek example underscores theless, there is cause for concern, be­ Columbia River below Butte, Montana, the need for careful consideration of the cause 1) concentrations of copper in the is an example of severe and continuing impacts of mine development, especially oxidized sediments are quite elevated, problems stemming from tailings sedi­ where other, higher values of the land and in the upper drainage, are nearly as ment pollution. Once this fine toxic and its resources may be at stake. high as in the tailings themselves; 2) sediment is distributed broadly over there are indications of acidic condi­ floodplain areas, it becomes very diffi­ The report from which this article was tions and strong leaching in the oxi­ cult .and expensive to remove or treat. derived, "Mine tailings sediment con­ dized sediments; and 3) shallow Though considerable reclamation tamination in the Soda Butte Creek groundwater flows through many of the work has been completed at the McLaren drainage, Montana and Wyoming," by tailings-contaminated areas before dis­ tailings site, the main tailings pile is still Grant Meyer, is now in preparation for charging into Soda Butte Creek. not completely safeguarded against publication. Grant's research on fire Also, subsequent floods will pick up flood erosion. To mine developers, and climate history in northeastern Yel­ the tailings-contan1inated sediments valley floors present attractive and eco­ low.none National Park is niore con1- from the floodplain, possibly causing nomical sites for tailings disposal; pletelydescribed in his 1993 Ph.D. dis­ toxic concentrations of metal."> in Soda however, these sites are inherently sub­ sertation, "Holocene and Modern Butte Creek. ject to the ravages of infrequent but Geon1orphic Response to Forest Fires The threat to the ecological health of inevitable n1ajor flood events, particu­ and Climate Chanl{e in Yellowstone Soda Butte Creek through leaching of larly in a dynan1ic 1nountain environ- National Park" (University (~f New the intacl 111ine tailings above Cooke 1nent such as the Cooke City area. Mexh·o). 6 Ye!lo11·stone Science The 1988 Fires and Yellowstone's Large Lakes Monitoring the impacts of landscape-scale fires

by Richard G. Lathrop Jr.

· The fires that burned the greater collection basin, act to integrate (but coastal systems, I wanted to investigate Yellowstone area (GY A) during the also dilute) the inputs from upland wa­ the impacts of the 1988 fires on the summer of 1988 were the largest ever tersheds. Thus, fire impacts on lakes water quality of the area's large lakes. recorded for that area. The intensity and might be expected to be more subtle but The extreme severity of the summer of scope of the 1988 fires prompted great also longer'term, as compared to stream 1988 fire season presented a unique concern over the impacts on the area's systems. Stemming from m)r interest in natural experiment: an opportunity to natural ecosystems and wildlife. In the linkages between terrestrial and lake/ · examine land-water linkages for sev- addition to its obvious direct effects on forest ecosystems, fire can have pro­ found indirect effects on aquatic eco­ systems. Fire may free nutrients (for example, nitrogen, phosphorus and cations: cal­ cium, magnesium, potassium, and so­ dium) otherwise immobilized in bio­ mass or soils, and increases the release ofions and nutrients from the uplands to downstream aquatic ecosystems. Until postfire vegetation is sufficiently es­ tablished, the reduction in canopy cover can result in increased sediment erosion and runoff. As postfire monitoring in the GY A by the National Park Service, USDA. Forest Service and others has demonstrated, a number of stream and river systems have experienced dramatic pulses of sediment and nutrients during the spring freshet period or following summer thunderstorm events. The Yellowstone River ran black as ink The watersheds ofYellowstone'sfour largest lakes were burned (shaded areas) several times during thesummerof 1989: to varying degrees in 1988. Map by the Branch of Resource Technology. Lakes, in their role as a hydrological Fall 1993 7 eral coupled watershed-lake basins. or plastic disk painted black and white, water quality data sets showed that there Three of Yellowstone's four large whose visibility at various depths indi­ has been some measurable change in lakes (Yellowstone, Shoshone, Lewis, cates how much suspended or dissolved the water quality of Yellowstone's ma­ and Heart, in order of size) had signifi­ (but colored) material is in the water jor lakes. Secchi disk transparency, Ca, cant portions of their drainages burned column. Several simple water chemistry Cl, and S04 have generally all de­ during the 1988 fires. Twenty five parameters are measured directly in the creased. Conductivity, pH, total dis­ percent of the Yellowstone Lake wa­ field, such as conductivity, which gives solved solids, Na, and K have generally tershed, 26 percent of the Lewis Lake, an index of the dissolved mineral con­ increased. and 52 percent of Heart Lake water­ centration and pH, which is a measure However, due to the great intra- and sheds were affected by the fires to some of acidity. Water samples are taken and inter-annual variability that naturally degree (based on information derived sent to a commercial laboratory for occurs in the measured parameters, only from the Yellowstone National Park analysis. More than 30 chemical pa­ several parameters show statistically geographic information system). Jack­ rameters are measured. significant differences. For example, son Lake in Grand Teton National Park conductivity and pH increased (as might had 26 percent of its watershed burned. be expected from postfire inputs) sig­ The basic question I was interested in nificantly so at only two of the four was whether there was a significant stations. CaandS0 concentrations have 4 change in lake water quality subsequent significantly decreased for all of Yel­ to the 1988 fires. To adequately answer lowstone Lake stations. Ca has signifi­ this question, I needed to compare wa­ cantly decreased in Lewis Lake (but not ). ter qua Ii ty data from before and afterthe SO 4 Based on a number of stream event. Finding such data is often diffi­ water quality-fire impact studies, I ex­ cult, especially in remote areas such as pected Ca and S04 to increase, not de­ the OYA. Luckily the U.S. Fish and crease as was found. Wildlife Service (USFWS) and the As with many other complex envi­ National Park Service have been con­ ronmental systems, it is hard to defini­ ducting a water quality monitoring tively link cause and effect with strictly program for Yellowstone's four major observational data. Several other envi­ lakes since the mid to late 1970s. This ronmental processes have a potential monitoring program halted in 1985 due role in determining lake water quality. to a shortage of funds, but resumed in USFWS netting plankton during water For example, nutrients and chemical 1989 with systematic sampling of Yel­ quality sampling on Yellowstone Lake. ions are present in the atmosphere and lowstone and Lewis Lakes (funding as may be deposited directly to the lake's well as accessibility constraints have If large amounts of dissolved ions surface in precipitation. precluded a regular sampling program (positively ornegatively charged atoms) Analysis of the atmospheric deposi­ on Shoshone and Heart Lakes). were being leached from the burned tion data from the National Atmospheric Unfortunately, there is no similar portions of the upland watershed, then Deposition Program (NADP) sampling monitoring program on Jackson Lake. there might be a measurable increase in station located at Tower Falls (in Yel­ Monitoring is a thankless job but the the ionic content of the lake's waters. lowstone National Park) provides an forethought and perseverance of the Based on previous research, I selected alternative explanation of some of the USFWS, in particular Ron Jones, Bob several parameters for detailed analysis. observed changes in water quality. The Gress well, and Dan Carty, and their Specific conductivity, pH, total dis­ NADP data showed a decrease in con­ willingness to share the data is greatly solved solids (another index of dissolved centrations of Ca, SO 4 and an increase appreciated. mineral or ionic content), and total in pH during the same time period. This Water quality, a somewhat ambigu­ hardness were evaluated as general in­ mirrored the trends found in the lake ous term, is generally defined as the dicators of water chemical quality. ln water quality record. chemical, physical, and biological addition, specific dissolved ions found Thus the measured changes in the condition of water related to beneficial to have increased due to fire distur­ water chemistry qf Yellowstone's ma­ use by hu1nans, or more appropriately bance in other studies were analyzed: jor Jakes may be due to changes in in the case of Yellowstone National calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium atmospheric deposition rather than in­ Park. by wildlife. The USFWS lake (Na), potassium (K), chlorine (Cl) and creased fire-related inputs from the up­ water quality 1nonitoring progra1n has sulfate (SO). The USFWS long-term land watersheds. The significant but consisted of a series of measurements. monitoring program provided critical variable inputs from Yellowstone Lake's A "ten1perature profile" is co1npiled baseline data on the pre fire status, which hydrothermal springs or other nearby that gives the water ten1perature at l compared using various statistical geothermal features 1nay also have a various depths. Water transparency is techniques to the postfire period. 1najor impact on water quality, as sug­ 1neasured with a ··secchi disk." <11netal Con1pa1ison oft he pre fire and postfire gested by Val Klump of the University 8 YelloH'.\·tone Science of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. Landsat The­ Further complicating the issue has rnatic Mapper been the change in fisheries management image of Jack­ policy since the 1970s, which has re­ son Lake, cali­ sulted in an increase in the top predatory brated to dis­ fish, Yellowstone cutthroat trout. Re­ play suspended search on other large lake systems has sedin1e1it con­ suggested that fish populations have centration. Note "cascading" impacts on lake trophic the plume of state and waterquality through the "top­ turbid Snake down" or biological control oflake pro­ River water ex­ ductivity. tending down An obvious weakness in my study the western side has been the lack of a nutrient or chem­ oflackson Lake. istry budget detailing the magnitudes of the inputs and outputs to the lake. Con­ crete data on the direct input of sedi­ ment and nutrients from the tributaries to Yellowstone's major lakes was not available. I am unable to say whether the direct input of dissolved ions from streamwater increased or not. Otherpostfire studies do provide some evidence that the fires did increase the influx of sediment and nutrients to the park's aquatic ecosystems. Sampling ofstream water chemistry in theSilvertip Watershed Monitoring Project in the adjacent Shoshone National Forest has shown significant increases in sediment, picture view provided by satellite re­ 1990) period shows that the Snake River potassium, silica, total phosphorus, and mote sensing systems make them a use­ plume, a normal occurrence during the specific conductance for a heavily ful tool in monitoring large lake sys-. spring freshet period, was enhanced in burned watershed. terns. Specifically, I have used remote the postfire period. This interpretation Other stream sampling work, con­ sensing scanners to measure the changes is supported by analysis ofUSGS moni­ ducted by James Brass and Paul Sebesta in a lake's watercolor due to influx and toring data for the Snake River (from of the NASA-AMES Research Center dispersal of turbid river plumes. Landsat Flagg Ranch, approximately five miles, and Philip Riggan of the USDA Forest Thematic Mapper imagery taken in June or Skill, upstream of Jackson Lake) Service-Riverside Fire Lab in northern of 1989, show relatively small plumes which shows large pulses of suspended Yellowstone shows heavy pulses of of turbid water, in this case due to high sediment following the 1988 fires (as sediment and nutrients from fire-im­ suspended· sediment loads, where Peli­ compared to 1988 data, the only year of pacted watersheds. My analysisofU.S. can Creek and the Upper Yellowstone prefire data available). Geological Survey (USGS) monitoring River enter Yellowstone Lake. The Overall, the measured effects for data for Flagg Ranch on the Upper Snake water color (transparency) of the vast Yellowstone and Lewis Lakes are quite River (which drains the Shoshone, majority of the lake remained unaf­ subtle, and do not qualify as a gross or Lewis, and Heart Lakes' watersheds) fected. major shift in water quality. Three shows large pulses of total phosphorus The turbidity plume in Jackson Lake years of postfire data was deemed suf­ and total nitrogen following the 1988 caused by the Snake River is much ficient to show initial impacts on lake fires (as compared to 1988 data, the more dramatic. During the height of the water quality. However, many burned only year of prefire data available). first spring runoff after the 1988 fires, areas have not fully revegetated and However, there has been little to no the satellite imagery (June 7, 1989) nutrient ex port from the uplands is likely change in specific conductance or con­ shows the river plume with higher con­ still occurring. Longer-term effects are centrations of ions. centrations of suspended sediment still possible. Due to the large volume As an additional source of-environ­ (confirmed by simultaneous lake water of Yellowstone Lake and its long water mental monitoring information. 1 used sampling) extends two-thirds of the renewal time (the time it takes for the satellite imagery to give a different per­ length of Jackson Lake. Comparison of entire lake to be replaced by new water, spective. My previous research,.in the satellite imagery from the prefire ( 1987 in this case approximately 10 years), the Great Lakes, has shown that the big- and 1988) with the postfire ( 1989 and maximum effect may lag behind maxi- Fall 1993 9 Yellowstone Lake, WY Yellowstone Lake, WY Southeast Arm South Arm 14.0 16.0

14.0 12.0

12.0 10.0 ~ ~ E E ~ ..._,,10.0

£ 8.0 £ ~ ~ a. a. 8.0 0 0"' 6.0 "' £ £ 6.0 u u u u 4.0 (/)"' (/)"' 4.0

2.0 2.0 Fire Fire v v 0.0 0.0 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 DATE (year) DATE (year)

The graphs above show water transparency for two monitoring stations on Yellowstone La.ke. Water quality is measured using a Secchi Disk, as described in the text on page 8. Notice that the depth at which the disk remains visible varies considerably, both in a given year andfrom year to year (greater depth ofvisibility means higher transparency ofthe water). This is typical of natural lake dynamics. Note also that the prefire and postfire measurements greatly overlap in range. mum yield from the stream inputs by watershed area in comparison to its vol­ be diluting the effect of any increased several years. ume; therefore it has less capability to inputs. The relative importance ofland­ In addition, there may be more subtle dilute increased inputs from the land water interactions in affecting the pro­ effects that have not been detected by surface. With its shorter water renewal ductivity and water quality of either the sensitivity of the existing lake time (approximately three years), Jack­ Yellowstone's large lakes must be water quality monitoring program or son Lake should respond more quickly viewed in the context of a multitude of the statistical techniques· used in this to events such as fire disturbance in its other factors, such as changing climate, analysis. The postfire sampling pro­ watershed. Conversely, a shorter water atmospheric deposition, hydrothermal gram was restricted to using the same renewal rate also means that any in­ inputs, and even fisheries policy through monitoring strategy, both parameters creased inputs are flushed from the lake the "top-down" or biological control of measured and techniques used, to be at a faster rate. lake productivity. consistent with the prefire sampling In 1982, William Romme of Fort From the perspective of an environ­ program. Analysis of preserved phyto­ Lewis College and Dennis Knight of mental scientist (someone often look­ plankton samples (part of the USFWS the University of Wyoming first hy­ ing for bad news), my results (or lack of monitoring program) to examine pothesized that Yellowstone Lake pro­ results) may be construed as disap­ changes in the assemblages of phyto­ ductivity is to some extent synchro­ pointing. In other words, the 1988 fires plankton species might show more nized with the long-term fire cycle (on didn't have any major impacts on subtle impacts of the fire on the lake's the order of 200-300 years) that seems Yellowstone's lakes. On the other hand, biota; work along this line is being un­ to prevail in the lake's watershed. My from the perspective of someone who dertaken by Edward Theriot of the study has not necessarily disproven the treasures pristine subalpine lakes, my Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sci­ hypothesis put forward by Remme and results are good news. Yellowstone's ences. Knight, but does cast some doubt. At major lakes have weathered the fires Jackson Lake appears to be receiving least in the short-term, Yellowstone and pretty much intact. a higher input of suspended sediment Lewis Lakes appear to be relatively but the consequences on the lake sys­ unaffected by fire disturbance of ap­ Richard Lathrop, Jr., an Assistant Pro­ tem are unknown because of the lack of proximately a quarter of their water­ fessor in the Depar11nent of Natural syste111atic prefire and postfire monitor­ shed. Resources at Rutgers University, New ing data. Con1pared to Yellowstone The large size of these lakes in com­ Brunswick, New Jersey, has studied Lake. Jackson Lake has a n1uch larger parison to their watersheds appears to Yellowstone lakes j(1r .\·everal years.

10 Yel /011 ·srone Scie1ice Yellowstone Science Interview: Steven Smith Tasmania and Yellowstone A conversation on parallel administrative evolution .. v .. R-_f:' ,>' JJP':. .--: -"w''·..J; _..t I ...... ~· -- ~;..~::c~ - 1 y-~' ';; """' I ~·· . f/

Yellowstone is a regular destination parks in Tasmania. These five Tasma­ are in the!UCN [International Union for ofpark researchers and managers from nian national parks were added to the the Conservation of Nature. Ed.] many parts ofthe world, and occasion­ list of WHAs in 1982, and I was ap­ redbook of endangered birds. But the ally we have an opportunity to compare pointed as a specialist in 1986. mammals are pretty secure. notes. Such was the case with Dr. My task as a zoologist, along with a YS Do you have an endangered species Steven Smith, a Tasmanian zoologist botanist, archeologist, earth scientist, act? with the Department of Lands, Parks and specialist planning officers, was to SS In Tasmania, we're party to a num­ and Wildlife, who visited Yellowstone inventory the natural resources. No­ ber of different agreements that serve in July of 1991. body lives in the area, and it's fairly that purpose. There's an Australian list This interview provides some enter­ remote, so very little research has been of threatened species, and there's a taining perspectives on the- sometimes done there except for two or three pre- committee of conservation ministers striking similarities between scientific liminary studies. · from each of the six states. They agree and management issues facing Ameri­ YS Are these relatively new national on the list of Australian threatened ver­ can national parks and those facing the parks? tebrates. parks of other nations. Ed. SS Well, the first portion of one of YS Do you have amphibians? them, Cradle Mountain National Park, SS There are some ten species in Tas­ YS What brings you to Yellowstone? was established in 1916. That was one mania, and four endemic species. SS I'm traveling on a Winston Churchill of the first in Australia. The other areas YS It seems widely agreed now. that Memorial Trust Fund Scholarship. have been added sequentially as the they're very sensitive environmental Funds are provided for Australians to result of different historical events. indicators. travel overseas and to increase their In 1982, following a big conservation SS I've heard that. I don't have details personal qualifications. debate about construction of a dam on about the population dynamics of ours, I'm one of the first people to come one of the ~ast major wild· rivers in but we haven't lost any species. from our national parks. I'm looking at Tasmania, the government protected the YS Even in Yellowstone there is some wildlife conservation and general river by establishing Wild Rivers Na­ very preliminary evidence that they're management in other World Heritage tional Park, which happened to also declining. They provide us with some areas. My original goal was to visit connect northern Cradle Mountain with useful baselines for studying environ­ areas in Chile, Argentina, the United some of the southwest biosphere re­ mental changes. There might be more States, and Canada. The two parks I serves. So there's now a continuous sensitive species in the insect world, but intended to see iri the U.S. were area that's larger than Yellowstone we would have to start from scratch on Yosemite and Everglades, but I extended National Park. It's about 2.8 million them; we're like you, and don't know a the trip to visit others. acres. lot about them, except for the aquatic YS So the trip is almost over? YS It sounds like your job is· over­ insects. We have 80 years of work on SS This is my last day after 4 months. whelming. How did you organize it? aquatic insects. That brings up another YS What is your role in the Tasmanian SS We've been concentrating on inver­ question: in historical terms, how far Parks? tebrates because most of the birds and back does your wildlife information go? SS I'm the zoologist for the Tasmanian mammals are pretty well known. SS. The earliest collecting was done in Wilderness World Heritage Area YS Aresomeofthelargeranimalsfare? the late 1800s by naturalists.' Tasmania [WHA], which is a group of national SS There are a couple bird species that was one of the bases for Antarctic ex-

Fall 1993 11 Tasmania 'tf

Tasmanian map from Department of Lands, Parks, and Wildlife ploration by Morrison, Scott, and oth­ It's very controversial. The argu­ That sort of event is likely to happen ers, who would spend a few days tour­ ments run that if we exclude fire from unless action is taken to reduce fuel ing and collecting. the area, then we'll end up with major loads. National parks are also expected YS How does Yellowstone compare wildfires that will be more devastating to take such actions. with Tasmanian parks? than the small periodic wildfires. 'So YS Over the last century, national park SS Ye_Ilowstone is interesting because national parks have a policy of lighting goals have evolved here. We are now it's like looking to the future in Austra­ controlled burns to reduce fuel on the preserving processes and not just spe­ lian national parks, in levels of visitor ground. On the other hand, some of the cies or objects. Are you seen by your use. most severe fires in recent years have people as preserving a collection of YS You don't have these levels? been controlled burns that escaped. species, or an ecological system, or a SS No. I'm not sure of the exact YS We still face a challenge getting little of both? numbers, but it would be in the order of people to understand how fundamental SS A little of both. In theory, we are 100,000 people annually. fire is to a wild ecosystem like the protecting ecological processes. We've YS What are your other biggest issues Yellowstone area. set aside areas we hope are large enough in research and 1nanagement? SS I'm not sure if people really ap­ to allow natural processes to continue SS In ter111s of ecological management, preciate that fire is a part of Australian without artificial interference. That's fire 1nanage111ent is certainly our niost ecology as well. We expect major fires really our goal. i1nportant issue. and one that, in terms every 30or40 years, I suppose. Back in Having said that, there are some rare of wildlife research. we need to know 1967, Tasmania had a fire that killed species that we must protect. We could 1nore about. people and engulfed the capital city. say that extinction of these species in a

12 Ye/loH'Sto11e Science natural setting is a natural event, but I tering ~ange. So what we do within the gradual invasion of mammals-first of think that consensus of opinion is that park isn't necessarily the whole story as all bats· and rats, but in more recent we should make some exceptions in the far as the species go. times human beings. When the dingo case of species threatened with extinc­ YS Yellowstone faces similar compli­ arrived, 3,000 years ago, the biggest tion, to preserve them for the sake of cations. Some birds that summer and marsupials, the Tasmanian devil and preserving diversity. nest here winter in Central America. [n Tasmanian tiger, disappeared from the YS Give us an example of how that the largest sense, that_ is a part of our mainland. works. ecosystem, or we are part of theirs, and YS But you still have the Tasmanian SS There's a fish that lives only in one they still use DDT down there: devil in Tasmania? area, and it's threatened by the expan­ But let's return to the fish for a mo­ SS The Tasmanian devil is widespread sion of introduced European· trout. We ment. We hear complaints now that and common. It's mainly a scavenger, are trying to captive breed the fish, and fishing is too manipulative a use of but it can take small animals. we're looking for alternative water national park wildlife, but fishing is bodies, that are isolated and not acces­ enormously popular here. Is fishing sible to European trout, to establish new legal in your parks? populations of the fish. SS Yes. It's a major tourist attraction, In terms of fire policy, I don't think but the policy now is not to stock fish in that politically it's possible forus to let waters within the national parks. We fires burn freely in the parks-to say we are not taking action to remove the won't do anything and just see what exotic fish that are already there, but no happens-because we are neighbored lakes in the parks are stocked, and we do by state forests that have large timber not introduce trout to any new waters. resources. We would like to have natural YS That's very similar to our policy. ecological processes operating as much Exotic fish are one of our biggest exotic as possible, but there are some con­ problems, and they've caused massive straints. ecological changes in the original fish Tourism Tasmania YS Endangered animals generate these fauna that was here. legal imperatives; they sometimes re­ SS The trout are established in many of .YS What about the Tasmanian tiger? quire us to break away from the rule of the waters and they' re self-perpetuating. SS It was a more active hunter, a true letting the system function without in­ YS Has Tasmania's isolation as an marsupial hunter. It became more and terference. But, in our culture at least, island helped prevent exotic problems? more rare in the early part of the century, there also seem to be moral imperatives. SS Theexoticspecieswehaveproblems and the last one died in captivity in a zoo For example, even if something is going with within the parks, compared to the in 1936. extinct for reasons that are somehow mainland of Australia, are relatively YS Usually a species like this lingers in defined as natural, our society would few. We' re very fortunate in not having people's imaginations, and maybe in probably decide that species should be the European fox to deal with, and also reality, long after the "last" one is gone. propped up and kept going. Species we don't have the dingo. ls there still a chance there are a few have an almost sacred value in western YS Why would the dingo bea problem? around? societies. SS There are fossils of the Tasmanian SS We haven't any convincing evi­ SS Yes, anditseemsabitarbitrary if we devil and Tasmanian tiger throughout dence, like droppings or prints, since look at extinctions as natural events, but the Australian mainland. They disap­ 1936. It's difficult to know because there are so many things happening peared from the mainland about two there was very little scientific research outside the park that are not natural. In and a half to three thousand years ago, done then, and we're not really sure the case of the fish that I mentioned, it which coincides roughly with the ar­ what the droppings look like. There are has become rare because its origfnal rival of the dingo, which never reached good illustrations of the prints. It's habitat was flooded by a large hydro­ Tasmania. something of a mystery. electric dam and trout were artificially YS The dingo isn't considered native to YS So every once in a while you get introduced. The flooding also enabled Australia? tantalized with a report that they might other fish species to invade its habitat. SS Well, it's been there for two and a survive. The orange-bellied parrot, which is half to three thousand years. SS Right. A research project by the on \he IUCN list of endangered species YS If that's not native, what is? World Wildlife Fund was done on the is another example. We do have some SS The marsupials that evolved in Tasmanian tiger in 1980. They tried to in the park in southwest Tasmania, but isolation from other mammals some 30 piece together information from recent they migrate to overwinter on the to 45 million years ago. Australia was sighting records, historic records, bounty southwest Australian mainland, and isolated until 15 million years ago, when claims that were paid out between 1880 probably has become rare and threat­ it was carried northward. When it and 1910, and other records. They ened because of a-iteration of its win- reached Southeast Asia, there was a wanted to see if there is a possibility that Fall 1993 13 chest and across its rump. It doesn't look much like the American cartoon character. But the Tasmanian tiger-there is a really incredible similarity between its skull and a wolf's. The dentition is remarkably similar. The animal is about wolf size, with a short coat and sandy color, with chocolate brown strip~s to­ wards the rump. The tail is very stiff, kind of like a kangaroo's. YS It's hard for non-Australians to picture an animal like this, so much like our larger canids, that is also a marsu-

pial. It doesn't sound like much was known of its natural history. \-- SS Some of the best records actually came from animals that were sent to the New York Zoo. It's the only institution that's got detailed records of them. This female was sent to the zoo with three pouched young, so the young devel­ oped in the pouch. The young were described as being rat-sized, and as they grew the pouch stretched to the ground. The young left the pouch and got back in through the hind legs. One of the young died and two of them lived for The Tasmanian Tiger, analog of the Yellowstone wolf. Photograph ofa captive eight years. They were never bred in animal in New York, probably in the 1930s, © NY2SfI'he Wildlife Conservation captivity. Society. Drawings of the Tasmanian Devil (p. 11) and Tiger (above right) from YS What would be the Tasmanian Extinct and Vanishing Mammals of the Old World, by Francis Harper (1936) equivalent of our large herbivores? SS Kangaroos. In Tasmania we have there is still suitable habitat in areas in northern Montana. But we're still the eastern gray kangaroo, which is one where the modern sightings occur. without proof of a reproducing popula­ of the biggest species. It's mainly a dry Certainly it does seem the sightings tion. plains animal. Our most common concentrate in areas where there is We also have a lot of confusion in the hopping animal, is the wallaby. It's the suitable habitat. Whether it's a psy­ sightings; people routinely turn in basis of the fur industry, and the sport chological phenomenon of some sort, photographs of coyotes that they think shooting industry, which is managed by or that people want to keep the areas are wolves. How similar in appearance the National Parks and Wildlife Service. famous for sightings, or the animals are the Tasmanian devil and the Tas1na­ We also now have introduced deer. really are there, we don't know. nian tiger? There's a deer-hunting sport industry, YS That is almost eerily similar to the SS Not very si111ilar. The Tasn1anian and also a deer-farming industry. wolf situation in Yellowstone Park. devil is sort of like a corgi [a s1nall YS You don't allow hunting in the There are sightings, and even proof of herding dog. Ed.] in appearance: very parks? the recent migration of at least one ani­ stocky. with a very ~hick broad jaw. and SS No. The only hunting is sport n1al fron1 currently occupied wolf habitat jet black with a white blaze across its fishing.

14 Ye!/0H'Sfo11e Science Effects of the 1988 fires

How accurate were the predictions, and what next?

by During and after the 1988 fires, there Dennis H. Knight were many predictions on how greater Yellowstone area (GY A) ecosystems On September 19-21, Yellowstone would be affected. Some were based on hosted the Second Biennial Scientific research that had been done previously; Conference on the Greater Yellowstone others stemmed more from anecdotal Ecosystem. Entitled "The Ecological evidence or untested hypotheses. Five Implications ofFire in Greater Yellow­ years later, 225 scientists and managers stone, " the c_onference featured more from six federal agencies, six state than 60 papers and posters in two inten­ agencies, and 24 colleges and universi­ sive days (see page 20 of this issue for ties gathereP in Mammoth to compare more on the conference events). Dennis the results of their research. Like the Knight, of the University of Wyoming, ,fires themselves, the meeting was his­ served as conference summarizer, and ;toric. As Superintendent Bob Barbee has allowed us to publish his observa- observed, "The opportunity to learn did . tions here. not go to waste." Numerous reports are With our encouragement, Dennis has now being written that will affect man­ taken the generalist's view of the con­ agement and research in the future. ference findings. Rather than discuss Some of the highlights are presented in the work of specific investigators, he this summary. has synthesized the many types of work being done into an overview that con­ Vegetation Change centrates on the general directions·of fire research in the Yellowstone area. The paleoecologists at the confer­ Ed. ence described fire frequency and veg- Fall 1993 15 elation changes as far back as I 0,000 Generally, lodgepol.e pine seedlings clones will develop because of the fires. years ago. At that time, Engelmann were most dense where serotiny was Data presented at the conference sug­ spruce was beginning to invade the tun­ high in the forest that burned; within gest that most tree-sized aspen on the dra vegetation that had predominated any serotiny class, seedlings were more northern winter range in YeIIowstone over GY A landscapes since the retreat dense near the edges of burned areas National Park developed between 1870 of the glaciers. A spruce-dominated where bum intensity was moderate. and 1890, a period when both elk and woodland apparently persisted for many Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, beaver populations might have been centuries. However, with continued whitebark pine, and aspen can be early low because of intensive hunting and warming and drying, forests of lodge­ invaders along with the lodgepole pine trapping. The cause of aspen and wil­ pole pine and Douglas-fir became more in some areas. Regardless of species low decline continues to be a controver­ common throughout the area. About composition, new even-aged stands are sial issue, with most of the evidence 5,000 years ago a cooling trend began, developing. Tree age can vary greatly pointing to heavy browsing by elk. Elk and predictably, Engelmann spruce and in these "even-aged stands," with the browsing also may limit the establish­ subalpine fir became more abundant. broadest range of ages occurring where, ment of new trees in burned Douglas-fir Douglas-fir now persists only at the for whatever reason, the initial density woodlands, but the magnitude of this lowest elevations. of tree seedlings and other plants was effect has_ not been determined. Prior to 1988, ecologists had learned sparse. Nevertheless, more than 75 that fires in stands of Douglas-fir oc­ percent of lodgepole pine seedlings Animal Populations curred on average every 20-50 years, present today in burned areas were es­ depending on location, and that stands tablished within the first two years after The effects of the 1988 fires on ani­ dominated by lodgepole pine, En­ the fires. mals were as variable as the effects on gelmann spruce, and subalpine fir One of the most surprising results of plants. Generally, there was no observ­ burned every 200-300 years. All avail­ the 1988 fires has been a dramatic in­ able adverse effect on the trumpeter able evidence now suggests that, prior crease in the number of aspen seedlings. swan, bald eagle, and peregrine falcon. to 1988, the most extensive fires oc­ Abundant seed apparently was dispersed The osprey, mountain bluebird, various curred 285 years previously, in about into the burned areas and soil moisture species of woodpeckers, and the cavity­ 1703. Lake-bottom sediments, with conditions apparently were favorable, nesting Barrow's goldeneye and buffle­ layers of charcoal, indicate that the probably because of the relatively moist head appeared to benefit. The greatest length of time between fires was shorter year that followed the fires combined diversity of bird species was observed about 8,000 years ago when the climate with less soil drying due to lower rates where fires were of moqerate intensity was drier. Even then, however, the of transpiration. Aspen also are_ capable and resulted in a patchy mosaic ofbumed GY A must hav.e been a "non-equilib­ ofroot sprouting following fires. Higher and unburned forest. Even woodpeck­ rium landscape" characterized by large­ densities of sprouts did occur in some ers were uncommon in large, severely scale fires that burned large areas. No­ bums, but notably, not in others. In all burned forests. The Clark's nutcracker tably, such fires burn unevenly. Data cases, the aspen continues to be heavily was observed caching whitebark pine presented at the co'nfere·nce indicates browsed by elk, causing some stands to seeds in burned areas. ~ that 75 percentofthe land area that was persist only as shrubs. Changes in insects and other terres­ subjected to crown fire in 1988 is within It remains to be seen if new aspen trial invertebrates depended on bum 200 m of a less severely burned or unburned patch (50 percent was within 50 m). ·Succession following the 1988 fires has been highly variable from one area to another. Lodgepole pine was a very successful pioneer species, as predicted, but the density of new seedlings in burned areas varies greatly (from nearly zero to over 100 seedlings per square meter!). Lodgepole pine seedling den­ sity is correlated with heat severity, the prefire abundance of serotinous cones, elevation, seed-bed characteristics, and postfire climatic conditions. Intense fires may burn n1ost of the seeds con­ tained within the serotinous cones .. • r.;_.-., . I lo... ••· though the heat tolerance of the seeds appears to be considerable.

16 Yellol-1-'Sfone Science intensity. Predictably, significant de­ parently was affected 1nore by severe significant effects on fish populations clines in l'itter-dwelling species were weather conditions than by the fires. could be detected. Changes in other noted when the forest ftoor burned. This Grizzly bears have less whitebark pine aquatic organis1ns, su~h as diatoms and was in contrast to reptiles and amphib­ seeds available to them, but close obser­ benthic invertebrates, were observed in ians which typically burrow into the vations indicate that roots and rodent small streams, but there were no obvi­ soil or which select moist habitats that caches are being used more often. At ous effects on the organisms of the would bum with less intensity. Some this time it appears that the grizzly and larger rivers. Streamflow increased in insects were favored by the fires, espe­ black bear populations have been af­ some watersheds due to less transpira­ cially those that could invade fire-dam­ fected very little if at all. tion from vegetation, but abnormal aged but surviving trees. flooding did not always occur. Insect-ca.used mortality was higher Aquatic Ecosystems Overall, the magnitude of the effects after the fires on fire-damaged Dou­ of fire on aquatic ecosystems appears to glas-fir, Engelmann spruce, and subal­ Popular hypotheses prior to 1988 were be dependent on channel gradient, the pine fir (due, respectively, to Douglas­ that large scale fires in the GY A would steepness of valley slopes, the amount fir beetles, spruce beetles, and wood lead to the nutrient enrichment ofaquatic of surface runoff, the percentage of the borers). Some lodgepole pine mortality ecosystems because of higher rates of watershed that burned, the proportion was caused by the pine engraver.· The nutrient leaching from watershed soils, of the riparian vegetation that burned, mountain pine beetle remains an impor­ and that fish productivity would increase and the degree to which the upland and tant cause of lodgepole pine mortality because of the additional nutrients. riparian vegetation has recovered. A in general in the wes~ but very little Several studies found that the wide range of these watershed condi­ mortality in the GYA can be attributed streamwater was enriched with nitro­ tions were available for study in the to this beetle during the last five years. gen, and one study found some evi­ OYA. The 1988 fires had a significant effect dence for increased fish growth rates in on some winter ranges. Burned forage, rivers. However, after five years there What next? in combination with hunting pressure, was no evidence that the growth of low forage production during the dry cutthroat trout had changed appreciably The papers presented at the confer­ summer, and a severe 1988-1989 win-. in Yellowstone Lake. Investigators ence indicate once again that ecosys­ ter, led to a 38-43 percent reduction in found great year-to-year variation in tems are highly variable from place to the northern Yellowstone elk herd. The growth and suggested that fishing har­ place and from one year to the next. For scarcity of food during the winter ap­ vests and population year-class abun­ example, lodgepole pine was an early peared to force some elk to feed on the dance probably had a more important invader in many areas. as predicted, but bark of lodgepole pine. Though conifer effect than the fires. not everywhere. Also, ~rosion was ac­ bark normally is viewed as low quality High sediment loads were observed celerated in .some areas, but the amount food, the heat of the fires may have in the streams draining some burned of soil loss and subsequent sediment volatilized some of the resinous com­ watersheds, but usually only after heavy deposition in streams varied greatly from pounds, thereby making it more palat­ thunderstorms or during spring runoff. place to place,· and in most cases was able. Moreover, because of the nutri­ While some fish mortality was attrib­ within the normal variation observed ent-rich phloem layer, tree bark can be uted to these episodes of erosion, no before the fires. quite nutritious. By 1993 the elk popu­ lations throughout the park had essen­ tially recovered. Burned areas were used more for grazing than unburned areas (regardless of the pattern of burn­ ing). New willow sprouts became an important food in burned riparian habi­ tats. With regard to other large mammals,· pronghorn antelope have become more abundant since 1988, possibly because of more nonforested habitat at lower elevations. Moose, in contrast, may have declined in abundance because of less winter cover. Bison mortality ap-

Burned lodgepole pine bark was more palatable to elk, who consumed it in several locations following the fires.

Fall 1993 17 Jim Peaco/NPS depends to a large extent on the history of an area and what happens during the first few years after disturbances. An­ swers to numerous important questions would not have been possible without the long-term records of the U.S. Geo­ logical Survey, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, USDA Forest Service, Soil Conservation Service, and National Park Service. The magnitude of the 1988 fires, along with their value for under­ standing ecological phenomena beyond Fire conference participants at paper the boundaries of the GY A, mandate and poster sessions. that long-term research and monitoring programs should be continued (includ­ Scientists should also consider doing ing those initiated in 1989). Moreover, experiments with the young postfire such ·data (including historic photo­ ecosystems. For example, what would graphs) should be carefully archived happen if dense stands of lodgepole and used more frequently. pine saplings are killed by another fire The value of simulation modelling (or some other mechanism) within 5-10 for understanding ecological interac­ years after a stand-replacing fire in old­ tions also was quite evident during the growth? If aspen are present, whether conference. Severa] models were de­ as root sprouts or young seedlings, the scribed. Whether designed for large­ effect could be the rapid development scale questions and used in conjunction Animal responses also were variable. of a new aspen grove where a pine stand with satellite imagery and geographic This variability, occurring within a might otherwise have occurred. Simi­ information systems, or for small-scale relatively small area (such as the Yel­ larly, what would be the effect of re­ questions pertaining to a specific pro­ lowstone landscape), provides excel­ duced browsing on aspen and Douglas­ cess, the simulation approach to eco­ lent opportunities for scientists to im­ fir adjacent to winter ranges? Addi­ logical research helps prevent scientists prove their predictive abilities. Such tional fenced exclosures should be es­ and managers from becoming too sim­ high variability also suggests that cau­ tablished to determine if (or where) the plistic in the interpretation of their data. tion should be used in making broad elk population is capable of preventing A larger modelling effort is now called generalizations, whether for a national the reestablishment of the forests and for, primarily because the value of an park, national forest, or an extensive savannas that were burned in 1988. individual study is greatly enhanced mosaic of federal, state, and private Other experiments could be done by when it is integrated with others. Simu­ lands. Nevertheless, predictions about fertilizing streams or lakes to simulate lation models also help in establishing fire behavior and the effects of fire can the effects of the fires, or by manipulat­ research priorities. Developing defen­ now be based on much more informa­ ing postfire riparian vegetation along sible ecosystem models that are useful tion than was available in 1988. This portions of some streams. The knowl­ at the scale of landscapes is a significant represents a significant scientific ac­ edge gained thus far by taking advantage challenge, but, with managers and sci­ complishment. of the 1988 fires could be augmented entists working together more closely There is still, however, much to be greatly with carefully designed, more than in the past, this goal should be learned. Indeed, some of the spatial and controlled experiments. Some would possible. The payoffs will be substan­ temporal variability in the way ecosys­ be appropriate for Yellowstone or Grand tial for education, new scientific meth­ tems responded to the 1988 fires is Teton National Parks; others might be ods, visitor satisfaction, the best possible puzzling. Explanations may be pos­ acceptable only on adjacent national stewardship for two of the world's fa­ sible only with additional research on, forest lands. The best science, pursued vorite national parks, and improved for example, the effects of fire and other in as many directions as possible, should ecosystem management throughout the variables on microbial organisms in the be encouraged so that there is more region. soil, or trees other than lodgepole pine information available for evaluating the and aspen. Studies that focus on small "natural regulation policy" and other Dennis Knight is head of the Botany scales, individual species. or specific n1anagement paradigms. Department at the University o.f Wyo­ ecosystem processes should be con1ple- The value oflong-term data fordeter­ n1ing. His book Mountains and Plains: 1nented with 1nore holistic research at n1ining the effects of disturbances be­ The Ecology of Wyoming Landscapes, the scale of several watersheds or whole can1e e111inently clear during the confer­ will he published by Yale University districts. ence. The nature of111ature ecosysten1s Press in the .\JJring r!f 1994.

18 Yelfowsrone Science f{F;.fVS~n_o_te_s ______

NBS A waits Funding The purpose of this partnership would be to '"collect, house, assess. and provide We have previously reported on the access to the scientific information creation of the National Biological needed to understand the status of the Survey (NBS), which was scheduled to nation's biological resources .... " open for business on October l. As of A Biological Survey for the Nation is this writing (early November), the pro­ available from the National Academy posed NBS is preparing to get underway Press(P.0. Box 285, Washington, D.C. as the newest agency in the Department 20055 (800) 624-6242) for $26. of the Interior, but is not formally op­ eral works, the best known of which is erational pending theoutcome of current Aubrey Haines Workshop Traces the· two-volume book The Yellowstone Congressional budget deliberations. Park History Story (published in 1977). Because of A fair amount of general information his long involvement with the park as a about the NBS is now available. The ranger, engineer, and historian, Aubrey development of the NBS is reported on has an exceptional grasp not only of in Science 261 :976-978 (August 20, administrative history but of the infra­ 1993) and BioScience 43(8):521-522 structure issues-roads, buildings, (September 1993). waste disposal, and many other service­ related matters-that have always con­ New Study Outlines Needs for sumed so much of the energy of manag­ Biological Survey ers. Thus it was considered highly useful to arrange for this workshop, and Those interested in the idea of a na­ to involve people from several park tional survey of biological resources divisions, including the Yellowstone should know of a new study on the Center for Resources, Maintenance, subject. In October, the National Re­ . Rangers, and Interpretation, as well as search Council (NRC) and the National concerned staff from the Regional Of­ Academy Press published a study, A Fonner Park Historian and author Aubrey fice and the Midwest Archeological Biological Survey for the Nation, which Haines led a one-week tour of Yellowstone Park Center. explores the nature of such a survey, as cultural sites, accompanied by park stafffrom well as the role the NBS might play in several divisions. Yellowstone Association Funds that survey. Yellowstone Science II In his opening statement released with Former Yellowstone Park Historian the study, Peter Raven, Director of the Aubrey Haines. spent the week of Au­ At their fall meeting at Old Faithful, Missouri Botanical Garden and Chair of gust 9-13 with a variety of NPS staff September 24-25, the Board of Direc­ the Committee on the Formation of the from the park, the regional office, and tors of the Yellowstone Association National Biological Survey, explained the Midwest Archeological Center, approved funding for the production of the relationship between this new study touring important cultural and historic a second year of Yellowstone Science. and the NBS: "Our charge was to de­ sites. The workshop, sponsored by the Under the agreement, the editorial staff scribe what kind of biological survey Yellowstone Association and led by will in the next few months investigate will best serve the needs of the nation. park Historian Tom Tankersley, was a variety of ways to make the publica­ Our deliberations focused on scope and designed toacquaintkeypersonnel with tion at least partly self-supporting. Sub­ direction, research and information varioµs important sites and past issues scription sales and sales at a variety of needs, and coordination with other in research and resource management. outlets will be studied as part of this programs, both federal and non-federal. Special emphasis was placed on sev­ process. [t is important to note that we were not eral areas of past development, such as During the past summer, Yellowstone asked to examine whether the new the sites of hotels.and soldier stations, Science was offered at Yellowstone agency should be established or to some of which are currently undergo­ Association sales outlets -in some park evaluate the specific proposal submitted ing archeological investigations as part visitor centers, with a gratifyingly good to Congress." of the cultural cOmpliance process in response from visitors. This is a hope­ Among other things, the new NRC ongoing highway construction projects. ful sign that our audience is sufficiently study recommends a "National Part­ ·Aubrey Haines first came to Yellow­ enthusiastic to support the publication nership for Biological Survey," de­ stone shortly before World War II, and well into the future. More than 300 scribed as a "national, multisector, co­ continued his association with the park requests for subscription information operative program offederal, state, and during military duty and stints in other resulted from these .visitor center sales. local agencies; museums; academic in­ NPS areas. During the 1960s, he un­ We will keep readers apprised of stitutions; and private organizations." dertook research that resulted in sev- progress.

Fall 1993 19 Fire Confere nee Report "The opportunity to learn did not go to waste. " Jim Peaco/NPS Second Biennial Scientific Conference Highlights Fire Research

On September 20, more than 200 scientists, managers, journalists, and other interested parties gathered at Mammoth Hot Springs to review the first five years ofresearch following the fires of 1988. The conference, entitled

"The Ecological Implications of Fire in Above: Yellowstone Center for Resources Di­ Greater Yellowstone," provided satura­ rector John Varley cuts off NBS plant ecologist tion:-level information from dozens of Don Despain's tie to emphasize the informality of studies in and around Yellowstone Park. the conference. Above right: Yellowstone Super­ intendent Bob Barbee (left), Assistant Superin· This year's conference was co-spon­ tendent Joe Alston, andMarkBoycediscuss policy sored by the American Institute of following Boyce's Leopold lecture. Biological Sciences, the Ecological Society of America, the International USDA Forest Service Fire Sciences Association ofWildland Fire, Montana · Laboratory in Missoula, whose talk "fire State University, the Montana and growth maps for the 1988 greater Yel­ Colorado-Wyoming Chapters of the lowstone area fires," provided a refresher Society of American Foresters, the Uni­ on the events of 1988. Referred to by versity of Wyoming, the U.S. Fish and Superintendent Barbee as one of the Wildlife Service, the USDA Forest "fire gods," Rothermel's experiences Service, the Yellowstone Association, as a leading fire behaviorist enabled RidgeNationalLaboratory, was entitled and the National Park Service. him not only to give an orderly sum­ "Landscape-level consequences of the With 58 scheduled papers and 15 mary of the chaotic events of 1988, but 1988 fires: are big fires qualitatively posters, concurrent sessions were nec­ also to set the context for all the papers different?" This question bas intrigued essary both days, greatly increasing the that followed. many since 1988, when the very huge­ pace ofactivity over our first conference The conference banquet on Monday ness of the fires seemed to require the in 199 l. Besides presentations on many evening was highlighted by the A. adjective "unique," even though it re­ aspects of fire ecology, papers also ad­ Starker Leopold Lecture, delivered by mained unclear just what consequences dressed education, economics, fire his­ Mark Boyce, Vallier Distinguished hugeness had in landscape ecology. tory, and fire management systems. Professor of Quantitative Ecology, Turner concluded that for most general Five keynote speakers spoke on University ofWisconsin-Stevens Point. purposes, the answer to the question is various "big picture" topics. Sunday Boyce's title, "If I were superinten­ "no," and that though scale of fire has evening, September 19, David Peterson, dent. .. " ensured a full house, and in fact some obvious impacts on the landscape, Chief of the NASA Ames Research his talk may have made more headlines ecological processes are not fundamen­ Center's Ecosystem Science & Tech­ in regional papers than any other, as he tally different following very large fires. nology Branch, opened the conference espoused protecting ecological pro­ This year's Superintendent's· Inter­ presentations with "From the top down: cesses (through such actions as restor­ national Luncheon featured Monte scale and process in forest ecosystems." ing wolves and native fishes, allowing Hummel, President and Chief Execu­ Peterson's talk ranged from the latest in natural fires to burn ateveryopportunity, tive Officer of World Wildlife Fund NASA orbital imaging of specific eco­ and restriction of winter recreation) as Canada. Hummel's talk on "Endan­ syste1ns to invoking poetry in the cause the park's foremost goal. gered Spaces" amounted to a colorful of ecosysten1 research and protection. The opening keynote on Tuesday, overview of private sector initiatives in The opening keynote Monday was delivered by Monica Turnerof the En­ the Canadian conservation movement. provided by Dick Rothermel of the viron1nent1.1I Sciences Division. Oak An1ongthe most intriguing insights was

20 Yl'lloH'.V/One Science NEWS notes his observation that unlike United States citizens. Canadians have Superintendent Barbee's Opening Welcome. never really expected their gov­ .ernment to take the lead in re­ Five years ago this week, many of source protection, and so h_ave tis-I see some of those faces in this adopted very aggressive and well­ room-had just survived the n1ost orchestrated programs of their own amazing experience of our lives. For to get the job done. three months we had alternated be­ Dennis Knight, of the Depart­ tween frantic. exhausting exertion and ment of Botany, University of stunned awe as Yellowstone gave us an Wyoming, accepted the challenge unforgettable lesson in ecological of summarizing the conference, as power and human frailty. And then, he did in l 99 l. His masterful syn­ just abounhis time, in September of thesis, which captured the essence l 988, it was suddenly over. A little of the many papers presented and rain, a little snow, and. it was over. characterized future research po­ But of course it wasn't over. It was tentials and needs, is published in only the beginning. Ecologically, the this issue (see pages 15-18). fires were just the openin,g act-of a very Several field trips were offered long drama, one that has run success­ on Wednesday morning, but at­ fully on this stage for more than I0,000 research projects began on the post- tendance was slight. It appears years. 1988 environment. Some final results that most attendees cannot spare Politically, the fires had even more of those studies you 'II hear today. Some an additional recreational day far-reaching effects .. In the dialogues won't be final in our lifetimes. during the fall season, when many that ensued, the power-position-takers What you are about to witness is a must get back to classes. We may jockeyed so effectively with one another · major part of all that creative enthusi­ try for another time, before or that none really made much ·of a gain. asm. From many disciplines, and we're during the conference, for the trips We still have a natural fire policy, we especially pleased to see the humanities next time. still can't control fires like those in represented, we will be hearing what The various special meals and 1988, and we still keep trying to make the fires did, what the fires meant, and other features of the conference the most of the opportunities provided what the fires yet may mean. occurred without any major by Yellowstone and the challenges of That may be the best news of all to hitches, but, as usual, Yellowstone its management. come out of this conference: the oppor­ itself may have provided the most Scientifically, our progress is clearest. tunity to learn did not go to waste. satisfying amenities. The Mam­ From the first postfire research consor­ Whatever may become of the policy moth elk herd was in full atten­ tium, at Montana State University in dialogues, it is reassuring to know that dance on the lawns around the hotel, the fall of l 988, it was plain that the Yellowstone has not lost its ability to with the fall rut underway and bulls scientific community recognized the teach us, and inspire us. I hereby open bugling atall hours, and the park's unique opportunity the fires gave us, an this Second Biennial Conference on aspen displayed the spectacular opportunity to ask questions about how Science in the Greater Yellowstone, colors that have so much to do with unmanipulated landscapes function on confident that these wondrous land­ public affection for this controver­ a scale rarely studied. And the scien­ scapes will continue to teach us, as long sial species, whose fate was one of tific community did deliver: In Yel­ as we care to watch, and study, and many subjects being discussed lowstone Park alone, more than 250 learn. during those two busy days.

Special Thanks Pat Cole and the staff of the Yellowstone Association For their "above-and-beyond" Beverly Doolittle, Joshua 'Tree, California help in making the fire confer­ The Greenwich Workshop, Inc., Trumbull, Connecticut ence such a success, we ac­ Montana State University Conference Services knowledge the following Steve Tedder and the staff ofT. W. Services groups and individuals. NPS and Mammoth Hot Springs resident-volunteers

Fall 1993 21