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Mcgaughey, Jothan Kelvyn

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Mcgaughey, Jothan Kelvyn MECHANISMS OF POLICY CHANGE: AN ANAYSIS OF SALVAGE LOGGING ON FEDERAL LANDS INCLUDING A CASE STUDY OF THE BISCUIT FIRE SALVAGE SALES by Jothan Kelvyn McGaughey A Thesis: Essay of Distinction Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Environmental Studies The Evergreen State College June 2011 i ©2011 by Jothan Kelvyn McGaughey. All rights reserved. ii This Thesis for the Master of Environmental Study Degree by Jothan Kelvyn McGaughey has been approved for The Evergreen State College by ________________________ Linda Moon-Stumpff Member of the Faculty ________________________ Date iii Abstract Salvage logging on federal lands is a very controversial issue. The issue is centered on conflicting paradigms that seek to define how forests and natural resources are to be used. The belief in Manifest Destiny, the timber industry and historical president all support the harvesting of damaged or dead trees after natural or human created disturbances. The growing scientific understanding of disturbances and the remaining dead and damaged trees now realizes they are fundamental to the health of forest ecosystems. This thesis analyzes the current state of salvage logging on federal lands through a review of the current ecological knowledge pertaining to salvage logging, a case study of the Biscuit Fire salvage logging sales and interviews of forest ecologists and advocates. Evidence is provided that salvage logging is an institutionalized practice within federal land management agencies. The mechanisms of policy change that have effectively challenged the practice of salvage logging are identified as; Federal laws and rules governing salvage logging, the scientific method, the agency’s role in policy formation, adoption and implementation, and the role of advocacy in policy formation. The thesis concludes with recommendations including: the de- institutionalization of salvage logging; increased transparency and accountability in policy formation at the agency level; improvements in funding mechanisms for environmental protection programs; increased partnerships with environmental organizations; more scientific research in forest carbon sequestration; and the full incorporation of adaptive management into land management policies. iv Table of Contents Abstract ……………………………………………………… iv List of Figures ………………………………………………. vi Acknowledgements …………………………………………. vii Introduction …………………………………………………. 1 Methods ……………………………………………………... 6 Ecological Review …………………………………………... 9 Salvage Logging as an Institutionalized Practice …………… 23 Federal Laws Impacting Salvage Logging ………………..... 32 Scientific Method in Policy Formation ……………………. 39 Policy Implications at the Agency Level …………………… 45 Advocacy Groups and Civil Disobedience …………………. 59 The Biscuit Fire Salvage Sales Case Study ………………… 72 Discussion …………………………………………………… 85 Conclusion and Recommendations …………………………. 92 References …………………………………………………… 97 Appendix A ………………………………………………….. 112 Appendix B ………………………………………………….. 138 Appendix C ………………………………………………….. 151 Appendix D ………………………………………………….. 167 Appendix E ………………………………………………….. 196 Appendix F ………………………………………………….. 222 Appendix G …………………………………………………. 243 Appendix H …………………………………………………. 287 Appendix I …………………………………………………... 314 v List of Figures Figure 1 …………………………………………………………………… 20 Figure 2 …………………………………………………………………… 21 vi Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Evergreen community in general and especially my Environmental Studies cohorts for their support, encouragement and commitment to forward thinking. The Evergreen State College Library and staff proved to be a great resource in tracking down sources and resources both within and outside the library. The Evergreen Writing Center was an exercise in refinement, thank you Amanda Jenkins and Andrew Olmsted for your word smiting skills. Evergreens Computer Center’s staff was very helpful with technical computer issues. Special thanks to Andrea Barberi of Centralia for her tremendous altruistic services in transcribing the interviews contained within this thesis. The depth of the thesis is due in great measure to the interviewees willingness to honesty divulge their knowledge and experience. I would like to thank Professor Jerry Franklin, Professor James Agee, Richard Fairbank, Chad Hanson, Josh Laughlin, Doug Heiken and the three interviewees who remain anonymous for their time and insights. It was a pleasure to conduct the interviews. I would also like to thank Susan Snyder of The Bancroft Library for granting permission to use selections from the library’s manuscript collection. A special thanks is due to my faculty adviser and reader Linda Moon-Stumpff for her patience, encouragement, and insightful comments and suggestions on this project. Finally, I would like to thank my family for their love and support. vii Introduction Salvage: (1889): to rescue or save esp. from wreckage or ruin. (Merriam- Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 1997). Salvage logging today is a highly divisive practice that is composed of the complex intersection of essentially conflicting paradigms. Attempts to integrate forest ecology, timber economics and political agendas into working policies are extremely challenging. The difficulty of reconciling the opposing goals of profit through resource harvesting and protecting these same resources as sustainable ecosystems creates quite a dilemma for policy makers. Although there are wildly varying opinions as to the usefulness of salvage logging, there is mounting scientific evidence that the practice is ecologically detrimental (Strittholt & Rustigian, 2004; Lindenmayer & Noss, 2006). It is also questionable from an economic perspective (Niemi & Whitelaw, 1995; The Wilderness & National Audubon Societies, 1996). Recent changes in federal management objectives from that of maximum timber production to ecologically centered policies have increased the importance of understanding the impacts of salvage logging (Franklin, 2005; United States Government Accountability Office, 2006). The result is that ecologists, biologists, economists and forest managers are encountering a need for more scientific information in order to better understand this issue in its entirety. In addition it is crucial that legislators receive data from all these perspectives so that they may make informed decisions that are not biased by the conflicting interests that surround this issue. Salvage logging refers to the harvesting of trees after natural or human- created disturbances, commonly due to floods, volcanic eruptions, various types 1 of windstorms, insect attacks and wildfires. Removal of live and dead (standing or downed) trees is common. Logging techniques can vary from the traditional high-impact to the less invasive methods of extraction that use low-impact ground skidders, cable systems or helicopters to remove timber. Regardless of which method is used, there is a premium placed on the speed of recovery due to economic loss as the timber deteriorates. The term “salvage” itself reflects the economic reasoning behind the practice, that damaged or dead trees can be harvested to reduce monetary loss (Murkowski, 1996; Franklin, 2005). Manifest Destiny and its lingering influence provide insight into this spendthrift mindset that accepts the values and beliefs on which the practice of salvage logging is based. It is a uniquely American form of evolving expansionism that mixes republicanism, democracy, freedom of religion and Anglo-Saxonism (Merk, 1963). John L. Sullivan first coined the phrase in 1845. It gave form to a growing consensus that the United States was preordained by Heaven to expand its borders until they had reached their God given limits (Merk, 1963). A main component of establishing these boundaries had to do with the “beneficial use” of natural resources (Merk, 1963). The defining characteristic of this use was improvement, of changing a landscape from its wild state into one more suited for civilization. To not use natural resources is akin to the economic concept of opportunity costs that values a resource at its highest potential economic value possible. It was felt that we as a people had a God given duty to take, convert and make use of all resources for the betterment of our society. Salvage logging embodies this model by making use of a natural resource that 2 would otherwise be completely wasted and worse still would constitute a fire hazard. Contained alongside these beliefs is the practice of exceptionalism that is still in use today (Saito, 2010). The narrative stemming from manifest destiny holds that human history is linear and is evolving to ever more advanced stages. The United States is the apex of this advancement and as such is justified pursuing its interests even if they cause harm or are illegal or immoral (Saito, 2010). The continuation of ecologically harmful salvage logging becomes understandable within the context Although salvage logging is practiced worldwide and has occurred alongside the development of modern forest management its effects have not been studied in the same depth as green-tree logging (Lindenmayer & Noss, 2006; United States Government Accountability Office, 2006). Part of this is due to the perception that natural disturbances are viewed as creating a “mess” that needs to be cleaned up and not allowed to remain for study (Ne’eman, Perevolotsky, & Schiller, 1997; Lindenmayer & Noss, 2006). The idea that salvage is also an economically sound practice is deeply ingrained in the national consciousness
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