For other types of hybrid transportation, see Hybrid ve- • Solar hicle (disambiguation). • “Hybrid technology” redirects here. For the company for- Wind merly known as Hybrid Technologies, see Li-ion Motors. A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more 2 Vehicle type

Toyota Prius, a hybrid marketed worldwide distinct power sources to move the vehicle; for exam- ple, a conventional internal combustion engine and also a high voltage .[1] The term most commonly A hybrid bus in Montreal refers to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine an internal combustion engine and one or more electric motors. However, other mechanisms to capture and use energy may also be included, such as diesel-electric 2.1 Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles which are powered by both and electric mo- tor and submarines that use diesel engines to power the Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters rotors and also to charge batteries that power the craft are a simple form of a hybrid, as power is delivered both when submerged. via an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider’s muscles. Early prototypes of in the late 19th century used the same principles to power it 1 Power up.

• In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor Power sources for hybrid vehicles include: power are mechanically coupled at the pedal drive or at the rear or the front wheel, e.g. using a • Coal, wood or other solid combustibles hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or a connec- • Compressed or liquefied natural gas tion to a wheel using a element. Hu- man and motor torques are added together. Almost • Electricity all manufactured Motorized bicycles, Mopeds are of this type.[2] • Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves • In a series hybrid bicycle (SH) the user powers a • battery generator using the pedals. This is converted into • Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing electricity and can be fed directly to the motor giv- ing a chainless bicycle but also to charge a battery. • Hydrogen The motor draws power from the battery and must • On-board or out-board rechargeable energy storage be able to deliver the full mechanical torque required system (RESS) because none is available from the pedals. SH bi- cycles are commercially available, because they are • Petrol or very simple in theory and manufacturing.[3]

1 2 2 VEHICLE TYPE

The first known prototype and publication of an SH bicy- cle is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite[4] SH lightweight vehicle which used power electronics al- lowing regenerative braking and pedaling while station- ary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed a “Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb” in his 1995 diploma thesis and built a functional vehicle. In 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SH bicycle and in 1998 mounted the system onto a Leitra tricycle (European patent EP 1165188). In 1999 Harald Kutzke described his concept of the “active bicy- cle": the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation. Until 2005 Fuchs and colleagues built several prototype Bus Rapid Transit of Metz, a diesel-electric hybrid driving system SH tricycles and quadricycles.[5] by Van Hool[7]

• In a series hybrid electric-petroleum bicycle (SHEPB) an is fitted with a power lost in the double conversion from typically diesel very-small electric generator that is powered by fuel to electricity to power an electric or hydraulic mo- petroleum. This form of hybrid includes power in- tor. With large vehicles the advantages often outweigh put from the pedals and the electric drive motor, the disadvantages especially as the conversion losses typ- which is powered by batteries, however the battery ically decrease with size. With the exception of non- charge level is maintained by a generator, providing nuclear submarines, presently there is no or relatively lit- range enhancements over electric-only bicycles and tle secondary energy storage capacity on most heavy ve- allowing the bike to operate without needing to be hicles, e.g. auxiliary batteries and hydraulic accumula- plugged in, although the batteries can also facilitate tors—although this is now changing. Submarines are one a plug-in charger. of the oldest widespread applications of hybrid technol- ogy, running on diesel engines while surfaced and switch- The first known prototype of a fully functional SHEPB ing to battery power when submerged. Both series-hybrid bicycle was developed and demonstrated by David Kit- and parallel hybrid drivetrains were used in the Second son in Australia[6] in 2014, who overcame the weight World War. problems associated with small generators by combin- ing a lightweight Brushless DC electric motor from an aerial drone and small hand-tool sized internal combus- 2.2.1 Rail tion engine with a drive system and lightweight hous- ing created through 3d printing. The system used high- Main article: volume forced-airflow cooling to maintain operating tem- Europe peratures below the softening point of the plastic, lead- ing to an overall-weight of less than 4.5 kg. The system plugged directly into the charge port of a normal paral- lel hybrid electric-bicycle and monitored charge load and voltage, forming a feedback loop and adjusting power output to maintain the charge level on the batteries under load. This allowed for the bicycle to be powered by ped- als, stored electricity or petroleum-generated-electricity.

2.2 Heavy vehicles

Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway , buses, heavy goods vehi- cles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. Typically some form of heat engine (usually diesel) drives an elec- East Japan Railway Company HB-E300 series tric generator or hydraulic pump which powers one or more electric or hydraulic motors. There are advantages The new Autorail à grande capacité (AGC or high- in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than capacity ) built by the Canadian company mechanical elements especially when multiple drives— Bombardier for service in France. This has dual mode e.g. driven wheels or propellers—are required. There is (diesel and electric motors) and dual voltage capabilities 2.2 Heavy vehicles 3

(1500 and 25000 V) allowing it to be used on many tages that existing hybrid cars have for use with frequent different rail systems.[8] The has been on starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switch- trials in Rotterdam, the Netherlands with Railfeeding, a ing yard use.[12] “Green Goat” locomotives have been Genesse and Wyoming company. purchased by Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, China Kansas City Southern Railway, and Union Pacific Rail- The First Hybrid Evaluating prototype locomotive was road among others. designed and contracted by rail research center MATRAI in 1999 and the sample was ready in 2000. It was a 2.2.2 Cranes G12 locomotive that was converted to hybrid by using a 200KW diesel generator and batteries and also was engineers working with TSI Ter- equipped with 4 AC traction motors (out of 4) retrofitted minal Systems are testing a hybrid diesel electric power in the cover of the DC traction motors. unit with battery storage for use in Rubber Tyred Gantry Japan (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading The first operational prototype of a hybrid train engine and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks with significant energy storage and energy regeneration in ports and container storage yards. The energy used capability was introduced in Japan as the KiHa E200. It to lift the containers can be partially regained when they utilizes battery packs of lithium ion batteries mounted on are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 50– the roof to store recovered energy.[9] 70% are predicted by Railpower engineers.[13] First sys- [14] India tems are expected to be operational in 2007. Indian railway launched one of its kind CNG-Diesel hy- brid train in January 2015. The train have a 1400 hp en- 2.2.3 Road transport, commercial vehicles gine which uses fumigation technology.The first of these train is set to run on Rewari-Rohtak route which is 81 km long.[10] CNG is considered as a green alternative for diesel and petrol and is popular as an alternative fuel in India. North America In the US, introduced a prototype rail- road engine with their “Ecomagination” technology in 2007. They store energy in a large set of sodium nickel chloride (Na-NiCl2) batteries to capture and store en- ergy normally dissipated in or coasting downhill. They expect at least a 10% reduction in fuel use with this system and are now spending no more than $2 billion/yr on hybrid research.[11] Variants of the typical diesel include the Green Goat (GG) and Green Kid (GK) switching/yard 2008 GMC Yukon hybrid version engines built by Canada’s Railpower Technologies. They utilize a large set of heavy duty long life (~10 yr) Early hybrid systems are being investigated for trucks rechargeable lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000 to 2000 and other heavy highway vehicles with some operational HP electric motors as the primary motive sources and trucks and buses starting to come into use. The main a new clean burning diesel generator (~160 Hp) for obstacles seem to be smaller fleet sizes and the extra recharging the batteries that is used only as needed. No costs of a hybrid system are yet compensated for by fuel power or fuel are wasted for idling—typically 60–85% savings,[15] but with the price of oil set to continue on its of the time for these type locomotives. It is unclear if upward trend, the tipping point may be reached by the dynamic braking (regenerative) power is recaptured for end of 2015. Advances in technology and lowered bat- reuse; but in principle it should be easily utilized. tery cost and higher capacity etc. developed in the hybrid Since these engines typical need extra weight for trac- car industry are already filtering into truck use as Toy- tion purposes anyway the battery pack’s weight is a neg- ota, Ford, GM and others introduce hybrid pickups and ligible penalty. In addition the diesel generator and bat- SUVs. Truck Company recently introduced a tery package are normally built on an existing “retired” hybrid-, called the Kenworth T270 Class 6 “yard” locomotive’s frame for significant additional cost that for city usage seems to be competitive.[16][17] FedEx savings. The existing motors and running gear are all re- and others are starting to invest in hybrid delivery type built and reused. Diesel fuel savings of 40–60% and up vehicles—particularly for city use where hybrid technol- to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over that of a ogy may pay off first.[18] As of December 2013 FedEx is “typical” older switching/yard engine. The same advan- trialling two delivery trucks retrofitted with 4 3 ENGINE TYPE electric powertrains, with diesel powered generators; the retrofit kits are claimed to pay for themselves in a few years. The diesel engines run at a constant RPM to run at peak efficiency.[19]

2.2.4 Military off-road vehicles Hybrid Metrobus Since 1985, the US military has been testing serial hy- brid Humvees[20][21] and have found them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signature/ near silent operation, and greater fuel economy.

2.2.5 Ships

Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid vehicle. Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batteries when submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when the craft is on the surface. Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by companies such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and Hybrid Optare Solo steadier winds.

2.2.6 Aircraft hicles as the Saturn Vue, Toyota Prius, Toyota Yaris, The Boeing Demonstrator Airplane has a Pro- Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota ton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid, battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which RX 400h and 450h and others. A petroleum- is coupled to a conventional propeller. The fuel cell pro- electric hybrid most commonly uses internal combustion vides all power for the cruise phase of flight. During take- engines (using a variety of fuels, generally or off and climb, the flight segment that requires the most Diesel engines) and electric motors to power the vehicle. power, the system draws on lightweight lithium-ion bat- The energy is stored in the fuel of the internal combus- teries. tion engine and an set. There are many The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built types of petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full by Diamond Aircraft Industries of Austria, which also hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages [24] carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With and disadvantages. a wing span of 16.3 meters (53 feet), the airplane will be Henri Pieper in 1899 developed the world’s first petro- able to cruise at about 62 miles per hour (100 km/h) on electric hybrid automobile in 1900, Ferdinand Porsche power from the fuel cell.[22] developed a series-hybrid using two motor-in-wheel-hub Hybrid FanWings have been designed. A FanWing is cre- arrangements with an internal combustion generator set ated by two engines with the capability to autorotate and providing the electric power, setting two speed records. landing like a helicopter.[23] While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th century, the braking regenerative hybrid was in- vented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978–79. His home-converted 3 Engine type Opel GT was reported to return as much as 75MPG with plans still sold to this original design, and the “Mother 3.1 Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles Earth News” modified version on their website.[25] The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and Main article: more common. It has the range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers be plugged into house (mains) electricity for charging, as to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These encompass such ve- well being charged while the engine is running. 3.4 Fluid power hybrid 5

3.2 Continuously outboard recharged elec- depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In tric vehicle (COREV) principle, this could be combined with a battery sub- system to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, al- Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, though as of 2006, no such design seems to have BEVs can be recharged while the user drives. The BEV been announced. establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or over- • Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input head wires on the highway via an attached conducting fuels mixed in one tank — typically gasoline and wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current , or methanol, or biobutanol. collection). The BEV’s batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can then be used nor- • Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural mally on other roads until the battery is discharged. gas are very different from petroleum or diesel and Some of battery-electric locomotives used for mainte- cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be nance trains on the London Underground are capable impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel of this mode of operation. Power is picked up from system. Instead vehicles are built with two, par- the electtrified rails where possible, switching to battery allel, fuel systems feeding one engine. For exam- power where the electricity supply is disconnected. ple, Chevys Silverado 2500 HD, which is now on This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually un- the road, can effortlessly switch between petroleum restricted highway range as long as you stay where you and natural gas, and offers a range of over 650 [26] have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations miles. While the duplicated tanks cost space in are within 100 km of a major highway, this may reduce some applications, the increased range, decreased the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately cost of fuel and flexibility where (LPG or NG) in- private use of the existing electrical system is nearly uni- frastructure is incomplete may be a significant in- versally prohibited. centive to purchase. While the US Natural gas in- frastructure is partially incomplete, it is increasing The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old at a fast pace, and already has 2600 CNG stations and, outside of some cities, is not widely distributed (see in place.[27] With a growing fueling station infras- Conduit current collection, , electric rail, trolleys, tructure, a large scale adoption of these bi-fuel ve- third rail). Updating the required electrical and infras- hicles could be seen in the near future. Rising gas tructure costs can be funded, in principle, by toll revenue, prices may also push consumers to purchase these gasoline or other taxes. vehicles. When gas prices trade around $4.00, the price per MMBTU of gasoline is $28.00, compared [28] 3.3 Hybrid fuel (dual mode) to natural gas’s $4.00 per MMBTU. On a per unit of energy comparative basis, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline. All of these factors are making CNG-Gasoline bi-fuel vehicles very attrac- tive.

• Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars modified to run on (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.

• Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also included (see ). Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid with a flexible fuel capability to run on (ethanol) 3.4 Fluid power hybrid In addition to vehicles that use two or more different de- vices for propulsion, some also consider vehicles that use See also: distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the Hydraulic hybrid and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion engine to charge a pressure accumulator to drive the with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the wheels via hydraulic (liquid) or pneumatic (compressed terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual air) drive units. In most cases the engine is detached mode vehicles: from the drivetrain, serving solely to charge the energy accumulator. The transmission is seamless. Regenera- • Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on tive breaking can be used to recover some of the supplied board diesel engine and overhead electrical power drive energy back into the accumulator. 6 3 ENGINE TYPE

Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic cutaway

Chrysler minivan, petro-hydraulic hybrid Petro-hydraulic configurations have been common in trains and heavy vehicles for decades. The auto indus- try recently focused on this hybrid configuration as it now shows promise for introduction into smaller vehicles. In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the rate is high and therefore the system is more efficient than elec- tric battery charged hybrids using the current electric bat- tery technology, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy economy in US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) testing.[33] The charging engine needs only to be sized for average usage with acceleration bursts using the stored energy in the hydraulic accumulator, which is charged when in low energy demanding vehicle op- eration. The charging engine runs at optimum speed and load for efficiency and longevity. Under tests un- dertaken by the US Environmental Protection Agency French MDI petro-air hybrid car developed with Tata (EPA), a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-ᵢ) City, and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-ᵢ) 3.4.1 Petro-air hybrid highway.[34][35] UPS currently has two trucks in service using this technology.[36] A French company, MDI, has designed and has run- Although petro-hydraulic hybrid technology has been ning models of a petro-air hybrid engine car. The sys- known for decades, and used in trains and very large con- tem does not use air motors to drive the vehicle, being struction vehicles, high costs of the equipment precluded directly driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a the systems from lighter trucks and cars. In the modern mixture of compressed air and gasoline injected into the [29] sense an experiment proved the viability of small petro- cylinders. A key aspect of the hybrid engine is the “ac- hydraulic hybrid road vehicles in 1978. A group of stu- tive chamber”, which is a compartment heating air via [30] dents at Minneapolis, Minnesota’s Hennepin Vocational fuel doubling the energy output. of In- Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle car to dia assessed the design phase towards full production for run as a petro-hydraulic hybrid using off-the shelf com- the Indian market and moved into “completing detailed ponents. A car rated at 32mpg was returning 75mpg with development of the compressed air engine into specific [31][32] the 60HP engine replaced by a 16HP engine. The exper- vehicle and stationary applications”. imental car reached 70 mph.[37] In the 1990s, a team of engineers working at EPA’s Na- 3.4.2 Petro-hydraulic hybrid tional Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory succeeded in developing a revolutionary type of petro-hydraulic hy- brid powertrain that would propel a typical American sedan car. The test car achieved over 80 mpg on com- bined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used.The EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only $700 to the base cost of the vehicle.[35] The petro-hydraulic hybrid system has faster and more 2008 HYbrid air/hydraulic concept car efficient charge/discharge cycling than petro-electric hy- 3.5 Electric-human power hybrid vehicle 7 brids and is also cheaper to build. The accumulator vessel petro-hydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in large size dictates total energy storage capacity and may require passenger cars. In 2012 an existing production min- more space than an electric battery set. Any vehicle space van was adapted to the new hydraulic powertrain for consumed by a larger size of accumulator vessel may be assessment.[35][44][45][46] offset by the need for a smaller sized charging engine, in PSA Peugeot Citroën exhibited an experimental “Hybrid HP and physical size. Air” engine at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show.[47] The ve- Research is underway in large corporations and small hicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by energy harvested companies. Focus has now switched to smaller vehi- from braking or deceleration to power a hydraulic drive cles. The system components were expensive which pre- which supplements power from its conventional gasoline cluded installation in smaller trucks and cars. A draw- engine. The hydraulic and electronic components were back was that the power driving motors were not effi- supplied by Robert Bosch GmbH. Mileage was estimated cient enough at part load. A British company (Artemis to be about 118 mpg on the Euro test cycle if installed in Intelligent Power) made a breakthrough introducing an a Citroën C3 type of body.[48][49] PSA Although the car electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump, the Dig- was ready for production and was proven and feasible de- ital Displacement® motor/pump. The pump is highly livering the claimed results, Peugeot Citroën were unable efficient at all speed ranges and loads, giving feasibility to attract a major manufacturer to share the high develop- to small applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids.[38] The ment costs and are shelving the project until a partnership company converted a BMW car as a test bed to prove can be arranged.[50] viability. The BMW 530i, gave double the mpg in city driving compared to the standard car. This test was us- ing the standard 3,000cc engine, with a smaller engine 3.5 Electric-human power hybrid vehicle the figures would have been more impressive. The design of petro-hydraulic hybrids using well sized accumulators Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric allows downsizing an engine to average power usage, not vehicles. These include such vehicles as the Sinclair C5, peak power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy Twike, electric bicycles, and electric skateboards. stored in the accumulator. A smaller more efficient con- stant speed engine reduces weight and liberates space for a larger accumulator.[39] 4 Hybrid vehicle power train con- Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechan- figurations icals of existing engine/transmission setups. It is restric- tive and far from ideal to install petro-hydraulic mechan- icals into existing bodies not designed for hydraulic se- Main articles: Hybrid vehicle drivetrains and Micro HEV tups. One research project’s goal is to create a blank pa- per design new car, to maximize the packaging of petro- hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle. All bulky 4.1 Parallel hybrid hydraulic components are integrated into the chassis of the car. One design has claimed to return 130mpg in tests by using a large hydraulic accumulator which is also the structural chassis of the car. The small hydraulic driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs driving the wheels and reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The hub motors eliminates the need for friction brakes, mechanical transmissions, drive shafts and U joints, re- ducing costs and weight. Hydrostatic drive with no fric- tion brakes are used in industrial vehicles.[40] The aim is 170mpg in average driving conditions. Energy created by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that normally would be wasted assists in charging the accumulator. A small fossil fuelled piston engine sized for average power use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized at Honda Insight, Mild Parallel Hybrid running the car for 15 minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully charged accumulator which will produce a In a parallel hybrid vehicle, the single electric motor and 0-60 mph acceleration speed of under 5 seconds using the internal combustion engine are installed such that they four wheel drive.[41][42][43] can power the vehicle either individually or together. In contrast to the power split configuration typically only one In January 2011 industry giant announced electric motor is installed. Most commonly the internal a partnership with the US Environmental Protection combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are Agency (EPA) to design and develop an experimental coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric 8 4 HYBRID VEHICLE POWER TRAIN CONFIGURATIONS

In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: an electric motor and an internal combustion en- gine. The power from these two motors can be shared to drive the wheels via a power splitter, which is a sim- ple planetary gear set. The ratio can be from 100% for the combustion engine to 100% for the electric motor, or anything in between, such as 40% for the electric mo- tor and 60% for the combustion engine. The combustion engine can act as a generator charging the batteries. Modern versions such as the Toyota have a second electric motor/generator on the out- put shaft (connected to the wheels). In cooperation Toyota Prius, series-parallel hybrid with the “primary” motor/generator and the mechanical power-split this provides a continuously variable trans- mission. On the open road, the primary power source is the in- ternal combustion engine. When maximum power is re- quired, for example to overtake, the electric motor is used to assist. This increases the available power for a short period, giving the effect of having a larger engine than actually installed. In most applications, the combustion engine is switched off when the car is slow or stationary reducing curbside emissions.

4.4 Series hybrid

Ford Escape Hybrid, a series-parallel drivetrain

driving the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at the same speed. The first mass production parallel hybrid sold outside Japan was the 1st generation Honda Insight.

4.2 Mild parallel hybrid

These types use a generally compact electric motor (usu- Volt, a parallel-series hybrid plug-in hybrid, also called ally <20 kW) to provide auto-stop/start features and to extended range electric vehicle (EREV). provide extra power assist[51] during the acceleration, and to generate on the deceleration phase (aka regenerative A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle is driven by an elec- braking). tric motor, functioning as an electric vehicle while the On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda battery pack energy supply is sufficient, with an engine Insight 2nd generation, Honda CR-Z, Honda Accord tuned for running as a generator when the battery pack is Hybrid, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID, BMW 7- insufficient. There is no mechanical connection between Series hybrids, BAS Hybrids, and Smart the engine and the wheels, and the purpose of the range fortwo with micro hybrid drive. extender is to charge the battery. Unless there has been a rework of the drivetrain since its first release there is a mechanical linkage in the Chevy Volt.[52] Series-hybrids 4.3 Power-split or series-parallel hybrid have also been referred to as extended range electric ve- hicle, range-extended electric vehicle, or electric vehicle- Passenger car installations include Toyota Prius, Ford Es- extended range (EREV/REEV/EVER); though range ex- cape and Fusion, as well as Lexus RX400h, RX450h, tension can be accomplished with parallel hybrid layouts. GS450h, LS600h, and CT200h. The BMW i3 with Range Extender is a production series- 4.6 Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians 9

hybrid. It operates as an Electric Vehicle until the battery charge is low, and then activates the generator to maintain power, and is also available without the range extender. The Fisker Karma was the first series hybrid production vehicle. When describing cars, the battery of a series hybrid is usually charged by being plugged in - but technically a series-hybrid allows for a battery to only act as a buffer (and for regeneration purposes), and for the electric mo- tor’s power to be supplied constantly by the supporting en- gine. Series arrangements have been common in diesel- electric locomotives and ships. Ferdinand Porsche effec- tively invented this arrangement in racing cars in the early The Ford Fusion Energi is a plug-in hybrid with an all-electric 20th century, with Porsche naming the arrangement “Sys- range of 21 mi (34 km). tem Mixt” - a wheel hub motor arrangement, with a mo- tor in each of the two front wheels was used, setting speed records. This arrangement was sometimes referred to as tery size and its mechanical layout (series or parallel). It an electric transmission, as the electric generator and driv- may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of ing motor replaced a mechanical transmission. The vehi- the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal [56][57] cle could not move unless the internal combustion engine combustion engine. was running. This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in on-road emissions by avoiding – or at least minimizing – Japan.[53] GM introduced the Chevy Volt series plug-in the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure elec- hybrid in 2010, aiming for an all-electric range of 40 mi tric vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in (64 km),[54] though this car also has a mechanical connec- CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the tion between the engine and drivetrain. electricity generating company. combined with a lithium ion battery bank have been used For some users, this type of vehicle may also be finan- by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn Vue SUV vehi- cially attractive so long as the electrical energy being cle. Using supercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would [55] series-hybrid arrangement. have otherwise used. Current tax systems in many Eu- ropean countries use mineral oil taxation as a major in- come source. This is generally not the case for electricity, 4.5 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer, how- ever that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak night users, which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists.

4.6 Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians

The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid has an all-electric range of 11 mi (18 km).

Main article: Plug-in hybrid See also: Plug-in electric vehicle

Another subtype of hybrid vehicles is the plug-in hy- brid electric vehicle (PHEV). The plug-in hybrid is usu- The 2011 Leaf was the first plug-in electric car equipped ally a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with Nissan's Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians. with increased energy storage capacity, usually through a lithium-ion battery, which allows the vehicle to drive Main article: Electric vehicle warning sounds on all-electric mode a distance that depends on the bat- 10 5 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by con- report examined hybrid electric vehicle accidents that in- verting some of its kinetic energy into electric- volved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to ity, depending upon the power rating of the mo- accidents involving internal combustion engine vehicles tor/generator; (ICEV). The findings showed that, in certain road situ- ations, HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, bicycle. For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or but that are frequently found on hybrid vehicles include: stopping, backing up, entering or leaving a parking space (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is 1. Using Atkinson cycle engines instead of Otto cycle most pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be in- engines for improved fuel economy. volved in a pedestrian crash than ICEVs. For crashes in- volving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher incident 2. Shutting down the engine during traffic stops or rate for HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a while coasting or during other idle periods. corner. But there was no statistically significant differ- ence between the types of vehicles when they were driv- 3. Improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that ing straight.[58] SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more Several automakers developed electric vehicle warning force to move through the air causing more stress sounds designed to alert pedestrians to the presence of on the engine making it work harder). Improving electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicle, the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles to help better the fuel economy and also improve (EVs) travelling at low speeds. Their purpose is to vehicle handling at the same time. make pedestrians, cyclists, the blind, and others aware of the vehicle’s presence while operating in all-electric 4. Using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often [59][60][61][62] mode. made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high grip, etc., Vehicles in the market with such safety devices in- but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause me- clude the Nissan Leaf, , Fisker Karma, chanical drag, once again making the engine work Honda FCX Clarity, Nissan Fuga Hybrid/Infiniti M35, harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may Hyundai ix35 FCEV, Hyundai Sonata Hybrid, 2012 use special tires that are more inflated than regu- Honda Fit EV, the 2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid, 2012 lar tires and stiffer or by choice of carcass structure Lexus CT200h, and all Prius family cars recently intro- and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance duced, including the standard 2012 model year Prius, the while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving Toyota Prius v, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid. fuel economy whatever the power source. 5. Powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxil- iary pumps electrically as and when needed; this re- 5 Environmental issues duces mechanical losses when compared with driv- ing them continuously with traditional engine belts. 5.1 Fuel consumption and emissions re- ductions These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly effi- cient for city traffic where there are frequent stops, coast- The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel econ- ing and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are omy and lower emissions than conventional internal com- reduced, particularly at idling and low operating speeds, bustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emis- in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For con- sions being generated. These savings are primarily tinuous high speed highway use these features are much achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design: less useful in reducing emissions.

1. Relying on both the engine and the electric motors 5.2 Hybrid vehicle emissions for peak power needs, resulting in a smaller engine size more for average usage rather than peak power Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or usage. A smaller engine can have less internal losses even lower than the recommended level set by the EPA and lower weight. (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended 2. Having significant battery storage capacity to store levels they suggest for a typical passenger vehicle should and reuse recaptured energy, especially in stop-and- be equated to 5.5 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The go traffic typical of the city driving cycle. three most popular hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even higher 3. Recapturing significant amounts of energy during by producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major im- braking that are normally wasted as heat. This provement in carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid vehicles 5.4 Charging 11 can reduce air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by 5.4 Charging up to 90% and cut carbon dioxide emissions in half.[63] The optimum charging window for Lithium ion batter- More fossil fuel is needed to build hybrid vehicles than ies is 3-4.2 V. Recharging with a 120 volt household a conventional cars but reduced emissions when running outlet takes several hours, a 240 volt charger takes 1–4 the vehicle more than outweigh this.[64] hours, and a quick charge takes approximately 30 min- utes to achieve 80% charge. 3 important factors-distance on charge, cost of charging, and time to charge [72] In or- der for the hybrid to run on electrical power, the car must 5.3 Environmental impact of hybrid car perform the action of braking in order to generate some battery electricity. The electricity then gets discharged most ef- fectively when the car accelerates or climbs up an incline. Main article: In 2014, hybrid electric car batteries can run on solely electricity for 70–130 miles on a single charge. Hybrid battery capacity currently ranges from 4.4 kwh to 85 kwh Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional on a fully electric car. On a hybrid car, the battery packs cars, there is still an issue regarding the environmental currently range from 0.6 kwh to 2.4 kwh representing a damage of the hybrid car battery. Today most hybrid car large difference in use of electricity in hybrid cars.[73] batteries are one of two types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or 2) lithium ion; both are regarded as more environmen- tally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute 5.5 Raw materials increasing costs the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today. There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than There is an impending increase in the costs of many others. Lithium ion is the least toxic of the two men- rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid cars.[74] tioned above.[65] For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is re- quired to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel [74][75] metal hydride batteries—the type currently used in and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems. hybrids—are much lower than batteries like lead acid Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is a cru- [66] cial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in or nickel cadmium according to one source. Another [76] source claims nickel metal hydride batteries are much permanent magnet electric motors. more toxic than lead batteries, also that recycling them Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from and disposing of them safely is difficult.[67] In general China,[77] and many analysts believe that an overall in- various soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as crease in Chinese electronics manufacturing will con- nickel chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcino- sume this entire supply by 2012.[74] In addition, export genic effects in chick embryos and rats.[68][69][70] The quotas on Chinese rare earth elements have resulted in an main nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxy- unknown amount of supply.[75][78] hydroxide (NiOOH), which is used as the positive elec- A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas trode. Lake project in northern Canada as well as Mount Weld in The lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its Australia are currently under development;[78] however, potential for use in hybrid electric vehicles. is a the barriers to entry are high[79] and require years to go leader in its development. In addition to its smaller size online. and lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver perfor- mance that helps to protect the environment with features such as improved charge efficiency without memory ef- 6 How hybrid-electric vehicles fect. The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest of any rechargeable bat- work teries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of nickel–metal hydride battery cell while simul- Hybrids-Electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the advantage taneously storing large quantities of electricity as well. of gasoline engines and electric motors. The key areas for The batteries also produce higher output (boosting ve- efficiency or performance gains are regenerative braking, hicle power), higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of dual power sources, and less idling.[80] electricity), and provides excellent durability, compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to • Regenerate Braking. The drivetrain can be used the life of the vehicle. Additionally, use of lithium-ion to convert kinetic energy (from the moving car) into batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and stored electrical energy (batteries). The same elec- also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than tric motor that powers the drivetrain is used to re- petro-powered vehicles with a consequent reduction in sist the motion of the drivetrain. This applied re- [71] CO2 emissions helping to prevent global warming. sistance from the electric motor causes the wheel to 12 10 ADOPTION RATE

slow down and simultaneously recharge the batter- gallons per day — a tiny fraction of the 360 million gal- ies. lons used per day. According to Bradley Berman au- thor of Driving Change—One Hybrid at a time, “Cold • Dual Power. Power cancome from from either the economics shows that in real dollars, except for a brief engine, motor or both depending on driving circum- spike in the 1970s, gas prices have remained remarkably stances. Additional power to assist the engine in steady and cheap. Fuel continues to represent a small accelerating or climbing might be provided by the part of the overall cost of owning and operating a per- electric motor. Or more commonly, a smaller elec- sonal vehicle”.[82] Other marketing tactics include green- tric motor provides all of the power for low-speed washing which is the “unjustified appropriation of envi- driving conditions and is augmented by the engine ronmental virtue.”[83] Temma Ehrenfeld explained in an at higher speeds. article by Newsweek. Hybrids may be more efficient than many other gasoline motors as far as gasoline consump- • Automatic Start/Shutoff. It automatically shuts tion is concerned but as far as being green and good for off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop and the environment is completely inaccurate. Hybrid car restarts it when the accelerator is pressed down. This companies have a long time to go if they expect to re- automation is much simpler with an electric motor. ally go green. According to Harvard business professor Also see dual power above. Theodore Levitt states “managing products” and “meet- ing customers’ needs”, “you must adapt to consumer ex- pectations and anticipation of future desires.”[84] This 7 Alternative green vehicles means people buy what they want, if they want a fuel ef- ficient car they buy a Hybrid without thinking about the actual efficiency of the product. This “Green Myopia” Main article: § Types as Ottman calls it, fails because marketers focus on the greenness of the product and not on the actual effective- Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that ness. Researchers and analysts say people are drawn to go fully or partly on alternative energy sources than fossil the new technology, as well as the convenience of fewer fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition fill ups. Secondly, people find it rewarding to own the bet- (i.e. ) in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, ter, newer, flashier, and so called greener car. In the be- making them go partly on sources. ginning of the Hybrid movement car companies reached Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public out to the young people, by using top celebrities, astro- transportation concept that offers automated on-demand nauts, and popular TV shows to market Hybrids. This non-stop transportation, on a network of specially built made the new technology of Hybrids a status to obtain guideways. for many people and a must to be cool or even the practi- cal choice for the time. With the many benefits and status of owning a Hybrid it is easy to think it’s the right thing 8 Peugeot/Citroën Hybrid Vehicle to do, but in fact may not be as green as it appears.

Peugeot and Citroën have announced that they too are building a car that uses compressed air as an energy 10 Adoption rate source. However, the car they are designing uses a hy- brid system which also uses a gasoline engine (which is While the adoption rate for hybrids in the US is small to- used for propelling the car over 70 km/h, or when the day (2.2% of new car sales in 2011),[85] this compares compressed air tank has been depleted.[81] with a 17.1% share of new car sales in Japan in 2011,[86] and it has the potential to be very large over time as more models are offered and incremental costs decline 9 Marketing due to learning and scale benefits. However, forecasts vary widely. For instance, Bob Lutz, a long-time skeptic of hybrids, indicated he expects hybrids “will never com- Automakers spend around $US8 million in marketing [87] Hybrid vehicles each year. With combined effort from prise more than 10% of the US auto market.” Other sources also expect hybrid penetration rates in the US will many car companies, the Hybrid industry has sold mil- [88][89][90] lions of Hybrids. Hybrid car companies like Toyota, remain under 10% for many years. Honda, Ford and BMW have pulled together to create a More optimistic views include predictions that hybrids movement of Hybrid vehicle sales pushed by Washington would dominate new car sales in the US and elsewhere lobbyist to lower the worlds emissions and become less re- over the next 10 to 20 years.[91] Another approach, taken liant on our petroleum consumption. In 2005, sales went by Saurin Shah, examines the penetration rates (or S- beyond 200,000 Hybrids, but in retrospect that only re- curves) of four analogs (historical and current) to hybrid duced the global use for gasoline consumption by 200,000 and electrical vehicles in an attempt to gauge how quickly 13 the vehicle stock could be hybridized and/or electrified in • Global Hybrid Cooperation the United States. The analogs are (1) the electric mo- • tors in US factories in the early 20th century, (2) diesel Global warming electric locomotives on US railways in the 1920–1945 pe- • Human-electric hybrid vehicle riod, (3) a range of new automotive features/technologies introduced in the US over the past fifty years, and 4) e- • Hybrid electric vehicle bike purchases in China over the past few years. These • Hybrid locomotive analogs collectively suggest it would take at least 30 years for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of the US • Hybrid vehicle drivetrain passenger vehicle stock. [92] • List of hybrid vehicles • stove 11 European Union 2020 Regula- • Plug-in hybrid tion Standards • PNGV The European Parliament, Council and European Com- • Solid oxide fuel cell mission has reached an agreement which is aimed at re- ducing the average CO2 passenger car emissions to 95 g/km by 2020, according to a European Commission 13 References press release. According to the release, the key details of the agreement [1] “What is a Hybrid Vehicle?". What-is-what.com. Re- are as follows: trieved 2013-04-22. Emissions target: The agreement will reduce average [2] Das Power bike (in German). ISBN 3-89595-123-4. Re- CO2 emissions from new cars to 95 g/km from 2020, as trieved February 27, 2007. proposed by the Commission. This is a 40% reduction [3] Velomobile Seminar. 1999. ISBN 3-9520694-1-8. Re- from the mandatory 2015 target of 130 g/km. The target trieved January 11, 2006. is an average for each manufacturer’s new car fleet; it al- lows OEMs to build some vehicles that emit less than the [4] “Greetings Ecological Transportation Futurist”. average and some that emit more. 2025 target: The Com- MCN.org. Archived from the original on 10 November mission is required to propose a further emissions reduc- 2005. Retrieved 30 April 2013. tion target by end-2015 to take effect in 2025. This tar- [5] “Welcome to the electronic cycle site”. bluewin.ch. Re- get will be in line with the EU’s long-term climate goals. trieved 2013-04-22. Supercredits for low-emission vehicles: The Regulation will give manufacturers additional incentives to produce [6] “Australian man builds the first ever hybrid petrol/electric cars with CO2 emissions of 50 g/km or less (which will bicycle using UP Mini 3D printer”. be electric or plug-in hybrid cars). Each of these ve- [7] “Van Hool presents the ExquiCity Design Mettis”. Re- hicles will be counted as two vehicles in 2020, 1.67 in trieved 5 June 2012. 2021, 1.33 in 2022 and then as one vehicle from 2023 onwards. These supercredits will help manufacturers fur- [8] “The World’s First Hybrid Train Officially Enters Com- ther reduce the average emissions of their new car fleet. mercial Service”. ENN.com. 2007-10-24. Retrieved However, to prevent the scheme from undermining the 2012-01-13. environmental integrity of the legislation, there will be a [9] “Japan to launch first hybrid trains”. The Sydney Morning 2.5 g/km cap per manufacturer on the contribution that Herald. AP digital. 2007-07-29. Retrieved 2013-04-30. supercredits can make to their target in any year.[93] [10] “CNG-Diesel train launch in India”. Times of India. 2015-01-15. Retrieved 2015-04-22. 12 See also [11] Shabna, John (2007-10-25). “GE’s Hybrid Locomotive: Around The World on Brakes”. Ecotality Life. Archived from the original on May 20, 2012. • Alternative propulsion [12] RailPower Technologies (2006-07-12). “GG Series: Hy- • Bivalent (engine) brid Yard ” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2009. • Diesel-electric [13] “RailPower To Supply TSI Terminal Systems Inc. with • Efficient energy use hybrid power plants for rubber tyred gantry cranes” (PDF) (Press release). 2006-10-10. Archived from the original • Electric vehicle (PDF) on 2008-02-28. 14 13 REFERENCES

[14] “Railpower to supply TSI Terminal Systems Inc. with hy- [32] “Tata Motors enters second phase of air-car develop- brid power plants for rubber tyred gantry cranes” (Press ment”. Gizmag.com. 2013-05-07. Retrieved 2013-04- release). RailPower Technologies Corp. 2006-10-10. 22.

[15] Brown, Matthew.But Daniel thinks “Energy debate heats [33] EPA Announces Partnership to Demonstrate World’s First up: the high gas prices of last summer fueled the en- Full Hydraulic Hybrid Urban Delivery Vehicle | Modeling, ergy debate that continues today.” State Legislatures 32.2 Testing, and Research | US EPA. Epa.gov. Retrieved on (Feb 2006): 12(5). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale. 2012-04-18. Archived August 9, 2011 at the Wayback Bentley Upper School Library (BAISL). 14 October 2009 Machine Galegroup.co [34] Capturing the power of hydraulics. AutoblogGreen. Re- [16] Thomas, Justin (2007-03-27). “Hybrid Truck Unveiled trieved on 2012-04-18. by Kenworth”. TreeHugger. [35] “Demonstration Vehicles”. Epa.gov. 2012-10-18. Re- [17] “Kenworth Unveils T270 Class 6 Hybrid Truck Targeted trieved 2013-04-22. at Municipal, Utility Applications” (Press release). Ken- [36] EPA unveils hydraulic hybrid UPS delivery truck. Auto- worth Truck Company. 2007-03-21. Archived from the blog. Retrieved on 2012-04-18. original on 2009-03-01. [37] “Try a Hydraulic Drive Train: This Car of the Future [18] Hetzner, Christian (2007-11-12), Hard sell for hybrid Gets 75 MPG”. Mother Earth News. March–April 1978. trucks, Reuters Archived from the original on October 25, 2012. Re- trieved 2013-04-22. [19] Golson, Jordan (30 September 2014). “FedEx’s New Electric Trucks Get a Boost From Diesel Turbines”. [38] Wired. Condé Nast. Retrieved 1 October 2014. [39] “On-road”. Retrieved 30 May 2015. [20] Komarow, Steven (2006-02-13). “Military hybrid vehi- cles could boost safety, mobility”. USA Today. [40] mmh.com (2011-08-01). “Lift Trucks: 15 ways the lift truck is evolving - Article from Modern Materials Han- [21] “Hybrid Electric HMMWV”. GlobalSecurity.Org. Re- dling”. Modern Materials Handling. Retrieved 2013-04- trieved 2008-11-17. 22.

[22] “Manned airplane powered by fuel cell makes flight tests. [41] Proefrock, Philip (2010-03-25). “Hybrid Hydraulic Drive (METALS/POLYMERS/CERAMICS).” Advanced Ma- Vehicle Promises 170 MPG”. Inhabitat. Retrieved 2013- terials & Processes. 165.6 (June 2007): 9(1). Ex- 04-22. panded Academic ASAP. Gale. Gale Document Number: A166034681 [42] Turpen, Aaron (2012-02-15). “INGOCAR from Valentin Tech shatters the way we think about cars”. Torque- [23] Namowitz, Dan. “AOPA ONLINE”. Thomas A. Horne. news.com. Retrieved 2013-04-22. Retrieved May 2011. [43] “Welcome”. Valentintechnologies.com. Retrieved 2013- [24] Fuel Saving Calculator Archived May 18, 2012 at the 04-22. Wayback Machine [44] Hanlon, Mike (2011-01-26). “Chrysler announces devel- [25] An amazin 75 – MPG hybrid electric car. Motherearth- opment of hydraulic hybrid technology for cars”. Giz- news.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-18. Archived October mag.com. Retrieved 2013-04-22. 17, 2013 at the Wayback Machine [45] “EPA and Chrysler to Take Latest Hybrid Technology from Lab to Street/Partnership to adapt fuel efficient tech- [26] “Bi-Fuel Silverado 2500HD Can Switch Between Gaso- nology” (Press release). Yosemite.epa.gov. 2011-01-19. line And Natural Gas”. Retrieved 31 March 2013. Retrieved 2013-04-22.

[27] “Alternative Fueling Station Counts by State”. Retrieved [46] “Hydraulic Hybrid Research”. US EPA. 2010-10-18. Re- 31 March 2013. trieved 2013-04-22.

[28] Halber, Deborah. “What is the energy of gasoline com- [47] Tim Lewis (March 23, 2013). “Peugeot’s Hybrid Air: pared to the same cost of other fuels in BTUs per dollar?". the car of the future that runs on air”. The Observer The Retrieved 31 March 2013. Guardian. Retrieved March 25, 2013.

[29] “Learn everything about the compressed air cars!". Air- [48] http://blog.caranddriver.com/ cars.tk. Retrieved 2013-04-30. a-pair-of--debuts-in-paris-one-prescient-and-possibly-good-for-118-mpg-one-practical/

[30] “MDI’s active chamber”. Thefuture.net.nz. Retrieved [49] Jolly, David (March 1, 2013). “Compressing Gas for a 2010-12-12. Cheaper, Simpler Hybrid”. The New York Times. Re- trieved March 2, 2013. [31] “MDI’s air engine technology tested on Tata Motors ve- hicles” (Press release). Tata Motors. 2012-05-07. Re- [50] http://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/ trieved 2013-04-22. psa-peugeot-citroen-seeks-partners-hybrid-air-tech 15

[51] “Honda IMA technology”. Honda Motor. Retrieved [70] Dunnick JK, et al. “Comparative carcinogenic effects of 2009-05-01. nickel subsulfide, nickel oxide, or nickel sulfate hexahy- drate chronic exposures in the lung.”. Retrieved 30 May [52] “Shocker”. Oct 11, 2010. 2015.

[53] “Toyota debuts power-hybrid bus | The Japan Times On- [71] Environmental Activities. (2009). Retrieved December line”. Search.japantimes.co.jp. 1997-08-22. Retrieved 01, 2009, from Lithium-ion battery for Hybrid Electric 2009-10-17. Vehicles: Hitachi.com

[54] Stossel, Sage (2008-05-06). “Electro-Shock Therapy – [72] “Plug-in Hybrids”. Retrieved 30 May 2015. The Atlantic (July/August 2008)". The Atlantic. Re- trieved 2009-10-17. [73] John Voelcker. “Electric-Car Battery Use: Already Higher Than Hybrids’ Total?". Green Car Reports. Re- [55] Afstrinity.com Archived December 29, 2008 at the trieved 30 May 2015. Wayback Machine [74] Cox, C (2008). “Rare earth innovation: the silent shift [56] California Cars Initiative. “All About Plug-In Hybrids to china”. Herndon, VA, USA: The Anchor House Inc. (PHEVs)". International Humanities Center. Retrieved Retrieved 2008-03-18./ 2013-05-01. [75] Nishiyama, George (8 November 2007), Interview: Japan [57] “Prius PHEV”. Electric Auto Association – Plug in Hy- urges China to ease rare metals supply, Reuters, retrieved brid Electric Vehicle. Retrieved 2012-01-14. 2013-04-30 [58] “Incidence of Pedestrian and Bicyclist Crashes by Hybrid [76] Choruscars.com. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2012-04-18. Electric Passenger Vehicles at Journalist’s Resource.org”.

[59] “TMC to Sell Approaching Vehicle Audible System for [77] Haxel, G; J. Hedrick; J. Orris (2002). “Rare earth el- 'Prius’". Toyota Motor Company News Release. 2010- ements critical resources for high technology” (PDF). 08-24. Retrieved 2010-08-25. USGS Fact Sheet: 087‐02 (Reston, VA, USA: United States Geological Survey). [60] American Council of the Blind Press Release (2010-12- 16). “Critical Pedestrian Safety Legislation Moves to [78] Lunn, J. (2006-10-03). “Great western minerals” (PDF). White House for President’s Signature”. PR Newswire. London. Retrieved 2013-04-30. Retrieved 2010-12-17. [79] Livergood, Reed CSIS.org [61] “S. 841 Pedestrian Safety Enhancement Act of 2010”. [80] “Hybrid Cars Technology Overviews”. www. Legislative Digest. 2010-12-15. Retrieved 2010-12-17. green-vehicles.com. Retrieved 2015-11-16. [62] Larry Dignan (2010-12-16). “Hybrid, electric vehicles to become louder for pedestrian safety”. SmartPlanet.com. [81] Marc Carter. “Peugeot Announces Plans to Release a Hy- Retrieved 2010-12-17. brid Car That Runs on Compressed Air by 2016”. Re- trieved 30 May 2015. [63] Garcia, J. (2008). Idaho Department of Environmental Quality. Retrieved November 22, 2009 from Air Qual- [82] Berman, Bradley. “Driving change--one hybrid at a time.” ity: Vehicle Emissions and Air Quality: Deq.state.id.us Business Perspectives Spring 2005: 30+. Academic One- Archived October 17, 2013 at the Wayback Machine File. Web. 25 Jan. 2014.

[64] Does hybrid car production waste offset hybrid benefits? [83] Ehrenfeld, Temma. “Green, or Greenwash? Newsweek 14 July 2008: 56. Academic OneFile. Web. 25 Jan. [65] Environmental impact of hybrid car battery. (2008). 2014. Retrieved December 09, 2009 from Hybridcars.com Archived October 17, 2013 at the Wayback Machine [84] Ottman, Jacquelyn A., Edwin R. Stafford, and Cathy L. Hartman. “Avoiding Green Marketing Myopia.” Envi- [66] Hybrid Cars. (2006). Retrieved December 9, 2009 from ronment 48.5 (2006): 22,36,2. ProQuest. Web. 25 Jan. Hybrid Battery Toxicity, Hybridcars.com 2014.

[67] How Do Hybrid Vehicles Impact the Environment? [85] Friday, Stephen On. (2012-04-06) IntegrityExports.com. IntegrityExports.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-18. [68] Gelani, S; M. Morano (1980). “Congenital abnor- malities in nickel poisoning in chick embryos” (PDF). [86] Tuesday, Stephen On. (2012-04-10) Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology IntegrityExports.com. IntegrityExports.com. Retrieved (Newark, NJ, USA: Springer New York) 9 (1): 17–22. on 2012-04-18. doi:10.1007/bf01055496. PMID 7369783. Retrieved 2008-12-09./ [87] Marketwatch.com. Marketwatch.com. Retrieved on 2012-04-18. [69] “Nickel carcinogenesis”. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis 533: 67–97. [88] Buss, Dale. (2010-09-12) WSJ.com. Online.wsj.com. doi:10.1016/j.mrfmmm.2003.08.021. Retrieved on 2012-04-18. 16 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

[89] Motorauthority.com. Motorauthority.com (2008-04-07). Retrieved on 2012-04-18.

[90] Credit-suisse.com. Emagazine.credit-suisse.com (2010- 07-23). Retrieved on 2012-04-18.

[91] AllianceBernstein, “The Emergence of Hybrid Vehi- cles: Ending Oil’s Stranglehold on Transportation and the Economy,” June 2006. Calcars.org

[92] Shah, Saurin D. (2009). “2 Electrification of Transport and Oil Displacement”. In Sandalow, David. Plug-In Electrical Vehicles: What Role for Washington. Brookings Institution. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. Retrieved 2011- 08-11.

[93] “EU agrees deal on 2020 car emissions regulations”. Re- trieved 30 May 2015.

14 External links

• Hybrid Taxi Pilot Program • Scuderi Group to Present Preliminary Results on Air-Hybrid Study and Update on Scuderi Engine Prototype Testing at Washington Auto Show

• The Future of Flight (Obese Pelicans to Shape- Shifting Switchblades) 17

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

15.1 Text

• Hybrid vehicle Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle?oldid=691194003 Contributors: Taw, BlckKnght, Alex.tan, Kowloonese, Rmhermen, Roadrunner, Maury Markowitz, Hephaestos, Hfastedge, Patrick, RTC, D, JohnOwens, Fred Bauder, Lexor, Liftarn, Ixfd64, Mac, Ronz, Jebba, Glenn, Nikai, Tristanb, GregUbben, Ilyanep, Arteitle, Mulad, Dysprosia, Roepers, Timc, IceKarma, Nv8200pa, Jnc, Taxman, VeryVerily, Ringomassa, Morven, Indefatigable, Pakaran, Jerzy, RadicalBender, Jni, Chuunen Baka, Catskul, Robbot, The Phoenix, Jakohn, Vespristiano, Yosri, Andrew Levine, Dbrukman, Anthony, Quadalpha, Arm, MikeCapone, GreatWhiteNortherner, SpellBott, Terjepetersen, Alan Liefting, DocWatson42, Dinomite, Sj, Ryz, Levin, Rj, Michael Devore, Leonard G., Pascal666, AlistairMcMillan, Foobar, Mackerm, Jaan513, PlatinumX, Bobblewik, Chowbok, Mackeriv, Utcursch, SarekOfVulcan, Gzuckier, Beland, Jfliu, Jossi, Krupo, Sfoskett, TreyHarris, LHOON, Quota, Cab88, Grunt, DmitryKo, Scottk, Atrian, Zowie, Freakofnur- ture, N328KF, Poccil, NathanHurst, Discospinster, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Andros 1337, Vsmith, Berkut, Tajas1, Robertbowerman, Bender235, Felixkramer, Chewie, CanisRufus, MBisanz, Szquirrel, Aude, Sietse Snel, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Dennis Brown, Bookofjude, Just zis Guy, you know?, Bobo192, Cretog8, Meggar, Duk, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Wisdom89, Vapier, Cavrdg, TheProject, Towel401, MPerel, Krellis, Nsaa, QuantumEleven, Jumbuck, Pwelleman, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Richard Harvey, Interiot, Rd232, An- drewpmk, Frankschmitt, Lord Pistachio, Echuck215, Fritzpoll, Mailer diablo, Mysdaao, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Cburnett, Stephan Leeds, Docboat, Sciurinæ, Guthrie, Bsadowski1, Versageek, Gene Nygaard, Dan East, Dennis Bratland, Fengwah, Thryduulf, Mindmatrix, LOL, PoccilScript, Spettro9, Brunnock, Benhocking, WadeSimMiser, MGTom, Dbolton, Dancurranjr, Tabletop, , Toussaint, Pfalstad, RedBLACKandBURN, Msiddalingaiah, Magister Mathematicae, FreplySpang, Edison, Josh Parris, Canderson7, Ketiltrout, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, JVz, Jake Wartenberg, Wikibofh, Ian the younger, JedRothwell, Amire80, Greenhybrid~enwiki, Groomer, SMC, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, Mbutts, Aronomy, Aeki, Bubba73, The wub, DuKot, ShadowyCaballero, Ian Pitchford, Creegan, Musical Linguist, Nihiltres, Crazycomput- ers, Jonathan Kovaciny, RexNL, Gurch, Mike Van Emmerik, RobyWayne, Lmatt, Skierpage, Srleffler, Porplemontage, Youssefa, Chobot, DVdm, Bgwhite, Simesa, Therefore, Gwernol, Uriah923, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, SpikeJones, Sceptre, RussBot, Gerfriedc, Arado, TheDoober, Ytrottier, D0li0, SpuriousQ, Hydrargyrum, Akamad, Dotancohen, Alex Ramon, David Woodward, Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, Bovineone, Salsb, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Spike Wilbury, Bruguiea, Krystyn Dominik, Upset Nerd, Irishguy, Mal- colma, ShadowMan1od, Diotti, Thesaj, Ergbert, Voidxor, Misza13, Tony1, FlyingPenguins, Dbfirs, Aaron Schulz, Bud001, Brat32, Jsliwin- ski, Werdna, Nlu, Wknight94, LifeStar, FF2010, Poppy, Licensedlunacy, Naasking, Ageekgal, Oysteinp, Closedmouth, KGasso, GraemeL, Chriswaterguy, Alias Flood, Shawnc, Back ache, Thelb4, Allens, Bluezy, KJBracey, Kungfuadam, Thomas Blomberg, Bernd in Japan, Kru- osio, Dkbryant, Tom Morris, Wikipedia-The Best Encyclopedia On The Net, DocendoDiscimus, Jmchuff, Attilios, SmackBot, NuShrike, GregA, Bwileyr, Strangecolours, KnowledgeOfSelf, J-beda, CyclePat, Lawrencekhoo, Speight, RedSpruce, Alksub, CGameProgrammer, Brossow, Stevegallery, HalfShadow, By78, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Malatesta, Durova, Amatulic, Chris the speller, Im- probcat, Keegan, NCurse, Justforasecond, CrookedAsterisk, Miquonranger03, Octahedron80, Baa, Darth Panda, A. B., Mechanic, John Reaves, Camaro96, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Mwhite1979, Rgl168, Lchiarav, Greg the White Falcon, TheGerm, DeFacto, Or- phanBot, KaiserbBot, Nixeagle, Alexmcfire, Yidisheryid, Parent5446, Butterfly0fdoom, Japeo, Addshore, Amazins490, Khoikhoi, Nakon, JanCeuleers, Dreadstar, Amitra, Shrodingerskitty, DMacks, Kalathalan, Daniel.Cardenas, Ligulembot, Mion, Deiz, Pilotguy, Anlace, JzG, Kuru, John, Dpierce, Heimstern, Gobonobo, Titaniumcranium, Lazylaces, Geeteshgadkari, Minna Sora no Shita, Dolby12, GJaxon, Beetstra, Suraj vas, Mrhurtin, Dff, Route 82, Peter Horn, Fredwerner, Petrolmaps, Hu12, Lucid, Mike Fikes, Iridescent, Gamerforever, R~enwiki, Igoldste, Courcelles, D'lin, Bzzh8c, JayHenry, Tawkerbot2, Nerfer, Raystorm, AbsolutDan, ChrisCork, Forsakendaemon, Co- valent, JForget, Macetw, Mostergr, Medico80, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Delver58, Dycedarg, Joelvanatta, Tomcha, Mak Thorpe, Argon233, Nakedtruth, FlyingToaster, Casper2k3, Dstanfor, Karenjc, Pewwer42, MikeWren, Cydebot, Ferrariboy1, Perfect Proposal, Go229, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Pv2b, Khatru2, Carlroller, Tawkerbot4, RFabian, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Teratornis, Agnostoman, Narcisso, Ssilvers, Lee, NorthernThunder, Mikewax, Grant M, Epbr123, Gaijin42, Gralo, Mojo Hand, Jeffwishart, Marek69, John254, Gerry Ashton, Chris Mejia, Bigfoot69, Rachaelmshaw, ObsidianOps, Istitch, Jgerstenberger, Realarms, Mentifisto, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Opelio, CZmarlin, Masamage, Marokwitz, Prolog, Ebikeguy, Pinkannie, Gregalton, Shabicht, Isilanes, Manjula hettirachchi, OSX, Mas- ter Bratac, VictorAnyakin, JAnDbot, XyBot, Leuko, Barek, MER-C, Hut 8.5, IFCAR, Desertsky85451, MegX, AMD64, Acroterion, Johnmccollim, Catgaard, Magioladitis, Skyemoor, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JNW, Abbadox, Hendrixjoseph, Rivertorch, Jatkins, Aka042, Mcp 83, LuvWikis, Catgut, Nposs, MetsBot, James Kell, Chris G, DerHexer, JaGa, Mitch Casto, Johnbrownsbody, Webstien, Telrashidi, MartinBot, Ghorbanalibeik, Dafdiego777, Rettetast, Shannock9, Tim7384, KonaScout, Glrx, Re34646, Arriva436, J.delanoy, Svetovid, Anas Salloum, XYZ CrVo, JamieA, LOUWB, Ginsengbomb, Fleiger, Dellarb, AtholM, Paris1127, Shawn in Montreal, Katalaveno, McSly, Mikael Häggström, Skier Dude, Jorfer, Juliancolton, WJBscribe, Plymouths, Ihero, Bonadea, SoCalSuperEagle, CardinalDan, Timppis, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, CWii, Johnny Au, Indubitably, Bry9000, VasilievVV, Soliloquial, WOSlinker, Philip Trueman, Osh- wah, Zidonuke, Theosch, Ahop16, Motacilla, Michieldreef, A4bot, Graumicchie, GDonato, Petesway, Rei-bot, Wikidemon, Pauldevins, Charlesdrakew, Someguy1221, Steven J. Anderson, Rich Janis, Martin451, Broadbot, Ng.j, Praveen pillay, LeaveSleaves, Spdwy777, Madhero88, Doug, Itemirus, Altermike, Enviroboy, Typ932, WatermelonPotion, Insanity Incarnate, Monty845, AlleborgoBot, Kehrbykid, NHRHS2010, HybridBoy, Ccartmell, D. Recorder, Biscuittin, SieBot, Nnpptt, Tiddly Tom, Scarian, WereSpielChequers, Winchelsea, 45710c, Rostau989, Caltas, Bushey42, Hybridsoldier000, MOOOOOPS, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, Tiptoety, The Evil Spartan, Nopetro, JRJohnson420, Dkrash, Jimthing, Jdana, Maddenfan1545, Oxymoron83, Ripsquad, Faradayplank, Aspects, Leonard Finger, Hobartimus, Rice.eater92, Rice.eater666, Weller2, Macy, Bavaria II, Brice one, Pfezziwig, Kingfor1day94, Wuhwuzdat, Treekids, Denisarona, Squash Racket, ClueBot, Mariordo, Snigbrook, Kabalah70, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jagun, IHuman13, Mild Bill Hiccup, Busboyms, Jwi- hbey, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Rambler24, Tracetd40, Puchiko, Greeeeen, Somno, Collyerandy, Blueyeru, Excirial, Jusdafax, Vivio Testarossa, Estirabot, Cenarium, Razorflame, Zaneselvans, Nukeless, Puppers, India pride 95, Mlaffs, NJGW, MelonBot, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Oore, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Marc van Leeuwen, Mr Ralph, Rror, Greasywheel, Facts707, WikHead, NellieBly, Beach drifter, Noctibus, Benboy00, Ogre123, Whitetail 31, Kbdankbot, Nmnick24, Speer320, Pylze, Reneknuvers, Emoryq1995, DOI bot, Jojhutton, Tourguide195, Friginator, Raywil, AkhtaBot, Kencan98, SpellingBot, Ppacj, Fieldday-sunday, Dariffle, Vishnava, Dorios2001, Njardar- Bot, Download, Proxima Centauri, Glane23, Dolphin674, Dartiola, Lilmissmuffet, Yxejamir, Bentleyomg, Tide rolls, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Jan eissfeldt, Makeahybrid, Mike69milf, Zorrobot, Spaceballs12345, Matt.T, Susu510, Legobot, ZX81, Yobot, 2D, Ahmadade, Twex- com, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Pineapple fez, Ojay123, Brougham96, KamikazeBot, Sanjmegla, OregonD00d, AnomieBOT, Democrat- icLuntz, Jim1138, IRP, Piano non troppo, Sbalourdos, Jimb12345, AdjustShift, Chuckiesdad, Aditya, Flewis, Bolling1, Materialscien- tist, Citation bot, Frankenpuppy, Htomfields, Chovesh, LilHelpa, Cremorne, Davidkim201, Capricorn42, Drilnoth, 4twenty42o, Sban85, WopOnTour, Wdl1961, Brettsadouche, Tyrol5, Dcfrely, Mtnkev, GrouchoBot, Wikacool, MalcolmMcDonald, White rotten rabbit, Shad- owjams, Rubenbar, Erik9bot, Thehelpfulbot, Jack B108, 321hana, Place 152, FrescoBot, Topper no.1, DiprotiumOxide, Flypaper333, YOKOTA Kuniteru, Mhadi.afrasiabi, Eatoncorp, Pupdike, ZenerV, HamiltonLake, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, PigFlu Oink, , 18 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Biker Biker, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Solidweek, Skyerise, Hamtechperson, Aussiewriter, Plasticspork, Trappist the monk, Lotje, Vrenator, Bluefist, Zubeeb, சதீஷ், Sarahbearaclara, Clarabearasarah, Kbhoskin, Tannergdogy, Chocolatenvanilla, Ra1n, Keegscee, Spade of Aces, Chevy724, E-freakin gangster, Moggyland, Jang9129, Mcm5, Liverpool-8-boy, GeneralCheese, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Tuankiet65, Dewritech, Skyy Train, Edw400, Passionless, Tommy2010, TheXenomorph1, Wikipelli, K6ka, Gr8xoz, Lateg, Anir1uph, Tolly4bolly, Robcook99, Ptacademic, Donner60, Colinsfergusons, Dezz695, RLivergood, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, ShiShuming JLU, Catlemur, A520, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, Muon, Widr, Tuc15857boom, Ryan Vesey, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike , BG19bot, Fabriced28, ISTB351, Tolea93, Rm1271, Anggaw, Adolfo1410, Fnevt24p, Klilidiplomus, BattyBot, Ajaxfiore, Fcorradini, Cyberbot II, Cobra 951, ChrisGualtieri, Niger1213, STRONGlk7, Lugia2453, Ryanwilliams2012, Ajenks419, Epicgenius, Xudongz, LoweneV10, Cs- Dix, Jp4gs, Zackery29, EvergreenFir, Mosiecki, Yanbih, My name is not dave, Cooldog89, Poopmeinabasket, Monkbot, Toddelliott1, EurovisionNim, Parampreetchanana, FluXHaZzArDs, Caz12345, TerryAlex, Sharilewis121, KH-1, AMST205, Lucas559, Chemist415, KasparBot, Cartoonpi, JeremiahY, Ajbailey80, Vinod8896670358, ParkNattawut and Anonymous: 1187

15.2 Images

• File:08YukonHybrid-NEAutoShow.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/ 08YukonHybrid-NEAutoShow.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bavaria II • File:2009-2012_Toyota_Prius_(ZVW30R)_i-Tech_liftback_(2015-10-18).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/6/6a/2009-2012_Toyota_Prius_%28ZVW30R%29_i-Tech_liftback_%282015-10-18%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: EurovisionNim • File:2010_Honda_Insight_LX_--_10-03-2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/2010_Honda_ Insight_LX_--_10-03-2009.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: IFCAR • File:2011_Chrysler_Town_&_Country_Touring_-_L_--_04-22-2011.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/5/55/2011_Chrysler_Town_%26_Country_Touring_-_L_--_04-22-2011.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: IFCAR • File:2011_Nissan_Leaf_SL_--_10-28-2011.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/77/2011_Nissan_Leaf_ SL_--_10-28-2011.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: IFCAR • File:2nd_Ford_Escape_Hybrid_--_04-29-2011_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/2nd_Ford_ Escape_Hybrid_--_04-29-2011_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: IFCAR • File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies. jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Frank Vincentz • File:Ambox_current_red.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg License: CC0 Contributors: self-made, inspired by Gnome globe current event.svg, using Information icon3.svg and Earth clip art.svg Original artist: Vipersnake151, penubag, Tkgd2007 (clock) • File:Arriva_North_West_and_Wales_655.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Arriva_North_West_ and_Wales_655.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Arriva436. Picture Taken By Tom Harrison. Original artist: Busboyms at English Wikipedia • File:Catvertroquette.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Catvertroquette.jpg License: GFDL Contribu- tors: Own work Original artist: Deepak Gupta • File:Chevrolet_Volt_charging_WAS_2011_833.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Chevrolet_Volt_ charging_WAS_2011_833.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mariordo Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contribu- tors: Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhatfield • File:Earth_Day_Flag.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png License: Public domain Contributors: File:Earth flag PD.jpg, File:The Earth seen from Apollo 17 with transparent background.png Original artist: NASA (Earth photograph) SiBr4 (flag image) • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Ford_Escape_E85_Flex_Plug-in_Hybrid_views_and_badging_WAS_2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/5/51/Ford_Escape_E85_Flex_Plug-in_Hybrid_views_and_badging_WAS_2010.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mariordo Mario Roberto Duran Ortiz • File:Ford_Fusion_Energi_SEL_WAS_2012_0573.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Ford_ Fusion_Energi_SEL_WAS_2012_0573.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz) • File:HB-E300kei-2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/HB-E300kei-2.JPG License: CC0 Contribu- tors: Own work Original artist: Uenokami • File:Hybrid-bus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Hybrid-bus.jpg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: Own work Original artist: IFCAR 15.3 Content license 19

• File:Mettis_BRT_Metz.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/72/Mettis_BRT_Metz.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bava Alcide57 • File:Montreal_hybrid_bus.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Montreal_hybrid_bus.PNG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Happyfamiy • File:Peugeot_2008_HYbrid_air_SAO_2014_0299.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Peugeot_ 2008_HYbrid_air_SAO_2014_0299.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz) • File:Peugeot_2008_HYbrid_air_SAO_2014_0304.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Peugeot_ 2008_HYbrid_air_SAO_2014_0304.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz) • File:Prius_Plug-in_Hybrid-11-09-04-iaa-by-RalfR-108.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Prius_ Plug-in_Hybrid-11-09-04-iaa-by-RalfR-108.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File: 11-09-04-iaa-by-RalfR-108.jpg Original artist: Ralf Roletschek (talk) - Fahrradtechnik auf fahrradmonteur.de. Derivative work: trimmed by Mariordo • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:Sustainable_development.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: • Inspired from Developpement durable.jpg Original artist: • original: Johann Dréo (talk · contribs) • File:Toyota_Prius_Life_(ZVW30)_front-2_20110116.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Toyota_ Prius_Life_%28ZVW30%29_front-2_20110116.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: M 93 • File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg License: CC BY- SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lukipuk

15.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0