Month of the Malagasy Language | June 2015

Vitality & Vulnerability of water resources in madagascar

Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana © April 2016 Country Representative of WaterAid in Madagascar

Ak ademia Maylagas about

This document was elaborated during the Month of the Malagasy Language by the Akademia Malagasy, celebrated under the theme “Water and Habitat”:

« Teny malagasy loharano tovozin-tsy ritra, antoky ny toeram-ponenana soa sy madio »

“The Malagasy Language, an infinite source, guaranteeing a healthy and pleasant home”. © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

2 about Summary 4 Abstract

6 I. Introduction

8 2. Method

10 3. Findings 11 3.1. Overview of Water Resources in Madagascar 11 3.1.1. Quantitative Aspects 13 3.1.2. Qualitative Aspects 16 4. Legal Framework

18 5. Challenges 19 5.1. Fr eshwater resources are distributed unevenly 19 5.2. Conciliation of different contrasting uses 20 5.3. W ater scarcity and difficulty accessing drinking water 20 5.4. Deterioration of Water Resources 21 5.5. Potential Use 21 5.5.1. Agriculture 22 5.5.2. Fisheries 22 5.5.3. Navigable Waterways 22 5.5.4. Water, Energy and Industry 24 6. Discussion and Conclusion 25 6.1. Actions to be taken 25 6.1.1. Development of a more appropriate legal framework and policy 25 6.1.2. Development and Operationalisation of a holistic water management 26 6.1.3. Developing Innovative Approaches 26 6.1.4. Implementing Resources Preservation Measures 29 6.2. Conclusion 30 7. Works Cited

31 8. Acknowledgement 3 Abstract © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

4 Abstract

y tahirindrano dia sady es ressources en eau ater resources are sarobidy no saropady. sont vitales et très vital and highly Misy fasamihafana be vulnérables. Il y a sensitive. Nny fitsinjarana ny tahirindrano Lune hétérogénéité dans la WThe potential eto Madagasikara. répartition et le potentiel and distribution of water Ny mampifanindran-dalana de ses ressources en eau à resources vary throughout ireo fampiasana ny rano, izay Madagascar. Il est souvent Madagascar. Often, mazana saika mifanohitra. difficile de concilier les divers it is difficult to reconcile its Isan’ny olana politika goavana usages parfois conflictuels. various conflicting uses. ny tsy fahampian-drano sy La pénurie en eau Water scarcity and difficulty ny tsy fahazoan’ny olona et la difficulté d’accès à l’eau of access to drinking water rano. Manomboka hita taratra potable constituent are a highly political issue. ireo fambara mahakasika un problème hautement Signs of water resources ny faharatsian’ny kalitao sy politique. Des signes degeneration are observed, fihenan’ny fatran’ny rano de détérioration des including water resources miendrika faharitran’ny rano ressources en eau sont depletion and pollution. sy fahaloton’ny rano. Ny visibles comme le tarissement Floods and droughts tondradrano sy ny haitany dia et la pollution des ressources are already a chronic zary efa mahazatra fa eo ihany en eau. Les inondations et phenomenon in some koa ny fiovan’ny toetrandro la sècheresse sont déjà des regions and climate change izay isan’ny olana atrehina. phénomènes chroniques also affects the country. pour certaines régions et Maro ireo irika fanararaotra le changement climatique mahakasika ny fambolena, affecte aussi le pays. ny jono, ny fitanterana, ny angovo, ary ny toekarena Les potentialités d’utilisation The potential for the amin’ny ankapobeny. des ressources en eau Madagascar water resources Ahafahan’i Madagasikara à Madagascar pour to be used in agriculture, mamaly ny filan’ny mponina, l’agriculture, la pêche, les fishing, river transport, ny biby, ny zavamaniry, ny transports fluviaux, l’énergie energy and the economy fampivoarana ny toekareny et l’économie en général in general is enormous. sy ny fanatsarana ny tontolo sont énormes. Rational water resources iainan’ny mponina ao aminy La gestion rationnelle des management will help ny fitantanana an-tsakany sy ressources en eau permettra Madagascar meet its human, an-davany ny tahirindrano. à Madagascar de répondre fauna and flora needs, aux besoins humains, des develop economically and faunes et des flores, du improve the living standards développement de son of its population. économie et l’amélioration des conditions de vie de sa population.

Keywords : Water resources – surface water – groundwater – watershed – drinking water – environment – Integrated water resource management.

5 I. Introduction

ppearing about 3 to km3, available in the liquid, Surface water (rivers, 4 billion years ago, solid or gaseous forms. •frozen soils, swamps and water is almost as However, most (97%) is freshwater lakes: 0.03%); oldA as the Earth. Since then, contained in the oceans and The atmosphere (0.001%); its volume has generally is salty, making it unusable � remained stable. The same by humans. Freshwater only � Living organisms. water circulates and is represents 3% of the total continuously transformed water on Earth, and consists La Half of this water is in the atmosphere, on the of: freshwater suitable for surface and in the subsoil human use, which only of the Earth. Water is highly � Mountain snow-caps and makes up 0.3% or 4 million abundant on our planet. ice sheets in Greenland and km3 of water volume in the When seen from space, Antarctica (nearly 2%); world. This water is available Earth looks blue as oceans in different natural resources cover nearly three-quarters � Underground freshwater such as rivers, shallow of its surface (70%). The (less than 1%, not all aquifers or lakes[1]. groundwater are freshwater, total volume of water on [1] http://www.eau-poitou-charentes.org/IMG/ Earth is about 1.4 billion most are salty); pdf/Cycle_naturel_eau.pdf

6 I. Introduction

Without water, life on earth In Madagascar, renewable loharano tovozin-tsy ritra, is unimaginable or even water resources are estimated antoky ny toeram-ponenana impossible. Water is the at 337 km3/year. Renewable soa sy madio» (“The Malagasy main constituent of the surface water resources are Language, an infinite source, human body, with an average estimated at 332 km3/year guaranteeing a healthy and percentage of 65% for an and groundwater at 55 km3/ pleasant home”). adult. On earth, water is year, with a shared part a mobile, renewable and between surface waters and Its plan is consistent with the indestructible resource that is groundwater at 50 km3/year Akademia Malagasy policy on . sometimes subject to multiple (table below). Main rivers drain journals and communications 335 405 2 conflicting uses as has been off to about , km of This paper aims to highlight 57 observed throughout the watersheds or percent of the vitality and vulnerability history of mankind. Today, the the country’s total surface. of water resources in 13 uneven distribution of water The largest reservoirs have Madagascar while providing resources on planet earth is a a total capacity of about food-for-thought for its 493 3 source of conflicts and issues million m , of which rational use for sustainable 108 relating to water shortage. million are for irrigation development. and 385 million for hydropower generation[2]. An overview of water resources in Madagascar will This document was elaborated be provided prior to the laws during the Month of the and regulations governing Malagasy Language by the water resources, related Akademia Malagasy, celebrated challenges, their potential under the theme «Water and uses and finally alternative Habitat»: «Teny Malagasy solutions will also be provided. [2] http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/ countries_regions/mdg/indexfra.stm

Table: Water Resources in Madagascar

Renewable Water Resources

Average rainfall 1,513 mm/an

888 109m3/an

Domestic renewable water resources 337 109m3/an

Total actual renewable water resources 337 109m3/an

Dependency ratio 0 %

Per capita renewable water resources 2004 18,826 m3/an

Total capacity of dams 2002 493 106 m3 © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

7 2. Method

8 2. Method

his study is a documentary research on available water resources literatures in Madagascar, as well as related challenges This document is not intended to conduct Tand proposed solutions, enriched by personal a thorough analysis of water resources in archives. Madagascar. It is limited to informing the current situation and providing food for The following documents have been particularly thoughts. Written in the form of collection, analysed throughout this study: this document is intended for students — Water Resources in Madagascar by the or people who want to have a basic Food and Agriculture Organization of the knowledge of water resources, particularly United Nations (FAO) those of Madagascar.

— Feedback on Integrated Water Resources Management by CITE: Ran’Eau and PS’Eau.

— Rivers and streams of Madagascar © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

9 3. Findings

Carte des rivières de Madagascar

Mahavavy Nord Irodo

Loky Sambirano

Bemarivo

Maevarano

Antainambalany So a

Mahajamba

Betsiboka

Maningoza Maningory

Manambaho Onibe Mahavavy Sud

Manambolo Mangoro

Tsiribihina

Morondava Namorona Faraony Mangoky

Manampatrana

Fiherenana Onilahy

Mananara

Linta

Menarandra Mandrare

10 3. Findings 3.1. Overview of Water Resources in Madagascar[3]

2 he potentials and distribution of � The Eastern Watersheds 150,000 km water resources in Madagascar whose main rivers are Maningory is very disparate. Some areas 260 km and 12,646 km2, Sandratsio 125 km, 2 Tseem to not adequately use the Ivondro 150 km and 3,513 km , Rianila 2 resources available to them, while 134 km and 7,594 km , Mangoro 300 km and 17,704 km2 212 km 7,002 km2 others do not have enough. , Mananjary and , Namorana 103 km and 2,079 km2, Faraony Although no systematic study to 150 km and 2,761 km2, Mananara 323 km 2 evaluate the water resources of the from Sahambano and 17,230 km ; country has been conducted to date, � The Western Watershed 365,000 km2 a summary of the main aquatic whose main rivers are Sofia 328 km and potential of Madagascar will be 28,295 km2 with the following tributaries: outlined in the following paragraphs. Mangarahara, Anjobony 200 km and Bemarivo 265 km; Betsiboka 605 km [3] from Jabo and 48,879 km2 whose main 3.1.1. Quantitative Aspects tributary is Ikopa 485 km; Mahajamba 298 km and 14,883 km2; Mahavavy du Sud a. Surface Water 410 km and 19,459 km2; Manambolo 370 km and 14,351 km2; Tsiribihina 525 km and In terms of waterways, Madagascar 47,797 km2 whose main tributaries are has more than 3,000 km of rivers and Sakeny 170 km and Mahajilo-Kitsamby streams. Waterways are naturally 260 km; Mangoky 714 km from Matsiatra divided into five sections of unequal and 55,884 km2 and Onilahy 400 km and size. The country has five watersheds: 32,225 km2 whose main tributary is � The Watersheds of the Ambre Imaloto-Lalana 242 km; 2 Mountain 11,200 km , whose main rivers 2 � The Southern Watershed 48,750 km are Irodo, Saharenana and Besokatra; whose main rivers and streams are Mandrare 270 km and 12,547 km2, The Watersheds of Tsaratanàna � 2 2 Manambovo 165 km and 4,765 km , 20,000 km , whose main river is 2 2 Menarandra 235 km and 8,624 km and Mahavavy du Nord 160 km and 3,345 km Linta 173 km and 5,437 km2. with its tributary of Antsiatsia 60 km; Sambirano 124 km and 2,980 km2; Maevarano 203 km and 5,408 km2 and Bemarivo 140 km and 4,779 km2;

[3] Cette section était extraite en intégralité du document téléchargé du siteweb suivant : http://www.google.mg/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&-

© Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana source=web&cd=51&ved=0ahUKEwjp--KS8NjLAh- WDeA8KHbttB_I4MhAWCBkwAA&url=http%3A%2F%2F- www.doc-developpement-durable. org%2Ffile%2Feau%2Fcultures-en-conditions-arides%- 2FRESSOURCES%2520EN%2520EAU%2520de%2520MAD- AGASCAR.doc&usg=AFQjCNHpk0fD6mHXLQCne7Aqy0Eh- QPzrIQ Aerial view of Mantasoa Lake N.B : The surface areas pertain to the watershed surface Source : Rivers and Streams of Madagascar, ORSTOM 1993. 11 3. Findings

The aquatic environments and 2. Crystalline are Mampikony and Fenoarivo Be, in the South with low rainfall wetlands of Madagascar mainly while regolith aquifers have a very 0.1 0.2 m3/h/m These fractured rock aquifers offer low flow rate of to . consist of lakes that cover about some water supply perspectives for Fractured rock aquifers are still not 2,000 km2, which are composed of: the South. Drilling has been made well-known. since 1980, but flows are low at 15 to � Natural water bodies: lakes 20 m underground. They are higher 8. Sedimentary Watershed 3 and lagoons, as well as artificial (10 m /h) at 50-70 m deep. of Antsiranana (North) water bodies Known aquifers are sandy beach 3. Sedimentary Watershed 3 of Toliara (10 to 12 m /h) and volcanic formation Dams aquifers (25m3/h). � These are different types of groundwater (limestone, shallow Regolith and fractured rock aquifers Coastal canals and mangroves � sands, beach sands ...) which are are significant because they are already being used for the water sources of runoff in Madagascar. supply of several localities more or In fact, they could ensure the water b. Groundwater less satisfactorily. Their flow is up to supply of cities and rural places, as 3,000 m3/h (for the Eocene limestone well as their agriculture or livestock Given that no information is known groundwater which ensures the water farming. about the country’s groundwater supply of Toliara) resources, various studies and work 4. Sedimentary Watershed c. Estimated Resources have provided results that can shed of Morondava 1. Rainfall light on such resources per region: The main aquifers are now well- known and used (Dabaraha, Isalo, The primary source of freshwater Morondava) for water supply and is rainfall. In Madagascar, annual 1. Sedimentary Watershed irrigation. rainfall significantly varies from in the Far South 3,800 mm in the Antongil Bay in the 5. Sedimentary Watershed northeast part of the country to There are deep aquifers at a great of Mahajanga 380 mm in the extreme southwest part. 50-170 m depth underground ( ), usable The water supply of Mahajanga, It is similar and varies from 2,500 to at a very low flow rate (< 3m3/h). There Ambato-Boeni and Antsohihy 3,500 mm between the coast and the are ensured by the main aquifers are also shallow aquifers contained first reliefs of the eastern coast; and (Eocene limestone and sandstone). gradually decreases from 1,760 mm to in sands, white sands and alluvium, 380 mm on the west coast, from north 6. Sedimentary Watershed located at depths of less than 20 m of the Eastern Coast (Analalava) to south (Faux-Cap). underground and also usable at very From east to west, mean annual This alluvial aquifer is used via rainfall also generally decreases low flow rates (1 to 4 m3 / h). underflow catchments in Sambava from the highlands. Abundant and Antalaha, via wells and rainfall are observed north of the boreholes in Fénérive Est and via Tsaratanàna Mountain 2,500 mm, in the sand and beach dune aquifers and northwestern part near Mahajanga wells in Mahanoro, Vatomandry, and Maevatanàna 1,500 mm to Mananjary and Vohémar. 2,000 mm and central Mountains of Ankaratra and Andringitra 2,500 mm. 7. Central Highlands The most pronounced contrast These alluvial aquifers yield a is found south of Fort Dauphin in Example of groundwater rate of 25 m3/h/m in Maevatanàna, Ambovombe where average annual

12 Vitality & Vulnerability of water resources in madagascar rainfall changes from 1,500 mm to less However, this amount is not b. Water treatment than 500 mm over several dozens of always evenly distributed across kilometers. the territory. Also, ensuring the sound management of resources — Water Drinkability 2. Evaporation for optimum utilization of available and Evapotranspiration Drinking water intended for water is necessary. consumption are subject to — Evaporation rigorous standards set by the In general, average annual 3.1.2. Qualitative Aspects Ministry of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene, which are based on WHO evaporation from open water is recommendations: approximately: Water quality issues should be taken very seriously because it 2,000 mm in the northwestern also determines the availability of Organoleptic and physical usable water resources for human characteristics 1,600 mm in the south needs. The degradation of water Odourless, colourless, without 1,400 mm in the southwest resources quality is linked to unpleasant taste 1,000 à 1,100 mm in the highlands natural environmental factors such Recommended temperature: 15 ° 700 mm on the western watershed as erosion, indirect human-induced 25 factors such as deforestation and Turbidity < mastic drops poor management of spaces or — Evapotranspiration Resistivity at 180°C : 1,000 to 10,000 Ohm/cm direct human-induced factors such On the eastern watershed and the as pollution. Basic pH 6.5 to 8.5 northwest coast, evapotranspiration ranges between 1,000 and 1,300 mm. No radioactive elements On the east, between the eastern a. Freshwater Physical and Chemical Quality watershed and the Highlands, and in the northwestern part of the country (from Nosy Be to Morondava) it is — General Characteristics between 800 and 1,000 mm, while on Following the wearing of sus- the Highlands 700 to 800 mm and pended minerals torn from the down to less than 400 mm in the base, freshwaters are very rich in south and southwest coasts. iron, particularly surface water and groundwater on recent lands. This 3. Water Table phenomenon is also the reason for two physical characteristics of Annual available water resources Chemical Characteristics the water, which are turbidity and (flow) are made of rainfall minus colour. It is mainly due to erosion evapotranspiration losses, deep Existence of a number of minerals of the watersheds. infiltration and natural plant (normal elements) at desirable levels absorption (flow deficit). But this In general, freshwater in sedi- amount is distributed unevenly Content in abnormal elements (chemical mentary watersheds (coastal pollution index) whose variation is to be throughout the year. monitored areas) are more mineralised than The estimated annual renewable those of the highlands (crystalline Content in toxic elements (res- basement) but overall, Malagasy ponsible for a nuisance on health) water resources in Madagascar are very low or even zero. 40 km3 or 3,120 m3 per capital (WRI 1992). waters are lightly mineralised.

13 3. Findings

Bacteriological Quality There are very specific quality Drinking water must be free of guidelines for boiler or cooling water pathogens from human or animal in terms of mineral content (low), faeces or sewage, which can but for process water, only a few contaminate a community water supply. Tests consist of a germ-test industries are subject to guidelines for faecal contamination, whose (breweries, paper mills, dairy firms). presence indicates that there are health risks. These germs include: — Disposal of pollutants

Total coliforms In Madagascar, industrial effluents are regulated by the MECIE Decree Heat tolerant coliforms, where Escherichia coli is the most (Decree No. 99-954 of December 15, 1999 significant species for faecal contamination amended by Decree No. 2004-167 of Faecal streptococci February 3, 2004 on the compatibility Sulphite-reducing anaerobic spores of investments with the environment).

Pathogenic staphylococci in bottled Pressure from neighbouring water and swimming pool water. population generally obliges the Industrial water facilities to treat effluents. © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

Amboasary Sud, one of the semi-arid areas of Madagascar

14 Vitality & Vulnerability of water resources in madagascar © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

An example of optimal use of water resources in agriculture area in Moramanga

15 4. Legal Framework

16 4. Legal Framework urrently, Law No. 98-029 of — Empowerment of rural and urban January 20, 1999 on the Water communities and suburban areas; Code, published in the — Regulating the water supply and COfficial Journal of 27.01.99 No. 2557 E.S., sanitation services; 735 p. , governs the water resources — Strengthening the fight against in Madagascar. A Water, Sanitation water pollution; and Hygiene Code is currently being — Setting the rules for protecting and developed. This Code has been enhancing water resources and developed in consideration of the environmental standards; following key elements: — The polluter pays principle.

a) W ater is a common national The legal and regulatory framework heritage, governing water resources management b) W ater is an essential natural adheres to the Integrated Water element, Resources Management (IWRM) c) Unevenly distributed, it causes approach that was initiated internationally economic, social and health 90s issues. in the . This approach aims for the This Code includes five Titles and optimal distribution of water resources 84 articles, where Title II is exclusively between different users and the dedicated to water resources implementation of means to preserve the management. Title II deals with the quantity and quality of these resources[4]. quantitative and qualitative protection

of water, conservation of water Implementing Decrees of the Water Code resources, environmental protection, • Organisation, powers and operation of Watershed development of water resources, Agencies drinking water supply and collective • Or ganisation, powers and operation of the National sanitation of domestic wastewater. Authority for Water and Sanitation (ANDEA)

Other Titles, namely Title I on the • Or ganisation of public drinking water, sanitation Public Ownership of Water, Title III and wastewater services

on water monitoring and policing, • Price regulation of public water and sanitation Title IV on the financing of the water services and sanitation sector, Title V on the • Catchment and disposal fees organisation of the water and sanitation • Procedures for granting water catchment permits

sector, and Title VI on transitional and • Or ganization, powers, operation and financing final provisions are also closely related of the Regulating Agency of Public Water and Sanitation Services (SOREA) to water resources management. The Water Code highlights the following • Protection Perimeters principles: • Water Use for Hydropower — Strengthening of water protection • Administrative organisation of water and skills measures, especially for drinking transfer between decentralised communities water; • W ater monitoring, drinking water control and — Liberalisation of the water sector; priorities of access to water resources © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana — The non-free water principle; • Reclassification of streams, a section of this stream or a lake in the public domain — The necessary management transfer of the facilities to the communities; [4] http://www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/cite_ps_ eau_gire_madagascar_2014.pdf 17 5. Challenges

18 5. Challenges 5.1. Freshwater resources are distributed unevenly

ainfall varies throughout — the highlands with rainfall of 1,200 mm 3,500 mm Madagascar from per per year;[6] year in the East Coast, to 1,400 — lthe South arid climate with scarce Rmm in the capital and less than 300 mm rainfall and, per year in the Southern Region. This — the Southeast region with both dry could be explained by the differences and hot climate. in altitude and the prevailing wind[5]. These differences in climates result in There are eight types of climates in the uneven distribution and the irre- Madagascar: gular temporal variability of water re- — the North and Northwest equatorial/ sources. The inequitable distribution monsoon climate with heavy rainfall of of water resources between regions about 2,000 mm per year; creates transregional and interethnic conflicts. The use of upstream water, — the Northeast, the East Coast and including containment systems, has an Southeast equatorial/humid climate with impact on downstream quality. Other 3,000 mm rainfall of over per year, elements such as customs and tradi- — the Western savannah climate with tions also come into play and could re- oscillating rainfall between 1,000 and sult in conflicts related to trans-regional 2,000 mm per year, water resources management[6].

[5] https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_ [6] http://cite_pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/cite_ps_eau_ de_Madagascar gire_madagascar_2014.pdf

5.2. Conciliation of different contrasting uses

iven that water resources In southern Madagascar, conflicts are for multiple uses, their between drinking water and livestock allocation and distribution farming water are more significant than Gcould lead to conflicting relationships those about drinking water supply, between various users (agriculture, industries, tourism and energy. energy, process, waterway transport, Management of various divergent drinking water...). These conflicts social, economic and environmental could be due to several factors such interests is inherently a major as insufficient amount for downstream challenge for water resources

© Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana users, deteriorating water quality or management. excess water resulting in floods[7]. Impact of Climate Change, Dr Alain J. Andriama- [7] IWRM Tools and Uses, their Importance and the herisoa, November 2011

19 5. Challenges

5.3. Water scarcity and difficulty accessing drinking water

espite the immensity of walking kilometers in often difficult water resources, access conditions. Even some large cities to water remains a luxury in Madagascar are suffering from Dfor over half of Madagascar water shortage based on the according to the statistics of the long queue at public standpipes. WHO-UNICEF Joint Monitoring Waiting time at standpipes Programme published in 2014. could be several hours before a People in the arid regions of household has its daily ration[8]. Madagascar settle for muddy However, people who have access puddles for their drinking water to water are wasteful on domestic and shower after a rare rain. Due and agricultural water (including

© Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana to low rainfall, there is no water irrigated rice). for agriculture and livestock It is so tough to get access to safe water farming. This situation is cyclical [8] http://www.mg-planet.com/ in Androndra area of Antananarivo http://agir.avec.madagascar.over-blog. and worsens every year. People com/2015/06/gachis-des-ressources-en- eau-a-madagascar.html also have to fetch water by 5.4. Deterioration of Water Resources

n Madagascar, a degradation 2004 on the compatibility of • Flood, drought and climate change of water resources in specific investments with the environment) areas starts to be noticed and is are not met. As of the time of Madagascar is regularly affected by Isometimes in the form of resource writing, use of organic or inorganic cyclones, floods and droughts due depletion[9]. Some human activities pesticides and fertilisers is still to its geographical position, the such as deforestation, slash and minimal and so is the risk of irrational use of its water resources, [10] burn agriculture and bushfires groundwater contamination . the degradation of the conditions result in erosion which in turn of its infrastructure and most Some studies on water resources causes runoff. This has a negative recently climate change. In the sustainability (conducted by impact on groundwater recharge three arid regions of Madagascar UNICEF, WaterAid or JICA) has and amplifies floods during the (comprised of 104 municipalities), also shown that Madagascar rainy season and drought during the population is facing a cyclical is facing a drying up of water the dry season. Demographic resources in some areas. This drought that generates food growth, urbanisation, agricultural phenomenon is caused by the insecurity repeatedly affecting expansion and climate change 1/3 2/3 degradation of plant covers between and of the local also induce pressure on water 20 and overexploitation of water population. High temperature ( - resources. 25°C resources. In terms of quality, ), low rainfall and high winds Given the industrial growth in some excessive exploitation of in these regions aggravate poor areas of Madagascar, pollution groundwater through dense harvests. The hot and arid climate is feared if the MECIE Decree drilling networks, especially in prevents crop diversification, and standards (Decree No. 99-954 of the south of Madagascar, result the water and forest resources December 15, 1999 amended by in groundwater drawdown and appear to be amongst the most Decree No. 2004-167 of February 3, increased groundwater salinity[11]. degraded in Madagascar. The

[10] http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/coun- Atsimo Andrefana region is also [9] Integrated Water Resources Management tries_regions/mdg/indexfra.stm prone to locust invasions, which (IWRM) in Madagascar, Rakotondrainibe [11] http://www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/ Herivelo-December 2013 cite_ps_eau_gire_madagascar_2014.pdf regularly devour their corn crops.

20 Vitality & Vulnerability of water resources in madagascar

and poor planning of land use. In urban areas, poor management of drainage systems mostly explains the flooding, particularly around informal occupancies and vulnerable population[12].[13]

According to studies by the weather service, the average

© Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana temperature in Madagascar 2°C Use of surface water for agriculture could increase by and rainfall However, some regions, including with cyclones or heavy rainfall. decrease by 5% by the end of this [13] Atsimo Andrefana, are also each In rural areas, these floods are century with regional variability . year victims of floods caused by caused by natural vulnerability, [12] http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMAD- AGASCARINFRENCH/Resources/GRC.pdf winds and intense rains associated poor watershed management [13] http://www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/ cite_ps_eau_gire_madagascar_2014.pdf

5.5. Potential Use ike everywhere in the 5.5.1. Agriculture intake and diversion dams. Only world, the agriculture 3,500 ha in the plain of Lower 5 sector remains the largest Arable lands range between and Betsiboka (Marovoay) are irrigated 8.8 million Lwater consuming sector in hectares in Madagascar, by 13 pumping stations, and 30 Madagascar. In 2000, renewable of which % are exploited. 2,400 ha of sugarcane via sprinklers water was estimated at 14,970 Madagascar has an irrigation in the Morondava Dabara plain 3 3 1,516,900 hectares km , of which 14,313 km for potential of about : (Figure 2)[16]. 3 786,291 hectares agriculture (95.6 percent), 0.423 km of formally equipped areas, 187,000 ha of extensions of for domestic consumption (2.8 [16] http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/coun- percent) and 0.234 km3 for industries these areas which are not yet tries_regions/mdg/indexfra.stm (1.6 percent) (See Table 2 and equipped but are considered 300,000 ha Figure 1). Irrigation uses surface irrigable, of family 243,600 ha water, given the high cost of croplands and more than groundwater exploitation. Wells based on the inventory conducted 1969 and boreholes are mostly used by SOGREAH in . These are as drinking water supply[14]. irrigable plains through gravity-fed There are 2,568 wells and retention or diversion dams where 3,900 boreholes throughout the direct water intake is limited to over 1,000 ha country. They are serving 1.617 by one landowner. million rural residents.[15]. With a total area of 1,086,291 ha, fully/ partially controlled irrigation is

[14] http://www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/ essentially gravity-fed and using cite_ps_eau_gire_madagascar_2014.pdf surface water. The most common [15] http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/coun- © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana tries_regions/mdg/indexfra.stm supply structures are river water Use of surface water for agriculture 21 5. Challenges

5.5.2. Fisheries production and marketing of key of transport. In terms of safety, products (World Bank, 2003)[17]. inland waterway transport is safer It is estimated that Madagascar due to the lower strength of the approximately has 4,500 km of 5.5.3. Navigable currents and the types of boats 2 coastline with 177,000 km continental Waterways (wooden canoe, Zahatra...). There shelf and exclusive economic are currently thirteen (13) navigable 2 areas of 1,000,000 km . Given Navigable waterways in Madagascar rivers in Madagascar. But the mostly 600 km [18] this geographical situation of totaled in 2011 . Among the used rivers are the Pangalane Madagascar, it is clear that fishing modes of transport, river transport Canal (Toamasina Vatomandry, is an important income source for is the least known. Streams, Mahanoro to Mananjary), as well as some coastal municipalities. 13% rivers or navigable canals make the Tsiribihana, Sofia and Betsiboka of municipalities are on coastal up for the lack and high cost of Rivers[19]. areas, 40% have access to a lake communications in the country. It is and 87% to a river. The Province of mainly used for transporting goods, 5.5.4. Water, Energy and Antananarivo is the only province but there are some passenger Industry transportation services, as well of Madagascar surrounded by The water needs of the industrial as recreational boating and river land, without access to the sea. sector amount to 20% of all tourism... [20] Fishery products are an important water uses in Madagascar . source of foreign exchange This type of transport has its For now, water and electricity earnings for the country. In terms particular advantages, such as remain the obstacles to the of poverty reduction, traditional contribution to the opening up development of the sector. There fisheries are one of the solutions of remote villages, which means are currently no serviced industrial because the number of traditional it allows access in areas where zones (with water, electricity, fishermen in coastal regions is there are no roads or railways. telecommunications, access estimated at 40,000. They use The population along navigable roads). As a solution, zero technical a total of about 20,000 canoes rivers benefit from this easy and failures and rationalisation of (World Bank, 2003). Fishing is low cost transport. Agricultural electricity and water tariffs should also significant in regions where products, general merchandise improve the competitiveness of there are inland lakes such as the and much-needed commodities the industry. The use of renewable Alaotra and Itasy Lakes, as well can be transported from one energy, including hydropower, is [21] as the lakes around Mahajanga. place to another. River transport recommended . However, the traditional fishing also contributes to the promotion Hydropower significantly exists sector seems stagnant or even of new tourism sites because in Madagascar, yet the electricity in decline based on the number there are areas whose discovery access rate of the population is low of fishing boats and trends in the is only possible through this type at only 19% in 2009 (WorldDataBank, 2011)[22]. The hydro potential in Madagascar is estimated at 7,800 MW, but only a small fraction 2.5% of this resource is currently being exploited[23]. However, hydropower production is extremely effective and inexpensive in a country with a

[19] http://www.transport.gov.mg/ blog/2014/09/25/transport-fluvial-2/ [20] http://www.padr.gov.mg/wp-content/up- loads/2014/04/Eau-et-Assanissement.pdf © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

© Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana [21] http://www.madonline.com/un-environne- Fishing, one of the promising sector in Madagascar ment-defavorable-pour-lindustrie/ [22] http://www.cream.mg/pub/cahier21.pdf [17] http://www.ilo.cornell.edu/images/th3.5.pdf [23] http://www.fes-madagascar.org/media/ [18] http://www.indexmundi.com/fr/madagascar/ publications/Publications_2013/Energie_du- 22 voies_navigables.html rable_pour_tous.pdf Vitality & Vulnerability of water resources in madagascar © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

Water fall in Ste Marie Island mountainous terrain as Madagascar. � Gravity-fed power plants, Power production can be done by whose water supply is ensured capturing water through a pipe and through simple gravity; injecting it into a turbine coupled � Energy transfer stations with a power generator. through pumping, where water is According to the production mode, pumped electrically; there are three types of hydropower � Tidal power plants, which use plants: tidal currents[24].

[24] Energies durables pour tous, les ménages, les collectivités, et les entreprises, Tiana Amédée Randrianarisoa – Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, Octobre 2013. © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

Multiple use of water resources in Menabe region 23 6. Discussion and Conclusion

24 6. Discussion and Conclusion 6.1. Actions to be taken

iven its vitality and vulnerability, sanitation and environmental protection Madagascar must establish infrastructure it is necessary to. The and implement a sustainable country must have a clear policy on Gand integrated water resources water shortage management, aquatic management policy aiming for ecosystems protection and risks of environmental conservation, watershed flooding in the form of a master plan and catchment areas protection and for the development and integrated the sound management of all water management strategy of water resources uses essential to life and development. (SDAGIRE). It is worth highlighting that Four priority actions are identified any recommended changes for all for the implementation of this policy: existing water and sanitation laws and appropriate legal framework, holistic regulation must be in line with the IWRM water management, optimal use of principles. water resources, innovative approaches and Equity in the distribution of water 6.1.2. Development and resources. Operationalisation of a holistic water 6.1.1. Development management of a more appropriate legal framework For a holistic management that takes and policy into account all of the sometimes conflicting water resources needs and As part of the update and development their optimal use, the implementation of of the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene SDAGIRE is essential for Madagascar. Code, the current laws and regulations The development of this master plan must be in accordance with the requires the involvement and ownership IWRM guidelines and principles as of all stakeholders involved in water defined internationally. These should resources to ensure that it becomes a be completed: (i) The boundaries of reference document for all interventions watershed agencies and committees in this area. All forms of water use should be redefined per watershed (agriculture, livestock, electricity, but not per province and region, (ii) industry, drinking water, sanitation, river The powers of the National Water and transport ...) must be included in this Sanitation Agency (ANDEA) should master plan while taking into account be redefined to enable it to fulfill its the economic and social dimensions cross-cutting mission on IWRM and (iii) of water and the sustainability of The operating method of the National the ecosystems. Human, fauna and Water Resources Fund (FNRE) should flora needs, economic development, be revised. Integrating irrigation water, environmental preservation are industrial water, hydropower water to considered in this master plan. Indeed, ensure a holistic management of water it will be based on a multisectoral resources in the new Code is also approach. SDAGIRE must also essential. Similarly, cooperation should ensure the equitable distribution of © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana be established between all relevant water resources for the 22 regions of ministries for centralisation of data on Madagascar. As an illustration, the water resources and needs, as well as Mandrare water transfer project in

25 6. Discussion and Conclusion

the Anosy region to the Androy Groundwater Recharge dependent on environmental region will be part of this process. characteristics in general, EIn theory, groundwater is naturally Upstream, the Anosy region, recharged by rain and rivers. particularly watersheds. Given that humid with forests and permanent However, in the arid regions water resources are multipurpose, streams but with little arable land of Madagascar, groundwater their concerted and coordinated due to relief, is occupied by the withdrawal rate is often much local management by various Antanosy who are mainly farmers; higher than their natural recharge. stakeholders from various whereas downstream, the Androy Recharging methods help keep sectors (agriculture, livestock, region, arid and suffering from groundwater at a level where it fisheries, drinking water, electricity, inadequate surface waters despite can be sustainably usable even sanitation, water transport...) is the vast surfaces of cropland is with intensive use. The principle essential. Several steps can be occupied by the Antandroy who is relatively simple: creating re- taken to preserve local water are generally engaged in extensive infiltration watersheds and trenches resources. WaterAid Madagascar and nomadic cattle herding[25]. on a sufficiently permeable soil. and its local partners developed Generally, an IWRM approach This method can be done from an approach called Protection should be based on: a lake created with a dam or of Catchment Structure Areas by pumping from a stream A good knowledge of the (PPOC). This approach focuses � and transfer to re-infiltration water resources (inventory, on water resource preservation watersheds. This process is also monitoring...) used to purify water naturally, through strong involvement of the � The distribution and planning thereby enabling its use as drinking beneficiary communities of a water of resources use in a collaborative water supply. Groundwater supply system. The approach is process taking into account recharge is adapted to: based on: all users (domestic, industrial, — Cities where the groundwater — Ensuring infrastructure agricultural...) usage rate is greater than management by the municipality capacity and whose primary � The implementation of by building the capacity of local [26] water resource is a river highly resources protection measures . authorities and developing the polluted organically: In this case, delegated management of the Promoting environmental water pumping and re-injection drinking water service to a private conservation, the purpose of the into the groundwater allows SDAGIRE is to ensure that water recharge and produces good operator or community structure. quality water suitable for drinking resources will be used for the — Promoting civic education on through natural treatment. country’s sustainable development. water resources preservation. — Arid regions with seasonal — Meeting of flow and quality 6.1.3. Developing rainfall with the construction Innovative of a dam that will recharge standards by drinking water Approaches groundwater supply. supply services, structures and networks, For the optimal use of water 6.1.4. Implementing — Protection of watersheds resources, an example of innovative Resources techniques and approaches specific Preservation through integrated multisector to Madagascar is proposed in this Measures approach. abstract. Water cycle balance and stability In practice, it consists of [25] http://www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/ cite_ps_eau_gire_madagascar_2014.pdf guarantee the sustainability of preserving the vegetation covers [26] La Gestion intégrée des ressources en surface water and groundwater. by strengthening the reforestation eaux (GIRE) à Madagascar Rakotondrainibe Herivelo-Décembre 2013 This balance and stability is highly policy of the source areas.

26 Vitality & Vulnerability of water resources in madagascar © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

The water resources in the service of tourism in Menabe

27 28 6.2. Conclusion

n conclusion, water resources phenomena in some regions of as the rational management of all are vital and highly sensitive. Madagascar and climate change water uses necessary to life and The potential and distribution of also affects the country. to development, stakeholders at Iwater resources vary throughout different levels must undertake the However, the figures speak for Madagascar. Some regions seem following priority actions under the themselves about the potential use to not sufficiently exploit their leadership of the Government: of water resources in Madagascar: available water resources, while others do not have enough. This is � Establish a legal framework — Agriculture still has a margin and a more suitable policy due to strong differences in rainfall of 70% in terms of current use between regions and some areas of arable land and only half of � Establish and implement of the island suffering from water irrigable potentials are currently holistic water management formally irrigated. shortages. The country is facing many challenges in terms of water — Fishery is a promising sector � Develop innovative approaches resources management in addition given that 87% of municipalities Implement resources to the fact that freshwater resources have access to a river, 40% to a � conservation measures. are unevenly distributed. It is often lake and 13% are on coastal areas. difficult to reconcile the various — Navigable waterways in By implementing sound water and sometimes conflicting water Madagascar totalled 600 km in 2011. resources management, uses. Water scarcity and difficult Madagascar will be able to meet — The hydropower potential access to drinking water alone human as well as fauna and in Madagascar is estimated at constitute a highly political and very flora needs, the development of 7,800 MW, or only 2.5% of these strategic issue for the country. Signs its economy and the improved resources are currently being used. of water resources deterioration living conditions of its population are visible through the drying and To ensure environmental (agriculture, fishing, livestock pollution of water resources. Floods conservation, watersheds and farming, tourism, energy, drinking and droughts are already chronic catchment areas protection as well water, sanitation…) © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

29 7. Works Cited

http://www.google.mg/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=51&ved=0ahU KEwjp--KS8NjLAhWDeA8KHbttB_I4MhAWCBkwAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. doc-developpement-durable.org%2Ffile%2Feau%2Fcultures-en-conditions-ar ides%2FRESSOURCES%2520EN%2520EAU%2520de%2520MADAGASCAR. doc&usg=AFQjCNHpk0fD6mHXLQCne7Aqy0EhQPzrIQ

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/mdg/indexfra.stm

http://www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/cite_ps_eau_gire_madagascar_2014.pdf

https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_de_Madagascar

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Madagascar, Rakotondrainibe Herivelo-December 2013

IWRM Tools and Uses, their Importance and the Impact of Climate Change, Dr Alain J. Andriamaherisoa, November 2011

http://www.padr.gov.mg/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Eau-et-Assanissement.pdf

http://www.madonline.com/un-environnement-defavorable-pour-lindustrie/

http://www.cream.mg/pub/cahier21.pdf

http://www.fes-madagascar.org/media/publications/Publications_2013/Energie_durable_ pour_tous.pdf

Sustainable Energies for All, Households, Communities and Companies, Tiana Amédée Randrianarisoa – Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, October 2013.

http://www.indexmundi.com/fr/madagascar/voies_navigables.html

http://www.transport.gov.mg/blog/2014/09/25/transport-fluvial-2/

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMADAGASCARINFRENCH/Resources/GRC.pdf

30 7. Works Cited 8. Acknowledgement

would like to express my sincere thanks to President of the Akademia Malagasy Mr Andriamananjara Rajaona, Mrs Juliette Ratsimandrava and their entire team for giving me the opportunity to participate in the Month Iof the Malagasy Language in June 2015 and for their hospitality. Lovy Rasolofomanana © Crédit Photo : Lovy Hervet Rasolofomanana

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