Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-86846-4 — Unending Capitalism Karl Gerth Index More Information

Index

accumulation. See capitalism; industrialization and gray economy, 209, 219–22 advertising, 237, See also branding; consumerism; and inequality, 224–5 propaganda, economic as bribes and currency, 209 agencies, 107 as expressions of loyalty, 204, 210, 217 and gender, 23 as gifts, 202, 209, 223 and racism, 103–6 differences in values of, 209, 211 and shortages, 115 DIY production of, 207 and social consumption, 109 expanding production of, 205–8 and state allocations, 113–15 fads defined, 201 as discourse of backwardness, 104, 283 in Great Exchange Program, 213–18 commodification of Mao, 289 in post-Mao era, 229 in capitalism, 110, 115, 282 materials used, 328 in consumerism, 2, 13, 50, 113 origins, 202 in Cultural Revolution, 177, 314 production statistics, 204 in mass campaigns, 109 state production of, 204 in Soviet Union, 287 used for protection, 207 Marxist critique of, 111 barbers, 90, 148, 166, 180 revenue, 282, 286 Beckert, Sven, 254 socialist version of, 114, 116, 117, 288 Beijing. See also Destroy movement; inequalities: socialistic images in, 116 urban/rural; Tianqiao campaign with foreign scripts, 103 badge exchanges in, 219 Albania, 256, 279 badges made in, 206 alienation. See capitalism: attributes of destination in Great Exchange, 213, 214 Andreas, Joel, 207, 326 haggling restrictions in, 145 anti-bureaucratism defined, 261, See also cadres as historic sites destroyed, 174 new class; capitalism:restoration of house ransackings, 185 antiques, 186, 188, 190, 191, 193, 320 mass rallies, 201, 213 archived websites explained, 240 PLA uniform fashion, 195–8 armbands. See fashion: red armbands privileged place of production and automobiles consumption, 21, 32, 33, 79, 81, 142, 163, 166, bourgeois symbol, 54, 63, 78, 99, 138 203, 222, 226 displace bicycles, 18 small shops revived, 163 in Three Great Things, 241 window displays, 141 returned by CCP, 42 Beijing City Department Store. See Wangfujing symbol of corruption, 59 Department Store bicycles. See also Three Great Things backwardness, discourse of, 12, 13, 19, 27, 38, 66, and high-price policy, 163 73, 93, 118, 231, 254 and mobility, 18 badges of Mao. See also fashion; state branded subcategories, 18 consumerism: policies backfire designed for countryside, 21 and consumerism, 3, 200–28, 229 female use of, 30

373

374 Index

bicycles (cont.) export controls of, 53 in Cultural Revolution, 187, 311 human, 5, 11, 66, 69, 98, 101, 207, 267 in illicit exchanges, 35 misallocated, 50, 63, 72 links to imperialism, 17, 19 prioritized under capitalism, 5, 7, 12, 38, 40, 42, masculinity, 30 47, 72, 148, 185 ownership, 21 state as chief appropriator of, 7 production statistics, 20 state control over, 49–56 slogans on, 177 capitalism. See also cadres as new class; capital; status symbol, 18, 20 consumerism; industrialization; working-class symbol, 30 inequalities; institutional arrangements; “Big Deal,” 77, 271 negation of revolution; primitive bloodline theory, 193 accumulation; socialism; state capitalism Bo Yibo, 92 as global system, 13, 19, 116, 192, 216, 238, book markets, 331 253, 329 boycotts, 47, 56, 122, 124, 230, 255, 284, 299 as shorthand for state-to-private spectrum of Bramall, Chris, 234, 267, 278, 301, 302 industrial capitalism, 1, 6, 12, 71, 73, 232, 235 branding. See also advertising; commodities: attributes of, 5, 6, 12, 16, 43, 46, 113, 126, fetishization of; Destroy movement; Three 133, 240 Great Things birthmarks, 49, 184, 229 identity communicated through, 18, 107, 184 contrasted with communism, 3–5, 235 in consumerism, 2, 18 correlate of consumerism, 4, 10 in Cultural Revolution, 178–80 debate over private varieties of, 336 political slogans and images in, 17 forms of extraction in, 66, 74, 238 pre-1949 continuities, 106 industrial form of, 3, 235 preference for imports, 19, 20, 21, 29, 104 inequalities exacerbated by, 16, 113 restrictions on trademarks, 178, 195 negation of, 2 through badges, 211 negation of feudalism, 5 Bray, Francesca, 242 private form of, 237 bribes, consumer products as, 37, 38, 58, 60, restoration of, 35, 37, 92, 95–9, 100, 126, 127, 61, 209 164, 168, 169, 221, 228, 280 BSA brand bicycles, 14 Castells, Manuel, 238 Buick, Adam, 235 CCP. See Chinese Communist Party (CCP) “build the nation through diligence and Central Academy of Arts and Crafts, 142 thrift,” 46 Central Committee, 34, 37, 169, 223, 226, 227, building socialism. See socialism: as catch-all label 333 for state policies Central Propaganda Department, 117, 226, 269 Bukharin, Nikolai, 66 Changsha, 215 bulaji. See fashion: bulaji Changzhi, 32 Chen Boda, 320 cadre suits. See fashion: cadre suits Chen Huabin, 227 cadres as new class, 34, 59, 97, 200, 207, Chen Yi, 42 281 Chen Yun, 92, 237 campaign contrasted with movement, 170 Chengdu, 96, 156, 189, 190, 321 Canton Trade Fair, 216, 329 Cheung, Tai Ming, 253 capital. See also capitalism; expropriation; Chiang Kai-shek, 122, 188, 191, 258 industrialization; institutional China Department Store Company, 15, 135 arrangements; military: and compulsory Chinese Communist Party (CCP). See also accumulation Central Committee; consumerism; accumulated in mass campaigns, 58–64 inequalities; institutional arrangements: attempts to hide, 61 shifts along spectrum; negation of badges as form of, 211 revolution; propaganda, economic; compulsory accumulation of, 13, 43, 44, 66, 71, socialistic policies; Soviet Union; state 73, 94, 132 capitalism; state consumerism; Three/Five- cultural and political, 208 Antis campaign domestic favored, 14, 266 accumulation prioritized by, 7, 10, 12, 167

Index 375

and shifts in institutional arrangements, 7, 9, consumer culture. See consumerism 11, 42, 46, 48, 54, 55, 64, 67, 68, 70, 72, 77, consumer society, 233 92, 94, 114, 115, 131, 163 consumerism. See also capitalism; propaganda, decision to admit capitalists, 335 economic; state consumerism; Three Great expansion of capitalist practices, 18, 139–44 Things inequalities expanded by, 16, 66 ambivalence of party toward, 11 militarization of society, 49, 290 and anti-socialism, 60 split with Soviet Union, 95–9 and gender, 183 synonymous with “the state” and and identity, 2, 18, 26, 27, 29, 30, 83, 84, 89, “party-state,” 235 126, 131, 143, 178–84, 207, 208, 325 terms used by, 2, 4, 8, 9, 10, 11, 50, 51, 54, 55, 69, and imperialism, 254 193, 233, 234, 237, 240, 250, 261 and subcultures, 315 Chongqing, 31, 157, 188 before 1949, 46–9 chopping and excavating campaign, 41 compatibility with socialism, 77 cigarettes compulsory participation in, 10, 37, 40, 82, 132, advertising of, 285 195–8, 204, 228, 240, 241 privileged access to, 80 correlate of capitalism, 4, 233 status symbols, 101, 108 defined, 1, 3, 7, 10, 81, 201, 233 symbol of corruption, 59, 61, 99, 178, 209 labeled “bourgeois,” 5 working-class habit, 107 links to industrialization, 11, 242 Citizen brand watches, 38 precedes consumption, 12, 22, 30, class. See also cadres as new class self-expansion of, 10, 12, 13, 23, 25–31, 40, 81, background, 27, 187, 194, 197 201, 205–12, 228, 241 defined through surplus, 51, 59, 62, 64, 97, 257 spread via educated youth, 25 five black, 193, 198 symptom of cadre corruption, 58 five red, 193, 316 vanguard of change, 4 four progressive, 50 variations across China, 13, 24, 28 new class in Soviet Union, 271 cosmetics, 102, 178, 180, 185 struggle, 43, 55, 60, 98, 99, 126, 127, 188, 196, Crump, John, 235 221, 230, 251, 280, 299 Cultural Revolution. See also badges of Mao; “cleansing of the class ranks” campaign Destroy movement; Great Exchange (1967–8), 171 Program; house ransackings; negation of clocks, 14–15 revolution Coca-Cola, 113 and new class, 59 Cold War as inter-capitalist rivalry, 1, 13, 51, 78, as reaction to inequalities, 164 231, 235 capitalists targeted in, 55 command economy. See state capitalism defined, 310 commerce. See socialist commerce fashion in, 195–8 Commercial Leap Forward. See Tianqiao gray economy in, 311 campaign in countryside, 311 commodities. See also institutional arrangements: mass rallies in, 171 equated with capitalism PLA fashions in, 82 fetishization of, 18, 101, 111 service sector in, 164–6 new experiences with, 158–60 Czechoslovakia, 124 role in expanding consumerism, 25–31 socialist version of, 74, 237, 269 Da Xin Department Store (Da Sun). See Number used to generate extra revenue, 163 One Department Store (Da Xin) communes facilitate extraction, 66, 67, 69, 71 Dagongbao, 105, 107, 292 communism. See socialism Dalian, 96, 110, 206 Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), dance, 46, 77, 79, 89, 130, 136, 137, 138, 332 76, 77, 92, 96, 277 Dandong, 16 “Communist Wind,” 70, 267 Davin, Delia, 240 Communist Youth League, 131, 131, 208 Dazhong dianying (Mass Films), 121, 124, 292 confessions, 59, 62, 63 dazhonghua. See massification Conquer America brand sewing machines, 22 Deng Xiaoping, 9, 229

376 Index

department stores. See also state consumerism; initial signs, 53 Tianqiao campaign; Yong’an Department payments to capitalists, 55, 193, 259 Store extravagance as political term, 58, 59, 151, 227 Four Great, 136 Eyferth, Jacob, 266, 307 in capitalism, 135 in Zhejiang, 135 fads defined, 201, See also badges of Mao massification of, 136 famine, 70, 71, 94, 95, 146, 163, 291, 301, See also opened by state, 135 primitive accumulation pre-1949, 136, 297, 298 farms, state-owned, 67, See also ownership, four role in consumerism, 126, 136 arrangements Tianqiao as model, 153–9 fashion. See also badges of Mao; consumerism; Destroy movement. See also Cultural Revolution; state consumerism negation of revolution; socialistic policies; A-Fei style, 181, 316 state consumerism: policies backfire and DIY, 198 activities in, 173 and gender, 181–3, 325 brands in, 178–80 and identity, 82 corruption in, 184–91 and socialistic policies, 81–2 counter-tactics, 195 bulaji, 84–8, 100, 129 historical sites in, 174, 312 cadre suits, 82, 83, 87, 270, 275 house ransackings, 184–91 compatibility with socialism, 78 name changes in, 173 female pants, 181, 317 negation of revolution in, 171 fountain pens, 61, 83, 84, 128, 274, 275 outside major cities, 313 frugality collars, 162 Red Terror in, 173 hairstyles politicized, 79, 80, 83, 106, 107, 128, retailing in, 174–5 170, 180, 181, 182, 316 state support of, 171, 172, 319 Hong Kong-style, 130 Destroy the Four Olds, Establish the Four News. in Cultural Revolution, 181–3, 195–8 See Destroy movement Lenin jackets, 83, 84, 86, 100 Diamant, Neil, 27 lipstick, 79, 106, 111, 112, 178, 179, 272 Ding Shaochun, 126, 127 Mao as fashion icon, 195, 196 Dingzhou Commune, 35, 36 PLA uniform fashion, 323 Djilas, Milovan, 96, 271, 281 qipao, 82, 85, 87, 88, 90, 183, 284 Dunham, Vera S., 79, 271 red armbands, 83, 171, 177, 196, 218 Red Guards, 274 East is Red Department Store. See Yong’an sea of red, 177 Department Store shoes, 82, 178, 179, 181, 183, 185, 188, 192, 198 educated youth, 25, 71, 119, 291 Soviet embrace of, 77, 79 education. See capital: human Soviet influences on, 76, 81–8 Engels, Frederick, 48 sunglasses politicized, 181 Enicar brand watches, 26, 36 Western-style suits politicized, 63, 83, 99, 138, enterprises, private. See institutional 162, 178, 181, 187, 248 arrangements: equated with capitalism; fashionable misses, 91 ownership, four arrangements Federici, Silvia, 307 exhibitions of products, 81, 187, 188, 191, 192, 241, Feiren brand bicycles, 19 297, 319, 329 Female Locomotive Driver, 126 expropriation. See also capitalism:extraction in; Feng Guoqing, 29, 33 institutional arrangements; Socialist Feng, Jicai, 211 Transformation; Three/Five-Antis Feng Xiaocai, 239, 263 campaign Feng Zikai, 143 by Nationalists, 19 film-projection teams, 30, 125 continuous in capitalism, 238, 307 films. See also advertising; consumerism; state contrasted with nationalization, 52 consumerism defined, 256 and bourgeois leisure, 54, 78, 123 delayed after 1949, 53 and gender, 24 fear of, 49 as economic propaganda, 120–32

Index 377

as form of advertising, 128 elimination of peddlers, 147 marketing of, 121 impact on advertising, 115 Soviet promoted, 76, 81 impact on product availability and quality, 147 US banned, 121, 125 impact on Sino-Soviet relations, 94 First Five-Year Plan (1953–7), 69 resistance to state extractions, 70 Fitzpatrick, Sheila, 242, 244, 271 shift in institutional arrangements, 94 Five-Antis campaign of 1962–6, 164, 171 transfer of agricultural labor to factories, 146 Five Star brand watches, 15, 50 transfer of industrial workers to agriculture Flying Dragon brand bicycles, 19 after, 71 Flying Pigeon brand bicycles, 18, 20, 35, 211 transfer of service workers to production, 151 Forever brand bicycles, 19, 20 unremunerated labor in, 94, 153–9, 160–1, 302 Forward brand watches, 16 “Great Retreat,” 77 Four News, 169 Gronow, Jukka, 275 Four Olds, 169, See also Destroy movement; Gu Hua, 55 Tianqiao campaign Guan Weixun, 190 Fraser, Nancy, 238, 307 Guangzhou Frazier, Mark W., 262 badge production in, 326 Fujian, 207 badge redistribution in, 204 furniture, 99, 128, 185, 187, 188, 190, 193, 195 Five-Antis campaign in, 62, 63 privileged place of production and Gabriel, Satyananda J., 265 consumption, 16, 22, 33, 38, 142, 215, 216 Gansu, 153 Red Guards in, 181 Gao Yuan, 214 tourist destination, 328 gender equality. See socialism: attributes of Guangzhou brand watches, 40 Germany, 15, 19, 44, 51, 122, 187, 336 Guards On the Railway Line, 84 Gershenkron, Alexander, 254 Guizhou, 96 gifts, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 63, 93, 97, 202, 209, 223, Guo Linshuang, 137–9 See also bribery Guo Moruo, 158 “Give me back the planes,” 224 Glickman, Lawrence B., 233 haggling, 144–6, See also socialist commerce Gluckstein, Ygael, 278 Hainan, 328 gray economy, 31–8, See also institutional Hangzhou, 83, 127, 158, 160, 175 arrangements of capitalism: shifts along Haolai/Hawley Pharmaceutical Company, 103 spectrum; state consumerism: policies Harbin, 36, 142, 165, 179, 180, 198, 222, 315 backfire hard work and frugal living, ethos of. See also state and badge fad, 215, 219–22 consumerism and collective enterprises, 311 alternative phrasings of, 46 and gender, 246 and compulsion to consume, 32, 37, 217 and Great Leap Forward shortages, 147 and criticism of extravagances, 28 and movie tickets, 130 and frugality collars, 162 and used products, 192 and Japan, 254 defined, 248 cadres expected to abide by, 42, 44, 58 in Cultural Revolution, 311 equated with socialism, 8, 11, 63, 117, 126, recent scholarship on, 239 129, 203 tacit state approval of, 31, 33, 35, 36, 54, 163, 166 fashion manifests, 82 unauthorized production in, 95–6, 205–8, 221 impact on department stores, 137 Great Exchange Program, 213–18, 328, See also imposed in countryside, 64–71 Cultural Revolution; fashion; state in Cultural Revolution, 309 consumerism: policies backfire in Great Leap Forward, 153–9 Great Leap Famine. See famine in wartime, 255 Great Leap Forward. See also Tianqiao campaign in window displays, 141, 143 and gray economy, 147 PLA as exemplars of, 42 and queues, 147 popular embrace of, 10 and service sector, 153–9 Shanghai as antithesis of, 42 and shopping, 147–50 shifts away from, 89

378 Index

hard work and frugal living, ethos of (cont.) and compromise with private capitalism, state promotion of, 45, 81, 101 41–3, 48 variations, 46, 254 and consumerism, 4 Harvey, David, 307 and service sector, 134 Haug, Wolfgang Fritz, 240 as highest state priority, 5, 44, 52, 77, 94, 115, Heilongjiang, 41, 319 118, 143, 254 Heilongjiang Badge Factory, 222, 223 inequalities. See also capitalism; socialism; state Heiren brand toothpaste, 103–6 consumerism: policies backfire Hershatter, Gail, 247 across entire spectrum of capitalism, 95 high-priced commodities policy, 163 and distribution, 11, 13, 16, 24 Ho, Denise Y., 299, 319 and gender, 81, 160–1 Hollywood, 56, 121, 125, 129, 291 as attribute of capitalism, 46, 65 home renovations, symbol of corruption, 36 comparative, 239 Hong Kong, 103, 135, 181, 216, 317 contrasted with propaganda images, 119 Hong Kong films, 129 during transition to communism, 4, 17, 38 and status, 130 experienced firsthand, 133, 134 as advertisements, 130 forms of, 11, 16, 240 as useful for state revenue, 131 in badge fad, 224–5 banned, 132 in Soviet Union, 76–8, 94 Hong Xia, 182 manifest in consumerism, 2, 111, 196, 199, hostage capitalism, 53, 258 210 Hou Wailu, 185 mental/manual, 111 house ransackings, 184–91, 318, See also state three major inequalities, 7, 16, 40, 225, 240, consumerism: policies backfire 266 household registration system. See institutional urban/rural, 21, 24, 25, 28, 40, 43, 52, 64–71, 111, arrangements of capitalism 119, 268, 301 How Green Was My Valley, 123 within factories, 239 Hu Jintao, 335 inflation, 41, 60, 146, 296 Hu Mingbao, 192 Inner Mongolia, 171, 313 Hu Yafei, 218 institutional arrangements of capitalism. See also Huaihai Road State Used Goods Market ownership, four arrangements (Huaiguojiu), 191–5 defined narrowly, 336 Huang Baomei, 88–92 differences over, 6 Huili brand shoes, 179, 192, 198, 315 equated with capitalism, 6, 74, 235, 269 Hung, Ho-fung, 266 forms of ownership, 51 Hungary, 124 household registration system, 65, 66, 67, 239, 329 imperialism. See also capitalism; Korean War; in the countryside, 64–71 military: and compulsory accumulation; includes non-market distribution, 5 National Products Movement; Three Great material incentives, 44, 58, 70, 76, 77, 97, 168, Things 237, 262, 288 and CCP anti-urban bias, 65 private capital, 42 and compulsory industrialization, 43, 253 rations, 21, 23, 31, 32, 34, 68, 163, 191, 193, 197, and links to products, 109, 122, 123 209, 245, 266, 308, 329 and name changes, 173 shifts along spectrum, 9, 55, 64, 67, 68, 70, 72, and US film boycott, 122 94, 95, 98, 114, 132, 146, 163, 166, 229–32, 237, army of consumers mobilized to fight against, 266, 308 56–64 Soviet model of, 74 cultural forms of, 57, 79 usage of term, 235 links to products, 11, 13, 17, 47, 49, 105, 122, 182 work units, 5, 6, 16, 33, 34, 35, 37, 57, 67, 85, 131, industrial capitalism. See capitalism 153, 163, 165, 182, 188, 206, 207, 211, 221, 224, industrial consumerism. See consumerism 226, 326 industrial reserve army of labor, 48 iron rice bowl, 65, See also inequalities: urban/ industrialization. See also capitalism; institutional rural arrangements of capitalism; state capitalism Italy, 44, 51

Index 379

Jaeggi, Rahel, 238, 307 Liu Yangdong, 197 Japan, 19, 44, 51, 57, 124 loudspeakers, 62 Jardine Matheson, 42 Lu, Hanchao, 259 jewelry politicized, 63, 79, 93, 138, 170, 178, 183 Lu Xun, 202 Ji’nan, 23 Lüshun, 93 Jiang Mingliang criticism of Mao cult, 223 Luxemburg, Rosa, 253 Jiang Qing, 83, 93 Jiang Yigao, 31 MacFarquhar, Roderick, 279, 310, 311, 312, 323 Jiang Zemin, 278 mahjong, 55 Jilin, 16, 110 mahogany, 321 Jilin Municipal Business Tour Group, 159 “manage factories with diligence and thrift,” 46 Jin Dalu, 239, 325, 330, 331 “manage households with diligence and Jin Heqing, 319 thrift,” 46 Jingdezhen, 211 Mao badges. See badges of Mao Jinggangshan, 329 Mao cult, 190, 203, 224, 324, See also badges of Mao Khrushchev, Nikita, 76, 96, 97, 126, 241, 270, 279 Mao Dun, 186 Kim Il Sung, 279 Mao era Kirby, William, 255 and historical continuities, 6, 232 Klein, Naomi, 233 defined, 1, 233 Korean War, 44, 56, 74, 93, 105, 109, 122, 141, 253, popular images of, 2, 4, 117, 134, 148, 167, 170, See also military: and compulsory 177, 184, 258 accumulation; Resist America and Aid subdivisions within, 310 Korea campaign Mao Zedong. See also badges of Mao; Chinese Kunming, 153, 227 Communist Party; New Democracy and cadres as new class, 34, 60, 99, 200, 281, 311 Lakoff, George, 234 and compulsory accumulation, 12, 44, 45, 48, Landsman, Mark, 241 50, 252, 254 Lanzhou, 73, 80 and negation of revolution, 5, 92, 95, 96, 99, Lasch, Christopher, 286 200, 237, 323 latecomers, industrial. See backwardness, and ninth commentary, 280 discourse of; state capitalism and policy-making, 308 Leese, Daniel, 214 and social consumption, 5 Lei Feng, 97, 99, 289 and socialism as transitional stage, 4, 50 Lenin jackets. See fashion: Lenin jackets as fashion icon, 195, 196 Lenin, Vladimir I., 9, 50, 98, 146, 253 commodification of, 17, 117, 144, 175, 179, 202, Li Arong, 128 204, 289 Li Dong, 28 criticism of badge fad, 219, 224 Li Peng, 278 endorses Red Guards, 171 Li Zhensheng, 186 on frugality, 44 Liang Cai, 158 on rural fashion, 245 Liang Jun, 84 reluctance to import capital, 266 Liang Shuming, 185 rivalry with Khrushchev, 76 Liang Xiaosheng, 179, 180, 187 support for Destroy movement, 170 Liaocheng, Soviet fashions in, 87 Marx, Karl, 18, 43, 48, 49, 50, 65, 229, 237, 240 Liberation Daily, 104, 107, 108, 109, 220, 283 mass movement defined, 170 Liberation shoes. See fashion: shoes mass rallies, 195, 201, 202, 213 Lifeng Department Store, 153 massification. See also socialistic policies; state Lihua Department Store, 176 consumerism Lin Biao, 190, 202, 203, 220, 226, 227, 324, Chinese term for, 136 325, 334 of business models, 137 Ling, Ken, 209 of consumer goods production, 184 lipstick. See fashion: lipstick of consumption, 27, 44, 119, 133 Liu Changsheng, 63 of department stores, 136 Liu Shaoqi, 36, 93, 183, 279, 317 of movie industry, 124

380 Index

massification (cont.) New Democracy, 50, 58, 60, 102, 103, 120, 136, 137 of retailing, 139, 140 New Economic Policy (NEP), 77 material incentives. See institutional Ni Ping, 29 arrangements of capitalism nightclubs, 50 May Day brand watches, 15 Ningbo, 107 Meng Liya, 128 Ninth Party Congress (1969), 202, 223, 224, 310 Mikoyan, Anastas, 114 Nolan, Peter, 336 military Number One Department Store (Da Xin), 136, and badge production, 222 137, 140, 142, 161, 165, 176, 180 and compulsory accumulation, 4, 45, 66, 72, Nurse’s Diary, 86, 89, 128, 129, 274 73, 93, 230, 253, 254 and links to global markets, 43, 252 Oi, Jean C., 266, 267 as driver of Sino-Soviet relations, 73 Omega brand watches, 29 costs, 44, 253 “On Khrushchev’s Phony Communism,” 95–9 uniforms as fashion, 195–8 ownership, four arrangements, 51, 71, See also Ministry of Commerce, 15, 115, 134, 139, 141, 142, institutional arrangements of capitalism 153, 159, 184 collective, 52–3 Ministry of Finance, 203 foreign, 53 Ministry of Textiles, 89 private, 54–5, 68 model workers, 76 state, 51–2 used to promote consumerism, 88–92 Ozersk, 77 modernity. See capitalism; industrialization Moscow, 78, 79, 280 Park Hotel, 176 My Dear (Meidi) brand cigarettes, 108 Parker brand pens, 36, 57 party-state. See Chinese Communist Nanjing, 100, 174, 179, 225 Party (CCP) Nanjing River Bridge, 6 Patterson, Patrick H., 287 Nanjing Road, 32, 136, 143, 165, 175, 176, 297 Peking University, 186, 188 National Planning Symposium, 224 Peng Dehuai, 70 National Price Committee, 203 Peng Zhen, 158 national products, 19, 47, 103, 299 People’s Bank of China, 222 National Products Movement (NPM), 19, 46–9, People’s Daily, 98, 102, 110, 121, 134, 145, 156, 170, 255, 299, See also state capitalism; state 172, 183, 203 consumerism advertising in, 314 legacies in Mao era, 15, 46, 49, 56, 59, 81, 104, People’s Liberation Army (PLA), 28, 41, See also 105, 121, 126, 170, 182, 198, 230 fashion: PLA uniform fashion Nationalists, 41, 43, 48, 51, 53, 59, 61, 73, 191, 254, and badge fad, 203, 205, 222 255, 259, 312 and Mao cult, 324 Naughton, Barry, 236 exemplars of ethos, 42, 156 negation of revolution, 223–4, See also cadres as military needs of, 74 new class; capitalism: restoration of; gray perfume as bourgeois habit, 36, 137, 175, 179, economy; inequalities; state consumerism: 180, 287 policies backfire permanent revolution, 98, 280 and historical materialism, 5 pet ownership attacked as bourgeois, 190, consumerism as expression of, 1, 4, 38, 46, 315 92, 95 pianos, 190 in badge fad, 201, 229 planned economy. See state capitalism in Cultural Revolution, 172, 184 Poland, 12, 113 inequalities as expression of, 11, 95 postsocialist, 234 Mao’s concerns over, 200, 238 “practice strict economy and combat waste,” 46 popular anxieties over, 56 Preobrazhensky, Yevgeny, 65 Soviet Union as model of, 76, 95–9 price scissors, 68, 267 Neibu cankao, 96 prices, fixed. See haggling Never Forget, 126, 128 primitive accumulation, 43, 64–71, 94, 237, New China bookstores, 98, 119 265, 307

Index 381

primitive socialist accumulation. See primitive reserve army of labor, 94 accumulation Resist America and Aid Korea campaign, 56–8, propaganda, economic. See also hard work and 106, 109, 118, 122, 141, 203 frugal living, ethos of Resnick, Stephen A., 257 advertising, 102–17 restoration of capitalism. See capitalism: and badge fad, 202 restoration of; negation of revolution and images of Mao, 195 retailing used products, 191–5 defined, 281 revolution, Chinese Communist, 1, 8, See also films, 120–32 negation of revolution posters, 117–20 goals, 1, 2, 4 property, state and private. See institutional Riskin, Carl, 234 arrangements of capitalism; ownership, four Roamer brand watches, 14, 29 arrangements of rumors, 73, 179, 189, 198 public opinion. See propaganda, economic Schoenhals, Michael, 234, 279, 310, 311, 312 Qi Gendi, 91 Schor, Juliet B., 233 Qingdao, 23, 29 Second Sino-Japanese War, 53, 255 qipao. See fashion: qipao Selca brand watches, 14, 16 queues, 134, 147–50 servants, 54, 59 Quotations from Chairman Mao, 200, 204, 224, “Serve the Consumer,” 144 225, 324, 325, 329, 333 “Serve the People,” 17, 184, 203, 210, 223, 325 service sector Radchenko, Sergey, 268 and gender, 160–2 radios. See Three Great Things: radios attitudes toward work in, 155, 157 Raleigh brand bicycles, 14, 20 expected changes under socialism, 133–4 Rat brand cigarettes, 108 in Cultural Revolution, 164–6, 181, 184 rations. See institutional arrangements of labor transfer out of, 151 capitalism: rations shrinks in Mao era, 152 red armbands. See fashion: red armbands sewing machines, 21–4, 281, See also Three Great Red Flag (Hongqi), 98, 311 Things Red Flag Badge Factory, 226 and fashion, 23 Red Flag brand watches, 16 and femininity, 23 Red Guard Department Store (Lihua), 165, 176 and gendered division of labor, 22, 245 Red Guard fashions. See fashion: PLA uniforms and rural fashion, 245 Red Guards application values, 23 and coercion, 174, 181 as betrothal gifts, 24, 28 and mass rallies, 201 as labor-saving technologies, 22 defined, 171, 328 production statistics, 23 Red Lantern brand radios, 19 Shandong Arts Academy, 29 Red Terror, 312 Shanghai Reform Era. See also institutional arrangements badge use in, 204 of capitalism: shifts in bellwether of state policies, 41 as political construct, 9, 231, 234 conquest of, 41, 48, 53, 83 as shift in institutional arrangements, 229–32 gray economy in, 95, 221 Reid, Susan E., 241 name changes in, 175 Ren Zheng, 180 privileged site of production and Republican era, 1, 10, 14, 15, 19, 22, 42, 46–9, consumption, 15, 18, 20, 22, 28, 29, 55, 65, 83, 255 103, 119, 129, 136, 138, 192 and department stores, 135, 136 Shanghai Advertising Agency, 115 and gender, 183 Shanghai brand watches, 16, 17, 19, 29, 37, 38 reserve army of consumers, 230, See also state Shanghai Light Industry Bureau, 221 consumerism Shanghai Revolutionary Committee, 221 defined, 48 Shaoshan, 211, 214, 215, 229 legacy of NPM, 48, 49 Shen Baogen, 156 mobilized in mass campaigns, 56–64, 167 Shen Jialu, 192, 194

382 Index

Shen Kuiyi, 119, 133 catch-all label for state policies, 237 Shen Wenying, 143 complaints about, 149 Shenbao, 103, 104 contrasted with capitalist commerce, 113, Shengjia brand sewing machines, 22 133–4, 142 Shenyang, 59 in Cultural Revolution, 164–6, 175, 183 Shenyang Glass Measurement Device political implications of, 134, 142, 164 Factory, 206 socialist commodities. See commodities shortages, 32, 34, 58, 115, 134, 136, 147, 162, 198, 281 socialist construction. See socialism: as catch-all Sichuan Restaurant, 174 for state policies Sincere Department Store (Xianshi), 136 Socialist Education Campaign, 97, 164, 171 Singer brand sewing machines, 22, 246 socialist profit, 133 Singer Corporation, 14 socialist smiles, 134 Smith, Adam, 65 Socialist Transformation. See also Chinese Snow, Edgar, 200, 226 Communist Party: terms used by; social consumption. See also hard work and frugal expropriation; institutional arrangements, living, ethos of; state consumerism shifts in; ownership, four arrangements; and socialist realism, 118 state capitalism and the Soviet Union, 118 and haggling, 145 as the opposite of “bourgeois” consumerism, and payments to capitalists, 193 44, 101, 102, 238 and state ownership, 52, 55, 64, 106, 125 defined, 5, 238 as part of state capitalism, 233 examples of, 6, 12, 101, 117 defined, 256 GDP worship, 289 equated with socialism, 54, 69, 133 used in advertising, 109 incomplete, 95, 113, 122, 147, 248 socialism. See also Chinese Communist Party: shifts in class power, 207 terms used by; institutional arrangements of synonym for state capitalist expropriation, 51 capitalism; state capitalism socialist window displays. See window displays and “mistakes” of Mao era, 335 socialistic policies. See also fashion; hard work and inequalities, 2, 8, 230 and frugal living, ethos of; socialist and social relations of production, 41–3, 44, 55, commerce; state consumerism 71, 133, 185 and haggling, 144–6 and unremunerated labor, 160–1 challenged as insufficient, 175–8 as catch-all label for state policies, 2, 7, 65, 72, defined, 7 102, 113, 121, 134, 147, 164, 237 in advertising, 102, 109, 117 attributes of, 5, 7, 41, 50, 52, 66, 70, 81, 119, 133, in brand names, 174 231, 236 in media images, 122 challenges to state definitions of, 66, 67, 70, in propaganda images, 118 76, 81, 92, 102, 103, 110, 121, 169, 170, 175–8, in window displays, 139–44 180, 223–4, 227, 285 justified with socialist language, 3 defined as transition stage to communism, 2, manifest in fashion, 81–2, 91, 195–8 4, 11, 17, 44, 50, 56, 74, 77, 97, 98, 132, street peddlers, 146 234, 239 Song Binbin, 195, 196 equated with industrialization, 12 Song Qingling, 84, 183 equated with Soviet Union, 74 Soviet experts in China, 79 negation of capitalism, 5 Soviet Union. See also negation of revolution; qualified with “actually existing” or “state,” 7 state capitalism socialist advertising. See advertising Chinese visitors to, 89, 93 socialist China. See Mao era cloth exports to China, 84–8 socialist commerce, 135–40, See also department consumerism in, 80, 107, 270 stores; service sector; Tianqiao campaign critiques of advertising, 113 additional experiments, 162 different models within, 270 and open shelves, 158–60 exhibitions in China, 80 and state priorities, 167 fashion in China, 81–8, 182 and window displays, 139–44 films, 121, 124 attempts to eliminate haggling, 144–6 inequalities accepted, 4, 244

Index 383

labeled state capitalist, 281 Taiwan, 43 military aid, 74 Taiyuan, 35, 148 model of industrial latecomer, 44 technology as capital, 12 model of negation of revolution, 95–9, 238 Teiwes, Frederick C., 308 model of rural expropriation, 65 Thaxton, Ralph A., 267 prioritized products, 13 The Beggar Girl, 130 rejection of asceticism and egalitarianism, The Lady Racketeer, 130 271 The Red Flag of Commerce, 153, 156 split with CCP, 76, 270 Third Front, 278 window displays, 142 Three Great Things. See also bicycles; sewing spectrum of industrial capitalism. See capitalism: machines; wristwatches defined as state-to-private spectrum and “capitalist restoration,” 35 Stalin, Joseph, 4, 65, 66, 77, 89, 93, 256, 265, 269 and ability to work system, 29 state capitalism. See also cadres as new class; and illicit trades, 34–7 capitalism; institutional arrangements; and inequalities, 24, 54 military: and compulsory accumulation; and links to imperialism, 13, 18 Socialist Transformation; socialistic policies and memory, 26 and nationalism, 71 and state revenue, 163 and new class, 59 as alternative currency, 31–2 attributes of, 7, 34, 43, 94, 156, 203 as betrothal gifts, 24, 28, 29, 33, 67 CCP labels Soviet Union, 96 as everyday technologies, 12 correlate of state consumerism, 7, 12, 43, as symbols of corruption, 36–7 86, 143 changing meaning of, 11, 241 defined on state-to-private spectrum, 4, 7, 62, compulsion to acquire, 24, 31 63, 94, 132, 235 defined, 11 differences with Nationalist term, 51 domestic production of, 11 in primitive accumulation, 64–71 early use of term, 241 inherited from Nationalists, 46–9 manifest compulsory competition, 13, 127 policies facilitating, 49–56, 58–64 manifest socialist success, 11 term used by CCP, 50, 233 radios, 12, 19, 36, 61, 118, 162, 191, 241, 311, used to describe contemporary China, 236 319 state consumerism. See also badges of Mao; shared use of, 30, 33 consumerism; department stores; fashion; updated, 241 hard work and frugal living, ethos of; three major inequalities. See inequalities propaganda, economic; social Three/Five-Antis campaign, 56, 58–64, 72, consumption; socialist commerce; 109, 261 socialistic policies; Soviet Union analyzed as one campaign, 261 and promotion of consumerism, 8, 40, 88–92, economic recovery from, 70 101, 158–60, 163, 201–5, 213–18 impact on luxury sales, 138 correlate of state capitalism, 7, 44, 47, 141 Tian Guiying, 84 defined, 7–9, 63 Tian Zhihai, 203 inherited from Nationalists, 46–9 Tiananmen Square, 171, 173, 201, 214 norms, 20, 46 Tianjin, 15, 20, 142, 179, 313 policies backfire, 125, 139, 141, 143, 164, Tianqiao campaign, 153–9, 164, 304, See also 185, 197, 199, 201, 213–18, 219–22, 307, 311 socialist commerce; socialistic policies policies regulating, 13, 21, 44, 217–28 Tibet, 43, 171, 253, 313 promotion of Soviet culture, 76 Timasheff, Nicholas S., 271 state-to-private spectrum of industrial capitalism. toothbrushes, 12 See capitalism toothpaste, 12, See also Heiren brand toothpaste Su Xiu, 83 Trotsky, Leon, 267, 271 Sun Department Store (Xinxin), 136 Tsinghua University, 183 Sun Maoxing, 328 Sun Peidong, 323 underground economy. See gray economy Sun, Warren, 308 Unger, Jonathan, 311 Suzhou, 95 United Kingdom, 53, 59, 66, 118, 336

384 Index

United States, 59, 60, 66, 73, 100, 122, 124, Wulumuqi, 153 180, 336 Wuzhou, 189

wage labor. See institutional arrangements: Xi Jinping, 335 equated with capitalism Xi’an, 223 wages, 52, 67, 74, 77, 133, 149, 160, 161, 162, 165, Xiang Xiaomi, 28 237, 240 Xiao Ruiyi criticism of Mao cult, 224 Walder, Andrew, 239, 263, 267, 278 Xie Fuzhi, 182 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 253 Xie Jingyi, 218 Wang Anting, 229 Xie Quan, 321 Wang Danfeng, 89 Xin Zhongguo funü (New Chinese Woman), Wang Guangmei, 183, 317 81 Wang Manli, 84 Xinjiang, 44, 171, 202, 253, 313 Wang Mingrong, 80 Xu Beihong, 186 Wang Wenchang, 70 Xu Youyu, 194, 316 Wang Yushi, 23 Xue Muqiao, 54, 133, 134, 147, 234, 295 Wang, Zheng, 240 Xuexi zazhi (Study Magazine), 60 Wangfujing, 32, 79, 173, 175, 219 Wangfujing Department Store, 174 Yang Kuisong, 252, 263 Wei Baoxian, 110 Yang Yaojian, 188 Wemheuer, Felix, 265, 301 Yangcheng brand watches, 38 Wenhuibao, 121, 123 Yao Xiaoping, 211, 215 window displays, 139–44, 164, 175, 184, 237 Ye Qun, 190, 219, 320 Wolff, Richard D., 257 Yong’an Department Store, 63, 136, 137–9, Women’s Day, 90, 118 176, 298 work units. See institutional arrangements of Yu Guangyuan, 60 capitalism: work units Yudin, Pavel, 50 wristwatches, 14–17, See also Three Great Things Yue Daiyun, 186, 187 and frugality, 157 Yugoslavia, 113, 238, 287 and global standardization of time, 14 as proxy for Soviet Union, 281 and identity, 26, 28, 88, 194, 318, 319 and industrial labor, 243 Zhang Huihu, 37 and industrialization, 15 Zhang Quanqing, 87 and military, 243 Zhang Xiaoquan Scissors Factory, 175 and revenue, 163 Zhao Lianhui, 150 and trains, 243 Zhao Yuan, 189 application values, 14 Zhejiang, 248, 297 as stores of value, 166, 187, 191 Zhongshan brand watches, 25, 40 as trophies, 189, 194 Zhou Enlai collecting, 192 and service work, 166 expanding production of, 17 and Soviet model, 92 ﬁrst domestic brands, 15–16 criticism of badge fad, 224, 333 for women, 15, 29 in badge fad, 202, 226 imports of, 15 in Three/Five-Antis campaign, 59 in Cultural Revolution, 187, 311 protects cultural sites, 195 manifestation global competition, 14 visits Tianqiao, 158 state control of imports, 15 Zhou, Kate, 266 Wu Lao, 142 Zhou, Peter, 220 Wu Xiuzhen, 91 Zhouhuchen brand calligraphy brushes, 180 Wu, Yiching, 311 Zhu Dake, 86 Wu Yunchu, 64, 259 Zhu De, 202 Wuhan, 79, 141, 142, 153, 178, 206, 215, 220, 241 Zhu Zhongyu, 134