The Maastricht Gigantomachy Capital and Its Models

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The Maastricht gigantomachy capital and its models

Panhuysen, T.A.S.M.

Publication date 2011 Document Version Final published version Published in Roma y las provincias: modelo y difusión

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Citation for published version (APA): Panhuysen, T. A. S. M. (2011). The Maastricht gigantomachy capital and its models. In T. Nogales, & I. Rodà (Eds.), Roma y las provincias: modelo y difusión (Vol. 1, pp. 263-271). (Hispania antigua: serie arqueológica; Vol. 3). L'Erma di Bretschneider.

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Download date:04 Oct 2021 HISPANIA ANTIGUA Serie Arqueológica

HISPANIA ANTIGUA Roma y las provincias: En Mayo de 2009 se celebraba en Mérida el I XI Coloquio Internacional de Arte Romano Provincial, bajo el lema “Roma y las provincias: Collana diretta da modelo y difusión modelo y difusión”. Era la primera vez que la Península Ibérica acogía este tipo de Coloquios. Julián González Se unieron en el esfuerzo el Departamento Universidad de Sevilla de Investigación del Museo Nacional de Arte Editoras Romano (MNAR-Ministerio de Cultura) y el Serie Histórica Instituto Catalán de Arqueología Clásica (ICAC- Trinidad Nogales Generalitat de Catalunya). 1. Eustaquio Sánchez Salor Isabel Rodà Historiografía latino-cristiana. Principios, Hubo una masiva respuesta internacional, y contenido, forma. especialmente de los investigadores hispanos, portugueses y españoles. El XI Coloquio discurrió 2. Julián González en un agradable y productivo ambiente científi co, Epigrafía Jurídica de la Bética. I y las sesiones académicas se completaron con unas actividades complementarias en el marco 3. AA.VV. del Peristilo del Teatro Romano de Augusta El Cardenal Margarit i l’Europa Emerita, el Museo Nacional de Arte Romano y quatrecentista. varios edifi cios históricos emeritenses. Tras las sesiones científi cas se visitaron dos ejemplos 4. Julián González- Pilar Pavón Torrejón del patrimonio hispano, las ciudades Patrimonio Adriano emperador de Roma. de la Humanidad de Evora (Portugal) e Itálica (Sevilla). 5. Julián González- Pilar Pavón Torrejón Andalucía romana y visigoda. Ordenación y Se culmina el objetivo fi nal: lograr que la vertebración del territorio. ciencia quede plasmada en unos volúmenes monográfi cos que sirvan para el futuro de Serie Arqueológica herramienta imprescindible de estudio. Dos

Editoras: Trinidad Nogales - Isabel Rodà volúmenes que recogen el papel de Roma en los 1. Trinidad Nogales- Julián González territorios provinciales y viceversa, el notable Culto Imperial: Política y Poder. protagonismo que las provincias jugaron en el concierto del Imperio. 2. Trinidad Nogales- José Beltrán Marmora Hispana: explotación y uso de los Dado el elevado número de participaciones, se materiales pétreos en la Hispania Romana. han editado dos volúmenes, que responden a las divisiones territoriales; el primero, se ocupa de las 3. Trinidad Nogales- Isabel Rodà provincias no hispanas, dejando el segundo para Roma y las provincias: modelo y difusión. la Península Ibérica y los trabajos presentados en formato poster. Todos los artículos se han procurado cuidar al máximo, aunque sólo sus autores son responsables de los contenidos de sus textos y de sus imágenes. Agradecemos a todas las entidades y participantes su compromiso, sus ágiles respuestas a los plazos establecidos y su interés en que esta empresa, de todos, llegara a buen ﬁ nal.

Con el apoyo de:

JUNTA DE EXTREMADURA Vicepresidencia Segunda, Consejería de Economía, Comercio e Innovación Roma y las provincias: modelo difusión

Edición del volumen: Trinidad Nogales Isabel Rodà

Coordinación editorial: María José Pérez del Castillo

Diseño y maquetación: Ceferino López

Proyecto PRI06B286 Foros Romanos de Extremadura. Análisis y Difusión del Patrimonio Extremeño. Vicepresidencia Segunda y Consejería de Economía, Comercio e Innovación de la Junta de Extremadura.

Proyecto PRI09A140 Arte Romano en Extremadura I. Creación de modelos en el occidente hispano. Vicepresidencia Segunda y Consejería de Economía, Comercio e Innovación de la Junta de Extremadura.

Proyecto HAR2009-08727 Programas decorativos en Lusitania romana: origen y evolución. Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación.

GRUPO DE ESTUDIOS DEL MUNDO ANTIGUO HUM-016

Proyecto HAR2008-04600 Explotación, uso e intercambio de materias primas inorgánicas en el norte de Hispania y los puertos de Roma. Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación.

Proyecto HAR2009-10798 Antiguo o moderno. Encuadre de la escultura de estilo clásico en su periodo correspondiente. Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación.

XI COLOQUIO INTERNACIONAL DE ARTE ROMANO PROVINCIAL Instituciones Organizadoras:

Instituciones Colaboradoras:

Hispania Antigua, collana diretta da Julián González, Universidad de Sevilla - Departamento de Filología Griega y Latina.

Roma y las provincias: modelo y difusión. (Hispania Antigua, Serie Arqueológica, 3)

ISBN 978-88-8265-602-7

Tutti diritti riservati. É vietata la riproduzione di testi e illustrazioni senza il permesso scrittto dell´Editore. Los textos e ilustraciones de este volumen son responsabilidad de sus respectivos autores.

Impresión: Artes Gráficas Rejas (Mérida). Fotografía cubierta: Cabeza velada de Augusto. Museo Nacional de Arte Romano. Fotografía: Ceferino López. Roma y las provincias: modelo y difusión Trinidad Nogales Isabel Rodà Editoras

Vol. I

Índice

VOLUMEN I

17 Presentación

CONFERENCIA DE INAUGURACIÓN

23 Pilar león-Castro alonso: Arte romano provincial: nuevo enfoque y valoración.

ITALIA, REGIO X

43 Lucrezia Ungaro: Il cantiere del Foro di Augusto, luogo di sperimentazione e modello formale.

63 Antonio Monterroso: Dos imágenes simbólicas. Las estatuas de las puertas regias de los teatros de Marcelo y Arles.

71 Paolo Barresi: La “colonna coclide” di Catania: una testimonianza delle officine marmorarie neoattiche in Sicilia.

79 Daniele Malfitana y carmela franco: “Archeologia dell’artigianato” nella provincia Sicilia: Nuove prospettive di indagine dal “Roman Sicily Project: ceramics and trade ”.

93 Paolo casari: Iuppiter Ammon e Medusa nella decorazione architettonica forense dell’Adriatico nordorientale.

101 Fulvia Ciliberto: Viri togati: forme di auto-rappresentazione delle élites locali ad Aquileia.

111 Erwin Pochmarski: Die girlandentragenden Eroten vom Forum in Aquileia. Reliefs zwischen der stadtrömischen und der provinzialrömischen Kunst.

121 Vesna Girardi Jurkić: Statues of Roman Emperors in Pula, Croatia.

129 Kristina Džin: Architectural Decoration of the Capitoline Temples in the Roman Colony Iulia Pola and the Municipality of Nesactium.

137 Alka starac: Roman sculpture in Pula: the first results of petrographical analysies.

ORIENS

149 Georgia A. Aristodemou: Sculptured decoration of monumental nymphaea at the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire.

161 Ilona Skupinska-Lovset: The Roman Period Funerary Portraiture in Provincia Syria. A Question of Social Functionality.

169 Filippo Masino y Giorgio Sobrà: A monumental altar from the Hadrianic age at Hierapolis in Phrygia. 183 Emanuele M. ciampini: Riflessi imperiali in Sudan: i complessi palatini del Gebel Barkal (Napata).

GALLIAE

193 Alain Badie, Jean-Charles Moretti, Emmanuelle Rosso y Dominique Tardy: L’ornementation de la frons scaenae du théâtre d’Orange: L’élévation de la zone centrale.

203 Djamila Fellague y Renaud Robert: La frise ornée sur l’une des arcades du forum de Vienne: des représentations du dieu taurin à l’époque julio-claudienne.

213 Melanie Jonasch: Broterwerb und Weinkonsum. Zur Prominenz des Bechers auf den Grabstelen des römerzeitlichen Burgund.

223 Marianne Tabaczek: Mythologische Themen an Grabdenkmälern der Gallia Belgica.

233 Maria-Pia Darblade-Audoin: Remarques préliminaires à l’étude des sculptures du sanctuaire gallo-romain de Titelberg (Luxembourg).

241 Markus Trunk: Ein neues Relief mit Kampfszenen aus Trier.

251 Hannelore rose: Typologie und Realität – Zwei Aspekte römischer Kunst, aufgezeigt am Beispiel der Grabreliefs aus Metz.

GERMANIA

263 Titus A.S.M. Panhuysen: The Maastricht gigantomachy capital and its models.

273 Alfred schäfer: Votivbleche aus Blei, Silber und Gold. Überregionale Verbreitung und lokale Formensprache.

279 Ute Klatt: Barbarendarstellungen im Norden des Römischen Reichs. Ein Motiv zwischen öffentlichem Herrschaftsanspruch und dem Repräsentationsbedürfnis Einzelner.

DALMATIA, NORICVM, PANNONIA, MOESIA, THRACIA

291 Mirjana sanader: Neue Überlegungen über eine Statue aus Aequum in Dalmatien.

297 Bruna Nardelli: Il modello della capitale e la produzione glittica in Dalmatia.

305 Jasna Jeličić-Radonić: Venus Victrix in the Salona Urbs Orientalis.

313 Manfred Hainzmann: Die norische Grabstele aus Lebing (Steiermark) und ihre chronologische Einordnung.

323 Ante rendić-Miočević: Marble Altars of Cautes and Cautopates from the surroundings of Čakovec in Northwest Croatia.

337 Mojca Vomer Gojkovič: Shapes of roman architectonic elements from Poetovio. 345 Ivan Žižek: The Roman Ceramic Arts from Poetovio.

351 Marija Buzov: The stone monuments from Siscia.

359 Ivana Popović: Gemma Augustea and Late Antique Marble Relief from Vicinity of Sirmium.

365 Annamária R. Facsády: Statuettes et reliefs de Venus à Aquincum, Budapest.

373 Piotr Dyczek: The “odd adventures” of Maximinus Thrax in Novae.

385 Aleksandra Nikoloska: The iconography of Magna Mater on the monuments from the Republic of Croatia.

395 Consuelo Manetta: Sistemi decorativi delle tombe dipinte di età tardo antica e paleocristiana della Bulgaria: una proposta di classificazione tipologica.

DACIA, DARDANIA, GRAECIA

409 Exhlale dobruna-Salihu: Coiffure of women on the stone monuments in Dardania.

419 Margherita Bonanno Aravantinos: Trofei di età romana della Beozia: una base da Livadeià.

429 Iphigeneia Leventi: Roman Sculptures from the Sea off the Island of Kythnos, Greece.

AFRICA, AEGYPTVS

439 Matthew M. McCarty: Beyond models and diffusion, centres and peripheries: religious art in Roman Africa.

449 José Ramón Aja Sánchez: Uso político de la religión: estelas de ofrenda del “faraón” Augusto.

463 Myriam Wissa: Embellishing Rome: Imperial consumption of Egypt’s granite Obelisks.

VARIA

473 Annarena Ambrogi: Ricezione in ambito periferico e provinciale dei modelli urbani: il caso dei labra marmorei.

485 Mihai Bărbulescu: Libera dans les provinces romaines. Une divinité et plusieurs models iconographiques.

495 Michael J. Klein: Altares en Roma, en Italia y en las provincias. La decoración figurativa de los pulvinos.

503 Claire k. lindgren: Meanings and Implications in Changing Depictions of Aphrodite/Venus. 511 Teodora Olteanu: Aportaciones sobre el prototipo de la Victoria de la Curia Iulia.

519 Beatrice Palma venetucci: Un modello celebre: le Cariatidi dell’Eretteo a Roma tra spazio pubblico e privato, loro diffusione in Spagna.

531 Anna Paule: Some fragments of Roman equestrian bronze statues: an overview about their origin and diffusion.

541 María Isabel Rodríguez López: Iconografía de Océano en el Imperio Romano: el modelo metropolitano y sus interpretaciones provinciales.

551 Alberto Sevilla Conde: Difusión de los modelos clásicos en la iconografía del poder a través de la Historia.

559 Fabrizio slavazzi: Circolazione di tipi scultorei fra Roma e le province: su alcune copie di opere di età classica e sul loro “monopolio”.

567 Monika verzár-Bass: Acheloos associato a Juppiter Ammon nell’edilizia pubblica romana.

VOLUMEN II

HISPANIAE

HISPANIA: BAETICA

595 Ana Ruiz y Desiderio Vaquerizo: Topografía y espacios funerarios en Baetica: matices provinciales.

605 Lourdes Roldán Gómez: Esculturas romanas de Carteia (San Roque, Cádiz). Las excavaciones de Julio Martínez Santa-Olalla en los años cincuenta.

617 Mercedes oria segura: Un nuevo taller hispalense de lucernas. Modelos y difusión en ámbito provincial.

627 Isabel López García: Miscelánea de piezas “inéditas” del taller de Vrso (Osuna, Sevilla).

635 Irene Mañas Romero: La creación de la escuela musivaria del Guadalquivir: modelos itálicos e interpretación regional.

HISPANIA: LVSITANIA

645 Pedro Mateos, Antonio Peña, Armin Stylow y Ángel Ventura: Novedades arquitectónicas y epigráficas sobre el recinto de culto imperial provincial de la Lusitania.

653 Trinidad nogales Basarrate: Plástica romana emeritense en el contexto de Hispania: modelos y difusión. 671 Luís da Silva Fernandes: Placas funerarias decoradas del conuentus Emeritensis. Rutas de difusión de un modelo.

681 Virgílio hipólito correia: Metropolitan artistic models in Lusitania: the examples of the domestic architecture of Conimbriga (Portugal).

693 José Esteves y Luís Jorge Gonçalves: The sculptors’ technical mastery: two examples in sculptures of Myrtilis and of Conimbriga.

699 Filomena limão: Los Capiteles de Beja (Pax Julia) y Mértola (Myrtilis): expresión de la adaptación de modelos romanos en el sur de Lusitania en el contexto romano de la Antigüedad Tardía (siglos III y IV).

707 Lino Tavares Dias: Urbanization and architecture on the outskirts of the Roman Empire.

715 Jesús Acero Pérez y Antonio Pizzo: Puentes Romanos de Lusitania: Arte y Técnica.

727 António carvalho y Jorge freire: Cascais y la Ruta del Atlántico. El establecimiento de un puerto de abrigo en la costa de Cascais. Una primera propuesta.

HISPANIA: TARRACONENSIS

739 José María Blázquez Martínez y María Paz garcía-Gelabert Pérez: Arte hispano romano en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica.

753 José Manuel costa garcía: Revisitando los asentamientos militares en la antigua Galicia, ¿centros de producción o de consumo artístico?

763 Aurelia Balseiro García y Mª Ofelia Carnero Vázquez: Muestras escultóricas del arte provincial romano en el Museo Provincial de Lugo.

771 Santiago Martínez Caballero: El Foro romano de Termes (Hispania Citerior). Proceso de municipalización y difusión local de modelos arquitectónicos.

787 Cesáreo Pérez gonzález, emilio illarregui gómez y Pablo Arribas lobo: Nuevos hallazgos de estatuaria en Tiermes.

797 Olivia V. reyes hernando y Cesáreo Pérez gonzález: Cauca: arquitectura monumental tardoantigua.

807 Sebastián rascón Marqués y Ana lucía sánchez Montes: Modelos arquitectónicos de basílicas y edificios administrativos en el interior de España. Reflexiones a partir de la ciudad romana deComplutum .

817 Mª Ángeles Gutierrez Behemerid: La interpretación de los modelos urbanos en la ciudad de Clunia.

829 Carmen Marcks-Jacobs: Zur Ikonographie einer Kitharaspielerin aus Segobriga. 839 Javier Andreu Pintado, María Lasuén Alegre, Irene Mañas Romero y Ángel A. Jordán Lorenzo: Novedades de arte romano provincial en territorio vascón: un mosaico marino inédito procedente de Campo Real/Fillera (Sos del Rey Católico/Sangüesa).

851 Javier Á. Domingo, Ana Garrido y Ricardo Mar: Talleres y modelos decorativos en la arquitectura pública del noreste de la Tarraconense en torno al cambio de era: el caso de Barcino, Tarraco y Auso.

863 Marc Lamuà, David Vivó, Ricardo Mar y Joaquín Ruiz de Arbulo: La fachada oriental de la basílica forense de Tarraco. El monumento de los cautivos y el chalcidicum de culto imperial.

873 Josep Maria Macias Solé, Andreu Muñoz Melgar, Inma Teixell Navarro y Joan Menchon Bes: Nuevos elementos escultóricos del recinto de culto del Concilium Provinciae Hispaniae Citerioris (Tarraco, Hispania Citerior).

887 Jordi López Vilar, Lluís Piñol Masgoret y Víctor Revilla Calvo: Modelos itálicos y artesanado provincial: las lastras Campana de Tarraco y su territorio.

897 Montserrat Claveria: Recepción de modelos y creaciones locales en el relieve funerario del nordeste hispano.

907 Romana erice lacabe: Sobre la iconografía de las Musas en Hispania: un pequeño aplique de bronce procedente de Bulbuente (Zaragoza).

917 José Miguel noguera celdrán, María José Madrid Balanza y Alicia Fernández Díaz: Nuevas pinturas murales en Carthago Noua (Cartagena. Hispania Citerior): los ciclos antoninianos del Edificio del atrio.

927 Santiago Moreno, Margarita orfila, Mª esther chávez y Miguel ángel Cau: Las áreas residenciales de Pollentia (Alcudia, Mallorca) y sus materiales figurados en soportes plásticos.

VARIA HISPANICA

939 Zeynep aktüre: Theatre-construction in the cultural milieu of the Roman provinces of the Iberian Peninsula: precedents and antecedents.

951 Beatrice Cacciotti: Riflessi della metropoli nella diffusione dei culti misterici nella Hispania romana.

963 Luis Baena del Alcázar: La tradición clásica en las matronas sedentes de Hispania.

971 Pilar fernández uriel, Marta Bailón garcía y Teresa espinosa: Análisis histórico e iconográfico deFortuna Dea en los lararios provinciales hispanos.

981 Cruces Blázquez Cerrato: Paralelismos y divergencias entre la amonedación hispana provincial y la metropolitana. CONFERENCIA DE CLAUSURA

991 Eugenio La Rocca: Il foro di Augusto e le province dell’Impero.

POSTERS

1013 Javier Andrés Pérez: Roma Aeterna. Concepto, iconografía y difusión en las provincias del Imperio.

1019 Macarena Bustamante Álvarez, Eulalia Gijón Gabriel y Ana María Olmedo Grajera: A new terracotta mould in Augusta Emerita.

1025 Olivia Chávarri Ureta: El culto de Minerva en Hispania: custos urbis de Roma y las provincias.

1031 Esther Checa Gómez: Vidrio romano en Polonia.

1035 Ramon Coll e Isabel Rodà: Ulises en un plato de africana C hallado en Premià de Dalt (Barcelona).

1039 Christine ertel: Architekturkopien und Imagines clipeatae im Dienste des Kaiserkults.

1047 Francisco Javier Heras Mora y Antonio Peña Jurado: Un taller de reciclado de mármoles en Mérida. Su valoración histórica a través de los “residuos” de talla.

1053 Esperanza Martín Hernández: Nuevas formas cerámicas y talleres militares del noroeste de la Península Ibérica. El caso de León y Lancia.

1061 Pilar Merchán, Santiago Salamanca, Antonio Adán y Trinidad Nogales: 3D digitalization of large sculptural pieces. Restitution of Aeneas Group.

1067 Rui Morais: Dos bronces de entidades tutelares de la ciudad romana de Bracara Augusta.

1075 Angela Palmentieri: La necropoli romana monumentale di Abella. Diffusione del tipo di tomba ‘a Conocchia’ in Campania.

1081 Rebeca Carlota Recio Martín: Deconstruyendo a Diana, una escultura romana en el Museo Cerralbo.

1087 Claudina Romero Mayorga: Iconografía mitraica en Hispania: semejanzas y diferencias con los modelos de la metrópolis.

1091 Ana Lucía Sánchez Montes: Una introducción a la pintura mural romana de la Casa de los Grifos. Complutum. Alcalá de Henares, Madrid.

1095 Begoña Soler Huertas y José Miguel Noguera Celdrán: Urban development and monumentalisation in the roman colony Vrbs Iulia Nova Karthago (Cartagena, Hispania Citerior).

The Maastricht gigantomachy capital and its models Titus A.S.M. Panhuysen

Abstract In this article a figured pillar capital with gigantomachy scenes will be discussed. This unique capital represents an iconographic curiosity with its gigantomachy representations on two opposite sides of the square block. Apollo and Moira are represented. The capital must date from the second quarter of the second century AD, which is rather early in the known iconography. The capital is thought to be the only preserved specimen of a series of similar representations from a colonnade, but its function remains unknown, whether religious or funerary.

Introduction

Dutch books on archaeology and history present Maastricht as a settlement with the air of a proper town. This is not true, as far as we have been able to determine so far by means of excavations (Panhuysen 1996: 15-78). The real nature of this street settlement a short distance from its civitas capital at Tongres is still buried in the soil archives beneath the well preserved medieval buildings of the city. Its auspicious location at both a crossing of the River Meuse and at an important crossroad (on the Roman highway from Gaul to the capital of Germania inferior, Colonia) is emphasized time and again. Here the Romans bridged the Meuse in the first century AD, at the latest under Nero (Panhuysen 1996: 22-25; Vos 2004). Although Tacitus, the only Roman source, described the location at the beginning of the second century as ‘pons Mosae fluminis’, when referring to the Batavian revolt in 69-70 AD, few modern authors balk at using the late medieval names ‘Traiectum ad Mosam’ and ‘Mosae Traiectum’ when referring to Roman Maastricht (Panhuysen 1996: 76-78). Maastricht surely functioned as the port of transhipment for nearby Tongres. Indeed, there were important buildings, warehouses, markets, a sanctuary, and the Roman baths. Maastricht is also the most important Dutch site for Roman sculpture, for the most part originating from sepulchral monuments, but the site is also rich in religious and votive monuments from the sanctuary and the Jupiter cult (Panhuysen 1993; idem 1996: 113-403; idem 2001).

An unique capital with gigantomachy scenes from Maastricht

The gigantomachy motif attained its widest diffusion after the creation of the frieze of the Altar of Pergamum for Athena Nikephoros in the first half of the second century BC (Kähler 1948; Rohde 1976; LIMC IV,1: 202-207; IV,2: 112-113; Queyrel 2005). It influenced all later executions (Kleiner 1949; Vian 1951). Examples from the first century AD are hardly known. But we see a revival during the second century AD with Aphrodisias near the west coast of Turkey leading the way (Kleiner 1949; Alanyali 1997; Linant de Bellefonds 2009). The Maastricht gigantomachies seem to be directly related to the reliefs from Aphrodisias and to be at least as early as these artistic counterparts or even earlier. What does it mean when they originate from the same artistic source?

— 263 — The Maastricht gigantomachy capital and its models

Fig. 1. Maastricht. Front of the capital with Moira (photo of the author).

Dataset of the capital

A pillar capital with gigantomachies (130-150 AD).

Jurassic Limestone of Norroy (Panhuysen 1996: 95-96).

H. 37 cm; W. 52 cm (bottom: 38 cm); D. 47 cm (bottom: 38 cm).

H. of the relief: 6-7 cm; H. acanthus-ring: 9 cm; body (or shaft): 20.5 cm; ovolo: 6 cm; abacus: 7.5 cm.

Front: relief. Broken or badly deteriorated: head, right leg below knee and forearms of the goddess, upper part of the body of the left giant, the right giant save his legs, and the top end of the acanthus leaves. Right: ornament. Next to nothing is left of the giant on the left corner; his counterpart at the right corner has survived better. The top ends of the acanthus leaves and the fleuron in the centre of the abacus are damaged. The whole side has been eroded by the flow of the river. Back: relief. Broken: head, right arm and right leg of the god, head of the right giant, upper part of the body of the left giant, and fleuron. Left: ornament. Broken: the fleuron and the central acanthus leaf. The giants at both corners are badly damaged. The whole side is rather damaged. Upper surface: flattened. In the centre is a superficial oval cavity (the recess for a dowel?). Underside: flattened.

Location: Municipality of Maastricht, Depot, Inv. no. BM 2452A-009.

Provenance: Maastricht, Meuse, Roman Bridge (19 July 1963).

LITERATURE: Noelke 1981, 338 note 379; Panhuysen 1993, 88 and 90 fig. 6; idem 1996, 233-236, 390-395 no. 82 figs. 267-270; idem 2001, 22-23 fig. 10.

— 264 — Titus A.S.M. Panhuysen

Description and comments

General

The capital has a square body and concave upper edges curving to the corners. The front and back each show a man-to-man combat between a god/goddess in the centre and two escaping giants. The two adjacent sides have the distinctive characteristics of a composite capital. The abacus on top and the row of acanthus along the foot of the body form the linking elements of the four sides.

Front: gigantomachy of a goddess (Fig. 1)

The key figure on the front is the goddess. She protrudes in raised relief out of the body of the capital. Her left foot stands on a rock hidden in the acanthus-ring. Her right foot stood on top of the central acanthus leaf. In a fury she rushes after the escaping giant on the left. The other

Fig. 2. Maastricht. Moira on the front of the capital (photo giant at the right corner is running too, but does of the author). not take part in the combat. The snakes’ heads at the ends of the giant’s legs are menacing and raised against her, but do not harm her. The goddess is dressed in a classical peplos without a girdle, leaving her arms and right leg bare and flapping around her. A veil is visible over her shoulders, as also in the mass of the fleuron behind her head and in the drapery under her arms. We do not recognize any attribute.

Front: composition (Fig. 2)

The composition on this side shows a combat between the goddess in the centre and the giant on the left corner. Only for the symmetry of the – Ionic – capital a second giant has been added on the right corner. Two parallel diagonals leaning to the left lay down the outlines of the combat group, one aggressively leaning forward, the other defensively retreating. The artist fully understood and exploited this scheme. The detachment between the surface of the background and the relief is not Roman, but shows the influence of Hellenistic sculpture. The figures in raised relief are acting in front of the body ofthe capital. The composition merges certain of their limbs into the surface of the background. The clothing of the goddess is very expressively worked. On the one hand soft and translucent revealing parts of her body, on the other hand spectacularly billowing up from her wild movement.

Front: identification

Without attributes it is difficult to determine which goddess is represented here. The pose and dress are too common. But the absence of characteristic attributes can also be a help. Looking at the overcrowded frieze of the Altar of Pergamum from the second century BC we discover some good parallels. Besides it seems that the iconography of the gods represented did not change very much afterwards. For the restricted series of the gigantomachy only eighteen to twenty gods are eligible (Kähler 1948: 107-108). Zeus, Athena and Heracles are essential. They belong to the core of the myth. Subsequently Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Hermes and Poseidon are always present. Some participants alternate with each other,

— 265 — The Maastricht gigantomachy capital and its models while other gods are always missing. The goddess without any attribute must be one of that series of hard-to-define goddesses known from Pergamum who help the supreme gods in their fight with the sons of Gaia. From the ungirdled peplos, the veil and the whole of the composition our goddess brings to mind the lefthand Moira in the North frieze of the Pergamum Altar (Kähler 1948: Pl. 16).

Front: models and parallels

Not only for the identification Fig. 3. Maastricht. Back of the capital with Apollo (photo of the author). of our goddess must we bear Pergamum in mind, but also for her pose since we can find a number of good parallels there: Adrasteia on the south frieze, Nyx (in reverse) and the Moirai (in reverse) on the north frieze, and Amphitrite on the west frieze (Kähler 1948: Pl. 8, 15, 16, 18; Kleiner 1949). The artist succeeded very well in representing the tension of the fight by his skill and academic education. He must have been trained in the Pergamenic-Hellenistic tradition. His work can be associated with the activities of the Hellenistic artists who were travelling around in Gaul in the second century AD working at the major enterprises of sanctuaries and public buildings (Hatt 1958; Adam e.a. 1987; Abetel 1988). We do mention here the Roman baths of Sens and the Pillar of Yzeures (Adam & Jambon 1972). But the best parallels can be found in Asia Minor, where, in and around Aphrodisias during the second century AD, a revival of the old theme of the gigantomachy can be observed with a strong likeness to the Maastricht iconography (Alanyali 1997; idem 2000; Linant de Bellefonds 2009).

Back: gigantomachy of a god (Fig. 3)

The composition of the gigantomachy on the other side of the capital is very similar. Here we see a male figure, a god in the middle of the scene, nude and in raised relief. He is represented also in man-to-man combat with the giant at the left corner. He braces his left foot backwards against and into the surface of the body of the capital. His right was placed on top of the central acanthus leaf. Like the goddess he takes a powerful swing with his right arm against his adversary at the left corner of the capital. His left he draws in, with his chlamys fluttering around it. Again we see two running giants on the corners. Both hold large boulders, and, while the lefthand giant is going to pelt the god with his rock, the other is trying only to get away.

Back: composition

The composition of this side shows again a combat between the god in the centre and the giant on the left corner. His pose is nearly identical with the attitude of his counterpart on the front. Here too a second giant has been added on the right corner because of the symmetry of the capital. So we see a repetition of the two parallel diagonals leaning to the left laying down the outlines of the combat group, the one of the god aggressively leaning forward, the other of the giant defensively retreating. The detachment between the surface of the background and the relief is even stronger here. The merging of certain limbs into the

— 266 — Titus A.S.M. Panhuysen

surface of the background can be demonstrated by the left leg of the god, which disappears behind the adjoining snake’s head leg of the giant at the right corner.

Back: models and parallels

For the identification of the goddess I have pointed to the Altar of Pergamum. There we find also convincing parallels for our nude god. Zeus on the east frieze shows the same posture, Fig. 4. Maastricht. The capital structure on the left side (photo of the author). but is dressed differently. The representation of Apollo, however, matches perfectly. Ever after the gigantomachy of Pergamum the iconography of Apollo showed a good-looking young man wearing only a chlamys around his left arm (Kähler 1948: Pl. 5; LIMC IV,1: 309-310; IV,2: 274).

Giants on the front and back: models and parallels

The Altar of Pergamum established the type of giant with legs ending in snake’s heads as the standard (Kähler 1948; Kleiner 1949; LIMC IV,1: 251-254). At the Altar it is possible to distinguish individual Fig. 5. Maastricht. Right side of the capital with gigantomachies (photo of giants. That is impossible on our the author). capital, but we can discern giants throwing boulders and giants with or without weaponry. Besides it is remarkable that our giants represent only one type: the running giant, possibly as substitutes for Ionic volutes because of the specific conditions of the scenery on this quadrangular composite capital. The best parallel is the giant running past the Moira on the gigantomachy from the agora gate of the nymphaeum in Aphrodisias, but seen in reverse (Istanbul Museum: http://www. insecula.com/oeuvre/photo_ME0000081281.html; Erim 1993: 39-48; Pasinli 1999: 50).

Giants: models and parallels

Another type of giant is the one shown in combat with the gods. We find this type not only at Pergamum, but completing the scene on a variety of friezes, as at Aphrodisias, Sens, and also on the Yzeures panels.

— 267 — The Maastricht gigantomachy capital and its models

Left side: the capital structure (Fig. 4)

The two flanking sides between the front and the back show the construction of the pillar capital. Apart from the giants substituting the corner volutes they are made in the normal form of the Rhenish composite capital, following the classification of Heinz Kähler (1939: 70-73; 78-82), his Type S. The kalathos is surrounded by panelling of stylized reed or cane bending over at the top and terminating in a crescent or lysis (Winter 1921; Gabelmann 1979: 18). A ring of eight acanthus leaves covers the lower edge of the capital, with one in the middle of each side and two halves in profile at the corners. The leaf lobes do not overlap each other at any point. The Ionic superstructure consists of an egg-and-tongue (or dart) frieze with coarse ovolos and small vertical darts (Ginouvès 1992: 103-104). Beneath we see an astragal with bead ornament. The abacus shows four identical sides with a fleuron in the centre flanked by ornamental foliage. The giants at the corners kneel on the row of acanthus while their shoulders support the abacus as if they are atlantes.

Right side: the capital structure (Fig. 5)

I have ascribed this capital following Kähler’s classification. But in describing it, I realize it is equally possible to consider the border of reeds not as a decoration of the kalathos but as the top of the pillar shaft with a panelling of flutes (or lotus) ending in a bead-ornamented astragal (Ginouvès 1992: 99- 102). In that case parallels have to be looked for elsewhere (Greece). We could classify this capital then as a figured flute-and-acanthus composite capital.

For the figuration on the capital we can point to a series of pseudo-Corinthian figured pilaster capitals from Aphrodisias (Ginouvès 1992: 102). For the dating we refer to the development of Rhenish capitals, especially those belonging to Kähler’s composite group. The severe cut of the flat acanthus leaves with lanceolate serrations in the edges and nowhere overlapping each other resembles very much the Rhenish acanthus capitals from the middle of the first century AD, but looks a little degenerate here (Kähler 1939: 24-32 C1-C3; 70-82). On the other hand nothing can be seen of the spoon-like cavity in the centre of the leaf lobes that characterizes the regional capital from the middle of the second century onwards (Kähler 1939: 45, 58; Pl. 6 H1-H2).

Dating

The egg-and-tongue frieze shows early features (Kähler 1939: 70-73 fig. 13). The ‘eggs’ are large, round and striking. The darts are small and inconspicuous. The eggs are not joined at the top by a bar as is usual after AD 150. This type of egg-and-tongue frieze had almost vanished after the first quarter of the second century AD. Because of the characteristics of the capital we should date it at the latest to the third or fourth decade of the second century AD.

Epilogue

The apogee of the sculptured gigantomachy in Antiquity is the famous frieze of the Altar of Pergamum, dedicated by King Eumenes II (197-159 BC) to Athena Nikephoros. Almost all the later representations of this theme have been influenced by this essential archetype (Kleiner 1949;Vian 1951).

Aphrodisias

It is quite logical that Asia Minor played an important part in the process of the revival of the gigantomachy. Aphrodisias had a trend-setting school of sculpture and can be seen as the successor of the Pergamenic and Rhodian artistic traditions (Kleiner 1949). The Aphrodisian nymphaeum frieze of the second century with its representation of a gigantomachy confirms this view. G. Kleiner dated it with

— 268 — Titus A.S.M. Panhuysen caution to the reign of Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161), which would make it one of the earliest known examples. The resemblance of the Maastricht capital scenery to this frieze is striking. We discover the same disproportion between the large giants and the smaller gods, who only rise above their adversaries because of their higher situation. The running giant between two Moirai on the frieze of Aphrodisias and the one to the right of our god are significant, each being the mirror image of the other and both deriving from one and the same model. It is notable that the artistic quality of the capital compares favourably with similar reliefs from Greece and Asia Minor. But ours show greater independence from the Pergamenic frieze, a stronger composition and a better image of the tension of the combat, more authenticity and an original application. It is unlikely that the frieze from Aphrodisias can be linked directly to the Maastricht capital, but both may go back to the same sources. Kleiner’s idea that the school of Aphrodisias had rediscovered the theme of the gigantomachy prior to the known friezes thus gets unexpected support.

The Roman Bath friezes of Sens

A very important position in the iconography of the gigantomachy is occupied by the reliefs originating from the Roman Baths of Sens, south of Paris (Vian 1951: 32 no. 71). J.-P. Adam (e.a. 1987) suggested twenty years ago a new reconstruction for their architectural setting. At the same time S. Deyts (in: Adam e.a. 1987) argued for their dating to the reign of Trajan. The gigantomachies of Sens seem to come closest of all the Roman imitations to the Altar of Pergamum, in their execution as much as in their monumentality (Panhuysen 1996: 235 note 1130).

The Jupiter-giant-columns of Germania Superior and Gallia Belgica

The symbolism of the gigantomachy was transparent and suited to many purposes. The victory of the celestial gods over the terrestrial demons, of harmony over chaos, of civilisation over barbarism, and of good over evil were just as well fitted for civilian funerary art as for political propaganda (Vian 1952). To the north of the Alps the theme can be found in all these elements of art. The freestanding group of a horseman (=Jupiter) riding over one or more fallen giant(s) achieved great popularity on top of the Jupiter-columns from Germania Superior (Bauchhenss 1981: 65-82). This, however, must be a regional creation with only slight influence from Hellenistic iconography. Its symbolism may have had a political-religious character.

Capitals and giants

Mythological scenery on capitals is very rare, without exception for the gigantomachy (Mercklin 1962; Noelke 1981: 338 note 379). A suspect engraving from the beginning of the 19th century shows the only known example. Some Hellenistic capitals from Tarentum and its surroundings are decorated with combats of gods, but they demonstrate only a weak affinity. Composite capitals with giants replacing the normal volutes on the corners do occur in Germania Superior and Gallia Belgica from the middle of the second century AD onwards. They show giants with their hands tied behind their backs. Sometimes the giants support the abacus with upraised hands. Busts or heads, representing the seasons, substitute the fleurons in the centre of the abacus sides. This type of capital with giants was preferred in funerary architecture. Some were used on Jupiter-giant-columns, but they had their hands raised like Atlantes.

Conclusion

In the North-Western provinces of the Roman Empire we encounter quite a common type of capital with giants. It crowned the regional Jupiter-and-giant-columns and also some monumental grave pillars. All its sides were equivalent. However, it seems impossible to me that the Maastricht gigantomachy

— 269 — The Maastricht gigantomachy capital and its models capital originates from a funerary monument, as it is impossible to find parallels in the genre of the Jupiter columns. Besides, this capital is more ancient. More important is the different structure: against the equilateral nature of those capitals the rectangular Maastricht capital shows two linked opposite sides. The Maastricht capital must have been one of a series to judge by its form and decor (cf. Will 1952: 66-69; Mercklin 1962: 181-183). We would suggest the capital once formed part of an arcade or colonnade with a complete Pergamenic programme of combats between gods and giants, most probably in a public or religious architectural context.

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*A special debt is owed to my dear collegue Barry Ager (British Museum, London) whose suggestions and emendations for the English translation have been most helpful.

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HISPANIA ANTIGUA Serie Arqueológica

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JUNTA DE EXTREMADURA Vicepresidencia Segunda, Consejería de Economía, Comercio e Innovación Roma y las provincias: modelo difusión