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"To Hold What the U.S. Has Taken in Conquest:" the United States Army and Colonial Ethnic Forces, 1866-1914

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"To Hold What the U.S. Has Taken in Conquest:" The United States Army and Colonial Ethnic Forces, 1866-1914 The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation KRUEGER, DAVID. 2020. "To Hold What the U.S. Has Taken in Conquest:" The United States Army and Colonial Ethnic Forces, 1866-1914. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences. Citable link https://nrs.harvard.edu/URN-3:HUL.INSTREPOS:37365513 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA “To Hold What the U.S. Has Taken in Conquest:” The United States Army and Colonial Ethnic Forces, 1866-1914 A Dissertation presented By David Krueger To The Harvard University Department of History In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of American History Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts December 10th, 2019 © 2020 David Krueger All rights reserved. Dissertation Advisor: Walter Johnson David Krueger “To Hold What the U.S. Has Taken in Conquest:” The United States Army and Colonial Ethnic Forces, 1866-1914 Abstract The histories of African Americans, Native Americans, and colonial populations during the United States’ national consolidation and imperial expansion after the Civil War have frequently been treated as distinct and separate experiences, a historiographic practice that minimizes the importance of their shared experiences of fighting against, alongside, and within the United States Army. Following the American Civil War, the Army Reorganization Act established permanent Colored Regiments within the United States Army and authorized the formal enlistment of Native Americans as Indian Scouts, eventually organizing several all-Indian companies by the early 1890’s. These units were inspired and sustained by arguments about their unique military capabilities, but more importantly they served as vessels for programs of progressive reform, assimilation, and projections of an emerging American imperial identity. Simultaneously, the soldiers in these segregated formations leveraged their service to obtain practical economic and legal opportunities, as well as to support their arguments for more meaningful social and civic participation. As the United States expanded its power overseas in the wake of the Spanish American War, the methods and ideologies of frontier colonialism informed its administration abroad and shaped the decision to create colonial ethnic forces in the new American colonies, creating opportunities to recast emerging racial-imperial hierarchies that hinged on the military participation of non-white soldiers in the United States military. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduced to the Army ............................................................................................1 Chapter 2: The Charitable Institution .......................................................................................21 Chapter 3: “The cheapest and best insurance” .........................................................................55 Chapter 4: American Empire and Colonial Ethnic Forces .....................................................89 Chapter 5: “Calling Heavily upon the Colored Race” ...........................................................128 Chapter 6: The Black Officer’s Burden ..................................................................................162 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................198 Bibliography ..............................................................................................................................203 v CHAPTER 1: Introduced to the Army: The Origins and Trajectories of Multiracial Service after the American Civil War When the Order of the Indian Wars of the United States was formed in 1896 its mission was to honor the service of Regular Army soldiers who fought on the frontier after the Civil War, giving those veterans an organization of prestige and influence comparable to other military associations like the Society of the Cincinnati, the Aztec Club of 1847, and the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States.1 Composed primarily of officers, as class-conscious military societies usually tended to be, the Order sought to emphasize the importance of the Indian Wars in the United States’ history and as a component of Army heritage, blending the functions of a veterans’ fraternal lodge and a political lobby. Like other military societies, the Order structured itself with a rank-ordered hierarchy, formalized rules and proceedings, and patriotic regalia, but also incorporated various artifacts and rituals distinct to their experiences of fighting against and alongside Native Americans.2 In their original 1896 by-laws, for example, the Order stipulated that the commander carry a coup stick as a badge of office, decorated with eagle feathers “symbolical of the Indian Wars” and capped by a metal ferule engraved with the names of Indian tribes involved in the various conflicts. In ceremonies his four “Companions of the Ceremony Council” each wore necklaces of bear claws, elk teeth, rattlesnake rattles, bird 1 Representing veterans and their descendants from the American Revolution, Mexican-American War, and the American Civil War, respectively. The Order of the Indian Wars of the United States, “A Brief Historical Sketch of the order of Indian Wars of the United States,” http://oiwus.org/order.htm [accessed 24 July 2018]. 2 This work will follow the “Native American Journalists Association Style Guide” and use distinct tribal affiliations when appropriate, but when applied across multiple tribes or where affiliations are not clear will use the terms Native American and American Indian interchangeably. Considerations of style, brevity, and context have occluded the qualifier “American” throughout. NAJA Style guide accessed 11 December 2018 [http://www.naja.com/resources/naja-ap-style-guide/] wings, and beads, while the Chaplain wore a stole of wampum and ceremonial tables were decorated with “Indian blankets and Indian trophies.”3 The incongruity of the image was striking then and now, as stiff-spined Victorian era officers adorned their immaculate formal uniforms with furs, supplemented racks of medals with Indian fetishes, and replaced their service caps with feathered head-dresses. Certainly many relished it as a display of war trophies or treasured mementos of their service, with items retrieved from the battlefield or gifted by honored allies.4 But for others the items were of newer provenance or artificial manufacture, gaining their meaning only from their nostalgic connections to the Indian Wars, a clash between a frontier Army and its Indian foes who were both seemingly being left behind by history. One item each attendee would have worn uniformly was the badge of the Order, featuring a central emblem displaying an unnamed “Indian, standing, facing left, wigwam and setting sun in the background” resting the butt of his musket on the ground, ringed with laurel leaves. This image of the pacified chief was complemented by the reverse of the badge, where each of seven star points was etched with the names of different “conquered” tribes in gold: Cherokees, Seminoles, Comanches [sic], Sioux, Apaches, Nez Perces, and Miamis.5 These 3 “By-Laws of the Order of Indian wars of the United States,” June 19th, 1896, in The Papers of the Order of Indian Wars, ed. John M. Carroll (Fort Collins, CO: The Old Army Press, 1975), XIX. 4 The manufacture of “authentic” Indian paraphernalia for souvenirs, costumes, and play often over-emphasized the representativeness of Plains Indian culture. Both commercial manufacturers and non-Plains tribes understood the public demand for these items and crafted their output to suit consumer taste. Philip J. Deloria, Playing Indian (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998) and Benjamin Hoy, “Cardboard Indians: Playing History in the American West,” The Western Historical Quarterly, Vol. 49, No. 3 (Autumn 2018), 310. 5 Bauman Lowe Belden, “Insignia of the American Military Societies Since the War of 1812,” Papers Read Before the Society, 06 December 1900, in American Numismatic Society, Proceedings of the American Numismatic Society, Issues 36-43, 57. 2 symbols of conquest suggest a victor’s toast to the vanquished, but many officers would have recognized that the story of the Indian Wars involved much more than combat. The inscription centered on the reverse of the order’s badge bore the motto Patriam Tuens Civilitatem Ducens, translating roughly to “The country leads and protects civilization.”6 This motto pays homage to the centrality of the Army in the process of national reconstruction, as not only the armed enforcer of federal policies but also as the self-proclaimed vanguard of progress and civilization. This mission had transcended and connected battles against individual tribes, uniting the small and isolated frontier garrisons just as it provided coherence to the concept of the pan-tribal “Indian” as an enemy, object, and identity.7 These disparate campaigns against and alongside various native nations thus transformed the Army’s experience from frontier constabulary duty protecting
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